Lecture III

(1) Art and Architecture

(2) The oldest surviving British art includes Stonehenge from around 2600

BC, and tin and gold works of art produced by the Beaker people (Beaker culture
is defined by the common use of a pottery style — a beaker with a
distinctive inverted bell-shaped profile found across the western part of Europe
during the late 3rd millennium BC.) from around 2150 BC.
Beakers arrived in Britain around 2500BC, declined in use around 2200-
2100BC with the emergence of food vessels and cinerary urns and finally fell out
of use around 1700BC (Needham 1996). The earliest British beakers were
similar to those from the Rhine (Needham 2005), but later styles are most similar
to those from Ireland (Case 1993). In Britain, domestic assemblages from this
period are very rare, making it hard to draw conclusions about many aspects of
society. Most British beakers come from funerary contexts.
Britain’s only unique export in this period is thought to be tin. It was
probably gathered in streams in Cornwall and Devon as cassiterite pebbles and
traded in this raw, unrefined state (Charles 1975). It was used to turn copper into
bronze from around 2200BC and widely traded throughout Britain and into
Ireland. Other possible European sources of tin are located in Brittany and Iberia,
but it is not thought they were exploited so early as these areas did not have
Bronze until after it was well established in Britain and Ireland (Bradley 2007,
146).
(3) The most famous site in Britain from this period is Stonehenge, which
had its Neolithic form elaborated extensively. Many barrows surround it and an
unusual number of ‘rich’ burials can be found nearby, such as the Amesbury
Archer. Another site of particular interest is Ferriby on the Humber estuary,
where western Europe’s oldest plank built boat was recovered.

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 (4) The La Tène style of Celtic art reached the British Isles rather late, no
earlier than about 400 BC, and developed a particular "Insular Celtic" style seen
in objects such as (5) the Battersea Shield, and a number of bronze mirror-backs
decorated with intricate patterns of curves, spirals and trumpet-shapes. Only in
the British Isles can Celtic decorative style be seen to have survived throughout
the Roman period, as shown in objects like (6) the Staffordshire Moorlands
Pan and the resurgence of Celtic motifs, now blended with
Germanic interlace and Mediterranean elements, in Christian Insular art. This
had a brief but spectacular flowering in all the countries that now form the United
Kingdom in the 7th and 8th centuries, in works such as the Book of
Kells and Book of Lindisfarne. The Insular style was influential across Northern
Europe, and especially so in later Anglo-Saxon art, although this received new
Continental influences. The English contribution to Romanesque art and Gothic
art was considerable, especially in illuminated manuscripts and monumental
sculpture for churches, though the other countries were now essentially
provincial, and in the 15th century Britain struggled to keep up with developments
in painting on the Continent. A few examples of top-quality English painting on
walls or panel from before 1500 have survived, including the (7) Westminster
Retable, (8-9) The Wilton Diptych and some survivals from paintings
in Westminster Abbey and the Palace of Westminster.
The Protestant Reformations of England and Scotland were especially
destructive of existing religious art, and the production of new work virtually
ceased. The Artists of the Tudor Court were mostly imported from Europe,
setting a pattern that would continue until the 18th century. The (10) portraiture of
Elizabeth I ignored contemporary European Renaissance models to create iconic
images that border on naive art. The portraitists Hans Holbein and Anthony van
Dyck were the most distinguished and influential of a large number of artists who
spent extended periods in Britain, generally eclipsing local talents like Nicolas
Hilliard, the painter of portrait miniatures, Robert Peake the elder, William
Larkin, William Dobson, and John Michael Wright, a Scot who mostly worked in
London. Landscape painting was as yet little developed in Britain at the time of

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the Union, but a tradition of marine art had been established by the father
and son both called Willem van de Velde, who had been the leading Dutch
maritime painters until they moved to London in 1673, in the middle of the Third
Anglo-Dutch War.

