Gen 221 CHAPTER ONE

VACUUM TUBE
EXERCISE (study questions)
a. Define vacuum and vacuum tube
b. State the characteristics of vacuum tube
c. List the types of vacuum tube
d. Draw and label the circuit symbols of the types of vacuum tube.
e. Compare and construct the characteristics of the types of vacuum tube.
f. What is directly and indirectly heated cathode?
g. What are the main functions of the screen grid?
h. The value of one electron volt is equal to 1.602×10 −19 Joule . True/False
i. Which materials are used to construct vacuum tubes?
j. Draw and label the circuit diagram below

R3

C2

C1

R3

R2 C3

K. . What are the functions of two named principal electrodes in every tube?
WHAT IS VACUUM TUBE
Definition of the following terms
(1).Vacuum: - Vacuum is defined as a space where charged particles such as electrons, protons,
neutrons and all other matter are absent. In other words, vacuum is nothing but the empty space.
(2). Tube: - A tube or valve or electron tube is a glass or metal enclosure containing two metal
electrodes (negative electrode or cathode and a positive electrode or anode).
(3). Vacuum tube is an electronic device that uses a sealed glass tube and the vacuum inside it to
control the flow of electric current.
The simplest electron tube is the diode, which was invented in 1904 by John A. Fleming. In Greek,
“di” means “two,” and it was called a diode since it only had two electrodes inside—the negative
electrode or “cathode” and the positive electrode or “anode.”
Fleming’s diodes were modified light bulbs, so like light bulbs Fleming diodes consisted of a glass
bulb containing a filament inside. The filament acted as the CATHODE, emitting large numbers
of electrons, while the ANODE consisted of a small metal plate, mounted near the filament and
connected to the outside of the tube by a thin wire as shown in figure 1.

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 Figure 1. a vacuum diode

A diode regulates the flow of electric current and acts like a one-way valve turning current on and
off. When a battery is connected to the metal cathode, it heats up and electrons “boil off” from its
surface. They fly around inside the glass tube and form an invisible cloud around the cathode.
When the diode is placed in a circuit so that the anode is connected to the other terminal of the
battery, the clouds of electrons rush toward the anode, as do the new electrons streaming off the
cathode. This flow of electrons completes the electric circuit. It is extremely difficult for electrons
to flow the other way, so the diode acts as a one-way valve.

Question
Explain why diode acts as a one way valve?

Fleming invented the diode for use in radio. One of the most difficult things about receiving radio
waves was “detecting” the signal. Mechanical devices had been used to detect the presence of
incoming radio waves, but the waves were so weak that they don’t have enough energy to move
even a very lightweight mechanical detector. With a Fleming diode and a carefully designed tuning
device, radio waves could be detected when they act on the diode, causing it to turn on or off. The
diode was a very sensitive, “electronic” type of radio wave detector.

Question
Explain why diode has advantage over the mechanical devices used to detect radio waves?

Vacuum tubes are huge and occupy large amount of space. Vacuum tubes are made from the
materials such as glass and ceramics. Vacuum tubes mostly depend on the thermionic
emission process to emit free electrons. In the thermionic process, heat is used to emit the free
electrons. Vacuum tube that emits the free electrons by the application of heat is called thermionic
valve or thermionic tube.

A vacuum tube could also be describes as consisting of cathode (also called as filament), anode
(also called as plate), and electrode (also called as grid). Cathode is an electron emitter that emits
the free electrons whereas anode is an electron collector that collects the free electrons. Grid or
electrode controls the electric current or flow of electrons between anode and cathode. The free
electrons that are emitted by the cathode are attracted towards the anode or plate. These free
electrons carry the electric current while moving from cathode to anode. The general circuit
symbol of vacuum tube is as shown below

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 Fig 2 general circuit symbol of vacuum tube

Vacuum tubes are used as rectifiers because it is unidirectional in conduction. Vacuum tube is
used as a unidirectional switch in a circuit. Vacuum tubes are used to construct radio transmitters.

Types of vacuum tubes

Vacuum tubes are generally classified into four types:
• Vacuum diodes
• Vacuum triodes
• Vacuum tetrodes
• Vacuum pentodes

Advantages of vacuum tubes

1. Vacuum tubes are replaced easily.
2. Vacuum tubes can work at high temperature without any damage.
3. Vacuum tubes produce superior sound quality.

