Fracture Mechanics of Concrete and Concrete Structures -

Assessment, Durability, Monitoring and Retrofitting of Concrete Structures- B. H. Oh, et al. (eds)
ⓒ 2010 Korea Concrete Institute, Seoul, ISBN 978-89-5708-181-5

Cover cracking in RC columns subjected to reinforcement corrosion

under sustained load
S. Jabbour
Halsall Associates Limited, and University of Ottawa, Canada
B. Martín-Pérez
University of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

ABSTRACT: This paper presents the results of an experimental study wherein circular spirally-reinforced
concrete columns were subjected to accelerated corrosion while sustaining a constant service compressive
load. Two types of specimens were used in the experimental program: type CV, where vertical reinforcement
was corroded and isolated from non-confining spiral reinforcement, and type CS where spiral reinforcement
was corroded and isolated from the vertical reinforcement to study the effect of confinement. The cracking
initiation, pattern, and widening of the concrete cover were monitored for ten months, and relations obtained
between the crack widening and propagation and the elastic shortening of the column and steel mass loss were
established. The cracking pattern was found to be wider and in the form of longitudinal cracks along the verti-
cal bars in type CV columns, but more random and distributed over the surface and not as wide in type CS
columns.

1 INTRODUCTION gress in RC due to the advance of steel reinforce-

One of the major causes of deterioration of North
American reinforced concrete (RC) infrastructure
today is corrosion of the reinforcement. The exten-
sive use of de-icing salts on highways in the winter
time brings to the concrete surface an excessive sup-
ply of chloride ions, which penetrate the concrete
cover and eventually destroy the passive layer that
protects the reinforcement from corrosion. The
break-down of this passive layer, which is a film that
forms around the reinforcement due to the high alka-
linity of concrete and reduces the corrosion to negli-
gible levels, leads to the initiation of the corrosion
process. The accumulation of corrosion products
around the reinforcement results in expansive forces
which, once they exceed the tensile strength of con-
crete cover, lead to cracking of the concrete surface.
The cracking of the concrete cover initiates a degra-
dation process that worsens with the propagation of
corrosion and eventually leads to further deteriora-
tion in the form of delamination and spalling of the
concrete cover.
The main corrosion-induced damage mechanisms
in RC are: (i) the decrease in the reinforcement
cross-sectional area, (ii) the possible loss of steel
ductility, (iii) the cracking and spalling of the con-
crete cover, and (iv) the loss of bond along the
steel/concrete interface. There has been an increas-
ing effort in recent years to quantify the damage pro-
ment corrosion. Particularly, quantifying concrete
cracking propagation with respect to reinforcement
corrosion propagation is of great relevance in the
serviceability assessment of deteriorated RC struc-
tures with corroded reinforcement, and it must be in-
cluded in estimations of residual service life
(Andrade &Alonso 1996, Liu & Weyers 1998).
There have been limited studies on the effect of
reinforcement corrosion on the serviceability and
structural performance of RC columns (Lee et al.
2000, Rodriguez et al. 1996, Saito et al. 2007). A
major observation from these studies is that the load
carrying capacity of corroded columns is lower than
that of non-corroded columns. This reduction in re-
sistance capacity is attributed to: (a) the increase in
load eccentricity due to uneven corrosion of the lon-
gitudinal reinforcement; (b) buckling of the longitu-
dinal reinforcing bars when column ties are cor-
roded; and, (c) the actual deterioration of the
concrete section due to cracking, spalling and/or de-
lamination of the concrete cover. However, none of
the above studies were conducted on RC columns
that were subjected to sustained axial loads and rein-
forcement corrosion simultaneously.
This paper presents the results of an experimental
program in which ten RC circular columns were sub-
jected to accelerated reinforcement corrosion while
sustaining in-service loads. The objective of this re-
search was to investigate the simultaneous effect of
 J = − D ( h, T )load
in-service ∇h and corrosion-induced damage (1) on explicitly accounts
propagation for thezone
to the middle evolution
of theofcolumn hydration in-
RC column serviceability. To that end, crack initia- reaction
stead of at andanchorage
SF content. regions.ThisEachsorption
cap plateisotherm
had
tionThe
andproportionality
propagation ascoefficient D(h,T) is called
well as longitudinal and reads300-mm long anchors bent at their ends to al-
four
moisture permeability and it is a nonlinear function
circumferential deformation were monitored during low application of eccentric loading through the cap
of the relative humidity h and temperature T (Bažant
testing. plates in future testing.⎡ High-strength non-shrink ⎤
& Najjar 1972). The moisture mass balance requires grout was used for a depth
w (h, α c , α s )to= make
G1 (α c ,sure ⎢ of 50 mm 1 at both⎥ ends of
− columns were ⎥fully
α s )⎢1the + ad-
that the variation in time of the water mass per unit thee column ∞
10(g α
2volume of concrete (water
EXPERIMENTAL content w) be equal to the
PROGRAM hered to their caps at casting. ⎢
⎣ c − αcaps
e The1 steel c )h ⎥⎦ as well
(4)
divergence of the moisture flux J as other steel accessories were all painted with zinc-
g1α c∞ −toα cminimize
)h
2.1 Test specimens based protective coating⎡ in 10(order
⎤
the
propagation of Kcorrosion (α , α ) e − 1⎥ rein-
⎢
c s ⎢ outside the columns
− ∂wRC
The = ∇column specimens used in this study consist (2) ⎥
1
•J forcement. ⎣ ⎦
of ∂at 260-mm diameter circular cross-section rein-
Since concrete properties are crucial in determin-
forced with 6-15M longitudinal bars (φ = 16.0 mm)
andThe10M water content
spirals (φ = w canmm).
11.3 be expressed
The concreteas thecover
sum where
ing the the
rate first term (gel
and nature isotherm)
of future represents
propagation the
of cor-
of the
to evaporable
spiral reinforcementwater waswe (capillary
20 mm. water, water
The cross-
physically
rosion and thebound amount(adsorbed) water and thecracking,
of corrosion-induce second
vapor, and
section of the adsorbed
columnswater) and theinnon-evaporable
is illustrated Figure 1. The
termmaterial
the (capillary isotherm)
quantities representsofthe
and properties the capillary
concrete
(chemically strength
compressive bound) of water
concretewused (Mills 1966,
in the design
water.used
mix Thisinexpression is valid work
the experimental only for were lowcarefully
content
Pantazopoulo
was 25 MPa, and & Mills 1995).
the steel
n
yieldItstrength
is reasonable
used was to of SF. The The
examined. coefficient
concrete represents
G1 mix design the wasamountdecided of
assume
400 MPa.that
Two thetypes
evaporable
of column water is awere
designs function of
used in
water on
based per two
unitmainvolume held in (i)
concepts: theagel pores atrealistic
practical 100%
relative
the humidity,investigation,
experimental h, degree ofwith hydration, αc, and
five specimens
relative humidity,
concrete compressive andstrength
it can be wasexpressed (Norling
used to represent
degree aMjornell
real life1997) as and (ii) a relatively high water
situation,
of each of silica
type beingfume reaction,
built. αs, i.e. we=between
The difference we(h,αc,the
αs)
= designs
age-dependent sorption/desorption isotherm content was used to increase the concrete porosity
two was the spacing of the spiral reinforce-
(Norling Mjonell 1997). Under thismmassumption and and permeability,
G1 (αelectrolyte c α which s αallowed it to act as an effec-
(5)
ment, which
by substituting
columns,
was specified
and 80 Equation
mm for type
to 220
1 into
for type CV
Equation respec-
CS columns, 2 one tive c , α s ) = k vgmedium
c c + k vgduring
s s the accelerated corro-
obtainsThe difference in spiral pitch allowed investi- sion mechanism. The concrete mix design used is
tively.
gating the effect of confinement on the behaviour of where kcvginand
presented ksvg are
Table material
1. The parameters.
water-cement From
ratio the
of this
∂w ∂h columns. Figure
corroded ∂w 2 shows ∂wthe reinforcement maximum amount of water per unit volume that can
mix was 0.75, 20mm aggregates were used, and the
− e + ∇ • D ∇ h
cage used in the RC specimens.= e &
α + e α& + w& (3) fill all poresconcrete
anticipated (both capillary
compressivepores strength
and gel pores),
f’c wasone 25
∂h ∂t
(
h )
∂α c
∂α s n
can calculate K1 as one obtains
MPa. 3% chloride by mass of cement was added to
c s the concrete mix in order to depassivate the rein-
forcement and initiate the corrosion process.
where ∂we/∂h is the slope of the sorption/desorption ⎡
⎢ 10 ⎜ g α − α ⎟h ⎥
⎛ ∞
c c
⎞ ⎤

