The Fundamentals of Filtration

Why Filtration is Important

Proper filtration minimizes wear in a fluid system, thereby extending equipment life.
Furthermore, by minimizing wear, filtration also reduces maintenance costs and helps the
system sustain high levels of performance.

According to a study conducted by Dr. E. Rabinowicz of M.I.T. presented at the American

Society of Lubrication Engineers, Bearing Workshop, in 1981, 70% of component
replacements or "loss of usefulness" are due to surface degradation. In hydraulic and
lubricating systems, 20% of these replacements result from corrosion, with 50% resulting
from mechanical wear.

Sources of Contamination

Contaminants can be introduced into a fluid system from many sources, both internal and
external to the system. These contaminants are potentially damaging, and must therefore be
removed as quickly as possible. The following lists common sources of contaminant
ingression and the common types of contaminants that enter the systems:
Manufacturing & Overhaul Process
 Machining chips
 Grinding material
 Environmental particulate
 Cutting Oils, Preservatives, Cleaning Fluids
 Moisture
 Assembly generated particulate
 Green Run generated particulate

System Operation
 Metal Wear Debris (Components, Bearings, Gears)
 Non-metallic Wear Debris (Seals)
 Oil breakdown (Acids, Polymers, Coke)
 Air (Cavitation and Oxidation)
 Environmental Particulate (Reservoir Vent)
 Environmental Moisture (Reservoir Vent)

System Maintenance
 Moisture
 Water (from Disassembly/Assembly generated particulate
 Environmental Particulate
 Environmental contaminated Top off fluids)
 Manufacturing debris if new component installed

Damage Caused by Particle Contamination

Mechanisms of Wear
Particle contamination can damage systems by causing a variety of types of wear. The
primary types of wear are shown in the table below, along with the most common cause for
that type of wear. Each of these wear mechanisms result in the generation of particulate
contamination capable of causing further component damage.
Type Primary Cause
Abrasive Wear Particles between adjacent moving surfaces
Erosive Wear Particles and high fluid velocity
Adhesive Wear Surface to surface contact (loss of oil film)
Fatigue Wear Particle damaged surfaces subjected to repeated stress
Corrosive Wear     Water or chemical

Abrasive Wear
Abrasive Wear Effects:

 Dimensional changes
 Leakage
 Lower efficiency
 Generated particles contribute more wear

Abrasive wear is a primary wear mechanism. Particles enter the clearance space between
two moving surfaces, and act like cutting tools to remove material from the surfaces. The
particle sizes causing the most damage are those equal to and slightly larger than the
clearance space. To protect opposing surfaces from abrasive wear, particles of
approximately the operating clearance size range must be removed.

Effect on Pumps
The fluid pump is one of the system's most dirt-sensitive components. Clearance size
particles (those approximately the same size as the operating clearance) increase the wear
rate, resulting in greater leakage, higher temperatures, lower oil pump pressures and
reduced efficiency.
Effect on Cylinders
Cylinder rods and seal systems are major contributors to contaminant ingression. The
extended rod, coated with oil film, will capture particulate contamination from the
surrounding atmosphere. When the rod re-enters the cylinder housing, system fluid rinses
the particles from the rod into system hydraulic oil.

Clearance size contamination consequences

Rod seal wear: Loss of oil through leakage

Bronze bushing wear:   Loss of rod alignment
Piston seal wear:   Loss of cylinder speed
  Loss of holding characteristics
Piston bearing wear: Loss of alignment
Chain Reaction of Abrasive Wear
Particles generated as a result of abrasive wear are work hardened; thus they become harder
than the parent surface and, if not removed by proper filtration, will recirculate to cause
additional wear. This "chain reaction of abrasive wear" will continue and result in
premature system component failure unless adequate filtration is applied to break the chain.

Pall participated in a study to quantify the impact of using finer filtration, and the results of
this study are displayed in the chart shown. In the study a typical hydraulic system equipped
with nominal 25µm rated filtration was operated for 180 hours. Analysis of the hydraulic
fluid found 20,000 particles per milliliter greater than 5µm. Further, 25% of these particles
were metallic, having been worn from system components by the chain reaction of abrasive
wear.