(11) Early Christian art (4th–5th centuries AD) In AD 313 Constantine the Great
formally recognized Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire. In
response, churches were built and commissioned art took on the subject matter
of the Christian saints and symbols. Roman burial chests (sarcophagi) were
adopted by the Christians and the imagery of pagan myths gradually gave way to
biblical themes.
This art extends over the Late Antique period, Roman art and architecture
(the late 2nd - 7th century), and the Byzantine art and architecture (from 5th - 7th
century).
    Before the Edict of Milan (313), which made Christianity the Roman
Empire's state religion, Christian art was restricted to the decoration of the hidden
places of worship. (12) Most early religious artists worked in manner that was
derived from Roman art, appropriately stylized to suit the spirituality of the
religion. These artists chose to reject the ideals of perfection in form and
technique. They rather sought to present images which would draw the spectator
into the inner eye of their work, pointing to its spiritual significance. An
iconography was devised to visualize Christian concepts. The first Christians
don't see in art a way of expressing beauty, but one of transmitting their faith and
beliefs as well as to teach them.
After the fourth century, under imperial sponsorship, Early Christian
architecture flourished throughout the Roman Empire on a monumental scale.
Buildings were of two types, the longitudinal hall - basilica, and the centralized
building - a baptistery or a mausoleum.
The exteriors of Early Christian buildings were plain and unadorned and
the interiors contrarily, were richly decorated with marble floors and wall slabs,
frescoes, mosaics, metal works, hangings, and sumptuous altar furnishings in

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gold and silver. Early Christian illuminated manuscripts are of an unusually high
quality.
    Freestanding Early Christian sculpture is rarely seen. Early Christian
bas-reliefs survive in abundance in marble and porphyry. 
(13) Byzantine art (4th–15th centuries) Byzantine art developed in the Eastern
Roman Empire, centred on Byzantium (renamed Constantinople in 330; Istanbul
from 1453). The use of mosaic associated with Byzantine art also appears in
church decoration in the West. In Ravenna, for example, churches of the 5th and
6th centuries present powerful religious images on walls and vaults in brilliant,
glittering colour and a bold, linear style. The Byzantine style continued for many
centuries in icon painting in Greece and Russia.
The Byzantines developed new techniques and reached new heights. Byzantine
gold and silversmith, enamel-work, jewellery and textiles preserved the quality of
anything done in ancient times. (14-15) In mosaics and icon-painting they
developed major and original art forms of their own. In architecture they achieved
masterpieces such as Hagia Sophia, a building of superior scale and
magnificence to anything in the ancient world.
(16) Celtic and Anglo-Saxon art (4th–9th centuries) Stemming from the period
when southern Europe was overrun by Germanic tribes from the north, this early
medieval art consists mainly of portable objects, such as articles for personal use
or adornment. Among the invading tribes, the Anglo-Saxons, particularly those
who settled in the British Isles, excelled in metalwork and jewellery, often in gold
with garnet or enamel inlays, ornamented with highly stylized, plant-based
interlaced patterns with animal motifs. The ornament of Celtic art and Anglo-
Saxon art was translated into stone-carving, from simple engraved monoliths to
elaborate sculpted crosses, as well as the illuminated manuscripts produced in
Christian monasteries, such as the decorated pages of the Northumbrian 7th-
century Lindisfarne Gospels (British Museum, London) or the Celtic 8th-century
Book of Kells (Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland). Illumination usually included a
large, decorated initial to mark the opening of a gospel or passage, sometimes
with an elaborate facing or ‘carpet page’.

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(17-18-19) Iron Age Celtic art was based on flowing lines, curves and spirals.
Britons developed their own unique styles and this is typical art from before the
Roman invasion of Britainnia. Under Roman influences some strains of this idea
survive but in a tidier more symmetrical fashion. When Rome withdraws the
legions and the Romano-Britons are invaded, the Saxons also bring with them
their own art. By the seventh century the people of these isles are more easily
described as Anglo-Saxons living in Angleland. The old Romano-British mainly
live in the far West and North and are labelled as foreigners or Welas by the
Saxons. This is the root of the word Welsh. The Anglo-Saxon art shows many
influences. The animals are more stylised and exaggerated and the Knot work
motif has developed. Little did the Saxons know it but they were about to gain
new influences from the Vikings. The Vikings, like the earlier Saxons favoured
animal designs but with a wilder, less formal sweep to the lines. When Saxon
and Viking art met the result was a striking combination of the best of both
worlds.
(20-21-22) Carolingian art (late 8th–early 9th centuries) Carolingian art centred
around manuscript painting, which flourished in Charlemagne's empire, drawing
its inspiration from the late classical artistic traditions of the early Christian,
Byzantine, and Anglo-Saxon styles. Several monasteries produced richly
illustrated prayer books and biblical texts. Carved ivories and delicate metalwork,
especially for book covers, were also produced.
The history of the Carolingian dynasty is inextricably linked to the
evolution of early medieval civilization in Western Europe. Inaugurated by the
coronation of Pepin the Short in ad 751, the dynasty was eventually sent into
decline by the division of the empire following the death of Charlemagne (Charles
the Great) (ad742-814), whose aim of re-establishing a Roman empire involved a
revival of the classical styles. With the lack of a central influence, the migrations
of barbarian people brought a panorama of cultural change and a confusion of
styles. However, this confusion of styles was gradually replaced by a trend
towards unity and harmony, the like of which had not been experienced since the
golden age of the Roman Empire.

