Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Andresen
May
8,
2009
Applied
Science
Research
Dr.
Dann
Vacuum
Tube
Theory
I.
The
Big
Idea
For
my
second
semester
project,
I
have
chosen
to
research
and
build
a
vacuum
tube
amplifier.
I
will
learn
about
the
components
of
an
amplifier
circuit,
including
vacuum
tubes,
capacitors,
resistors,
and
transformers,
while
also
trying
to
understand
how
each
of
the
parts
perform
a
specific
function
that
allows
the
circuit
to
run
as
a
whole.
After
I
have
gained
a
sufficient
amount
of
knowledge
on
the
inner-‐workings
of
vacuum
tube
amplifier
circuits,
I
will
build
my
own
based
off
of
an
online
schematic.
From
the
experience
gained
from
building
a
pre-‐designed
tube
amplifier,
I
will
hopefully
know
enough
to
design
my
own
circuit
one
day.
II.
Introduction
Although
I
have
used
both
solid
state
and
vacuum
tube
guitar
amplifiers
many
times,
I
have
never
actually
learned
how
either
of
them
work.
I
specifically
chose
to
focus
on
vacuum
tube
amplifiers
because
they
are
generally
regarded
as
having
a
better
and
more
natural
tone
than
solid
state
amplifiers
[4].
Expert
musicians
and
audiophiles
claim
that
the
sound
of
a
tube
amplifier
is
superior
to
that
of
all
other
amplifiers,
and
the
majority
of
high-‐end
guitar
amps
are
built
with
tubes.
However,
many
people
consider
tubes
as
obsolete
because
the
solid
state
devices
that
have
begun
to
replace
them
are
more
efficient
and
less
expensive.
Apart
from
a
diehard
collection
of
vacuum
tube
lovers,
many
people
think
that
tubes
are
a
thing
of
the
past,
just
like
how
digital
TV
is
rapidly
replacing
analog.
Part
of
my
project
will
be
to
try
and
understand
why
tubes
have
such
a
distinct
sound
that
is
loved
by
many
who
know
their
way
around
amplifiers,
and
why
the
same
sound
cannot
be
reproduced
with
a
solid
state
device.
The
ideal
solution
would
be
to
build
an
amp
that
didn’t
have
the
complexity
of
a
tube
amp
but
had
the
same
dynamic
tone
that
music
lovers
are
looking
for.
III.
Tube
Theory
Triode
Vacuum
Tube
Fig.
1:
Diagram
of
Single
Triode
Vacuum
Tube
[1]
There
are
three
types
of
basic
vacuum
tubes-‐
the
triode,
the
tetrode,
and
the
pentode[
1].
The
simplest
of
the
three,
the
triode,
is
pictured
above
and
consists
of
three
major
elements.
For
now,
we’ll
consider
the
cathode
and
filament
as
one
component.
A
triode
has
a
cathode,
grid,
and
plate.
The
cathode
is
heated
by
the
filament,
to
the
point
at
which
loose
electrons
are
kicked
off
of
it
through
the
vacuum
and
towards
the
positively
charged
plate.
The
grid
is
a
mesh
of
fine
wire,
to
which
a
voltage
is
applied
with
respect
to
the
cathode.
A
negative
grid
voltage
will
choke
off
the
flow
of
electrons.
As
a
voltage
is
increased
between
the
cathode
and
the
grid,
more
and
more
electrons
will
flow
until
the
tube
reaches
its
saturation
point
[2].
Normally
when
AC
current
flows
through
the
filament
and
heats
the
cathode
enough
to
release
electrons
off
towards
the
plate,
a
current
is
produced
through
the
plate
and
circuit
connected
outside
the
tube.
The
plate
current
and
voltage
is
much
larger
than
the
initial
voltage
between
the
grid
and
cathode.
The
voltage
between
grid
and
cathode
is
the
input
signal-‐
a
small
voltage
you
would
get
from
the
source
of
the
audio,
such
as
an
electric
guitar,
or
electric
piano.
The
signal
is
then
amplified
through
the
properties
of
the
vacuum
tube,
and
in
the
end
you
have
a
much
larger
voltage
and
(with
and
impedance
matching
transformer)
current
that
can
drive
speakers.
