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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jiec

In situ evaluation of corrosion damage using non-destructive

electrochemical measurements—A case study
Sina S. Jamalia,c , Yue Zhaoa,c,d,* , Zhiming Gaob , Huijun Lic , Ay Ching Heec
a
ARC Research Hub for Australian Steel Manufacturing, Faculty of Engineering and Information Science, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522,
Australia
b
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
c
School of Mechanical, Materials, and Mechatronics Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Information Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong,
NSW 2500, Australia
d
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tianjin University of Technology, Tianjin 300384, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history:
Received 15 July 2016 Field application of electrochemical measurements with a non-invasive electrode arrangement has been
Accepted 27 July 2016 used for investigating corrosion damage and protectiveness of a paint coating on an artwork sculpture.
Available online xxx For this field application solid state probes were designed and used in electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy (EIS) and electrochemical noise measurement (ENM) to evaluate the level of corrosion
Keywords: protection afforded by the paint coating. Samples were also analyzed in laboratory using analytical
In situ evaluation techniques. Results of electrochemical measurements indicated poor protective properties of the paint
Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy coating while analytical examinations revealed an inhomogeneous structure of the coating and a highly
Electrochemical noise measurement
porous structure of the oxide scale.
Solid state electrode
ã 2016 The Korean Society of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights
Non-destructive measurement
Corrosion reserved.

Introduction a straight forward task, in situ applications offers significant

Non-destructive testing (NDT) methods for corrosion assess-
ment are a wide group of analysis techniques used in industry for
evaluation the corrosion resistance of materials without causing
damage and may encompass visual examination, ultrasonic
testing, eddy current, acoustic emission, radiography, infrared
thermography and magnetic flux [1]. These methods are, in
principle, based on detection of the physical state within the bulk
of metal or at its surface and therefore the sensitivity of these
methods depends highly on the detection limits of such
phenomena which are not always adequate for detecting small
changes in the corrosion behavior. Another approach is the use of
electrochemical techniques which have high sensitivity for
examining anti-corrosion performance of organic coatings such
as DC resistance, EIS and ENM, are primarily adopted and applied in
well-controlled laboratory environments. While conducting meas-
urements with these electrochemical methods in the laboratory is
* Corresponding author at: ARC Research Hub for Australian Steel Manufacturing,
Faculty of Engineering and Information Science, University of Wollongong,
Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia.
E-mail addresses: sjamali@uow.edu.au (S.S. Jamali), yue@uow.edu.au (Y. Zhao).
challenges as several components of the standard experimental
design are not easily applicable to the field measurements.
Versatility of ENM and simplicity of EN data analysis makes it
specifically appealing to the field applications. The ENM has been
implemented for real-time corrosion examination in the nuclear
waste tanks [2] and water distribution systems [3] as well as
monitoring efficiency of inhibitors and corrosion in gas pipelines
[4,5]. In relation to paint coatings ENM has been successfully
applied in the field for protective properties of old (in-service) and
freshly applied marine paint coatings using isolated and sealed
glass tubes on the coating surface with a standard reference
electrode (Ag/AgCl) [6]. Electrochemical current noise was
measured in this work and information was used in combination
with EIS to evaluate performance of protective coatings. A similar
experimental arrangement has been also implemented for EIS
measurement in the field by Murray [7], Murray and Ruedisueli [8].
These studies highlighted the limited development in the field of
applicable instrumentation for in situ corrosion examination as
well as electrode configurations.
The electrode arrangements and type of electrodes used in the
studies by Ruedisueli and Murray [6], Murray and Ruedisueli [8],
while proving to be effective for long-term measurements, are not
feasible for quick measurements in the field particularly where

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2016.07.045
1226-086X/ã 2016 The Korean Society of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: S.S. Jamali, et al., In situ evaluation of corrosion damage using non-destructive electrochemical
measurements—A case study, J. Ind. Eng. Chem. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2016.07.045
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the damage to the coating (made by electrical/wired contact