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 The relationship between the Carolingian Empire and the Church was of
great significance and proved to have a decisive effect on the development of
artistic and architectural styles. During the course of the eighth century, the
Church became involved in settling the regular clergy in monastic institutions.
These monasteries were the subject of new architectural norms, often sanctioned
and funded directly by those in power. This policy helped to create a close bond
between sacred worship, imperial ceremony, architectural design, and religious
furnishings. It aimed to communicate the idea that earthly events and imperial
guidance were linked with historical destiny. 

(23) Romanesque Architecture

The name comes from the borrowing of the Roman style of arches and the
barrel style of building, though the name came centuries later and was actually
created by the Normans, not the Romans at all. This style of architecture was
one of the earliest to use entirely stone materials instead of wood because stone
was the only thing that would support the heavy roofs. The style of building was
also inspired by the Byzantine style which focused on sweeping religious
buildings. Romanesque architecture may have had its beginnings in Norman
England, but it slowly spread across Europe.
In Germany, Romanesque architecture took on a slightly different look
with tall spires such as the ones seen in Belgium, and a more streamline
appearance. Once again, this was due to the materials that were available to the
Germans, and to other countries, such as marble and massive pieces of cut
stone rather than smaller stones which were used in Britain.
All Romanesque architecture was built to make a statement of power and
wealth, as well as being defensive or offensive, and often built near a source of
water. This lent itself to the brooding ruins which tourists visit today in Great
Britain. Unlike more modern architecture, the architects were not the most
important part of the design-instead the lord was the one who was focused upon
over the course of the commission. This meant that buildings were serviceable,
durable, defensive, and strong, but not very creative.

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 They were also dim and smelly inside as there was little ventilation and
little desire for more airy buildings. In fact, thanks to the weighty materials used,
windows had to be small in order to maintain the stability of the building as a
whole. Although many think of castles when looking at Romanesque architecture,
there are far more churches and monasteries that are built in this style than
castles as the Romanesque period was one characterized by a rising tide of
religious fervour.
(24) Romanesque architecture was characterized by heavy materials, a
solid design and square towers, often with the central one being the highest.
Stone was the predominant material as it was solid and easy to find.
Ornamentation could also be found in the form of carvings on the pillars and
elaborate looking arches and windows inside. These were functional too though
as they helped to support the hefty weight of the stone roof.
Romanesque architecture held sway in Britain for three hundred or so
years before giving way to the Gothic style of architecture which borrowed
heavily from Romanesque buildings while adding new flairs.
(25-26) Romanesque architecture was the style of the churches of the
great Benedictine monasteries. (27-28-29) Their most characteristic feature is
the round arch. These arches are used for the doors and windows of the church,
as well as for the church’s vault, the structure that supports the ceiling. Because
the round arches give the vault a tunnel-like appearance, they are often called
tunnel or barrel vaults. Romanesque churches are very large and were built with
thick stone walls to hold the weight of the heavy arched vaults. Inside the church,
the walls were decorated with paintings of important religious scenes or events in
the lives of the saints. (30) Massive columns leading from floor to vault were
decorated with sculptures depicting scenes from the Bible or from other religious
texts. Because there were no rugs or tapestries, the sounds of the monks'
prayers echoed from one end of these churches to the other.