The
other
types
of
tubes
have
different
components,
including
a
screen
between
the
grid
and
cathode,
and
a
suppressor
between
the
grid
and
plate.
Fig.
2:
A
simple
Triode
amplifier
circuit
with
tube
and
power
supply
[2]
IV.
Properties
of
Vacuum
Tubes
The
general
idea
behind
the
operation
of
amplification
in
a
vacuum
tube
may
be
easy
to
understand,
but
it
is
also
important
to
determine
what
the
significant
properties
of
the
tube
are
and
why
they
lead
to
amplification.
The
process
of
amplification
starts
at
the
cathode
and
the
filament.
As
in
all
metals,
electrons
are
moving
freely
along
the
cathode,
and
some
move
towards
the
surface
of
the
metal.
Like
water
molecules
boiling
off
and
becoming
water
vapor,
they
escape
the
surface
and
fly
off
into
the
vacuum.
It
takes
a
considerable
amount
of
energy
for
the
electrons
to
escape
the
attraction
of
the
positively
charged
metal
atoms.
The
energy
required
for
an
electron
to
break
free
is
called
the
“work
function”
and
different
for
different
kinds
of
metals
[6].
Tungsten,
the
same
kind
of
metal
used
in
filaments
and
vacuum
tubes
has
a
work
function
of
about
4.5
electron
Volts.
When
thorium
is
added,
the
work
function
is
lowered
to
2.6eV[6].
The
function
describing
the
emission
vs.
temperature
is
an
exponential
one,
meaning
a
slight
change
in
the
temperature
has
a
huge
affect
on
the
emission.
It
is
this
emission
that
serves
as
the
basis
of
amplification
in
a
vacuum
tube.
The
flow
of
electrons
to
the
plate
is
controlled
by
the
input
voltage,
and
the
plate
current
is
the
amplified
signal.
V.
AX84
P1
For
the
amplifier
I
plan
to
build,
I
have
chosen
one
with
two
stages
of
pre-‐
amplification
and
one
output
stage.
The
amplifier
is
called
the
AX84
P1,
and
the
website
which
designed
the
circuit
also
provides
the
schematic,
as
well
as
a
building
reference
guide
and
a
parts
list.
The
AX84
uses
two
12AX7
pre-‐amp
tubes
and
one
EL84
power
tube
[2].
The
12AX7
is
a
dual
triode,
meaning
it
has
double
of
everything
a
triode
would-‐
two
filaments,
cathodes,
grids,
and
plates.
The
EL84
(also
knows
as
the
6BQ5)
is
a
tetrode
with
a
9-‐pin
miniature
base,
and
it
is
used
in
the
output
portion
of
the
circuit
[3].
The
AX84
P1
has
three
tone
controls
for
treble,
bass,
and
middle
frequencies.
It
is
run
off
of
two
Hammond
transformers
and
produces
about
5
watts
of
power.
The
schematic
and
layout
of
the
amp
is
included
below
VI.
Sample
Circuit
Preamp
Stage
1
Fig.
3:
The
first
preamp
stage
of
the
AX84
P1
[2]
This
is
the
first
stage
of
the
AX84
P1
amplifier.
It
consists
of
a
12AX7
triode,
several
resistors
and
some
capacitors.
The
12AX7’s
grid
is
grounded
through
R9
and
R12,
so
it
has
no
voltage
with
respect
to
the
cathode
when
there
is
no
input
signal.
From
looking
at
the
12AX7
spec
sheet,
it
can
be
found
that
when
the
plate
voltage
is
about
150V,
and
the
grid
voltage
is
approximately
-‐2.2V,
0mA
of
current
will
flow
through
the
plate
[2].
As
I
discussed
before,
when
the
grid
voltage
is
made
more
negative,
electrons
will
stop
flowing
to
the
plate
at
a
certain
point.
If
the
voltage
is
increased,
electrons
will
flow
until
they
reach
the
saturation
point
of
the
tube
and
no
further
increase
of
voltage
after
that
can
increase
the
current.
There
is
a
voltage
in-‐between
the
cut
off
and
saturation
values
that
provides
the
most
stability
and
least
distortion
of
the
signal
that
is
called
the
bias
point
[4].