isotherm (also called moisture capacity). The w −

Table 1. Concrete
0.188 α s + α s −G ⎢ −e
mix design.c 0.22
s 1
⎝ 1 ⎠
⎥

governing equation (Equation 3) must be completed ⎦ (6)

0 1
⎢ ⎥
K1(α c ,α s ) =
Material kg/m 3 ⎣

by appropriate boundary and initial conditions. Cement

⎛
g α − α c ⎟h
10⎜ 275
∞ ⎞

The relation between the amount of evaporable e ⎝ 1 c ⎠ −1

Water 205
water and relative humidity is called ‘‘adsorption Coarse aggr. 992 c
isotherm” if measured with increasing relativity The material parameters k vg and ksvg and g1 can
humidity
Figure and of
1. Details ‘‘desorption
RC columns’isotherm” in the opposite
cross-section.
Fine aggr. 838
be calibrated by fitting experimental data relevant to
case. Neglecting their difference (Xi et al. 1994), in free (evaporable) water2310content in concrete at
Total
the following, ‘‘sorption isotherm” will be used with various ages (Di Luzio & Cusatis 2009b).
reference to both sorption and desorption conditions. As the concrete was mixed at the University of
By the way, if the hysteresis of the moisture Ottawa Concrete Laboratory, a total of 5 batches of
2.2 Temperature
isotherm would be taken into account, two different 0.12 m3 each wereevolution
produced, from which standard
relation, evaporable water vs relative humidity, must Note that, at early age, since
concrete cylinder samples thetaken
were chemical reactions
for compres-
be used according to the sign of the variation of the associated with cement hydration and compressive
sion tests. The average concrete SF reaction
relativity humidity. The shape of the sorption are exothermic,
strength at 7 andthe28 temperature
days obtainedfield
wereis 21
notMPa
uniform
and
isotherm for HPC is influenced by many parameters, for non-adiabatic systems even if the environmental
27 MPa, respectively.
especially those that influence extent and rate of the temperature
In additionistoconstant. Heatcompressive
the concrete conduction strength
can be
chemical reactions and, in turn, determine pore described in concrete, at least forgrout
tests, the high-strength non-shrink temperature not
used in the
structure and pore size distribution (water-to-cement exceeding
top and bottom 100°C
steel(Bažant
caps was&alsoKaplan 1996),
tested. At each by
of
ratio, cement chemical composition, SF content, Fourier’s
the law, which
5 concrete readsthe casting of grout took
castings,
curing time and method, temperature, mix additives, place before the concrete casting at the bottom of the
etc.). In the literature various formulations can be cylinders
q = − λ ∇T and after the concrete casting at the top of
found to describe the sorption isotherm of normal the cylinders. Standard cube samples were taken(7) at
Figure 2. Reinforcement cage used in RC columns.
concrete (Xi et al. 1994). However, in the present each grout casting and tested in compression at 7 and
where is average
the heatcompressive
flux, T isstrength
the absolute
paper the semi-empirical expression proposed by 28 days.q The of the
Column ends were further confined with twelve-
Norling Mjornell (1997) is adopted because it grout is 53 MPa. Figure 3 shows the formworkinused
temperature, and λ is the heat conductivity; this
mm thick steel collars, in order to limit damage in the production of the column specimens.
Proceedings of FraMCoS-7, May 23-28, 2010
 J = − D (load
total axial compression h, T )∇ofh 220 kN on each col-
umn. This load represents 30 to 40% of the design
axial capacity of theThe proportionality
column, simulatingcoefficient
in-service D(h,T)
conditions. moisture permeability and it is a nonlinea
of the relative humidity h and temperature
& Najjar 1972).
2.3 Accelerated corrosion setup The moisture mass balanc
that the variation in time of the water mas
volume
In order to induce of concrete
corrosion on the(water content w) be eq
reinforcement,
the columns weredivergence of the moisture
electrically connectedfluxtoJ a
PGSTAT100 potentiostat. A constant anodic current
density was impressed on the steel reinforcing bars,
while four stainless− ∂w steel
= ∇ • Jsheets (25-mm wide by
∂t
400-mm long) were placed directly at the column ex-
terior serving as counter-electrodes.
The water content The
w can stainless
be expressed a
steel sheets wereofplaced
the during
evaporable casting
water on wethe wet
(capillary wa
Figure 3. Formwork used in the production of the columns. concrete surface to ensure
inforcing bars were
vapor, andoptimum
connected
adsorbed
to the
contact.
water) The
electrical
and re-
wires
the non-e
(chemically
of the potentiostatPantazopoulo
by means of &
bound)
welded
water
screws
wn (Mil
with
nuts covered withassume
electrical tape to
Mills
limit
1995).
the
It is reas
effects
of corrosion at these
that
sensitive
the
points.
evaporable
These
water
connec-
is a fu
relative humidity,
tions were also zinc-paint coated
h, degree of hydration
for maximum pro-
degree
tection. The specimens
of silica fume
were further exposed
reaction, α s, i.e. we=w
to wet-
=
ting and drying cycles
age-dependent
instead
sorption/desorption
of completely being
immersed in water,
(Norling
in
Mjonell
order to
1997).a Under
ensure sufficient
this assum
supply of moisture
byand substituting Equation 1 into Equati
oxygen for the electrochemi-
obtains
cal reactions. The wet-dry cycles were applied at
constant time intervals with a pump that sprayed wa-
∂w ∂h ∂w ∂w
− e e αthe
& c +
e α& + w
ter through a perforated hose placed around
+ ∇ • ( D ∇h ) =
col-
umns. ∂h ∂t h ∂α ∂α s

