Solutions Handouts PDF

14/03/2020
Solutions
Solutions
General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. 1
Solutions: Solute and Solvent

Solutions
 are homogeneous
mixtures of two or more
substances
 consist of a solvent and
one or more solutes
General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 2
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Nature of Solutes in Solutions

Solutes
 spread evenly
throughout the solution
 cannot be separated by
filtration
 can be separated by
evaporation
 are not visible but can
give a color to the
solution
Examples of Solutions
 The solute and solvent in a solution can be a solid,
liquid, and/or a gas.
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Learning Check
Identify the solute in each of the following solutions:
A. 2 g sugar (1) and 100 mL water (2)
B. 60.0 mL of ethyl alcohol (1) and 30.0 mL of
methyl alcohol (2)
C. 55.0 mL water (1) and 1.50 g NaCl (2)
D. Air: 200 mL O2 (1) and 800 mL N2 (2)
Solution
Identify the solute in each of the following solutions:
A. sugar (1)
B. methyl alcohol (2)
C. NaCl (2)
D. O2 (1)
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Water
Water
 is the most common solvent
 is a polar molecule
 forms hydrogen bonds between the hydrogen atom
in one molecule and the oxygen atom in a different
water molecule
Combinations of Solutes and

Solvents in Solutions
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Formation of a Solution
Na+ and Cl– ions
 on the surface of a NaCl
crystal are attracted to
polar water molecules
 are hydrated in solution by
many H2O molecules
surrounding each ion
Equations for Solution Formation

When NaCl(s) dissolves in water, the reaction can
be written as
H2O
NaCl(s) Na+(aq) + Cl- (aq)
solid separation of ions
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Learning Check
Solid LiCl is added to water. It dissolves because:
A. The Li+ ions are attracted to the
1) oxygen atom () of water.
2) hydrogen atom ( +) of water.
B. The Cl– ions are attracted to the

Solution
Solid LiCl is added to water. It dissolves because:
A. The Li+ ions are attracted to the
B. The Cl– ions are attracted to the

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Like Dissolves Like

Two substances form a solution
 when there is an attraction between the particles
of the solute and solvent
 when a polar solvent (such as water) dissolves
polar solutes (such as sugar) and/or ionic solutes
(such as NaCl)
 when a nonpolar solvent such as hexane (C6H14)
dissolves nonpolar solutes such as oil or grease
Water and a Polar Solute
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Like Dissolves Like
Solvents Solutes
Water (polar) Ni(NO3)2

CH2Cl2 (nonpolar) (polar)
I2 (nonpolar)
Learning Check
Will each of the following solutes dissolve in water?
Why or why not?
1) Na2SO4
2) gasoline (nonpolar)
3) I2
4) HCl
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Solution
Will each of the following solutes dissolve in water?
Why or why not?
1) Na2SO4 Yes. The solute is ionic.
2) gasoline No. The solute is nonpolar.
3) I2 No. The solute is nonpolar.
4) HCl Yes. The solute is polar.
Most polar and ionic solutes dissolve in water

because water is a polar solvent.
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Solutions
Solubility
Solubility
Solubility is
 the maximum amount of solute that dissolves in a
specific amount of solvent
 expressed as grams of solute in 100 grams of solvent
(usually water):
g of solute
100 g water
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Unsaturated Solutions
Unsaturated solutions
 contain less than the
maximum amount of
solute
 can dissolve more solute
Dissolved
solute
Saturated Solutions
Saturated solutions contain
 the maximum amount of
solute that can dissolve
 some undissolved solute
at the bottom of the
container
Dissolved
solute
Undissolved
solute
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Learning Check
At 40 C, the solubility of KBr is 80 g/100 g of H2O.
Identify the following solutions as either (S) saturated
or (U) unsaturated. Explain.
A. 60 g KBr added to 100 g of water at 40 C.
B. 200 g KBr added to 200 g of water at 40 C.
C. 25 g KBr added to 50 g of water at 40 C.
Solution
A. U 60 g of KBr/100 g of water is less than the
solubility of 80 g of KBr/100 g of water.
B. S 200 g KBr added to 200 g of water at 40 C.
This is the same as 100 g of KBr in 100 g of
water, which is more than the solubility of 80 g
of KBr/100 g of water at 40 C.
C. U 25 g KBr added to 50 g of water at 40 C. This is
the same as 50 g of KBr in 100 g of water, which
is less than the solubility of 80 g of KBr/100 g of
water at 40 C.
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Effect of Temperature on
Solubility
Solubility
 depends on
temperature
 of most solids increases
as temperature
increases
 of gases decreases as
temperature increases
Solubility and Pressure