between measuring device and metal substrate) should be
avoided. Non-destructive examination of corrosion behavior of
steel in the field with EIS has been reported by Angelini et al. [9]
using disposable low-cost electrodes that were primarily
designed for biomedical examination on human skin. These
were Ag/AgCl solid state electrode coated with conductive gel but
unfortunately no detail was given by Angelini on electrode
arrangement and experimental set-up. Similar electrodes were
used for non-invasive EIS measurement in the field by Corbellini
Fig. 1. Schematic of measurement method for ENM with NOCS electrode
et al. [10] but they recommended wetting of the paint coating
arrangement on coating using a platinized copper “pad”.
with mineral water before making measurement to improve
electrolytic contact between electrode and the metal substrate.
electrode configuration implemented in ENM experiments with
Further work on developing electrode arrangement to make ENM
NOCS arrangement.
more applicable to field studies led to “No Connection to
The noise resistance in the time domain, Rn, was calculated in
Substrate” (NOCS) arrangement, where potential noise is
accordance with Ohm’s law, Eq. (1).
measured against a third reference electrode (RE), typically a
saturated Calomel electrode (SCE), which similar to the working sV
Rn ¼ ð1Þ
electrodes, is in electrolytic contact with the specimen [11,12]. sI
Elimination of wired connection to the metal substrate in NOCS where s V and s I are the standard deviations of potential and
arrangement further promotes the non-destructive characteristic current fluctuations respectively.
of ENM as an evaluation tool. EIS was performed in a two electrode arrangement using a
platinized copper “pad” as working electrode and another
Objective platinized copper “pad” as counter and pseudo-reference elec-
trode. Frequency scan range was 10 kHz-10 mHz with 5 mV (rms)
The Toku sculpture is a key feature in the Canberra-Nara Peace perturbation around the OCP. Fig. 2 shows a schematic of
Park of Canberra in Australia. It was created by the artist Shinki platinized copper “pads” and electrode arrangement used for
Kato and installed in 2010 in Canberra Nara Peace Park. More EIS experiments. Further details regarding application of copper
information regarding Toku sculpture can be found in Ref. [13]. pad for electrochemical measurements can be found in Ref. [14].
Significant corrosion and peeling of the surface paint were sighted Also details regarding data acquisition and corrosion testing using
as early as 2014. The aim of this study was to investigate the root ENM with NOCS electrode arrangement can be found in Refs.
cause of the early degradation of the surface coating on this [12,16]. Details regarding electrode arrangement and experimental
sculpture using non-invasive electrochemical techniques in the procedure for EIS measurements can be found in Refs. [18,19]. The
field as well as analytical methods in the laboratory. EIS results reported in this paper are calculated as per unity of
surface area from the original measured impedance value using
Experimental two 1 cm
1 cm platinized copper pads.
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Energy-dispersive
Solid state pseudo-reference electrodes were fabricated from X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) studies were performed using a JEOL
1 cm
1 cm copper foil sputter coated with platinum were used 7500FA field emission scanning electron microscope. Attenuated
within probes for the EIS and ENM experiments. A shielded wire was Total Reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectros-
affixed to the back of the copper electrode using silver paint and fully copy was performed using a Shimadzu AIM8000 FT-IR with a
insulated with epoxy glue. This method produced electrodes with Pt germanium ATR attachment.
thickness in the range of 10–50 nm and good flexibility that could be
bent and placed on flat and non-flat surfaces. Electrolytic contact Results and discussion
with the paint/metal substrate was made using filter paper soaked in
0.5 M NaCl solution (detailed in literature by Mills et al. [14]). The size Calibration of measurement probes
of filter paper pads were also 1 cm
1 cm.
All ENM and EIS experiments were conducted using an The noise level of the platinized copper “pads” were measured
automated Ivium electrochemical workstation model IviumStat against each other in the electrode arrangement shown in Fig. 3a.
in ZRA mode for ENM and frequency response analyzer for EIS. Result is given in Fig. 3b and indicates a remarkably low level of
ENM was conducted using at 2 Hz sampling frequency with a total current noise in the range of pico-amps. Resistors with comparable
of 512 data points collected in 256 s. Three platinized copper resistance to the system under study were put in series with each
“pads” were fabricated for ENM with NOCS (no connection to
substrate) electrode arrangement (detailed in the literature
[12,14–17]). DC trend (also known as DC drift) was removed using
Microsoft Excel program by fitting a “Trendline” and subtracting its
values from the raw data. Depending on the shape of DC trend a
linear or polynomial (of suitable order) Trendline was fitted and
R21 was noted as the criterion for goodness of the fit. Fig. 1
illustrates a schematic for platinized copper “pad” and the

1
R2 is the square of the correlation between the response values and the
predicted (from regression) response values that can be calculated using MS Excel
software. The R2 = 1 indicates a perfect agreement between the measured value and
regression.
Fig. 2. Schematic illustration of electrode arrangement and electrolytic connection
with working electrode (WE), reference electrode (RE) and counter electrode (CE)
for EIS measurements.