Three out of the five CV specimens (specimens

c s
CV1, CV2, and CV3) had their spiral reinforcement
isolated from thewhere
vertical e/∂h is the slope of the sorption/
∂wreinforcement using tem-
Figure 4. RC column specimens after formwork removal. isotherm
perature shrink tube, and the (also calledcurrent
electrical moisture was capac
governing equation
applied to the longitudinal reinforcement. For the (Equation 3) must be
Curing was achieved by using moist burlap fab-
rics, which in turn were wrapped with plastic sheets remaining two specimens under these series, one conditi
by appropriate boundary and initial
column (specimen CVG) The relation
underwent betweengeneral the corro-
amount of e
to minimize evaporation. The specimens were water and relative humidity is called ‘‘
sprayed with water at least once per day in order to sion of the entire reinforcement cage, while the other
isotherm” if measured
one served as the control (or uncorroded) specimen. with increasing
ensure sufficient moist conditions for hydration. The
curing regime lasted for 14 days after formwork re- Similarly for the CS series, three columns (speci- in th
humidity and ‘‘desorption isotherm”
moval. Figure 4 shows the final columns with top mens CS1, CS2, case.
and CS3) Neglecting
had their their differencere-
longitudinal (Xi et al.
and bottom steel caps. inforcement isolated from the spiral reinforcementwill be
the following, ‘‘sorption isotherm”
reference
using electric tape, and the to both sorption
electrical currentand wasdesorption
ap- c
By the way, if
plied to the reinforcement used for confinement. the hysteresis of the
2.2 Sustained loading setup isotherm would
Specimen CSG underwent general be corrosion
taken intoofaccount,the two
relation, evaporable
entire reinforcement cage, and the remaining one water vs relative humi
Two 332×332×38-mm steel plates placed at the top be used according to the signFigure
of the varia
and bottom ends and connected with four 25-mm di- served as the control specimen for this series.
ameter steel rods were used to keep the columns un- 2 shows how the vertical reinforcement was electri- of the
relativity humidity. The shape
cally isolated fromisotherm
the spiral forreinforcement
HPC is influenced by cover-by many p
der a sustained axial compression load. The column
itself was mounted between the two steel plates with ing the longitudinal reinforcing bars with tape at the and
especially those that influence extent
a central high-strength 16-mm thick circular steel contact points. chemical reactions and, in turn, determ
plate, which was fully welded to the square plate but The PGSTAT100 structure and pore sizethat
is a potentiostat distribution
simulates (water-
not welded to the column cap plates, in order to an electrochemical ratio,
cell cement
with three chemical composition, SF
main electrodes:
simulate an axial pin connection. By subjecting the the working electrode connected to the reinforcing mix
curing time and method, temperature,
four steel rods to a tensile force, the RC columns steel, the counter etc.).
electrodeIn the literature
connected various
to the formulatio
stainless
were subjected to a constant axial compressive load.
found to describe the
steel sheets, and the reference electrode that meas- sorption isotherm
The tension steel rods used to apply the load were ures the potential.concrete (Xi et al.electrical
Galvanic-cell 1994). However,
current in th
also painted with a corrosion resistant primer. A ten-
paper the semi-empirical
measurements were also taken by the potensiostat in expression pro
sion force of 55 kN was applied at each rod, with a
Norling Mjornell
order to monitor the corrosion rate of the RC column(1997) is adopted b

Proceedings of FraMCoS-7, May 23-28, 2010

 J = − D ( h, T )∇The
specimens. h current density applied on (1) the explicitly
used accounts
to spray water, for the the strain
evolution of hydration
gauges, and the
specimens ranged between 280 and 315 µA/cm2. reactiononand
LVDTs an RC SF column
content.specimen.
This sorption isotherm
Thecurrent
These proportionality
densities coefficient
are much higher is called
D(h,T)than those reads
Strain and deformation measurements were taken
moisture permeability and it is a nonlinear function
recorded in the field (Rodriguez et al. 2000); how- at approximately every three weeks with a data-
of thethey
ever, relative
inducehumidity h and
a certain leveltemperature
of damage Tin(Bažant
a rela- acquisition software. After ⎡ calibration of the ⎤ strain
& Najjar 1972). The moisture mass balance requires
tively short period of time. Figure 5 shows two readings taken at the steel
we (ha, αstrain ⎢ rods, it 1was determined
G1 (α c , αofs )⎢730×10 ⎥
that the variation in time of the water mass per unit
specimens in their final setup under load and sub- that c , α s ) =reading 1− -6
10(g α
∞
corresponds
+
⎥ to 55
h ⎥ there-
− α c )was
1 c load
volumetoofaccelerated
jected concrete (water content
corrosion. w) befigure,
In this equalcorro-
to the kN tension load on the steel ⎢
⎣ e The
rod. ⎦ (4)
divergence
sion staining, of which
the moisture flux15
appeared J days after the ini- fore adjusted after these measurements to keep it
10(g α
∞ − α )h ⎤
tiation of the accelerated corrosion process, can constant at 55 kN at each⎡rod. 1 c c
already be observed at some existing shrinkage K (α c α s )⎢e
, − ⎥
1