Again,
from
the
spec
sheet
we
can
find
that
the
cut-‐off
point
is
-‐2.2V
and
the
saturation
point
is
0V
[2].
The
bias
point
for
a
12AX7
preamp
tube
is
-‐1.1V.
Instead
of
making
the
grid
have
a
negative
voltage,
it
is
possible
to
raise
the
cathode’s
voltage
to
1.1V.
If
you
consider
R4,
which
has
across
it
of
74V,
we
can
find
the
electron
flow
into
the
plate.
Plate
Current
=
(74V)/(100K
Ω)
=
.74mA
By
using
Ohms
law,
we
can
see
that
.74mA
is
flowing
through
the
12AX7’s
plate,
and
that
most
of
the
current
exits
through
the
cathode
and
through
R13.
By
adjusting
R13’s
resistance
to
the
correct
value,
we
can
make
sure
that
the
tube
will
be
at
the
correct
bias
point
[2].
So,
if
.74mA
is
flowing
through
the
cathode
and
R13,
Cathode
Voltage
=
(.74mA)
*
(1.5K
Ω)
=
1.1V
Setting
the
Cathode’s
voltage
to
1.1V
is
essentially
the
same
thing
as
having
a
grid
voltage
of
-‐1.1V,
so
the
tube
is
at
its
bias
point
and
will
operate
at
the
most
optimal
voltage.
The
input
signal
is
amplified
a
little
bit
in
preamp
stage
1,
a
little
bit
more
in
preamp
stage
2,
and
a
lot
by
the
EL84
power
tube
in
the
output
stage
of
the
circuit.
By
the
end,
if
each
of
the
vacuum
tube’s
bias
point
is
set
correctly,
the
input
voltage
will
be
greatly
amplified
without
changing
or
distorting
the
signal
VII.
Simple
Tube
Circuit
As
a
proof
of
concept
before
attempting
to
built
my
main
tube
amplifier,
I
built
a
simple
amplifier
circuit
with
a
single
12AX7A
dual
triode
vacuum
tube.
There
were
two
major
parts
to
the
tube
circuit,
the
actual
amplifier
circuit
and
the
power
supply.
I
built
the
amplifying
section
of
the
circuit
with
the
two
plates
of
the
two
triodes
wired
in
parallel
on
a
breadboard
because
though
it
was
a
very
high
voltage
circuit
(the
plate
voltage
coming
from
the
power
supply
should
have
been
running
at
about
≈
170
volts
[5],
but
when
measured
it
was
slightly
lower
at
about
159
volts),
it
drew
less
than
an
amp
of
current.
To
connect
the
nine
pins
of
the
12AX7A
tube
to
the
sockets
in
the
breadboard,
I
soldered
leads
onto
each
of
the
pins.
Later,
I
tried
placing
the
tube
into
a
socket
specifically
designed
for
the
12AX7A
and
connecting
leads
to
the
breadboard
directly
without
soldering
them.
The
power
supply
circuit
needed
to
be
able
to
handle
more
current,
so
I
built
my
own
turret
board
where
all
the
components
could
be
easily
and
securely
placed.
For
the
plate
power,
a
24-‐volt
variable
AC
power
supply
was
used.
12
volts
were
fed
into
a
12:120
volt
AC
transformer
to
simulate
power
coming
from
a
wall
socket
and
then
into
the
power
supply
section
of
the
circuit.
An
additional
12-‐volt
DC
power
supply
was
used
to
power
the
tube’s
filament.
The
advantage
of
having
two
separate
power
supplies
for
the
plate
power
and
filament
was
that
the
plate
power
could
be
turned
off
to
allow
work
to
safely
be
done
on
the
circuit
while
the
filament
could
remain
on
and
would
not
be
damaged
by
powering
it
off
and
on
multiple
times.
A
frequency
generator
was
used
for
the
audio
input,
and
the
output
of
the
amplifier
circuit
was
connected
to
a
standard
8Ω
bookshelf
speaker.
Fig.4:
Amplifying
section
of
experimental
circuit
[5]
Fig.
5:
Power
supply
section
of
experimental
circuit
[5]