INTRODUCTION TO

RESEARCH
AND BASIC STATISTICS
The Nature of
Research
WAYS OF KNOWING

SENSORY EXPERIENCE
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WAYS OF KNOWING

AGREEMENT WITH OTHERS

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850x476.jpg
WAYS OF KNOWING

EXPERT OPINION
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WAYS OF KNOWING

”experts can disagree

with one another and
give out advise that is
less than advisable”

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WAYS OF KNOWING

LOGIC
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WAYS OF KNOWING

EXPERT OPINION
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WAYS OF KNOWING

SCIENTIFIC METHOD
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WAYS OF KNOWING
• The Scientific Method - A way of knowing that it is characterized
by the public nature of its procedures and conclusions and by
rigorous testing of conclusions. The general order of the scientific
of the scientific method is as follows:
– Identifying a problem or question
– Clarifying the problem
– Determining the information needed and how to obtain it
– Organizing the information
– Interpreting the results

All conclusions are tentative and subject to change as new

evidence is uncovered (don’t PROVE things)
RESEARCH DEFINED
RESEARCH DEFINED
• RESEARCH
– Refers to the formal, systematic evaluation of
scholarship, disciplined inquiry, and most often the
scientific method to the study of problems in order to
discover or establish facts and principles (Fraenkel and Wallen, 2007) .
– Research is the scholarly pursuit of new knowledge,
discovery, or creative activity in an area with the goal
of advancing that area's frontiers or boundaries
(University of Toledo website)
RESEARCH DEFINED
• RESEARCH
– is work that involves studying something
and trying to discover facts about it.
(Collins Dictionary)
WHAT IS EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH?

• The ability to answer a question or concern

facing many in the area of Education.
• Teachers, counselors, administrators,
parents, and students continually need to
seek information in order to perform their
jobs.
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
• Anything one finds unsatisfactory or unsettling
• A difficulty of some sort
• A state of affairs that needs to be changed
• Anything that is not working as well as it might
• Conditions that needs improvement
What are the key issues in
the Philippine education
system?
What are trending issues in
special education?
EXAMPLES OF EDUCATIONAL
RESEARCH
• How Physical Activity Can Be Used to Improve
Social Skills in Children with Autism Spectrum
Disorder
People with autism spectrum disorder struggle with impairment of social functioning. Partly
as a result of this, they are much less likely to be physically active. Physical activity has been
shown to be beneficial for ASD symptomatic behavior, but not much research has been
done on how it can improve their social skills. This steady aimed to find out what therapies
exist for social skills in children with ASD, how physical activity is incorporated into these
therapies, and how these improvements in social skills can affect other areas of their lives
(e.g. academic performance and confidence). In order to assess the ways physical activity
is used and how it can be beneficial, I observed a social skills class and conducted an
interview with a behavioral analyst and a psychologist who specializes in the area. A parent
survey was also administered to assess a broader scope of the effects of these therapies.
The results showed that, although physical activity can be very beneficial, it is not used
explicitly to help social skills, nor is it often perceived by the parents to have specific effect.
Physical activity can improve social skills in children with ASD, and social skills can in turn
positively affect these children’s lives, but more research is needed to connect these two.

Paloma, Main
http://ess.nd.edu/capstone-research/2016-student-research-topics/#Main
RESEARCH DESIGNS
THE THREE APPROACHES TO
RESEARCH
• Quantitative research is an approach for testing objective
theories by examining the relationship among variables. These
variables, in turn, can be measured, typically on instruments, so
that numbered data can be analyzed using statistical
procedures.
• Qualitative research is an approach for exploring and
understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a
social or human problem.
• Mixed methods research is an approach to inquiry involving
collecting both quantitative and qualitative data, integrating
the two forms of data, and using distinct designs that may
involve philosophical assumptions and theoretical frameworks.
 QUALITATIVE VS QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH
"All research
ultimately has
a qualitative
grounding"
- Donald
Campbell
"There's no such
thing as
qualitative data.
Everything is
either 1 or 0"
- Fred Kerlinger
Types of Research
• Research is the formal, systematic application of
scholarship, disciplined inquiry, and most often the
Scientific Method to the study of problems.
• Research methodologies include:
Experimental research Ethnographic research
Correlational research Historical research
Causal-comparative research Action research
Survey research
RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES

Survey research
Correlational research
Causal-comparative research
Experimental research
SURVEYS
• Surveys are used to establish opinions of a large group
of people about a particular topic or issue by asking a
number of questions, all related to the issue.
Is this Assumption Correct? (Figure 1.3)
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
Correlational research studies the relationships among two or more
variables without any attempt to influence them.
• Purposes of Correlational Research
Correlational research is carried out for one of two basic
purposes - either to help explain important human behaviors
or to predict likely outcomes.
– Explanatory Studies - A major purpose of correlational research is to clarify
our understanding of important phenomena through the identification of
relationships among variables.
– Prediction Studies - A second purpose of correlational research is that of
prediction: if a relationship of sufficient magnitude exists between two
variables, it becomes possible to predict a score on either variable if a
score on the other variable is known.
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
• Magnitude of Correlation
0.00 no relationship
0.01 – 0.30 slight relationship
0.40 – 0.60 moderate relationship
0.70 – 0.90 strong relationship
1.00 perfect relationship
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
• Direction of Correlation (Johnson and
Christensen, 2008)
– A positive correlation is present when scores
on the two variables tend to move in the
same direction. As one variable increases, the
other tends to increase as well and vice versa.
– A negative correlation is present when the
scores on the two variables tend to move in
opposite directions. As one variable goes up,
the other tends to go down and vice versa.
CAUSAL COMPARATIVE RESEARCH
• Causal-comparative research seeks to determine the cause for,
or consequences of, existing differences in groups of individuals.
It is also referred to as ex post facto research.
– The first step in formulating a problem in causal-comparative research is
usually to identify and define the particular phenomena of interest, and
then to consider possible causes for, or consequences of, these
phenomena.
– The important thing in selecting a sample for a causal-comparative study
is to define carefully the characteristic to be studied and then to select
groups that differ in this characteristic.
– There are no limits to the kinds of instruments that can be used in a causal-
comparative study.
– The basic causal-comparative design involves selecting two groups that
differ on a particular variable of interest and then comparing them on
another variable or variables.
 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
• Experimental research is one of the most powerful research
methodologies that researchers can use since it is the best way
of establishing cause-and-effect relationships among variables.

o Confounding variable - A type of extraneous variable that was not controlled for and is the reason a particular
“confounded” result is observed (Johnson and Christensen, 2008).
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Essential Characteristics
• Manipulation of the independent variable - The researcher deliberately
and directly determines what forms the independent variable will take
and then which group will get which form.
• Comparison of groups - An experiment involves two groups of subjects:
– experimental group/ treatment group -receives the treatment of some sort
– control group/comparison group - receives no treatment (control group)

• Randomization
– Random selection - every member of a population has an equal chance of
being selected to be a member of the sample.
– Random assignment – every individual who is participating in an experiment
has an equal chance of being assigned to any of the experimental group or
conditions being compared. Random assignment is a powerful tool in
controlling subject-characteristics threat to internal validity.
TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Pre-experimental Research Designs do not have built-in control for threats to
internal validity.

• One-shot case study - A single group is exposed to treatment or event,

and a dependent variable is subsequently observed (measured) in order
to assess the effect of the treatment. Obvious weakness is the absence of
any control.
TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Pre-experimental Research Designs do not have built-in control for threats to
internal validity.

• One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design - A single group is measured before

and after the treatment. It is better than the one-shot case study, but is
unable to control other threats to internal validity (which may influence
the outcome of the study).
TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Pre-experimental Research Designs do not have built-in control for threats to
internal validity.

• Static-Group Comparison Design (Nonequivalent Control Group Design) –

Two already intact groups are used; one is exposed to the treatment while
the other is not. Both groups are then measured or observed.
– Static Group Posttest-Only Design

– Static Group Pretest-Posttest Design

TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Quasi-Experimental Designs - do not include the use
of random assignment.
• The Matching-Only Design - The researcher matches the subjects in the
experimental and control groups on certain variables , but he/she has no
assurance that they are equivalent on others.

- The Matching–Only Posttest-Only Control Group Design

TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Quasi-Experimental Designs - do not include the use
of random assignment.
• The Matching-Only Design - The researcher matches the subjects in the
experimental and control groups on certain variables , but he/she has no
assurance that they are equivalent on others.