(31) Outside, at the west end, many Romanesque churches had three
portals, or doorways. The central one was the main entrance to the church and

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was much taller and wider than the other two. Along the sides of the portals were
columns with sculpted biblical scenes. Above each portal was a tympanum, a
half circle filled with figures that usually depicted a major event in the life of
Christ or a scene of the Second Coming.
(32-40) Examples of Romanesque buildings in Britain

(41) Gothic Architecture

Gothic art evolved from Romanesque art and lasted from the mid-12th
century to as late as the end of the 16th century in some areas. The term Gothic
was coined by classicizing Italian writers of the Renaissance, who attributed the
invention (and what to them was the non-classical ugliness) of medieval
architecture to the barbarian Gothic tribes that had destroyed the Roman Empire
and its classical culture in the 5th century Ad. The term retained its derogatory
overtones until the 19th century, at which time a positive critical revaluation of
Gothic architecture took place. Although modern scholars have long realized that
Gothic art has nothing in truth to do with the Goths, the term Gothic remains a
standard one in the study of art history.
Architecture was the most important and original art form during the
Gothic period. The principal structural characteristics of Gothic architecture arose
out of medieval masons' efforts to solve the problems associated with supporting
heavy masonry ceiling vaults over wide spans. Medieval masons solved this
difficult problem about 1120 with a number of brilliant innovations. (42-43) First
and foremost they developed a ribbed vault, in which arching and intersecting
stone ribs support a vaulted ceiling surface that is composed of mere thin stone
panels. The round arches of the barrel vault were replaced by pointed (Gothic)
arches which distributed thrust in more directions downward from the topmost
point of the arch. Since the combination of ribs and piers relieved the intervening
vertical wall spaces of their supportive function, these walls could be built thinner
and could even be opened up with large windows or other glazing. A crucial point
was that the outward thrust of the ribbed ceiling vaults was carried across the
outside walls of the nave, first to an attached outer buttress and then to a

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freestanding pier by means of a half arch known as a flying buttress. (44-45-46)
The flying buttress leaned against the upper exterior of the nave (thus
counteracting the vault's outward thrust), crossed over the low side aisles of the
nave, and terminated in the freestanding buttress pier, which ultimately absorbed
the ceiling vault's thrust. These elements enabled Gothic masons to build much
larger and taller buildings than their Romanesque predecessors and to give their
structures more complicated ground plans. The skillful use of flying buttresses
made it possible to build extremely tall, thin-walled buildings whose interior
structural system of columnar piers and ribs reinforced an impression of soaring
verticality.
(47) Characteristic features

During the 12th and 13th centuries people began to want lighter, more
soaring church buildings. These ideas led to the style called Gothic. Churches
built in the Gothic style are higher and more compact than Romanesque
churches, and they appear lighter even though they are not. Gothic churches use
pointed arches rather than round ones, making their vaults seem to soar. Their
windows, also pointed, open up to give more light. Stained glass gives the light a
jewel-like glow. Unlike Romanesque churches, Gothic churches do not have
walls that bear the weight of the vault. This job is done by the flying buttresses,
arches outside the church that evenly distribute the vault’s weight and carry it to
the ground. Thus the inside of a Gothic church looks delicate, with light shining
through huge windows and without the imposing walls of Romanesque churches,
but the outside of a Gothic church looks like a porcupine bristling with flying
buttresses. Even the stained glass looks gray and massive from the outside.

In this way Gothic churches express a mystery. On the outside they give
no hint of what they will look like within. The churchmen and architects who
designed and built these churches intended these buildings to express still
another mystery—the wonder of God.

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 (48) Suger, the abbot of the monastery of Saint-Denis (49-50), got the
idea for such a church from the writings of a Christian mystic who went by the
name of Dionysius and who wrote at the beginning of the 6th century. Dionysius
taught that God was the "Divine light," the source of all things seen. Suger built
his church so that the light streaming through the sacred stories depicted in his
stained glass windows would act like this divine light. He wanted the light’s glow
to illuminate the mind of the worshiper and lead him or her to God. The Gothic
church building itself was meant to be part of the religious experience.

The Gothic style became popular for city churches, especially large
cathedrals. It was first adopted by the cities in the region around Paris, and later
cities in the rest of France, England, The Netherlands, Spain, Italy, Germany,
and even central Europe began building cathedrals in the Gothic style. Since
Gothic churches were enormously expensive and took years—sometimes
centuries—to build, they were always community enterprises. City guilds raised
money to help build them. Some guilds even paid for their own stained glass
windows. In turn, church construction created new jobs for city carpenters, stone
masons, glass cutters, and many other workers.

(51) English Gothic

English Gothic developed almost as early as French, but the English
cathedral is quite different in conception. During the Early English period (1150–
1250), although the Gothic pointed arch was adopted, the heavy walls of the
Romanesque tend to linger on. These were abandoned in the so-called
Decorated period (1250–1350) when the small lancet windows of the Early
English style were replaced with broad, richly traceried openings, which in turn
gave way in the Perpendicular period (1350–1500) to windows latticed with
vertical mullions and horizontal transoms.