Disadvantages of vacuum tubes

1. Vacuum tubes are huge compared to the semiconductor devices such as diodes, transistors,
and integrated circuits.
2. Vacuum tubes generate more heat.
3. High voltages are required to operate the vacuum tubes.
4. Vacuum tubes consume more power.
5. High cost.
6. Failure rate is high.
7. Vacuum tubes occupy more space than the transistors.

1. VACUUM DIODE
In 1904, Sir John Ambrose Fleming invented the first vacuum tube called vacuum diode. It is also
called Fleming valve or thermionic tube. Vacuum diode is an electronic device that allows the flow
of electric current in one direction (cathode to anode) and blocks the electric current in another
direction (anode to cathode).

Two electrodes of vacuum diode

Vacuum diode is the simplest form of vacuum tube. It consists of two electrodes, a cathode, and
an anode or plate. The cathode emits the free electrons. Hence, it is called as emitter. The anode
collects the free electrons. Hence, it is called as collector.

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The cathode and anode are enclosed in an empty glass envelope. The anode is a hollow cylinder
made of molybdenum or nickel and cathode is a nickel cylinder coated with strontium and
barium oxide. The anode surrounds the cathode. In between the cathode and anode is an empty
space through which the free electrons or electric current flow.

2. VACUUM TRIODE
A more versatile type of electron tube is the triode, or three-element tube, invented by Lee De
Forest in 1906.
The basic vacuum tube (vacuum diode) is used to convert the alternating current into direct current.
However, they cannot amplify electric signal or voltage. To amplify the electrical signal, an extra
electrode is required. When the extra electrode is placed between the cathode and anode, the
resulting electronic device is called vacuum triode.
Vacuum triode has three electrodes: cathode, anode, and control grid. Vacuum triode is a 3-
electrode device that amplifies the electrical signal. The anode, cathode and control grid are
enclosed in an empty glass envelope. The cathode is surrounded by a control grid, which is in turn
surrounded by anode. The construction of vacuum triode is similar to vacuum diode. However,
vacuum triode contains an extra electrode (control grid).

Fig 2 Circuit symbol of vacuum triode

Cathode emits the free electrons when it is heated. Hence, cathode is also called as emitter. The
process by which cathode emits the free electrons when it is heated is called thermionic emission.
Anode collects the free electrons that are emitted by the cathode. Hence, anode or plate is also
called as collector.
In between the anode and cathode, control grid is present. Control grid is placed more nearer to
the cathode than anode to increase the electric current efficiently. Control grid will control the flow
of electrons between the cathode and anode. Hence, control grid is also called as electron controller
or electric current controller.
Control grid is made of network of wires that controls the electrons flow between the cathode and
anode. The space between the networks of wires in the grid is very large. Hence, the free electrons

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move easily from cathode to anode through the opening of the control grid. Free electrons that are
moving from cathode to anode will carry the electric current.
In vacuum triode, if positive voltage is applied to the anode or plate, it becomes positively charged.
Hence, anode produces positive electric field towards the free electrons. On the other hand, free
electrons emitted from the cathode are negatively charged. Hence, free electrons produce negative
electric field towards the anode.
The positive electric field of anode has more strength than the negative electric field of free
electrons. Hence, free electrons are attracted towards the anode. However, the distance between
the anode and cathode is high. Therefore, if small voltage is applied, small number of free electrons
is attracted towards the anode.
On the other hand, the distance between the control grid and the cathode is less (control grid is
much closer to the cathode than anode). Hence, a small positive voltage applied to the control grid
is enough to attract the free electrons. The free electrons that are attracted towards the control grid
will easily move towards the anode.

APPLICATION OF A VACCUM TRIODE

In a triode, current can be all-the-way-on, all-the-way-off, or anything in between—like water
coming out of a faucet. In a triode the strength of the current, like the flow of the water, can vary.
The triode is able to do this by using a tiny wire grid placed between the cathode and the anode to
form the third electrode, simply called the grid. A voltage sent to the grid—such as a radio wave,
or the weak signal from a microphone — controls electron flow. If the grid is positively charged,
it helps accelerate the electrons across the gap between the other two electrodes. If the grid is
negatively charged, then it repels electrons and greatly reduces or stops the flow across the gap.
The grid makes the triode a much more versatile device than the diode. Especially important is the
triode’s ability to amplify small currents. For example, while a Fleming diode could detect the
presence of radio waves, the waves were still very weak. A triode electron tube could not only
detect them, but also amplify them. That helped make it possible to transmit and receive not only
the on/off signals of Morse Code, but also voice and music.