The next phase of the technical study replaced the 25µm rated filtration with 3µm rated
clearance protection filtration. Analysis showed a drop in particulate contamination in the
75m size range from 20,000 particles/ml to only 200 particles/ml, with a corresponding
drop in metallic composition from 25% to only 3%. Contamination levels continued to
decline, and after 320 hours of operation the fluid contained only 30 particles/ml >5µm with
approximately 0% metallic content. Finer filtration had significantly reduced abrasive wear.
In the final phase of the test 25µm rated filtration was reintroduced in place of 5µm rated
filtration. The particulate contamination increased to levels near those originally found after
only 100 hours of operation.

This technical study concluded that coarser filters allow abrasive wear to take place, leading
to a chain reaction effect that causes ever increasing amounts of wear and particulate
contamination. Finer filtration can break the chain reaction of wear and maintain improved
fluid cleanliness levels.
A 3000 psi piston pump test clearly showed the dramatic wear-reducing benefit of fine
filtration. The test was run in two 250-hour phases, with and without ingressed
contaminants. During the second phase, AC Fine Test Dust (ACFTD), carbonyl iron, and
AC Coarse Test Dust (ACCTD) were introduced. The report concluded that the dominant
wear mechanism causing wear in four pump components was hard particle A 3000 psi
piston pump test clearly showed the dramatic wear-reducing benefit of fine abrasion
between sliding surfaces.

Erosive Wear
Erosive wear effects:

 Dimensional changes
 Leakage
 Lower efficiency
 Generated particles contribute more wear

Erosive wear is caused by particles that impinge on a component surface or edge and
remove material from that surface due to momentum effects. This type of wear is especially
noticed in components with high velocity flows such as servo and proportional valves.
Particles repeatedly striking the surface may also cause denting and eventual fatigue of the
surface.

Valve Sticking/Erosive Wear

Valves regulate the flow in a fluid system. Small particles, especially those of
approximately clearance size, can wedge themselves between the surfaces in the valve.
When clearance-size particles become wedged in this way, the valve requires an additional
amount of force to move. Eventually this sticking can actually lock the valve in place,
potentially causing a system failure.
 Typical valv
Servo valve
Proportional
Directional/c

Case Study: Valve Shifting Force vs. Contamination in

Fluid
Conditions of directional valve:
 About 15 gpm, 3000 psi
 Radial clearance, 8µm

Valve held stationary and under pressure before shifting force was measured.

The study illustrates that the force required for valve shifting is greatest when challenged by
particles in the operating clearance size range. Valve clearances will exclude the larger
particles and are less sensitive to the smaller ones. The conclusion is that particles in the
clearance size range will be caught in the clearance space and thereby require greater force
to get the valve to shift.
Adhesive Wear
Excessive load, low speed and/or reductions in fluid viscosity can reduce the oil film
thickness to a point where metal-to-metal contact occurs. Surface separates are "cold
welded" together and particles are sheared off as surfaces move.
Fatigue Wear
Bearing surfaces are subjected to fatigue failures as a result of repeated stressing caused by
clearance size particles trapped by the two moving surfaces. At first, the surfaces are dented
and cracking is initiated. These cracks spread after repeated stressing by the bearing load,
even without additional particulate damage. Eventually the surface fails, producing a spall.
Contamination reduces bearing life significantly through fatigue, abrasion and roughening
of operating surfaces.

Fine filtration has a significant beneficial effect on bearing life. A study conducted at the
Imperial College, London, United Kingdom by Dr. P.B. Macpherson and others,
demonstrated the relationship between filtration rating and the relative fatigue life of rolling
contact bearings. Test on roller bearings showed that as the filtration rating decreased from
40µm to 3µm, bearing fatigue life increased by a factor of six.
Component Wear
Wear will degrade the performance of system components, thus reducing reliability and
useful life.

Effects on Bearings
The operating or dynamic clearance is not equal to the machine clearance (fit) of the
bearing but depends upon the load, spread and lubricant viscosity. A lubricant film
separates the moving surfaces to prevent metal-to-metal contact. Since clearance size
particles cause the most damage to bearings, the operating clearance becomes the
determining factor when considering the size particles that must be controlled in order to
extend bearing life.

Damage Caused by Water and Air

Contamination
The ingression of water or air into your fluid systems can cause significant problems.
Problems include system corrosion, precipitates in the fluid, and foaming.