− ∂w = on (2) ⎢ ⎥
1

cracks ∇ •theJ concrete surface. ⎣ ⎦

∂t
3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The water content w can be expressed as the sum where the first term (gel isotherm) represents the
of the evaporable water we (capillary water, water physically
3.1 bound (adsorbed)
Crack propagation water
over time and the second
vapor, and adsorbed water) and the non-evaporable term (capillary isotherm) represents the capillary
Cracking in the concrete cover of the RC columns
(chemically bound) water wn (Mills 1966, water. This expression is valid only for low content
was monitored over the testing period. Once crack-
Pantazopoulo & Mills 1995). It is reasonable to of SF. The coefficient G represents the amount of
ing was visually observed,1 crack widths were meas-
assume that the evaporable water is a function of water per unit volume held in the gel pores at 100%
ured every two months using feeder blade inserts.
relative humidity, h, degree of hydration, αc, and relative humidity, and it can be expressed (Norling
The first round of testing lasted for 10 months, and it
degree of silica fume reaction, αs, i.e. we=we(h,αc,αs) Mjornell 1997) as
included the application of accelerated corrosion on
= age-dependent sorption/desorption isotherm column specimens CVG, CV1, CSV, and CS1. The
(Norling Mjonell 1997). Under this assumption and G1 (α c , αround
second c c + k s αlasted
) = k ofα testing s only 4 months, and(5)it
by substituting Equation 1 into Equation 2 one s vg c vg s
included column specimens CV2, CV3, CS2, and
obtains CS3. Therefore, data for specimens CVG, CV1,
whereand
CSV, and kgoes
kcvg CS1 s
vg are
upmaterial
to 10 months, parameters. whileFrom the
data for
Figure 5. Final load and accelerated corrosion setup.
∂w ∂h ∂w maximum amount of water
CS2,per andunit volume
goes thatup tocan
e α ∂we α
specimens CV2, CV3, CS3 4
− e + ∇ • ( D ∇h ) = &+ & + w& (3) fill all
months. pores (both capillary pores and gel pores), one
∂h ∂t h ∂α c
∂α s n
canIncalculate
columnsKtype 1 as CV,
one obtains
c s mostly longitudinal cracking
along the vertical reinforcement was observed. On
where ∂we/∂h is the slope of the sorption/desorption the other hand, in columns type ⎡⎢CS, the 10 ⎜ g αcracking
⎛
c
∞
− α ⎟h ⎥ pat-
c
⎞ ⎤

isotherm (also called moisture capacity). The tern that wwas −

0.188 α s + α corresponded
observed
c 0.22
s s − G ⎢⎢ − e
1
⎝1 ⎠
to that ⎥ of
governing equation (Equation 3) must be completed ⎦ (6)
0 1
⎥
smaller and more scattered cracks along the spiral re-
K (α c α s ) = This was expected since the electrical
⎣
by appropriate boundary and initial conditions. inforcement.
1
,

⎜ g α − α ⎟h
⎛ ∞ ⎞

The relation between the amount of evaporable current was applied eonly
10
⎝ c the
to
1 c ⎠ vertical
−
1 reinforce-
water and relative humidity is called ‘‘adsorption ment for columns CV, while the electrical current
isotherm” if measured with increasing relativity wasThe material
applied onlyparameters
to the spiral and ksvg and forg1col-
kcvgreinforcement can
humidity and ‘‘desorption isotherm” in the opposite be calibrated
umns CS. Exceptionsby fittingwereexperimental
columns CVG data relevant
and CSG, to
case. Neglecting their difference (Xi et al. 1994), in free (evaporable) water content in concrete at
in which the entire reinforcement cage was subjected
the following, ‘‘sorption isotherm” will be used with various
to ages (Dicurrent.
an electrical Luzio & Cusatis 2009b).
reference to both sorption and desorption conditions.
Figure 6. Electrodes and LVDTs of the experimental system.
Corrosion damage started to become visible to-
By the way, if the hysteresis of the moisture wards the end of the second week of testing for all
2.2 Temperature evolution
isotherm would be taken into account, two different column specimens. All specimens showed initial
relation,
2.4 Strainevaporable water vs relative humidity, must
& deformation Note that, at early age, since
discolouring at random spotstheacross chemical the reactions
concrete
be used according to the sign of the variation of the
Strain gauges were placed on the steel tension rods
associated
cover surface, withwith cement
corrosionhydration
gel leakingand SF reaction
through ex-
relativity humidity. The shape of the sorption
in order to monitor the compression load applied to are exothermic,
isting cracks andthe temperature
voids in the concrete.field isTowards
not uniform the
isotherm for HPC is influenced by many parameters,
the columns. Each of the four rods had two strain for non-adiabatic systems even if the environmental
third week of testing, all column specimens started
especially those that influence extent and rate of the
gauges attached at its centre, with a total of 8 strain temperature
to show hairline is constant. Heat conduction
cracks. Specimens type CV showed can be
chemical reactions and, in turn, determine pore
gauge readings. In addition, three LVDTs were used described invertical
longitudinal concrete, at least
hairline for temperature
cracking along the loca- not
structure and pore size distribution (water-to-cement
to monitor the deformation in the columns. Two exceeding
tion of the 100°C vertical(Bažant & Kaplan
reinforcement. By the 1996),secondby
ratio, cement chemical composition, SF content,
LVDTs were used vertically to measure the total Fourier’s law, which reads
month, these cracks had an opening between 0.083
curing time and method, temperature, mix additives,
shortening of the columns as a result of the compres-
mm and 0.14 mm wide. Figure 7 plots the increase
etc.). In the literature various formulations can be
sive load, and the remaining LVDT was used hori-
inq =longitudinal
− λ ∇T crack widths over time for columns
(7)
found to describe the sorption isotherm of normal
zontally at column mid-height (placed at an expand-
CV. The figure shows the average crack width
concrete (Xi et al. 1994). However, in the present
able circular thin metal sheet wrapped around the
measured for each specimen. Crack width measure-
where atqareas is that
the appeared
heat flux, is the orabsolute
T spalling
paper the semi-empirical expression proposed by
column) to measure the circumferential expansion.
ments
temperature, and λ is the to be
heat conductivity; almost
in this
Norling6 Mjornell
Figure shows the (1997) is adopted
electrodes, becausehoseit
the perforated
spalling and were wider than 1 mm are not included