Please cite this article in press as: S.S. Jamali, et al., In situ evaluation of corrosion damage using non-destructive electrochemical
measurements—A case study, J. Ind. Eng. Chem. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2016.07.045
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Fig. 3. (a) Electrode arrangement for measuring the noise level of platinized copper
“pad”, pseudo-reference electrodes and (b) results of ENM.
platinized copper “pads” in order to simulate the amplification
effect of the electrochemical system on the noise level of pseudo
reference electrodes [20]. Resistance values were taken from
results of EIS measurements presented in Fig. 6. The level of
potential noise generated by platinized copper “pad” is above that
of a common reference electrode for ENM such as saturated
Calomel electrode (SCE). Although this is not ideal for measuring
potential noise of specimens which may have a much lower level of
potential noise, one should note that a typical SCE generates
potential noise level in the range of 6
109 V [21]. It can be seen
from the result presented in Fig. 3b, that the standard deviation of
potential noise, s V , is 1.2
103 V which is significantly higher
than the s V for SCE, s V ¼6
109 V (data from Ref. [21]), and
slightly higher than a typical Ag/AgCl reference electrode,
s V ¼2.8
104 V (data also from Ref. [21]). So when used as a
pseudo-reference electrode for this case study, the potential noise
level is still less than the potential noise generated by the system
under study. Therefore, it can be considered that contribution from
the measurement probe into the measured potential noise is not
significant. In general, potential noise generated by the painted
metal increases as the impedance of system increases [21,22].
Hence the platinized copper “pad” is expected to make even less
contribution in potential noise for electrochemical systems with
higher impedance. Therefore it is an acceptable pseudo-reference
electrode for in-field studies. In relation to current noise
generation, the standard deviation of current noise, s I , generated
by the platinized copper “pad” from the result in Fig. 3b is
5
1013 A which is well below the s I generated by typical SCE and
Ag/AgCl reference electrodes [21]. Details of s I and s V for
platinized copper pad and standard SCE and Ag/AgCl electrodes
are given in Table 1.
Table 1
Noise characteristics of platinized copper pad and typical SCE and Ag/AgCl reference
electrodes. Information regarding SCE and Ag/AgCl was reproduced from Ref. [21].
Platinized copper pad SCE Ag/AgCl
s I (A) 5
1013 1.3
105 4.8
108
s V (V) 1.2
103 6
109 2.8
104
Please cite this article in press as: S.S. Jamali, et al., In situ evaluation of corrosion damage using non-destructive electrochemical
measurements—A case study, J. Ind. Eng. Chem. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2016.07.045
3
In situ evaluation
Visual inspection of Toku sculpture shows an extensive
disbondment of coating from the metal substrate. Fig. 4 is a
photograph of a sample coating on both sides, i.e. inner side that
was in contact with metal substrate and the outer side with air.
Color variation on the inner side of coating in contact with metal
substrate indicates presence of different forms of iron oxide while
visible voids/defects in the coating suggest an inadequate
protective characteristic of the paint for effective corrosion
protection.
In order to establish electrolytic contact with the metal
substrate underneath the paint film, filter paper was soaked in
0.5 M NaCl solution and was put between the copper pad and the
paint coating. Measurements were performed at least 30 min after
placement of electrodes to ensure that electrochemical equilibri-
um had been reached. Random sites on the sculpture with an area
of intact paint film were tested by the NDT methods. Three
locations were assessed using EIS and five locations were assessed
using ENM. The rationale behind selecting measurement sites was
the areas on the sculpture with different level of UV exposure with
the aim being to evaluate effect of UV degradation on failure of
protective properties. Fig. 5 shows the measurement set-up for
ENM with NOCS electrode arrangement in practice and examples
of platinized copper pads placement on the coating.
The common criterion for effective corrosion protection by
barrier mechanism via paint coatings is a resistance exhibition of
higher than 108 V cm2. Resistances of lower than 106 V cm2 are not
considered protective while a resistance value between 108 V
cm2 > R > 106 V cm2 is in the transition region where regular
inspection is required to detect coating failure (see Ref. [23] for
more detail). EIS measurement results in Fig. 6 show the coating
exhibiting very low impedance values over the entire frequency
range. The overall ionic resistance of the coating/metal system is
typically taken as the impedance value at the low frequency end of
the spectrum (also known as DC limit) and in all three cases this is
lower than 104 V cm2. The very low impedance value at the low
frequency range suggests that the coating film has become
detached from the metal substrate and therefore can no longer
isolate corroding regions effectively. This promotes under-film
corrosion which then spreads underneath the coating film by
joining the active corrosion sites. In this case, as indicated by the
physical evidence, a layer of wet oxide has formed between the
coating and the metal which acts as a leaky capacitor.
Fig. 7 shows typical ENM data collected using NOCS three
electrode arrangement. Noise resistance values have been
calculated from ENM data and are shown in Table 1.
Values listed in Table 2 indicate a very low resistance against
passage of current, which is consistent with the results of EIS
Fig. 4. Visual inspection of detached paint coatings showing (a) presence of
different forms of iron oxides indicated by color variation on the inner side of
coating in contact with metal substrate and (b) outer side of coating showing
presence of macro-defects.
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Fig. 5. On-site electrochemical measurement set-up. Measurement sites were randomly selected. Three platinized copper pad electrodes were affixed on the surface using
tape for each set of measurements.