- The Matching–Only Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design

TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Quasi-Experimental Designs - do not include the use
of random assignment.
• Counterbalanced Designs - Each group is exposed to all
treatments, but in a different order. It controls well for subject-
characteristic threat to internal validity but is particularly
vulnerable to multiple-treatment interference.
TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Quasi-Experimental Designs - do not include the use
of random assignment.
• Time-Series Designs – One group is repeatedly pretested until
pretest scores are stable; then the group is exposed to a
treatment and after treatment implementation, repeatedly
post tested.
TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
• True Experimental Design – Subjects are randomly assigned to
treatment groups. True experimental design is regarded as
the most accurate form of experimental research, in that it
tries to prove or disprove a hypothesis mathematically, with
statistical analysis.
- The Randomized Posttest-Only Control Group Design - This
design controls for any confounding effects of a pretest. The
participants are randomly assigned to groups, a treatment is
given only to the experimental group, and both groups are
measured on the posttest.
TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
• True Experimental Design – Subjects are randomly assigned to
treatment groups. True experimental design is regarded as
the most accurate form of experimental research, in that it
tries to prove or disprove a hypothesis mathematically, with
statistical analysis.
– The Randomized Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design -
The procedure involves random assignment of participants
to two groups. Both groups are administered both a
pretest and a posttest to, but the treatment is provided
only to treatment group.
TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
• True Experimental Design – Subjects are randomly assigned to
treatment groups. True experimental design is regarded as
the most accurate form of experimental research, in that it
tries to prove or disprove a hypothesis mathematically, with
statistical analysis.
– Randomized Solomon Four-Group Design - The procedure
involves random assignment of participants to two groups.
Both groups are administered both a pretest and a
posttest to, but the treatment is provided only to treatment
group.
Any Questions?

47
Why study statistics?
1. Data are everywhere
2. Statistical techniques are used to make many
decisions that affect our lives
3. No matter what your career, you will make
professional decisions that involve data. An
understanding of statistical methods will help
you make these decisions efectively
Statistics
• The science of collecting, organizing, presenting, analyzing, and
interpreting data to assist in making more effective decisions
• Statistical analysis – used to manipulate summarize, and
investigate data, so that useful decision-making information
results.
• Statistics presents a rigorous scientific method for gaining insight into
data.
A Taxonomy of Statistics
Educational Statistics:
Statistical Terms and Vocabulary
Three Types of statistical methods:
• Descriptive statistics: methods used to summarize,
organize, and simplify data.
• Exploratory statistics: methods for carefully examining
data prior to using more complicated statistical
procedures.
• Inferential statistics: methods that allow us to make
generalizations about populations based on data
obtained from samples.
Types of statistics
• Descriptive statistics – Methods of
organizing, summarizing, and presenting
data in an informative way
• Inferential statistics – The methods used to
determine something about a population
on the basis of a sample
Population vs Sample
– Population –The entire set of individuals or
objects of interest or the measurements
obtained from all individuals or objects of
interest
– Sample –a subgroup of a population that is
usually assumed to be representative of the
population
• When computed for a population of values, numerical descriptors are
called Parameters

• When computed for a sample of values, numerical descriptors are

called Statistics
 Descriptive Statistics

• Collect data
– e.g., Survey

• Present data
– e.g., Tables and graphs

• Summarize data
X i

– e.g., Sample mean =n

Statistical Description of Data
• Statistics describes a numeric set of data by its
– Center
– Variability
– Shape

• Statistics describes a categorical set of data by

– Frequency, percentage or proportion of each category

• Correlations - Examines relationships among two or more

variables.
 Inferential Statistics
• Estimation
– e.g., Estimate the
population mean weight
using the sample mean
weight

• Hypothesis testing
– e.g., Test the claim that the
population mean weight is
70 kg
Inference is the process of drawing conclusions or making
decisions about a population based on sample results
Inferential statistics

Inferential statistics forms a basis for a conclusion

regarding a prespecified objective addressing the
underlying population.

Confirmatory analysis:

Hypothesis Results Conclusion

Explorative statistics

Explorative statistics aims to find interesting results that

Can be used to formulate new objectives/hypothesis for
further investigation in future studies.

Explorative analysis:

Results Hypothesis

Conclusion?
Types of variables
Variables

Qualitative Quantitative

Dichotomic Polynomic Discrete Continuous

Amount of income
Gender, marital Brand of Pc, Children in
tax paid, weight of a
status hair color family, student
VARIABLES
• QUANTITATIVE VS QUALITATIVE VARIABLES
• A concept
– Gender
– Age
– Achievement
– Motivation
– Interest
– Attitude
SUMMARY OF DATA
CLASSIFICATIONS

© 2002 Thomson / South-Western

Activity: Identify the data as
qualitative or quantitative
• Data Type of data

Telephone
QUALI
area code
Length of QUANTI-
Service CONTINUOUS
number of heads QUANTI-
in 100 coin flips DISCRETE
SCALES OF MEASUREMENT
In descriptive statistics, there are four
scales of measurement that can be
used to explain data:
1. NOMINAL
2. ORDINAL
3. INTERVAL
4. RATIO
ORDINAL
• The ordinal level of measurement depicts some
ordered relationship among the variable’s
observations.

• Ex: Suppose a student scores the highest grade of 100 in

the class. In this case, he would be assigned the first
rank. Then, another classmate scores the second highest
grade of an 92; she would be assigned the second
rank. A third student scores a 81 and he would be
assigned the third rank, and so on.
INTERVAL
• The interval level of measurement not only
classifies and orders the measurements, but it
also specifies that the distances between each
interval on the scale are equivalent along the
scale from low interval to high interval.

• Ex: Interval level of measurement could be the measurement of

anxiety in a student between the score of 10 and 11, this interval is the
same as that of a student who scores between 40 and 41. A popular
example of this level of measurement is temperature in centigrade,
where, for example, the distance between 940C and 960C is the same
as the distance between 1000C and 1020C.
RATIO
• In this level of measurement, the observations, in
addition to having equal intervals, can have a
value of zero as well.
• The zero in the scale makes this type of
measurement unlike the other types of
measurement, although the properties are similar to
that of the interval level of measurement.

• Ex: Day 0, day 1, day 2, day 3,

Activity: Identify the level of
measurement:
• Data Level of Measurement

Age RATIO

Class standing ORDINAL

(freshman, sophomore, etc)

Temperature INTERVAL
Activity: Identify the level of
measurement:
• Data Level of Measurement

Shirt size ORDINAL

Income RATIO

Zip code NOMINAL

 VARIABLES
• INDEPENDENT & DEPENDENT
VARIABLES
– An independent variable,
sometimes called
an experimental or predictor
variable, is a variable that is
being manipulated in an
experiment in order to observe
the effect on
a dependent variable,
sometimes called
an outcome variable.1 Photo source: https://i.pinimg.com/736x/18/33/70/183370c2ae818883822caa3cc003ff01.jpg

1 https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/types-of-variable.php
MEASURES OF CENTRAL
TENDENCY

•MEAN
•MEDIAN
•MODE
Descriptive Statistics
• Descriptive Statistics are Used by Researchers to Report on
Populations and Samples

• In Sociology:
Summary descriptions of measurements (variables) taken
about a group of people

• By Summarizing Information, Descriptive Statistics Speed Up

and Simplify Comprehension of a Group’s Characteristics
Sample vs. Population

Populatio Sam
n ple
 Descriptive Statistics
An Illustration:
Which Group is Smarter?
Class A--IQs of 13 Students
Class B--IQs of 13 Students
102 115
127 162
128 109 131 103
131 89 96 111
98 106 80 109
140 119 93 87
93 97 120 105
110 109
Each individual may be different. If you try to understand a group by remembering the qualities of each
member, you become overwhelmed and fail to understand the group.
Descriptive Statistics
Which group is smarter now?

Class A--Average IQ Class B--Average IQ

110.54 110.23

They’re roughly the same!

With a summary descriptive statistic, it is much easier to answer our

question.
Descriptive Statistics
Types of descriptive statistics:
• Organize Data
– Tables
– Frequency Distributions
– Relative Frequency Distributions
– Graphs
– Bar Chart
– Histogram
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

Expresses how
often a score
occurs in a set of
data.
Frequency Distribution
Relative Frequency Distribution
Grouped Relative Frequency
Distribution
Activity
• Arrange the following data in descending order.
• (a) 14, 2, 0, 10, 6, 1, 22, 13, 28, 4, 8, 16
• (b) 1.2, 3.5, 0.1, 0.3, 2.4, 8.6, 5.0, 3.7, 0.7, 0.9

• The marks obtained out of 25 by 30 students of a

class in the examination are given below.
• 20, 6, 23, 19, 9, 14, 15, 3, 1, 12, 10, 20, 13, 3, 17, 10,
11, 6, 21, 9, 6, 10, 9, 4, 5, 1, 5, 11, 7, 24
• Represent the above data as a grouped data
taking the class interval 0 - 5
RANGE
The difference between the high score and the low
score in the distribution

VARIANCE
A statistical concept that tells you the
spread of scores within a distribution
STANDARD DEVIATION

• The spread of scores around

the mean.
• Calculated by taking the
square root of the variance.
 NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
Hypothetically represents the way
test scores would fall if a particular
test is given to every single student
the same age or grade in the
population for whom the test was
designed.
NORMAL CURVE
• Also referred to as the bell curve
• Never changes
SKEWED DISTRIBUTIONS
A distribution in which the majority
of scores fall at either the high
end,
or the low end rather than
the middle of the distribution.
CORRELATIONS
Tell us the relationship between two
variables. There are three types:

• Positive Correlation
• Negative Correlation
• Zero Correlation