Proceedings of FraMCoS-7, May 23-28, 2010

in Figure 7. As observed from the figure, although D (h, T )mm
J = −0.083
in columns type CV: ∇h was recorded as the
all specimens experienced an increase in crack maximum lateral crack width for columns type CS
widths over time, specimen CVG, whose reinforce- as opposed to 0.712 The
mm proportionality
as the maximumcoefficient
longitudi- D(h,T)
ment cage was all subjected to accelerated corrosion, nal crack width moisture
for columnspermeability andFigure
type CV. it is a nonlinea
9
displayed the higher values of crack widths after 10 of thecracking
shows typical surface relative humidity
as observedh and
in temperature
these
months of exposure. & Najjar 1972). The moisture mass
two close-up photos of a longitudinal crack at col- balanc
umn CV1 takenthat at the
10 variation
months, and in time of the water mas
some lateral
cracks at column volume
CS3 taken of concrete (water content w) be eq
at 4 months.
0.8
divergence of the moisture flux J
Longitudinal Crack Width (mm).

0.7 CVG

− ∂ = ∇•J
CV1
w
0.6
CV2
∂ t
0.5 CV3

0.4 The water content w can be expressed a

of the evaporable water we (capillary wa
0.3
vapor, and adsorbed water) and the non-e
0.2 (chemically bound) water wn (Mil
Pantazopoulo & Mills 1995). It is reas
0.1 assume that the evaporable water is a fu
0.0 relative humidity, h, degree of hydration
0 2 4 6 8 10 degree of silica fume reaction, αs, i.e. we=w
Time (Months) = age-dependent sorption/desorption
Figure 7. Longitudinal cracking width over time in columns
(Norling Mjonell 1997). Under this assum
type CV.
by cracking
Figure 9. Cover surface substituting Equation 1 into Equati
(longitudinal).
obtains
0.15 3.2 Corrosion induced
∂w
damage ∂w ∂w
e ∂h
∇ • ( D due e e
α&c +for- α&s + w
CSG −
Since concrete cracking is+partly
∂h ∂t h ∇h)to= ∂the
α rust ∂α
mation produced by the oxidation of the reinforce- c s
Lateral Crack Width (mm)...

CS1
CS2 ment, cracking propagation is considered to be di-
0.10 rectly related towhere of isreinforcement
∂we/∂h
the loss the slope of the sorption/
cross
section. The steelisotherm
mass loss (also
M duecalled moisture capac
CS3
to reinforcement
governing
corrosion is related equationcurrent
to the electrical (Equation 3) must be
I through
by appropriate
Faraday’s law as follows: boundary and initial conditi
0.05 The relation between the amount of e
I ⋅ t ⋅ Aw water and relative humidity is called ‘‘
M= [g]isotherm” if measured with increasing (1)
z⋅F
humidity and ‘‘desorption isotherm” in th
0.00
where, I = current case. Neglecting
(A); t = time their
(s); A difference
w = atomic
(Xi et al.
weight (55.85 g/mol); z = valency, which equals 2;will be
the following, ‘‘sorption isotherm”
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (Months )
and F = Faraday’s reference to both sorption
constant (96500 and desorption
cou- c
Figure 8. Lateral cracking width over time in columns type CS. By the way, if the
lombs/equivalent mass). By substituting the corro- hysteresis of the
sion current density isotherm would current
i (electrical be takenperintosurface
account, two
Specimens type CS showed minor hairline cracks area of rebar) into Equation 1, the diameter reduction humi
relation, evaporable water vs relative
going laterally and scattered at various spots across x(t) of the reinforcing be usedbaraccording
after timetot thecan sign of the varia
be calcu-
the concrete cover. Although these cracks were con- lated from: relativity humidity. The shape of the
tinuously leaking corrosion rust product, they were isotherm for HPC is influenced by many p
too small and difficult to measure until about the Aw especially those that influence extent and
second month of testing. Towards that time, it be- x(t ) = ⋅ i ⋅ chemical
t reactions and, in turn, (2) determ
came possible to insert the 0.038 mm feeder blade in z ⋅ F ⋅ ρ structure and pore size distribution (water-
most of the cracks. Figure 8 shows the increase in ratio, cement chemical composition, SF
lateral crack widths over time for columns CS. Fig- where ρ = densitycuring of irontime
(7.85andg/cm
method,
3
). Bytemperature,
substitut- mix
ure 8 plots the average crack width obtained for ing the values of etc.). Aw, z,InF and
the literature various formulatio
ρ, and calculating the
specimens CSG and CS1 for a period of 10 months rate of thickness found reductionto describe
in mm/yrthe with sorption
i givenisotherm
in
and for specimens CS2 and CS3 for a period of 4 µA/cm2, the following concrete (Xi et al. 1994). However, in th
expression results:
months. As shown in the figure, these lateral cracks paper the semi-empirical expression pro
are a lot less wide than the vertical cracks observed x(t ) = 0.0116 ⋅ i ⋅ tNorling Mjornell (1997) is adopted (3) b

Proceedings of FraMCoS-7, May 23-28, 2010

 J = − Dx(t)
where ( h, T is
) ∇h
given in mm, i is given in µA/cm2, and (1) explicitly
tion in the accounts for the and
first two months evolution of after
stabilized hydration
that,
t is given in years. reaction
while columnand CV1SF content.
displayedThis sorption isotherm
a continuous increase
Thethisproportionality
In investigation, coefficient
the potentiostat is called
D(h,T)current ap- reads
of its axial deformation during the entire testing pe-
moisture permeability and it is a nonlinear function
plied varied between 280 and 315 µA, which trans- riod. Although columns CV2 and CV3 were only
of theinto
lated relative
2
humidity
a current h and of
density temperature
approximatelyT (Bažant
100 exposed to accelerated ⎡corrosion for four ⎤months,
µA/cm
& Najjar 1972). The moisture mass balance requires
applied to the column specimens. Equation their rate of column deformation
⎢ increase is⎥ similar
w (h, α c , α sCV1.
to ecolumn
) = G (α , α ) 1 −
c rate
s ⎢ of 10
1
+
3that
was theused
variation in time the
to calculate of the water mass
reduction perrein-
in the unit 1 The increase
(g α
∞ of the ⎥circum-
volume of concrete (water content w) be equal to ac-
forcement diameter over the period of simulated the ferential expansion was ⎢⎣verye low1 for c )h ⎥⎦ of (4)
c −aαperiod 10
divergencecorrosion.
celerated of the moisture
Figureflux 10J plots the average months.
⎡ 10(g α ∞ − α c )h ⎤
crack width for each column type relative to the re-
duction in the rebar diameter due to corrosion. The K1 (α c , α s )⎢e 1 c − 1⎥
− ∂w =width
crack ∇ • J reported in Figure 10 has been calcu- (2) 0.40 ⎢
⎣
⎥
⎦
∂t
lated as the average of column specimens CV1, 0.35

Column Deformations (mm)...