analysis. Note, the Rn values obtained from ENM with NOCS

electrode arrangement may not be equal to when the measure-
4.5
ment is made with standard salt bridge electrode arrangement.
Site 1
Since an electrode of the same material and size as WEs was used
Site 2
log |Z| / Ω.cm2

as RE, the potential noise generated by reference electrode also

4.0
Site 3 adds to the potential noise power [24]. Note that with the EIS
results, both pieces of paint coatings under each platinized copper
pad (WE and RE + CE, see Fig. 3) contribute to the measured
3.5 impedance values. Therefore, assuming symmetrical electrodes
and coatings, normalized impedance value for the unity of surface
area (one electrode) is half the impedance value given in Fig. 6.
3.0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 Laboratory evaluation
log Frequency / Hz
A microscopic and analytical examination was performed on
Fig. 6. EIS (Bode plot) spectra from measuring AC impedance at three random sites samples collected from the site using Scanning electron microsco-
on the surface of coated metal.
py (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) in order
to elucidate the chemical composition of coating as well as the
morphology of rust. Fig. 8 shows an example SEM image of rust
7.0E-07
7×10-7 8.5E-02
8.5×10-2 exhibiting a highly porous structure. EDX elemental analysis
(presented in Fig. 9) revealed a mixed chemical composition of
Electrochemical current / A

ferric oxide (Fe2O3) and hydrated iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3H2O or Fe

Electrochemical potential / V

5.0E-07
5×10-7 8.4×10-2
8.4E-02
(O)OH). Formation of ferrous hydroxide after atmospheric corro-
3.0E-07
3×10-7 8.3×10-2
8.3E-02 sion on artwork made of weathering steel has been reported earlier
by Angelini et al. [9]. Detection of hydrated iron(III) oxide was to be
1.0E-07
1×10-7 8.2×10-2
8.2E-02 expected due to the close proximity of Toku sculpture to water
(Lake Burley Griffin in Canberra). A map of the location of Toku
-1.0E-07
-1×10-7 8.1×10-2
8.1E-02
Table 2
-3.0E-07
-3×10-7 8.0×10-2
8.0E-02 Noise resistance values (Rn) from ENM. Three copper pads each with 1 cm2 surface
0 128 256 384 512 area were used as measuring electrodes.
time / s
Sample No. 1 2 3 4 5
Fig. 7. Example of electrochemical noise raw data collected using 1 cm2 platinized
Rn (V cm2) 5.38
103 3.33
104 5.74
103 1.25
104 2.15
104
copper pads.