What is meant by electrode?

The conductor through which free electrons enter or leaves is called electrode. In vacuum triode,
cathode is an electrode, which emits the free electrons. In other words, free electrons leave or go
away from cathode and enter into vacuum. Anode is an electrode, which collects the free electrons
emitted by the cathode. Control grid is also called as electrode because, it increases the flow of
electrons between the cathode and anode.

Typical triode valve / tube circuit

The circuit of a very simple valve or tube amplifier using a triode is shown below.

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 R3

C2

C1

R3

R2 C3

In this circuit, the resistor R3 serves to keep the grid at ground potential. Typical values for this
may be around 100kΩ. The resistor, R2 in the cathode will develop a voltage across it as a result
of the current flowing in the cathode - anode circuit. As the grid is at ground potential, the voltage
across R2 will be the amount by which the grid is negative with respect to the cathode.

The resistor in the anode circuit, R1 develops a varying voltage across it as the current through the
triode valve varies. Capacitor C1 provides coupling on the input and the capacitor C2 provides
coupling for the AC signal on the output, blocking the DC which is likely to be high.

The capacitor C3 acts as an AC bypass capacitor across the cathode resistor R2. This increases the
AC gain of the circuit whilst retaining he required DC bias conditions.
The amplification factor µ of a triode valve/vacuum tube is a measure of the relative effectiveness
of the grid and anode voltages in producing the electrostatic fields at the surface of the cathode. It
is given as
µ=ΔVa/ΔVg
Where:
µ = amplification factor
ΔVa = change in anode voltage
ΔVg = change in grid voltage

Anode resistance or plate resistance is more exactly described as the dynamic anode or plate
resistance. It represents the resistance that the anode circuit offers to a small change in voltage.

Therefore when a small increment in anode voltage ΔEb produces a small change in anode current
ΔIb the anode resistance can be calculated as follows:
rp=ΔEb/ΔIb=δEb/δIb
Where:
rp = dynamic anode resistance

Mutual conductance gm of a triode is defined as the rate of change of anode current with respect
to the grid voltage. It is possible to express this as a simple equation:
ΔIb=ΔEc⋅gm
gm=δIb/δEc=µ/rp
gm=µ/rp

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Where:
µ = mutual conductance / transconductance
rp; = anode resistance

3. VACUUM TETRODE
We use triode to amplify the electrical signal, but at higher frequencies, it will acts as an oscillator
rather than as an amplifier. Adding the extra grid (screen grid) between the control grid and the
plate or anode reduces the unwanted capacitance between plate and the control grid.
As the name suggests, vacuum tetrode consists of four electrodes: cathode, anode, control grid,
and screen grid. The American physicist and electrical engineer Albert Wallace Hull invented the
tetrode vacuum tube in 1926.

Electrodes of vacuum tetrode

Vacuum tetrode consists of four electrodes: cathode, anode, control grid, and screen grid. The
cathode, anode, control grid, and screen grid are enclosed in an empty glass envelope. The cathode
is surrounded by control grid. The control grid is surrounded by the screen grid. The screen grid is
surrounded by the anode or plate.

The construction of vacuum tetrode is similar to vacuum triode. However, vacuum tetrode contains
an extra electrode called screen grid.
Cathode
Cathode is an electrode that emits the free electrons when heated. It is also sometimes referred as
emitter. Cathode has more number of negative charges (electrons) than positive charges (protons).
Therefore, it is negatively charged.
Anode or plate
Anode is a positively charged electrode that collects the free electrons emitted from the cathode.
It is also sometimes referred as collector. Anode has lesser number of negative charges (free
electrons) than positive charges (protons). Therefore, it is positively charged.
Control grid
Control grid is placed between the cathode and plate. This grid is placed closer to the cathode than
the plate to increase the electric current efficiently. Controls grid present between the cathode and
plate controls the flow of electrons. Hence, control grid is also known as electron controller.
Screen grid
Screen grid is placed between the control grid and plate. This grid is placed closer to the control
grid than plate to reduce the capacitance efficiently. Screen grid acts as an electrostatic shield to
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protect the control grid from the positive electric field or influence of the plate when its potential
changes.