CV2, and
TheCS1,water CV3, and w
content thecanaverage
be the of column
expressed speci-
as the sum where the first term (gel isotherm) represents the
mens
of the CS2,
evaporable and CS3
water over 10-month
we (capillary water, waterperiod. physically
0.30
bound (adsorbed) water and the second
The
vapor, graph
and shows
adsorbed an water)
approximately linear
and thetypes variation
non-evaporable term0.25(capillary isotherm) represents the capillary
of the crack
(chemically width
bound) for both
watercolumn relative
wn (Mills 1966, to water. This expression is valid only for lowCVG content
the bar diameter
Pantazopoulo reduction.
& Mills 1995).TheIt totheoretical
isbereasonablemaxi- to of SF. The coefficient G1 represents the amount of
0.20 CV1
mum
assume bar reduction
that the was calculated
evaporable water is a0.322 mm
function at
of water0.15per unit volume held in the gel pores at
CV2100%
the end of
relative the 10 months
humidity, h, degree period; this implicitly
of hydration, as-
αcin, and relative humidity, and it can be expressed (Norling
CV3
sumes that
degree of process all the
silica fume electrical
reaction, current was
αs, i.e. no used
we=losses.
we(h,αThisthe
c,αs)
Mjornell
0.10
1997) as Circumf.
corrosion
= age-dependent and sorption/desorption
that there were isotherm 0.05
reduction
(Norling in the reinforcement
Mjonell 1997). Under diameter will haveand
this assumption to
G (α0.00 c s (5)
be verified
by substituting through forensic analysis of
Equation 1 into Equation 2 one the corroded c α s ) = k vg α c c + k vg α s s
1
,

0 2 4 6 8 10
reinforcing
obtains bars. It can be seen from Figure 10 that
Time (Months )
crack widths increase approximately linear with time where kcvg and ksvg are material parameters. From the
for both column types. A similar trend has been pre-
∂w ∂h ∂w we (2000). maximum
Figure amount
11. Column of waterover
deformations per time
unitforvolume
columnsthat
CV.can
− e
viously observed by Rodriguez
+ ∇ • ( D ∇h ) = e α& +et∂al. α& + w& (3) fill all pores (both capillary pores and gel pores), one
∂h ∂t h ∂α c
∂α s n
can calculate K1 as one obtains
c s 0.35 CSG
0.7 CS1
where ∂we/∂h is CV theColumns
slope of the sorption/desorption 0.30 ⎡ ⎛
g α c∞ − α c ⎞⎟h ⎤⎥
Column Deformations (mm)...

10⎜
CS2 ⎢
isotherm
0.6 (also (notcalled
confined)moisture capacity). The w α s + 0.22α s G
− 0.188
CS3c s − ⎢1 − e ⎝ 1 ⎠
⎥

governing equation (Equation 3) must be completed

0.25
(6)
0 1
⎢ ⎥
K (α c α s ) = ⎣ ⎦
Crack Width (mm)...

CS Columns
by appropriate
0.5
boundary
(confined) and initial conditions. 1
0.20
,
Circumf.
⎛
g αc − αc h
∞ ⎞

The0.4 relation between the amount of evaporable

10⎜ ⎟
e ⎝ 1
− ⎠ 1

water and relative humidity is called ‘‘adsorption 0.15

isotherm”
0.3 if measured with increasing relativity The material parameters kcvg and ksvg and g1 can
humidity and ‘‘desorption isotherm” in the opposite be calibrated by fitting experimental data relevant to
0.10

case.0.2Neglecting their difference (Xi et al. 1994), in free 0.05

(evaporable) water content in concrete at
the following,
0.1
‘‘sorption isotherm” will be used with various ages (Di Luzio & Cusatis 2009b).
reference to both sorption and desorption conditions. 0.00
By 0.0 the way, if the hysteresis of the moisture 2.2 Temperature evolution
0 2 4 6 8 10
isotherm 0.0 would be 0.1taken into 0.2 account,0.3
two different
0.4 Time (Months )
relation, evaporable water vsReduction
Bar Diameter relative(mm)
humidity, must Note 12.
Figure that,Column
at early age, since
deformations overthe
timechemical reactions
for columns CS.
be used according to the sign of the variation of the
Figure 10. Average crack width versus bar diameter reduction.
associated with cement hydration and SF reaction
relativity humidity. The shape of the sorption areItexothermic,
should also the temperature
be noted fielddeformations
that these is not uniform
in-
isotherm for HPC is influenced by many parameters, for non-adiabatic systems even if the environmental
clude the effects of creep and shrinkage of the con-
especially
3.3 Column those that influence extent and rate of the
serviceability temperature
crete. Cracking is cannot
constant. Heat conduction
be considered can be
as the primary
Measurements of theand,
chemical reactions in turn,
columns’ determine
vertical pore
shortening described in concrete, at least for temperature
cause of deformations especially during the initial not
structure and pore size distribution
and circumferential expansion were also regularly(water-to-cement exceeding 100°C (Bažant
stages of the testing procedures. & Kaplan 1996), by
ratio, cement
monitored chemicalthrough
and recorded composition,
the dataSF content,
acquisition Fourier’s
Figure law, whichthereads
12 plots deformations versus time in
curing time and method, temperature,
on the LVDTs. Figure 11 shows the average values mix additives, columns type CS. By comparing Figures 11 and 12,
etc.).theInvertical
for the literature various formulations
and circumferential deformationscan be
in itq is= −observed
λ ∇T that deformations in columns CV(7) as
found to describe the sorption isotherm
mm during the testing period for columns type CV. of normal well as the rate of their increase over time were
concrete
From the(Xi et al.it 1994).
figure, can beHowever,
observedinthat
the column
present where than
higher q iscolumns
the heat flux,theTlatter
CS. For is the absolute
group, verti-
CVG, whose entire reinforcement was subjected by
paper the semi-empirical expression proposed to temperature,
cal and appear
deformations λ is thetoheat conductivity;
plateau in this3
slightly after
Norling Mjornell
corrosion, experienced (1997)
most isof its
adopted
verticalbecause
deforma-it months of testing, before they start increasing again