Please cite this article in press as: S.S. Jamali, et al., In situ evaluation of corrosion damage using non-destructive electrochemical
measurements—A case study, J. Ind. Eng. Chem. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2016.07.045
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Fig. 8. (a & b) survey and close-up SEM micrographs and (c–f) elemental analysis of the oxide scale underneath the paint coating. The arrowed dot might be a random sand
inclusion.

sculpture is given in Appendix A (see Fig. A1). A combination of

these forms of oxides could have resulted in a porous oxide
structure (as shown in Fig. 8a & b) that does not protect the metal
substrate from further penetration of water and corrosive ions and
thus allows continuing corrosion. It should be noted that it is
possible for a stable oxide scale with a tightly packed structure to
lower the corrosion rate and provide some level of protection.
However, the porous physical nature of the oxide scale on Toku
sculpture does not provide such barrier and hence it has no
corrosion inhibition property.
Further elemental analysis was performed on the paint samples
to reveal the chemical composition of the paint coating as well as
the type of corrosive ions that are present in the environment.
Fig. 10 shows result of EDX elemental mapping on the paint coating
outer layer. The paint surface was sputter coated with gold to avoid
charge build up during SEM imaging. Stronger color in each inset
(Fig. 10b–g) indicates stronger detection of element. The strong C
signal is related to the polymeric binder of coating. Presence of Cl in Fig. 9. EDX elemental analysis of the oxide scale underneath the paint coating. Data
the chemical composition indicates diffusion of corrosive species is associated with the area shown in Fig. 8a.

Please cite this article in press as: S.S. Jamali, et al., In situ evaluation of corrosion damage using non-destructive electrochemical
measurements—A case study, J. Ind. Eng. Chem. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2016.07.045
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Fig. 10. (a) SEM micrograph and (b–g) EDX elemental analysis of paint coating.

into the paint film that can potentially break down the passivating
oxide film at the steel/coating interface. Any anti-corrosion coating
on the steel in order to be effective, it should block access of these
species towards the metal substrate. Fig. 9 also shows strong and
inhomogeneous presence of Si (Fig. 10e) in the coating. Silicon
based additives are usually added into polymeric paints (such as
alkyd, acrylic and polyester) to impart a “hammered” look for
decorative purposes. This is achieved by introducing inhomoge-
neity and phase separation due to incompatibility of polymeric
binder with the silicon additive. However, this inhomogeneity can
be detrimental to anti-corrosion properties of coating in the
absence of an appropriate anti-corrosion primer layer. Comparison
between detection sites for C (Fig. 10b) and detection sites for Si
(Fig. 10e) supports this hypothesis and reveals the separation
between major organic phase and the Si containing phase. As
apparent from the visual inspection as well as detailed analytical
examination, it is evident that the decorative paint coating had
been applied directly to the steel surface without appropriate
surface preparation and without any anti-corrosion primer. The
highly inhomogeneous and macro-porous structure of the coating