Main functions of screen grid

The main functions of screen grid are:
• To accelerate and attract free electrons to the plate or anode
• To reduce the capacitance between the plate and control grid
• To increase the control over electron flow
• To increase the vacuum tube efficiency
• Reduce distortion
• Increase gain

The control grid and screen grid are made of network of wires that controls the electron flow
between cathode and anode. The space between the network of wires in the control grid and screen
grid is very large. Hence, the free electrons move easily from cathode to anode through the opening
of grids.

Many large TV stations, radios, and industries use giant power tetrodes which works efficiently
when used as RF power amplifiers.

4. VACUUM PENTODE
We use screen grid in tetrode to reduce the capacitance between the control grid and plate (anode).
However, tetrodes have one drawback. When the screen grid voltage is greater than the plate
voltage, the secondary electrons emitted from the plate are attracted to the screen grid. Because of
this, the electric current flows in reverse direction (from plate to screen grid) which is undesirable.
This drawback can be overcome by placing an extra grid called suppressor grid in between screen
grid and the plate. The suppressor grid repels secondary electrons towards anode or plate.
As the name suggests, vacuum pentode consists of five electrodes: cathode, control grid, screen
grid, suppressor grid, and plate or anode. Bernard D. H. Tellegen invented the pentode in 1926.

Electrodes of vacuum pentode

The pentode is made of evacuated glass envelope containing 5 electrodes. The air inside the glass
envelope is removed completely. The five electrodes of the pentode include cathode, control grid,
screen grid, suppressor grid, and plate as shown below.

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The cathode is surrounded by control grid. The control grid is surrounded by screen grid. The
screen grid is surrounded by suppressor grid. The suppressor grid is surrounded by plate or anode.
The construction of vacuum pentode is similar to vacuum tetrode. However, vacuum pentode
contains an extra grid (suppressor grid).

Cathode
Cathode is a negatively charged electrode, which emits free electrons when heat energy is
supplied. It has more number of negative charges (electrons) than positive charges (protons).
Therefore, it is negatively charged. Cathode is also sometimes referred as emitter.

Plate or anode
Anode is a positively charged electrode, which collects the free electrons emitted by the cathode.
It has lesser number of negative charges (electrons) than positive charges (protons). Therefore, it
is positively charged. Anode is also sometimes referred as collector.

Control grid
As the name suggests, it is used to control the flow of electrons. Control grid is placed between
anode and cathode. This grid is placed closer to the cathode than anode to increase the flow of
electric current efficiently. Control grid is also sometimes referred as electron controller.

Screen grid
Screen grid is mainly used to reduce the capacitance between control grid and anode, and to
increase the velocity of free electrons. Screen grid is a positively charged electrode placed in
between control grid and plate or anode. It is placed closer to the control grid than anode to reduce
the capacitance efficiently.

Uses of screen grid

The screen grid is mainly used to:
• Reduce the capacitance between control grid and plate.
• Increase gain
• Increase control over electron flow
• Increase velocity of free electrons.
• Reduce distortion

Suppressor grid
The suppressor grid is placed between the screen grid and plate. It is mainly used to repel the
secondary electrons (emitted from anode) back to the anode. It is internally connected to the
cathode. Therefore, a large number of free electrons are transmitted directly to the suppressor grid.
Because of the gaining of excess electrons, suppressor grid acts as a negatively charged electrode
and generates negative electric field. Therefore, it repels the secondary electrons (emitted from
anode) back to anode.

Applications of pentode
Pentodes are widely used in radios and televisions until 1960s. After 1960s they were replaced by
transistors. However, they continued to be used in some applications such as electric guitar
amplifiers, microphone preamplifiers, high-power radio transmitters, and professional audio
applications.

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Advantages of pentode
• Pentodes are able to operate at high frequencies
• Pentodes have high amplification factor than tetrodes

QUESTIONS
1. Calculate the amplification factor of a triode valve which has plate resistance of 2kΩ and
transconductance of 2 millimho.
Ans

rP = 2KΩ = 2x 103Ω
gm = 2 milli Ohm = 2 x 10-3 Ω
 = rP xg m where Rp = plate resistance and gm = mutual conductance
= 2×103×2×10−3 = 4
Amplification factor is 4.

2. A triode valve operates at Vp = 225V and Vg = − 0.5V. The plate current remains unchanged if the plate
voltage is increased to 250V and the grid voltage is decreased to − 2.5V. Calculate the amplification factor.
Answer
 VP
 =
 Vg where  VP = charge in plate voltage and  VP = charge in grid voltage and  = amplification
factor.

 VP 250 − 225 25
= = = =12.5
 Vg 2.5− 0.5 2

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