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 Although the English used the basic French structure of membered piers,
buttresses, and ribbed vaults, they did not attempt the daring height of the
French cathedrals. (52) The vaults of Westminster Abbey rise about 100 feet (30
meters), but this is the most French of the English churches, rebuilt by the
Francophile king, Henry III, between 1245 and 1260. Usually the vaults of the
English cathedrals are about 80 feet (24 meters) high, half the height of those of
Beauvais. Because this lower vaulting made the buttress problem less acute,
flying buttresses are comparatively rare in English Gothic churches.
(53) In most respects, Canterbury Cathedral is characteristic of the
English Gothic style. In addition to a central transept, it has a second transept
farther east, producing an archiepiscopal cross plan. The additional transept
provides space for more altars. Twin towers flank the facade, as at Notre Dame,
but the tower over the central transept — "Bell Harry," as it is called at
Canterbury — overtops them. In the French cathedral, the exterior focus is at the
west end; in England it is at the center. The French cathedral rises from the
middle of the town with houses and shops close around it. But the English
cathedral is set off within its own lawns and trees, visible from all angles, and this
fact makes the emphasis on the central tower seem logical.
The reason for this characteristic difference between the French and the English
Gothic styles is that most of the English cathedrals were monasteries (minsters),
and so were set within the monastic grounds. For the same reason there is
usually a cloister, and often other monastic buildings, attached to the English
church. Generally there is a chapter house for meetings, and, in the church
proper, choir screens to separate the part of the building intended primarily for
the monks from those areas in which the laity normally worshiped. These
screens, which often break the vista down the length of the English minsters,
emphasize the multiple functions of the building. All this tends to give to the
English churches a less dramatic, perhaps less public character than the French
cathedrals. Canterbury seems almost private, even intimate, in comparison to the
grandeur of Chartres or of Notre Dame.

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In one respect, Canterbury minster is not typically English. It preserves the
rounded apse, perhaps because that part was designed by a French architect,
William of Sens, in the 12th century. During the Norman period, English churches
regularly had apses. (54) In the Gothic period, a square east end replaced the
apse and its radiating chapels, as can be seen in Lincoln minster. Why the
English made this change is not known. Conceivably, the English monks felt the
necessity of proper orientation not merely of the church as a whole, but of each
chapel. Radial chapels cannot be correctly oriented, but chapels on the eastern
sides of the transepts, or at the ends of aisles in a square east end, are correct in
this matter. There is, however, no proof of this hypothesis.
(55) Wells Cathedral, became Britain's first all-pointed and all-Gothic
cathedral when it was rebuilt in 1175. It is considered one of the most beautiful of
Britain's cathedrals, and one of the most influential as well. Its style became the
template of the new trend in British cathedrals and was to be copied many times.
(56) Salisbury is one of the few cathedrals where the main body of the
church is built in a single style. The cathedral was started in the early 1200s and
was finished in about 40 years. The spire is the highest in the UK and dominates
the whole town. 
There are a few parish churches in the Early English style but many of the
original examples were rebuilt or remodelled in the Perpendicular period.
As the name suggests, the Decorated phase of Gothic architecture is
characterised by rich decoration. The fourteenth century, despite the hardships
caused by the Hundred Years War with France, (started 1337), and the ravages
of the Black Death in 1348-9 which killed many of the craftsmen and labourers
working on the abbeys and churches, saw further advances in architectural
design and methods and remarkable carving in wood and stone. (The nave of
Worcester cathedral demonstrates the shortage of craftsmen after the Black
Death for the pillars on one side are Decorated in style but they are in a later
style on the other side when work resumed). The Decorated style first appeared
in the latter part of the 13th century and declined towards the end of the 14th
century. It is impossible to be precise - in fact the later, Perpendicular style