Proceedings of FraMCoS-7, May 23-28, 2010

at 8 months. The circumferential expansion was rela- − D (hwas
along the verticalJ =bars , T ) ∇h
approximately 6 to 8
tively smaller than that of columns CV. In fact, it is times the width of the lateral cracks. However, the
concluded from the results that column expansion is lateral cracks along The proportionality
the spiral coefficient
ties constitute spots of D(h,T)
further increased as the area of longitudinal rein- moisture permeability and it is a nonlinea
potential future pitting in the concrete cover.
forcement participating in the resistance of the axial of the relative humidity h and temperature
load is decreased due to corrosion. & Najjar
4.2 Effect of wet-dry cycles1972). The moisture mass balanc
Figure 13 shows the vertical shortening obtained that the variation in time of the water mas
in mm for both column types versus the crack width. volume of concrete
The continuous discolouring (water content
of the column surfacew) be eq
Although deformations obtained for columns CV was an indicationdivergence of the
that the rust moisture
products fluxbeing
were J
were higher than those obtained for columns CS, the constantly washed away and dissolved in water
increase in vertical deformation as a function of through the cracks.∂wPerhaps a method of moisture
crack opening is more pronounced for columns CS. − =spraying
supply different from ∇•J with water such as
The combined effect of corrosion of spiral rein-
∂t
humidity or fog chamber would have a different im-
forcement and concrete cover cracking considerably pact on cover cracking.
The Not
waterallowing
content the
w canrustbeprod-
expressed a
reduces the confinement action in columns CS. This uct to dissolve inof
thethewater might
evaporablelead to
water further ac-
we (capillary wa
type of columns require less crack opening to cumulation around the rebar
vapor, and surface
adsorbedandwater)
more andsevere
the non-e
achieve a similar level of axial deformation than cracking in the concrete.
(chemically bound) water w (Mil n
columns CV. Pantazopoulo & Mills 1995). It is reas
4.3 Effect of coverassume thatonthecolumn
cracking evaporable water is a fu
0.35 serviceabilityrelative humidity, h, degree of hydration
degreeeffect
of silica
Results show that=theage-dependent
fume reaction,up
of cover cracking
αs,toi.e. we=w
0.30 sorption/desorption
Column Deformations (mm)...

the corrosion levels investigated

(Norling Mjonell have an impact
1997). Under on assum
this
0.25 the column serviceability, particularly
by substituting due to the in-
Equation 1 into Equati
CV Column crease in the columns vertical deformations towards
obtains
0.20 the second half of the ten months of corrosion test-
(not confined)
ing. This clearly shows that further column deterio-
∂w ∂h ∂w
e α& + ∂we α& + w
0.15 CS Columns
(confined) ration in the form−of e + cracking
cover is an
∇ • ( D ∇h ) =
indication
of a reduction in the∂hcolumn
∂t h
structural ∂α ∂α
performance
c s
0.10
in regards to serviceability criteria.
c s
0.05
where ∂we/∂h is the slope of the sorption/
0.00
5 CONCLUSIONS
isotherm (also called moisture capac
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 governing equation (Equation 3) must be
Crack W idth (mm) by appropriate boundary and initial conditi
This paper has presented experimental results related
Figure 13. Vertical shortening versus crack width. to concrete crackingTheand relation
longitudinalbetween the amount
and lateral de- of e
water and relative humidity
formations of RC circular columns that were simul- is called ‘‘
isotherm” if measured
taneously subjected to axial load and accelerated re- with increasing
4 DISCUSSION humidity
inforcement corrosion. While andin‘‘desorption
one set of isotherm”
columns in th
case.reinforcement
only the longitudinal Neglecting their wasdifference
subjected to (Xi et al.
4.1 Effect of sustained load on crack propagation corrosion, in the other set of columns it was the spi-will be
the following, ‘‘sorption isotherm”
ral reinforcementreference
designedtotoboth sorption
provide and desorption
column con- c
Loads were kept constant on the column specimens By the way, if the
finement that was corroded. The cracking pattern hysteresis of the
during the corrosion simulation. This had a signifi-
observed was quiteisotherm
different would be taken
for the two setsintoofaccount,
col- two
cant impact on the lateral crack propagation. Al- relation, evaporable
umns. Columns whose longitudinal reinforcement water vs relative humi
though the reduction in the reinforcing bar diameter be usedvertical
was corroded exhibited according to the parallel
cracking sign of the
to varia
the longitudinal reinforcing bars. On the other hand, of the
relativity humidity. The shape
for the testing period was similar for both types of
columns (see Fig. 10), the lateral crack widths in isotherm
columns whose spiral for HPC is influenced
reinforcement was corroded by many p
displayed a more random cracking pattern distrib- and
especially those that influence extent
columns CS were significantly less than the widths
of the longitudinal cracks in columns CV. This was chemical
uted in the lateral direction. reactions and, in
In general, turn, determ
columns
whose longitudinal reinforcement suffered from cor- (water-
structure and pore size distribution
most likely due to the vertical pressure of the sus-
tained loading that is in the perpendicular direction
rosion experiencedratio,
highercement chemical
axial and lateral composition,
deforma- SF
to the lateral cracks, unlike the longitudinal cracks curing time and method,
tions, and the associated crack widths were six to temperature, mix
eight times higheretc.). In the literature
than the various
other setformulatio
that had little counter-pressure. Therefore, in terms
in magnitude of
of crack width, the effect of corrosion on spiral rein- found to describe the
columns. This experimental study will be completed sorption isotherm
forcement has a less severe impact on cover cracking concretespecimens
with testing the column (Xi et al. up1994). However,
to failure by in th
than the effect of corrosion of vertical reinforcement paper the semi-empirical
subjecting them to eccentric axial loading. expression pro
in a column. The width of the longitudinal cracks Norling Mjornell (1997) is adopted b