Henry’s law states:
 the solubility of a gas
in a liquid is directly
related to the
pressure of that gas
above the liquid
 at higher pressures,
more gas molecules
dissolve in the liquid
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Learning Check
A. Why could a bottle of carbonated drink possibly
burst (explode) when it is left out in the hot sun?
B. Why do fish die in water that is too warm?
Solution
A. Why could a bottle of carbonated drink possibly
burst (explode) when it is left out in the hot sun?
The pressure in a bottle increases as the gas
leaves solution as it becomes less soluble at high
temperatures. As pressure increases, the bottle
could burst.
B. Why do fish die in water that is too warm?

Because O2 gas is less soluble in warm water, fish
cannot obtain enough O2 to survive.
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Soluble and Insoluble Salts

Ionic compounds that
 dissolve in water are
soluble salts
 do not dissolve in
water are insoluble
salts
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Solutions
Percent Concentration
Concentration
The concentration of a solution
 is the amount of solute dissolved in a specific amount
of solution
concentration = amount of solute

amount of solution
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Mass Percent Concentration

Mass percent (m/m) concentration is
 the percent by mass of solute in a solution
 calculated using the formula:
Mass = mass of solute(g) x 100%

percent mass of solute(g) + mass of solvent(g)
Mass percent = mass of solute(g) x 100%

mass of solution(g)
Mass of Solution
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Calculating Mass Percent

The calculation of mass percent (m/m) requires the
 grams of solute (g of KCl) and
 grams of solution (g of KCl solution)
g of KCl = 8.00 g
g of solvent (water) = 42.00 g
g of KCl solution = 50.00 g
8.00 g of KCl (solute) x 100% = 16.0% (m/m)

50.00 g of KCl solution
Guide to Calculating Solution

Concentrations
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Learning Check
A solution is prepared with 15.0 g of Na2CO3 and
235 g of H2O. What is the mass percent (m/m) of the
solution?
1) 15.0%(m/m) Na2CO3
2) 6.38%(m/m) Na2CO3
3) 6.00%(m/m) Na2CO3
Solution
3) 6.00% (m/m) Na2CO3
STEP 1 Given: 15.0 g of Na2CO3; 235 g of H2O
Need: mass percent (m/m) of Na2CO3 solution
STEP 2 Plan: mass percent(m/m) = g of solute x 100%

g of solution
Calculate mass of solution

= 15.0 g + 235 g
= 250 g of Na2CO3 solution
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Solution (continued)
STEP 3 Write equalities and conversion factors:
15.0 g of Na2CO3 = 250 g of solution
15.0 g Na2CO3 and 250 g solution
250 g solution 15.0 g of Na2CO3
STEP 4 Set up problem:
mass = 15.0 g Na2CO3 x 100 = 6.00%(m/m) Na2CO3

percent 250 g solution
(m/m)
Volume Percent
The volume percent (v/v) is
 percent by volume of solute (liquid) in a solution
 volume % (v/v) = volume of solute x 100%
volume of solution
 volume solute (mL) in 100 mL of solution.
volume % (v/v) = mL of solute

100. mL of solution
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Mass/Volume Percent
The mass/volume percent (m/v) is
 mass/volume % (m/v) = grams (g) of solute x 100%

volume(mL) of solution
 mass of solute(g) in 100 mL solution = g of solute

100. mL of solution
Preparation of a Solution:
Mass/Volume Percent
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Percent Conversion Factors

 Two conversion factors can be written for each
type of percent concentration.
Learning Check
Write two conversion factors for each solution:
A. 8.50% (m/m) NaOH
B. 5.75% (v/v) ethanol
C. 4.8% (m/v) HCl
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Solution
A. 8.50% (m/m) NaOH
8.50 g NaOH and 100 g solution
100 g solution 8.50 g NaOH
B. 5.75% (v/v) ethanol