The major effects of water and air contamination:

 Fluid breakdown, such as additive precipitation and oil oxidation

 Detexiaration of fluid lubricating characteristics
 Accelerated metal surface fatigue
  Corrosion
 Jamming of components due to ice crystals formed at low temperatures

Sources of water contamination:

 Heat exchanger leaks
 Seal leaks
 Condensation of moisture in air
 Inadequate reservoir vents
 Contaminated servicing fluids

Forms of water in oil:

 Free water (emulsified or in droplets)
 Dissolved water (below saturation)

Water measurement techniques:

 Crackle test (free water)
 Centrifugal (free water)
 Karl Fischer (free and dissolved water)
 Distillation (free and dissolved water)
 Capacitive Sensor (dissolved water)

Dissolved air and other gasses in oils cause:

 Foaming
 Slow system response with erratic action
 A reduction in system stiffness
 Higher fluid temperatures
 Pump damage due to cavitation
 Inability to develop full system pressure
 Acceleration of oil oxidation

Typical fluid saturation levels:

 Hydraulic, Military
200 - 800 ppm (.02 - .08%)
 Hydraulic, Commercial
1000 - 2000 ppm (.1 .2%)
 Lubrication
200 - 800 ppm (.02 - .08%)

Free and dissolved water cause component and fluid degradation. When fluid becomes
cloudy in appearance, the saturation limit at the fluid temperature has been exceeded,
indicating that both dissolved and free water are present.

Common Methods for Water Removal

 Coalescence - Free water only
 Centrifugation - Free water only (expensive, high maintenance)
 Adsorption
 Vacuum dehydration - Free water dissolved water
NOTE:
Vacuum dehydration is best for maximum water removal at minimum cost and greatest ease
of use. This is accomplished without impacting the physical or chemical properties of the
treated fluid.
The following samples and test data illustrate the dramatic effect that the vacuum
dehydration method, coupled with high performance filtration, has on measured
contamination.

Run Time
Initial 60 135 165
(min)
Water Content
8,650 1,240 466 340
(PPM)

Particulate Level
(Pall Cleanliness 22/20/16 16/14/11 14/13/11 14/13/10
Code)

Effect of Water on Bearing Fatigue Life

Studies have shown that the fatigue life of a bearing can be extended dramatically by
reducing the amount of water contained in a petroleum based lubricant.

Pump Sensitivity to Water

These of tests show the detrimental effect of water on pump performance and wear. In the
gear pump study, water caused a significant reduction in pump efficiency. With the vane
pump test, water contamination resulted in increased pump wear, indicated by the loss of
weight (wear) of the pump.

Effect of Water and Metal Particles on Oil

Oxidation
Oil oxidation is increased in a hydraulic or lubricating oil in the presence of water. When
metallic particles are also present in the fluid, these small metal particles act as catalysts to
accelerate oxidation, as shown by the high total acid number or which is an indication of the
extent of oil oxidation.

What to Look For in a Filter

There is a direct relationship between fluid system contamination and component
degradation and failure. The solution is to equip every fluid system with clearance
protection filtration. In this section you'll learn what to look for in a filtration solution.

Filter Performance Criteria

In choosing any filter, the first question to answer is, "What must your filter provide?"

Removal Efficiency (Fluid Cleanliness)

Always look for filters that offer high efficiency removal and control of critical clearance
size (and larger) particles. Controlling these particles increases component life and
decreases maintenance and repair costs.

Reliability

Be sure the filter you're considering performs predictably and efficiently throughout its
service life. This reliability ensures maximum protection regardless of operating condition.

Filter Life

Your filtration solution should have high dirt-holding capacity and optimized construction
for maximum service life. Long filter service life extends service intervals, resulting in
lower filter and maintenance costs.

How to determine if a filter is designed for highly efficient

removal
 Compare
Beta
Ratios

The Beta ratio,

ßx, is tan indicator of how well a filter controls particulate. It is the ratio of the number of
particles (>xµm) entering the filter to the number (>xµm) that pass through. If one out of
every two of the particles (>xµm) in the fluid pass through the filter, the filter's Beta ratio at
xµm is "2." If only one out of every 200 of the particles (>xµm) pass through the filter, the
Beta ratio at xµm is "200." Therefore, filters with a higher Beta ratio provide better
particulate control and hence better system protection. 

Supported vs. Unsupported Filter Elements

Cyclic flow, cyclic pressure and increasing pressure drops all affect the performance of a
filter element. By incorporating the proper support structure, the filter element can be made
to resist deterioration. By contrast, unsupported elements can experience compression and
fatigue failures that greatly reduce reliability.