Proceedings of FraMCoS-7, May 23-28, 2010

J = − D ( h , T ) ∇h
REFERENCES (1) explicitly J.,accounts
Rodríguez, Ortega, L.forM., the evolution
& Casal, J. 1996.ofLoadhydration
bearing
reaction and SF content. This sorption isotherm
capacity of concrete columns with corroded reinforcement.
The C.
Andrade, proportionality coefficient
& Alonso, C. 1996. design is
D(h,T)
Progress on andcalled
resid- reads
In C. L. Page, J.W. Figg, & P.B. Bamforth (eds), Corrosion
of Reinforcement in Concrete Construction: 220-230. Royal
ual life calculation with regard to rebar corrosion of rein-
moisture permeability
forced concrete. In N.S. and
Berke,it E.
is Escalante,
a nonlinear C.K.function
Nmai & Society of Chemistry.
of D.
theWhiting
relative(eds),
humidity h and temperature T (Bažant
Techniques to Assess the Corrosion Ac- Saito, Y., Michiaki, O., Kanakubo,
⎡ T., & Yamamoto,⎤ Y. 2007.
& Najjar
tivity of 1972). The moisture
Steel Reinforced mass
Concrete balanceASTM
Structures, requires
STP Structural performance of⎢corroded RC1 column under
weaxial
(h, α , α ) = G (α , α ) 1 −
⎥
+ uni-
that1276
the: 23-40.
variation in time of the water mass per unit ccompression
s 1 cload.s First
⎢
10(g α
∞
International Workshop
)h
⎥
−ofα cStructures
on
1 c
Performance, Protection & Strengthening un-
volume
Lee, C., of concrete
Bonacci, J.F.,(water
Thomas,content
M.D.A.,w)Maalej,
be equalM.,toKha-
the ⎢
⎣
der Extreme Loading, Whistler, e Canada. ⎥
⎦ (4)
divergence of the moisture flux
jehpour, S., Hearn, N., Pantazopoulou, S., & Sheikh, S.
J
2000. Accelerated corrosion and repair of reinforced con- acknowledgments ⎡ 10(g α ∞ − α )h ⎤
Financial support K 1 c c
(α , α ) e − 1⎥and Asso-
crete columns using carbon fibre reinforced polymer sheets. provided by⎢ the Natural Sciences Engi-
∂ c s ⎢of Canada, and by Halsall
neering Research1 Council ⎥
− Canadian
w

Liu∂Y.
• J Journal
=&∇ Weyers of Civil Engineering 27(5): 941-948.
R.E. 1998. Modeling the time-to-corrosion
(2) ciates Limited is gratefully⎣acknowledged. ⎦
t
cracking in chloride contaminated reinforcement concrete
structures. ACI Materials Journal 95(6): 675-681.
The water content w &canAragoncillo,
be expressed as Corrosion
the sum where the first term (gel isotherm) represents the
Rodriguez,
of rate
the and
J., Ortega,
evaporable
L. M.,
water w (capillary
J. 2000.
water, water physically bound (adsorbed) water and the second
vapor,
J. Fullea,
structural performance.
and J.adsorbed
Polimon, water)
e In C. Andrade, C. Alonso,
and the(eds),
& J. Rodriguez non-evaporable
Measurement
term (capillary isotherm) represents the capillary
(chemically
and Interpretationbound) water Corrosion
of the On-site wn (Mills 1966,
Rate: 191-213.
water. This expression is valid only for low content
Pantazopoulo
RILEM Publications& Mills 1995). It is reasonable to
S.A.R.L. of SF. The coefficient G1 represents the amount of
assume that the evaporable water is a function of water per unit volume held in the gel pores at 100%
relative humidity, h, degree of hydration, αc, and relative humidity, and it can be expressed (Norling
degree of silica fume reaction, αs, i.e. we=we(h,αc,αs) Mjornell 1997) as
= age-dependent sorption/desorption isotherm
(Norling Mjonell 1997). Under this assumption and c α c+ ks α s
G (α c α s ) = k vg (5)
by substituting Equation 1 into Equation 2 one 1
,
c vg s
obtains
where kcvg and ksvg are material parameters. From the
∂w ∂h maximum amount of water per unit volume that can
− e + ∇ • ( D ∇h) = ∂we ∂w
α&c + e α&s + w&n (3) fill all pores (both capillary pores and gel pores), one
∂h ∂t h ∂α ∂α can calculate K1 as one obtains
c s
where ∂we/∂h is the slope of the sorption/desorption ⎡
⎢ 10⎜
⎛
g α c∞ − α c ⎞⎟h ⎤⎥
isotherm (also called moisture capacity). The w α s + 0.22α s G
− 0.188
c s − ⎢1 − e ⎝ 1 ⎠
⎥

governing equation (Equation 3) must be completed (6)

0 1
⎢ ⎥
K (α c α s ) = ⎣ ⎦
by appropriate boundary and initial conditions. 1
,
⎛
g αc − αc h
∞ ⎞

The relation between the amount of evaporable

10⎜ ⎟
e ⎝ 1 ⎠− 1

water and relative humidity is called ‘‘adsorption

isotherm” if measured with increasing relativity
humidity and ‘‘desorption isotherm” in the opposite
case. Neglecting their difference (Xi et al. 1994), in
the following, ‘‘sorption isotherm” will be used with
reference to both sorption and desorption conditions.
By the way, if the hysteresis of the moisture
isotherm would be taken into account, two different
relation, evaporable water vs relative humidity, must
be used according to the sign of the variation of the
relativity humidity. The shape of the sorption
isotherm for HPC is influenced by many parameters,
especially those that influence extent and rate of the
chemical reactions and, in turn, determine pore
structure and pore size distribution (water-to-cement
ratio, cement chemical composition, SF content,
curing time and method, temperature, mix additives,
etc.). In the literature various formulations can be
found to describe the sorption isotherm of normal
concrete (Xi et al. 1994). However, in the present
paper the semi-empirical expression proposed by
Norling Mjornell (1997) is adopted because it
The material parameters kcvg and ksvg and g1 can
be calibrated by fitting experimental data relevant to
free (evaporable) water content in concrete at
various ages (Di Luzio & Cusatis 2009b).
2.2 Temperature evolution
Note that, at early age, since the chemical reactions
associated with cement hydration and SF reaction
are exothermic, the temperature field is not uniform
for non-adiabatic systems even if the environmental
temperature is constant. Heat conduction can be
described in concrete, at least for temperature not
exceeding 100°C (Bažant & Kaplan 1996), by
Fourier’s law, which reads
q = − λ ∇T (7)
where q is the heat flux, T is the absolute
temperature, and λ is the heat conductivity; in this

Proceedings of FraMCoS-7, May 23-28, 2010