5.75 mL ethanol and 100 mL solution
100 mL solution 5.75 mL ethanol
C. 4.8% (m/v) HCl

4.8 g HCl and 100 mL HCl
100 mL solution 4.8 g HCl
Guide to Using Concentration to

Calculate Mass or Volume
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Example of Using Percent

Concentration (m/m) Factors
How many grams of NaCl are needed to prepare
225 g of a 10.0% (m/m) NaCl solution?
STEP 1 Given: 225 g of solution; 10.0% (m/m) NaCl

Need: g of NaCl (solute)
STEP 2 Plan: g of solution g of NaCl
Solution
10.0 g of NaCl = 100 g of NaCl solution
10.0 g NaCl and 100 g NaCl solution
100 g NaCl solution 10.0 g NaCl
STEP 4 Set up problem to cancel grams of solution:
225 g NaCl solution x 10.0 g NaCl = 22.5 g of NaCl
100 g NaCl solution
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Learning Check
How many grams of NaOH are needed to prepare
75.0 g of 14.0% (m/m) NaOH solution?
1) 10.5 g of NaOH
2) 75.0 g of NaOH
3) 536 g of NaOH
Solution
STEP 1 Given: 75.0 g of NaOH solution;
14.0% (m/m) NaOH solution
Need: g of NaOH (solute)
STEP 2 g of solution g of NaOH
14.0 g of NaOH = 100 of NaOH solution
14.0 g NaOH and 100 g NaOH solution
100 g NaOH solution 14.0 g NaOH
STEP 4 Set up problem to cancel the grams of solution:
75.0 g NaOH solution x 14.0 g NaOH = 10.5 g of NaOH
100 g NaOH solution
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Learning Check
How many milliliters of a 5.75% (v/v) ethanol solution
can be prepared from 2.25 mL of ethanol?
1) 2.56 mL
2) 12.9 mL
3) 39.1 mL
Solution
STEP 1 Given: 2.25 mL of ethanol (solute)
5.75% (v/v) ethanol solution
Need: mL of ethanol solution
STEP 2 Plan: mL of ethanol mL of solution
100 mL of solution = 5.75 mL of ethanol
5.75 mL ethanol and 100 mL solution
100 mL solution 5.75 mL ethanol
STEP 4 Set up problem to cancel the mL of ethanol:
2.25 mL ethanol x 100 mL solution = 39.1 mL of solution
5.75. mL ethanol
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Example Using Percent

Concentration (m/v) Factors
How many mL of a 4.20% (m/v) will contain 3.15 g KCl?
STEP 1 Given: 3.15 g of KCl (solute)

4.20% (m/v) KCl solution
Need: mL of KCl solution
STEP 2 Plan: g of KCl mL of KCl solution
Using Percent Concentration(m/v)

Factors (continued)
4.20 g KCl = 100 mL of KCl solution
4.20 g KCl and 100 mL KCl solution
100 mL KCl solution 4.20 g KCl
STEP 4 Set up the problem:

3.15 g KCl x 100 mL KCl solution = 75.0 mL of KCl
4.20 g KCl
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Learning Check
How many grams of NaOH are needed to prepare 125
mL of a 8.80% (m/v) NaOH solution?
1) 7.04 g of NaOH
2) 11.0 g of NaOH
3) 14.2 g of NaOH
Solution
2) 11.0 g of NaOH
STEP 1 Given: 125 mL of NaOH (solution)

8.80% (m/v) NaOH solution
Need: g of NaOH (solute)
STEP 2 Plan: mL of NaOH solution g of NaOH
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STEP 3 Write equality and conversion factors:
8.80 g of NaOH = 100 mL of NaOH solution
8.80 g NaOH and 100 mL NaOH solution
100 mL NaOH solution 8.80 g NaOH
STEP 4 Set up the problem:

125 mL NaOH solution x 8.80 g NaOH
100 mL NaOH solution
= 11.0 g of NaOH
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Solutions
Molarity and Dilution
Molarity (M)
Molarity (M)
 is a concentration term for solutions
 gives the moles of solute in 1 L solution
molarity (M) = moles of solute

liter of solution
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Preparing a 1.0 Molar NaCl