Please cite this article in press as: S.S. Jamali, et al., In situ evaluation of corrosion damage using non-destructive electrochemical
measurements—A case study, J. Ind. Eng. Chem. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2016.07.045
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Fig. 11. FTIR spectrums of two coating samples from locations with different UV
exposure.
leaves countless weak spots in the film from which corrosion can
initiate and spread underneath the paint. Cl detection (Fig. 10e)
sites and its comparison with sites of Si inclusion indicates
preferential uptake of Cl at those areas of coating with lower Si
content. Uptake of Cl in polymeric coatings occurs at discrete sites
of coating with lower crosslinking density or week physical
integrity particularly in the early stages of exposure to saline media
[25,26]. However, in the particular case studied here, excessive
degradation of polymer film is believed to have caused extensive Cl
absorption at no discrete site but rather uniformly at the entire
organic phase (Fig. 10b). Al was not detected on the paint surface
(Fig. 10f) suggesting that the Al inclusion that was detected in the
oxide scale (Fig. 8d) had been most likely originated from surface
preparation process prior to painting. Detrimental impact on
protective properties of paint coatings caused by embedment of
silica and alumina in the steel surface following particle blasting in
surface preparation has been shown previously [27]. Such
inclusions may introduce inhomogeneity at the metal/coating
interface causing early adhesion failure as well as micro-galvanic
corrosion.
Further analytical assessment of coating was performed using
Attenuated Total Reflection (ATR) module of Fourier Transform
Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) in order to examine the effect of UV
damage on the coating. Asymmetric stretching peak of  CH3 at
2920 cm1, symmetric stretching peak of  CH2 at 2846 cm1 and
bending peak of  CH2 at 1450 cm1, as well as, a strong C¼O
carbonyl stretching around 1685 cm1 are all typical of an alkyd
[28]. Also present are the CH bending, C O and CC stretching
fingerprint peaks at 1261 cm1 (likely due to the esters) and
1118 cm1. Absence of characteristic peaks for unsaturated (C¼C)
bonds at 1068 cm1 and 1600 cm1 indicates that either by the
long term exposure to UV and oxygen, the C¼C bonds have reacted
to saturation (in case the coating was alkyd base) or the polymer
binder did not contain unsaturation initially (e.g. in case of
saturated polyester). UV degradation was an early suspect as a
major cause of coating failure particularly given the strong level of
UV exposure in Australia and in Canberra where this sculpture was
placed. Samples of the coating collected from different locations on
the sculpture that were suspected to have been subject to different
levels of UV were tested. FTIR-ATR analysis did not show a
significant difference between samples in terms of UV degradation.
Fig. 11 shows examples of FTIR-ATR results of coatings samples
collected from different locations on the sculpture. This could be
either due to a uniform UV degradation on the entire surface of
Please cite this article in press as: S.S. Jamali, et al., In situ evaluation of corrosion damage using non-destructive electrochemical
measurements—A case study, J. Ind. Eng. Chem. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2016.07.045
7
coating or coating’s high level of UV resistance. Since a uniform UV
degradation at all sites around the sculpture is very unlikely, it is
postulated that UV degradation was not significant and not
responsible for failure of the paint coating.
Rectifying procedures recommended
Following this case study some remedial recommendations
have been made in regard to removal of the current paint coating,
effective surface preparation and repainting to avoid recurrence
of extensive corrosion damage. Ultra High Pressure (UHP) hydro-
blasting is recommended for removal of the current non-effective
coating and producing a stable oxide film on the surface with
appropriate surface roughness. UHB hydro-blasting is an
environmentally friendly technique since no chemical and/or
abrasive particle is used in the process and facilitates formation of
a stable and passive surface (see Ref. [27] for further detail). Also
in comparison with other (sand blasting, wet abrasive and garnet
blasting) methods, it removes considerably less metal which is
advantageous for mechanical integrity of Toku sculpture. It is
crucial to apply subsequent coatings as soon as possible after the
surface preparation (with UHP hydro-blasting immediately after
the surface is completely dried) in order to eliminate contam-
inants and oxide formation underneath the paint coatings. A
primer coating containing active corrosion inhibitor can be
applied and followed by an insulating intermediate coating in
order to preserve active protection of inhibitor in the long term.
The decorative paint can be applied by artist(s) on top of the
insulating layer. The compatibility of the Artist’s painting with the
intermediate coating needs to be checked to ensure adequate
bonding between layers. It is highly recommended to finish the
artwork (decorative paint) with a UV stabilized clear coating to
minimize UV damage and its detrimental impact on protective
properties of the paint coating. The UV resistant film would also
provide some barrier. A follow up on-site inspection using non-
destructive methods after completion of painting and before re-
assembly is also recommended in order to examine the protective
aspects of the multi-layered coating system and to ensure that a
long term effective corrosion protection will be provided by the
new coating.
Conclusion
Electrochemical measurements have been successfully used
on-site and the results have indicated inadequate resistance and
protective properties of paint coating. Analytical examinations in
the laboratory revealed an inhomogeneous structure of the coating
and a highly porous structure of the oxide scale. It is likely that
corrosive ions, such as chloride and potassium, diffused through
weak spots of the paint towards the steel substrate. This process
was most probably facilitated by the paint system being a thin
single coat which most likely had (as commonly found for single
thin coats) an inhomogeneous and defective structure of the paint.
In the absence of an appropriate surface preparation/passivation or
an anti-corrosion primer, corrosion initiated at the more perme-
able spots of paint coating and rapidly spread underneath the paint
film resulting in disbondment of paint from steel substrate to a
large extent. The close proximity of the Toku sculpture to water and
a humid environment did not allow formation of a dense and
adherent oxide scale resulting in extensive oxidation of metal and
formation of a thick hydrated rust layer with a highly porous
structure. FTIR-ATR analysis did not show a significant difference in
UV degradation between paint coatings on the sculpture with
dissimilar exposure to UV suggesting that the coating had a high
level of UV resistance and that the UV degradation was not the
cause of failure.
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Acknowledgements
Thanks are due to Phil Kuczma and Justin Nam for financial
support and assistance during the on-site inspection and Angie
McDuff for provision of historical documents of the Toku artwork.
Authors also wish to thank Jung Ho Kim for provision of
electrochemical instrumentation and Wenbin Luo for assisting
with FTIR-ATR analysis.
Appendix A.
Fig. A1. Location of Toku sculpture shown by red star on Google map. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web
version of this article.)
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