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overlaps the Decorated period for many years. Gloucester cathedral choir, for
example, is generally regarded as some of the earliest existing Perpendicular
work although 40 years later the builders at Exeter were still building in the
Decorated style.
Churches built in the Decorated style have larger windows openings with
more elaborate tracery than Early English work and the stone vaults have
greater variety of design and decoration. A common decoration on the outside
of a Decorated building is the ballflower. This is a partly open flower which
shows a small sphere inside. Ballflower decoration were used on the external
stonework of windows, doors and to emphasise the lines of buttresses or towers
and spires. There are hundreds, if not thousands, of ballflower decorations on
Hereford cathedral.
 More elaborate arches evolved during the period, with the ogee arch
providing the basis of Curvilinear tracery. (57) This curving arch shape allowed
the masons to create flowing designs of great complexity and beauty in the
windows, as seen in the east and west windows at Exeter cathedral. It was
particularly suited to rose, (circular), windows such as that at Lincoln, created c.
1325. Coloured glass was still extensively used in the windows, much high
quality glass now being imported from Europe. During the 1350s to 1370s the
style starts to fade, being eclipsed by Perpendicular.
The third phase of Gothic architecture in England, lasting from the mid
1300s up to the Renaissance, is known as Perpendicular or Rectilinear. It is a
style quite distinct from European architecture, which by the 14th/15th century
had become extremely ornate and flamboyant whereas the English
Perpendicular styling was restrained and clean-cut. Royal chapels, such as St.
George's chapel at Windsor, are good examples of Perpendicular work, but many
examples of the style can be seen in parish churches as well as in cathedrals.
Many parish churches were remodelled or even re-built at this time, particularly in
the Cotswolds and East Anglia. The labour shortage caused by the Black Death
resulted in an increase in sheep-farming because it was less labour intensive. As
a result; the landowners and wool merchants grew very wealthy and many paid

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vast sums to build fine houses for themselves, but also built or improved parish
churches for the benefit of themselves and their fellow parishioners. St. Mary,
Redcliffe, in Bristol is an example of a parish church which has much
Perpendicular work paid for by local merchants. This remodelling of parts of
churches allows us to compare the stylistic development of Gothic architecture.
(58) At Gloucester Cathedral you can see the earliest example of Perpendicular
work. (59, 60) The Lady Chapel built beyond the choir was constructed
completely in the Perpendicular style. It was built just before the cathedral's
dissolution in 1540.
(61) Winchester is another fine example of Perpendicular remodelling.
Many parish churches were remodelled or re-built in the Perpendicular
style. This reflected the growing wealth in the country, particularly those areas
with large herds of sheep. Some of the best examples are in Somerset. There
are also good examples around Lincoln,  another sheep farming area.
During the 15th century the style became less ornate and arches became
flatter, even horizontal, in some examples. 
(62) England’s Architecture – Historical Periods and Style

(63) Medieval Schools & Universities There were many different kinds of
schools in medieval England, though few children received their sometimes
dubious benefit. There were small, informal schools held in the parish church,
song schools at cathedrals, almonry schools attached to monasteries, chantry
schools, guild schools, preparatory grammar schools, and full grammar schools.
The curriculum of theses schools was limited to basics such as learning the
alphabet, Psalters, and religious rites and lessons such as the Ten
Commandments and the Seven Deadly Sins. The grammar schools added to this
Latin grammar, composition, and translation.
In addition to the schools listed above there were also privately endowed
schools like Winchester and (65) Eton.

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 (64) Winchester College was founded by in 1382 by William of Wykeham,
Bishop of Winchester. He also founded New College, at Oxford and the two
colleges are still closely connected.
It is believed to be the oldest continuously running school in the country.
Guided tours concentrate on the medieval heart of the College and include
Chamber Court; the 14th century gothic Chapel, with one of the earliest
examples of a wooden vaulted roof; College Hall, the original Scholars' dining
room; School, the 17th century red brick schoolroom thought to have been
designed by Sir Christopher Wren; and the original medieval cloister.
(65) In 1440 Henry VI founded ‘The King’s College of Our Lady of Eton
beside Windsor’ and, a year later, King’s College Cambridge, which was to be
supplied with scholars from Eton. The school was to be part of a large foundation
which included a community of secular priests, 10 of whom were Fellows, a
pilgrimage church, and an almshouse. Provision was made for 70 scholars to
receive free education.
(66) To this end Henry lavished on Eton a substantial income from land,
and a huge collection of holy relics among which were fragments of what were
supposed to be the True Cross and the Crown of Thorns. He even persuaded the
Pope to grant a privilege unequalled anywhere in England: Eton was to have the
right to grant Indulgences to penitents on the Feast of the Assumption.
(67)The most famous public school, Eton, was founded by Henry VI in
1440. The term "public school" can be misleading. It refers to the fact that the
school drew its students from all over the country rather than just the local area.
In reality "public schools" are anything but public. They were, and still are, elite
boarding schools for the rich or ambitious.

School Life. Most schools had no books and the students were taught by rote
and the skill of individual masters. Most masters were minor clergy, who
themselves were often indifferently educated. Classes at some of the larger
schools could be as large as 100 or more boys (no girls, though they were
accepted at some of the small local schools), and the school day lasted as long

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as 13 hours with breaks for meals. And to top it off students could expect to be
beaten regularly with a birch rod.

(68) Oxford University. Legend has it that Oxford University was founded by
King Alfred in 872. A more likely scenario is that it grew out of efforts begun by
Alfred to encourage education and establish schools throughout his territory.
There may have been a grammar school there in the 9th century. A grammar
school was exactly what it sounds like; a place for teaching Latin grammar. The
University as we know it actually began in the 12th century as gatherings of
students around popular masters. The university consisted of people, not
buildings. The buildings came later as a recognition of something that already
existed. In a way, Oxford was never founded; it grew.
As the oldest university in the English-speaking world, Oxford is a unique and
historic institution. There is no clear date of foundation, but teaching existed at
Oxford in some form in 1096 and developed rapidly from 1167, when Henry II
banned English students from attending the University of Paris.
From its early days, Oxford was a centre for lively controversy, with scholars
involved in religious and political disputes.
John Wyclif campaigned for a bible in the vernacular, against the wishes
of the papacy.
In 1530, Henry VIII forced the University to accept his divorce from
Catherine of Aragon. During the Reformation in the 16th century, the Anglican
churchmen Cranmer, Latimer and Ridley were tried for heresy and burnt at the
stake in Oxford.
From 1878, academic halls were established for women and they were
admitted to full membership of the University in 1920. Five all-male colleges first
admitted women in 1974 and, since then, all colleges have changed their
statutes to admit both women and men. St Hilda's College, which was originally
for women only, was the last of Oxford's single sex colleges. It has admitted both
men and women since 2008.

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(69) Cambridge University was founded by students fleeing from Oxford after
one of the many episodes of violence between the university and the town of
Oxford. This being the first recorded date connected with Cambridge University
(1209). Peterhouse, the first college, was founded in 1284. From this point,
various colleges were founded. Some amalgamated previous colleges, or took
over from priories. Corpus Christi was founded by the Guilds of Cambridge (32
colleges today). As the university grew, trouble broke out between Town, the
people who lived in Cambridge, and Gown, the students.

(70) Education
Medieval education was often conducted under the auspices of the
Church. During the 800s, French ruler Charlemagne realized his empire needed
educated people if it was to survive, and he turned to the Catholic Church as the
source of such education. His decree commanded that every cathedral and
monastery was to establish a school to provide a free education to every boy
who had the intelligence and the perseverance to follow a demanding course of
study.
Grammar, rhetoric, logic, Latin, astronomy, philosophy and mathematics formed
the core of most curriculums. During the Dark Ages, the only natural science
learned came from popular encyclopedias based on ancient writings of Pliny and
other Roman sources. The medieval student might learn that hyenas can change
their sex at will and that an elephant's only fear is of dragons. Students learned
more when they ventured out into the countryside to talk with trappers, hunters
and poachers, who spent their time observing wildlife.
Medieval students often sat together on the floor, scrawling notes from
lessons using a bone or ivory stylus on wooden tablets coated with green or
black wax. Knights were also educated and looked down upon if they could not
read and write. Girls were virtually ignored when it came to education. Only
daughters of the very rich and powerful were allowed to attend select courses.

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 At 14 or 15, some scholars would continue education at a university.
These were a creation of the Middle Ages and could be found in larger European
cities. Wars and invasions often halted studies, but these universities would
reemerge during the later Middle Ages and the Renaissance. The cap and gown
that college graduates wear today have their roots in medieval academic
garments.

(71) Students. University students chose their own course of studies, hired their
own professors, and picked their own hours of study. They were free to leave
one professor if they tired of him, and join another, attending several lectures
before deciding whether to pay him or not. The only books were the professors,
and students wrote notes on parchment or, more commonly, on wax tablets.

(72) Old English literature encompasses literature written in Old English (also

called Anglo-Saxon), during the 600-year Anglo-Saxon period of England, from
the mid-5th century to the Norman Conquest of 1066. These works include
genres such as epic poetry, hagiography, sermons, Bible translations, legal
works, chronicles, riddles, and others. In all there are about 400
surviving manuscripts from the period, a significant corpus of both popular
interest and specialist research.

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