Solution
A 1.0 M NaCl solution is prepared
 by weighing out 58.5 g of NaCl (1.00 mole) and
 adding water to make 1.0 liter of solution
Guide to Calculating Molarity
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Example of Calculating Molarity

What is the molarity of 0.500 L NaOH solution if it
contains 6.00 g of NaOH?
STEP 1 Given: 6.00 g of NaOH in 0.500 L solution

Need: molarity (mole/L) of NaOH solution
STEP 2 Plan:
g of NaOH moles of NaOH molarity
Example of Calculating Molarity

(continued)
STEP 3 Write equalitites and conversion factors:
1 mole of NaOH = 40.0 g of NaOH
1 mole NaOH and 40.0 g NaOH
40.0 g NaOH 1 mole NaOH
STEP 4 Set up problem to calculate molarity:

6.00 g NaOH x 1 mole NaOH = 0.150 mole of NaOH
40.0 g NaOH
0.150 mole NaOH = 0.300 mole NaOH
0.500 L NaOH solution 1 L NaOH solution
= 0.300 M NaOH
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Learning Check
What is the molarity of a solution if 325 mL of the
solution contains 46.8 g of NaHCO3?
1) 0.557 M NaHCO3
2) 1.44 M NaHCO3
3) 1.71 M NaHCO3
Solution
3) 1.71 M
STEP 1 Given: 46.8 g of NaHCO3
325 mL (0.325 L) NaHCO3 solution
Need: molarity (mole/L) of NaHCO3 solution
STEP 2 Plan:
g of NaHCO3 moles of NaHCO3 molarity
1 mole of NaHCO3 = 84.0 g of NaHCO3
1 mole NaHCO3 and 84.0 g NaHCO3
84.0 g NaHCO3 1 mole NaHCO3
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STEP 4 Setup problem to calculate moles and molarity of
NaHCO3:
46.8 g NaHCO3 x 1 mole NaHCO3
84.0 g NaHCO3
= 0.557 mole of NaHCO3
0.557 mole NaHCO3 = 1.71 mole NaHCO3

0.325 L NaHCO3 solution 1 L NaHCO3 solution
= 1.71 M NaHCO3
Learning Check
What is the molarity of a KNO3 solution if 225 mL
of the solution contains 34.8 g of KNO3?
1) 0.344 M
2) 1.53 M
3) 15.5 M
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Solution
2) 1.53 M KNO3
STEP 1 Given: 34.8 g of KNO3
225 mL (0.225 L) KNO3 solution
Need: molarity (mole/L) of KNO3 solution
STEP 2 Plan:
g of KNO3 moles of KNO3 molarity

1 mole of KNO3 = 101.1 g of KNO3
1 mole KNO3 and 101.1 g KNO3
101.1 g KNO3 1 mole KNO3
STEP 4 Set up problem to calculate moles and molarity
of KNO3:
34.8 g KNO3 x 1 mole KNO3
101.1 g KNO3
= 0.344 mole of KNO3
0.344 mole KNO3 = 1.53 mole KNO3
0.225 L KNO3 solution 1 L KNO3 solution
= 1.53 M KNO3
In one setup:
34.8 g KNO3 x 1 mole KNO3 x 1 = 1.53 M
101.1 g KNO3 0.225 L
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Molarity Conversion Factors

The units of molarity are used to write conversion
factors for calculations with solutions.
Example of Calculations Using

Molarity
How many grams of KCl are needed to prepare 125 mL
of a 0.720 M KCl solution?
STEP 1 Given: 125 mL (0.125 L) of 0.720 M KCl

Need: grams of KCl
STEP 2 Plan:
L of KCl moles of KCl g of KCl
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Example of Calculations Using

Molarity (continued)
1 mole of KCl = 74.6 g of KCl
1 mole KCl and 74.6 g KCl
74.6 g KCl 1 mole KCl
1 L of KCl = 0.720 mole of KCl

1L and 0.720 mole KCl
0.720 mole KCl 1L
STEP 4 Set up problem to cancel mole KCl:

0.125 L x 0.720 mole KCl x 74.6 g KCl = 6.71 g of KCl
1L 1 mole KCl
Learning Check
How many grams of AlCl3 are needed to prepare
125 mL of a 0.150 M solution?
1) 20.0 g of AlCl3
2) 16.7 g of AlCl3
3) 2.50 g of AlCl3
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Solution
3) 2.50 g of AlCl3
STEP 1 Given: 125 mL (0.125 L) of solution
0.150 M AlCl3 solution
Need: g of AlCl3
STEP 2 Plan:
L of solution moles of AlCl3 g of AlCl3

1 mole of AlCl3 = 133.5 g of AlCl3
1 mole AlCl3 and 133.5 g AlCl3
133.5 g AlCl3 1 mole AlCl3
STEP 3 (continued)
1 L of KCl = 0.150 mole of AlCl3
1L and 0.150 mole AlCl3
0.150 mole AlCl3 1L
STEP 4 Set up problem:

0.125 L x 0.150 mole AlCl3 x 133.5 g = 2.50 g of AlCl3
1L 1 mole AlCl3
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Learning Check
How many milliliters of 2.00 M HNO3 contain
24.0 g of HNO3?
1) 12.0 mL of 2.00 M HNO3

2) 83.3 mL of 2.00 M HNO3
3) 190 mL of 2.00 M HNO3
Solution
3) 190 mL of HNO3
STEP 1 Given: 24.0 g of HNO3
2.00 M HNO3 solution
Need: mL of HNO3 solution
STEP 2 Plan:
g of HNO3 moles of HNO3 L of HNO3 solution

1 mole of = 63.0 g of HNO3
1 mole HNO3 and 63.0 g HNO3
63.0 g HNO3 1 mole HNO3
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STEP 4 Set up problem to calculate volume, in mL, of
HNO3:
24.0 g HNO3 x 1 mole HNO3 x 1000 mL HNO3
63.0 g HNO3 2.00 moles HNO3
= 190 mL of a 2.00 M HNO3 solution
40

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14/03/2020

Solutions: Solute and Solvent

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 2

Nature of Solutes in Solutions

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 3

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 4

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 7

Combinations of Solutes and

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 8

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 9

Equations for Solution Formation

solid separation of ions

B. The Cl– ions are attracted to the

B. The Cl– ions are attracted to the

Like Dissolves Like

Water and a Polar Solute

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 14

Like Dissolves Like

Water (polar) Ni(NO3)2

Most polar and ionic solutes dissolve in water

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 25

Solubility and Pressure

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 26

B. Why do fish die in water that is too warm?

B. Why do fish die in water that is too warm?

Soluble and Insoluble Salts

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 29

concentration = amount of solute

Mass Percent Concentration

Mass = mass of solute(g) x 100%

Mass percent = mass of solute(g) x 100%

Calculating Mass Percent

8.00 g of KCl (solute) x 100% = 16.0% (m/m)

Guide to Calculating Solution

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 36

STEP 2 Plan: mass percent(m/m) = g of solute x 100%

Calculate mass of solution

STEP 4 Set up problem:

mass = 15.0 g Na2CO3 x 100 = 6.00%(m/m) Na2CO3

volume % (v/v) = mL of solute

The mass/volume percent (m/v) is

 mass/volume % (m/v) = grams (g) of solute x 100%

 mass of solute(g) in 100 mL solution = g of solute

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 42

Percent Conversion Factors

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 43

A. 8.50% (m/m) NaOH

B. 5.75% (v/v) ethanol

C. 4.8% (m/v) HCl

B. 5.75% (v/v) ethanol

C. 4.8% (m/v) HCl

Guide to Using Concentration to

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 46

Example of Using Percent

STEP 1 Given: 225 g of solution; 10.0% (m/m) NaCl

Example Using Percent

STEP 1 Given: 3.15 g of KCl (solute)

STEP 2 Plan: g of KCl mL of KCl solution

Using Percent Concentration(m/v)

STEP 4 Set up the problem:

STEP 1 Given: 125 mL of NaOH (solution)

STEP 2 Plan: mL of NaOH solution g of NaOH

STEP 4 Set up the problem: