The Routledge Handbook of

Sport in Asia

This is the first book to offer a comprehensive overview of the history, development and
contemporary significance of sport in Asia. It addresses a wide range of issues central to sport in
the context of Asian culture, politics, economy and society.
The book explores diverse topics, including the history of traditional Asian sport; the rise
of modern sport in Asia; the Olympic Movement in Asia; mega sport events in Asia; sport
governance and policy; gender, class and ethnicity in Asian sport, and Asia’s sporting heroes and
heroines. With contributions from 74 leading international scholars, it offers a new perspective
on understanding Asian sport and society, telling the story of how sport in this mega-region is
coming together and reshaping the world in the process. It also provides readers with a wide
lens through which to better contextualise the relationships between Asia and the world within
the global sport community.
The Routledge Handbook of Sport in Asia is a vital resource for students and scholars studying
the history, politics, sociology, culture and policy of sport in Asia, as well as sport management,
sport history, sport sociology, and sport policy and politics. It is also valuable reading for those
working in international sport organisations.

Fan Hong is Professor in Asian Studies at Bangor University, UK. She is Visiting and Adjunct
Professor at several universities in China, Indonesia and Australia. She is also Editor-in-Chief of
the Asian Journal of Sport History and Culture, and an editorial board member of several academic
journals. Her research interests are in the areas of sport history, gender, policy and organisations,
cross-cultural studies and Asian studies.

Lu Zhouxiang is Lecturer in Chinese Studies at Maynooth University, Ireland. He is also

Academic Editor of the Asian Journal of Sport History and Culture and Editor of Cogent Social
Sciences. His main research interests are Chinese history, national identity, Chinese martial arts
and China’s sport policy and practice.
The Routledge Handbook
of Sport in Asia

Edited by
Fan Hong and Lu Zhouxiang
First published 2021
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2021 selection and editorial matter, Fan Hong and Lu Zhouxiang; individual chapters,
the contributors
The right of Fan Hong and Lu Zhouxiang to be identified as the authors of the
editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in
accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in
any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to
infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book has been requested
ISBN: 978-0-367-18377-6 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-429-06120-2 (ebk)
Typeset in Bembo
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
For scholars, students, editors, publishers, and all the people who are instrumental in
moving the study of Asian sport history and culture forward.
 Contents

List of figuresxiii
List of tablesxiv
List of contributors xvi
Prefacexxviii
Acknowledgementsxxix
List of abbreviations xxx

Introduction: the Asian century and Asian sport 1

Fan Hong and Lu Zhouxiang

PART I
Asia’s traditional sport 9

  1 In authentic relations: traditional Asian martial arts, East and West 11

Paul Bowman

  2 Chinese philosophy and Asian martial arts 20

Barry Allen

  3 A brief history of Chinese martial arts 28

Lu Zhouxiang

  4 The development and global transmission of Wing Chun 36

Benjamin N. Judkins

  5 The transmission modes of taijiquan: traditional martial art,

competitive sport and the political reappropriation of culture in
modern China 45
Pierrick Porchet

  6 The long-term development of Japanese martial arts 54

Raúl Sánchez García

vii
Contents

 7 Kendō: an indigenous culture embodying national narratives

in Japan 64
Yasuhiro Sakaue

 8 Judo 75
Mike Callan

  9 In search of a tradition for taekwondo 83

Udo Moenig and Minho Kim

10 Chinlone: national sport of Myanmar 96

Maitrii Aung-Thwin

PART II
The rise of modern sport and the Olympic Movement in Asia 105

11 The foundation and early years of the Olympic Council of Asia:

a controversial body making controversial politics 107
Jörg Krieger

12 China and the Olympic Games 118

Fan Hong and Zhong Yuting

13 The rise of modern sport and the Olympic Movement in India 126
Souvik Naha

14 The rise of modern sport and the Olympic Movement in Japan 135
Yasuhiro Sakaue and Lee Thompson

15 Beyond the Peninsula: sport and the Olympic Games in colonial

Korea (1910–1945) 149
Seok Lee

16 The rise of modern sport and the Olympic Movement in Korea 159
Gwang Ok and Ka-Ram Lee

17 The introduction and institutionalisation of Western sport in colonial

and postcolonial Malaya, 1786–1965 169
Peng Ham Lim

18 Sport, colonisation and modernity in the Philippines 180

Gerald R. Gems

viii
 Contents

19 The rise of modern sport in colonial Singapore: the Singapore

Cricket Club leads the way 190
Nick Aplin

PART III
Sport policy and practice: public and private provision 207

20 International sport events and the two Koreas: politics, policies

and practice 209
Udo Merkel

21 Sport diplomacy at the 2018 Winter Olympics in PyeongChang: the

relations between North and South Korea 227
Jung Woo Lee

22 Commercialisation of sport in China 238

Ma Yang and Zheng Jinming

23 The reform of China’s elite sport system: case studies on football and
table tennis 247
Huang Gangqiang and Lu Zhouxiang

24 The development of sport policy and practice in Taiwan 256

Ko Ling-Mei and Lee Ping-Chao

25 Politics and policy of forging post-handover Hong Kong as sporting

mega-event centre 271
Marcus P. Chu

26 An overview of sport in modern India 279

Packianathan Chelladurai and Swarali Patil

27 Indonesia’s sport policy and development in the Old Order Era

(1945–1967) and New Order Era (1967–1998) 289
Amung Ma’mun

PART IV
Social stratification and diversity in Asian sport 303

28 Safeguarding children in sport in Asia 305

Daniel J. A. Rhind and Katsumi Mori

ix
Contents

29 Sport and ethnicity 314

Bonnie Pang and Rohini Balram

30 South Korea: women and sport in a persistent patriarchy 324

Guy Podoler

31 Disability sport in Malaysia: challenges and opportunities 336

Selina Khoo

32 Sport and gender in contemporary China 345

Xiong Huan

33 The changing society, state policies and sport for young children in
twenty-first-century China 357
Zhong Yijing and Dong Jinxia

34 The development of elite disability sport in China 366

Guan Zhixun

35 Sport and social class in Japan: past and present 377

Koji Kobayashi and Hitoshi Ebishima

36 Sport and gender in Japan 386

Osamu Takamine

37 Sport and ethnicity in Indonesia: developing national character

through traditional games 393
Toho Cholik Mutohir and Muchamad Arif Al Ardha

38 Yoga for oppositional defiant disorder and adolescent relationship issues 404
Prasanna Balaji

PART V
Sport in West Asia and the Middle East 417

39 Sport and diplomacy in the Middle East 419

Andrea L. Stanton

40 Sport and international relations in the Arab world 429

Bakeel Al Zandani and Youcef Bouandel

41 Arab countries’ strategies to bid and to host major sport events 437
Wadih Ishac

x
 Contents

42 The emergence and development of the Islamic Solidarity Games 447

Abdul Rahim Al Droushi

43 Soccer: moulding the Middle East and North Africa 456

James M. Dorsey

44 Playing ball: crowd and ‘contra-crowd’ in the politics of Egyptian and

Tunisian football 473
Larbi Sadiki and Layla Saleh

PART VI
Asian mega sporting events 491

45 The Asian Games, Asian sport and Asian politics 493

Fan Hong and Gong He

46 The Far Eastern Championship Games 505

Wang Yan

47 The games of the new emerging forces 509

Friederike Trotier

48 Borrowed spectacle: Olympic rhetoric in political battles 515

Jessamyn R. Abel

49 The Southeast Asian Games 522

Simon Creak

50 The Asian Indoor Games 528

Feng Jing

51 The political dimension of the AFC Asian Cup 533

Jörg Krieger

52 The 2008 Beijing Olympic Games 538

Min Ge

53 The 1988 Seoul Olympic Games and South Korea’s

mega-events545
Jihyun Cho

54 Wushu competitions in Asia 551

Shen Liang

xi
Contents

PART VII
Asia’s sport heroes and heroines 557

55 Liu Changchun: China’s first Olympic athlete 559

Zhang Ling

56 Rudy Hartono: an Indonesian badminton legend 563

Toho Cholik Mutohir and Awang Firmansyah

57 Dipa Karmakar: rising star of India 572

Usha S. Nair

58 Bruce Lee: his Jeet Kune Do, his movies and his legacy 575
Liu Yinya

59 Yao Ming: the basketball giant 579

Huang Fuhua

60 Eric Liddell: the flying Scotsman 583

Zhang Huijie

61 Seri Pak: Korea’s Golf Empress 589

Gwang Ok and Kyoungho Park

62 Dhyan Chand Singh: a legend in hockey 593

Usha S. Nair

63 He Zhenliang: China’s Mr Olympics 596

Zhang Jie

Index603

xii
 Figures

9.1 Chinese kwŏnbŏp instructions (page 3) in the Muye Chepo Pŏnyŏk Sokchip
(武藝諸譜飜譯續集 Series of Translated Illustrated Martial Arts Records) 85
9.2 President Rhee Syngman (right) watches a tangsudo demonstration
performed by Choi Hong Hi’s (centre) soldiers, in 1954 87
1 9.1 Articles in the Press including the word ‘Sport’ and/or ‘Recreation’: 1869–1914 191
19.2 The Third Pavilion of the Singapore Cricket Club, circa 1895 193
19.3 Tennis as the most reported game in the Press (1889–1914) 196
19.4 The Ladies Lawn Tennis Club with the original pavilion viewed from Mount
Sophia197
1 9.5 The Singapore Golf Club – circa 1893 198
19.6 The Singapore Swimming Club 199
19.7 The SCC Clubhouse 201
19.8 The New Grandstand at the Racecourse in 1910 202
23.1 China’s FIFA World Ranking: 1992–2018 250
24.1 National sports administrative structure in Taiwan (1997–1999) 262
24.2 National sports administrative structure in Taiwan in 2012 263
34.1 China Disability Sport Management Centre structure 369
34.2 China Disability Sport Management Centre management structure 370
34.3 Full-time staff numbers of 12 provincial training centres in 2010 371
35.1 Trends in provision of facilities for sport and physical education 380

xiii
 Tables

12.1 China’s Participation in the Olympic Games 123

14.1 Japan’s Participation in the Summer Olympics, 1912–1936 136
14.2 Keio University Registered Sports Clubs, by Year 137
14.3 The Establishment of Sport Associations in Japan through the 1930s 140
14.4 Middle School Sports Clubs in 1932 141
15.1 Korean Athletes as Members of the Japanese Olympic Team 153
17.1 Total Medal Tally of the First SEAP Games, 12–17 December 1959,
Bangkok, Thailand 174
17.2 Total Medal Tally of the 3rd SEAP Games, 14–21 December 1965,
Kuala Lumpur 175
19.1 Census Figures for Singapore as Published by Makepeace et al. (1921) 191
19.2 Sport as Elements of the Dominant Culture of Sport in Singapore 194
19.3 Association Football–Developmental Stages 196
19.4 List of Sport Clubs 200
24.1 The Evolution of the Central Sports Administrative Structure in Taiwan,
1949–2018258
26.1 India’s Medal Tally in Commonwealth, Asian and Olympic Games 281
27.1 Indonesian Badminton Sports Achievement in the Thomas Cup 297
27.2 Indonesian Badminton Sports Achievement in the All England Individual
and World Championships 297
27.3 Indonesian Badminton Sports Achievement in the SEA Games
since 1977 298
27.4 Indonesia’s Participation in the Olympics 298
34.1 National Disabled Games and Athlete Numbers 372
34.2 National Level Disability Sport Budget 373
34.3 Provincial Level Disability Sport Budget 373
34.4 FESPIC Games and Asian Paralympic Games–Results of China 373
34.5 Deaflympic Games–Results of China 374
34.6 Paralympic Games–Results of China 374
36.1 A Timeline of Major Social Events, Gender Equality Policy, and Sport
Policy in Japan for the Past Ten Years and into the Future 387
38.1 Activities and Their Scientific Relevance Included in This Study 408
45.1 FECG (1913–1938) 494
45.2 Asian Games (1951–2018) 501

xiv
 Tables

50.1 Basic Information of AIG & AIMAG 529

54.1 Wushu Events in the Asian Games (1990–2018) 552
54.2 Percentage Participation Rate by Region in Wushu Taolu Competitions in
the Asian Games 554
63.1 He Zhenliang’s Visits during Beijing’s Bids to Host the Olympic Games 598

xv
 Contributors

Jessamyn R. Abel is Assistant Professor of Modern Japanese History at Pennsylvania State Uni-
versity, with interests in cultural history, technology, infrastructure, sport and international rela-
tions. She is the author of The International Minimum: Creativity and Contradiction in Japan’s Global
Engagement, 1933–1964 (University of Hawai‘i Press, 2015) and is currently writing a cultural
history of the first bullet train.

Barry Allen is Distinguished University Professor of philosophy at McMaster University and a

Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada. He has held visiting appointments in Jerusalem, Istanbul,
Shanghai and Hong Kong, and he is associate editor at the interdisciplinary journal Common
Knowledge. His research concerns aesthetics, technology, the theory of knowledge and Chinese
philosophy. He is the author of Truth in Philosophy, Knowledge and Civilization, Artifice and Design:
Art and Technology in Human Experience, and Vanishing into Things: Knowledge in Chinese Tradition,
and Empiricisms: Experience and Experiment from Antiquity to the Anthropocene.

Nick Aplin graduated from Loughborough College of PE in 1976, and obtained an MSc from
Loughborough University in 1985 and a PhD from Nanyang Technological University, Singa-
pore, in 1999. He was a university lecturer until the end of 2019. He then made the transition
to focus on Special Projects at Sports Singapore, a statutory board of the Singapore govern-
ment. His most recent book is Sport in Singapore: The Colonial Legacy (2019). Nick Aplin has
been engaged in local television commentary work since 1997, including events such as the
SEA Games, the Champions League and the S. League. In 2010, he was a lead commentator for
the local cable TV network coverage of the inaugural Youth Olympic Games (YOG) hosted by
Singapore. In 2015, he commentated on the ASEAN Paralympic Games hosted by Singapore.

Muchamad Arif Al Ardha is Lecturer in the Physical Education Department, Universitas Neg-
eri Surabaya. His research interests include physical education, curriculum development, charac-
ter building, biomechanics and motor development.

Maitrii Aung-Thwin is Associate Professor of Myanmar/Southeast Asian history and Convener

of the Comparative Asian Studies PhD Program at the National University of Singapore. His
current research is concerned with nation building, public history, infrastructure and Buddhist
networks in South and Southeast Asia. His publications include: A History of Myanmar since
Ancient Times:Traditions and Transformations (co-authored with Michael Aung-Thwin, 2013), The
Return of the Galon King: History, Law, and Rebellion in Colonial Burma (2011) and A New History
of Southeast Asia (co-authored with Merle Ricklefs et al., 2010). Dr. Aung-Thwin served on the
Association of Asian Studies Board of Directors (United States) and chaired the AAS Southeast

xvi
 Contributors

Asian Studies Council. He is currently a trustee of the Burma Studies Foundation (United
States), Board Member of SEASREP, Deputy-Director of the Asia Research Institute (Singa-
pore), and editor of the Journal of Southeast Asian Studies.

Prasanna Balaji is the Head and Director of postgraduate studies in Physical Education and
Sports Sciences at the renowned National College (Autonomous) in Tiruchirappalli. He
obtained his Master’s degree in physical education from the famous Y.M.C.A. College of Physi-
cal Education in Chennai and his PhD from the Bharathidasan University. He has been instru-
mental in developing outstanding athletes, including the fastest woman of India in 2018. He has
successfully organised three international conference at his college.

Rohini Balram is a PhD candidate at Western Sydney University; her research focuses on under-
standing the complexities of marginalised groups (Indo-Fijian women) in the diaspora (Fijian)
and their relationship with sport, framed by post-structuralism, and southern, gender and socio-
cultural theories. Her academic and creative writing focuses on central issues of indenture and
diasporic experiences, gender, ethnicity, class, power, colonialism and postcolonialism in relation
to sport in Fiji employing art based, ethnographic and auto-ethnographic methods. Rohini is a
certified gym instructor and runs community-based health and fitness programs to assist mar-
ginalised women.

Youcef Bouandel is Professor of Politics at the Department of International Affairs, Qatar Uni-
versity. He holds a License in Politics from the University of Algiers, Algeria, (1986) and an
MPhil (1988) and a PhD (1994) in Politics from the University of Glasgow, Scotland. He was
Lecturer/Senior Lecturer in Politics at the University of Lincoln, England, and visiting profes-
sor in Bulgaria, Sweden, Latvia and the United States. He is the author of Human Rights and
Comparative Politics (1997). His most recent publication is Harakat Mujtama’ al-Silm: Democratic
Learning in Algeria (2018).

Paul Bowman is Professor of Cultural Studies at Cardiff University, UK. He is author of Post-
Marxism Versus Cultural Studies (Edinburgh University Press, 2007), Deconstructing Popular Cul-
ture (Palgrave, 2008) and Theorizing Bruce Lee (Rodopi, 2009), and editor of Interrogating Cultural
Studies (Pluto, 2003), The Truth of Žižek (Continuum, 2007), Reading Ranciere (Continuum 2010)
and The Rey Chow Reader (Columbia University Press, 2010). His most recent book is Decon-
structing Martial Arts, which is available for free download from Cardiff University Press.

Mike Callan is Associate Professor in the Department of Psychology and Sports Sciences, and
leader of the i-dojo International Judo Research Unit, at the University of Hertfordshire. He is
the editor of the Routledge book The Science of Judo. He is President of the International Asso-
ciation of Judo Researchers, Education Director of the Commonwealth Judo Association and
founder of the Richard Bowen History of Judo Archive at the University of Bath, which was
nominated for the UNESCO Memory of the World Programme. Director of the consultancy
firm Judospace, Dr Callan has advised a wide range of federations and organisations, including
the government of Japan and the Tokyo Olympic Organising Committee. Previously he was
the International Federation Services Group Leader for Judo for the 2012 Olympic and Para-
lympic Games. Mike has been a Board Member of the British Judo Association and holds the
grade of 7th dan. Holder of an International Olympic Committee Diploma, and a life member
of the British and Maltese Judo Federations, he was awarded the International Judo Federation
Special Achievement Award for global contribution to judo education and research as well as

xvii
Contributors

the Commonwealth Judo Association Presidents Special Recognition Award for his significant
contribution to the development of judo in the Commonwealth.

Packianathan Chelladurai, Distinguished Professor, Troy University, is a founding member of

the North American Society for Sport Management (NASSM) and the European Association
for Sport Management (EASM). He is the recipient of the Earle F. Zeigler Award from the
North American Society for Sport Management (NASSM), the Merit Award for Distinguished
Service to Sport Management Education from the European Association of Sport Manage-
ment (EASM) and the Sport Management Scholar Lifetime Achievement Award from Southern
Sport Management Association. He is an active member of the prestigious National Academy of
Kinesiology. On 18 June 2012, he was awarded the honorary degree of Letters of Law (LL.D.)
by The University of Western Ontario, Canada, for his contributions to sport management. In
2015, the European Association of Sport Management named its most prestigious award the
EASM Chelladurai Award.

Jihyun Cho was awarded a PhD in the Sociology of Sport Science from Loughborough Univer-
sity in 2010. She worked for the 2018 PyeongChang Olympic and Paralympic Games Organis-
ing Committee (POCOG) from October 2015 to April 2018 as a senior project manager. She
was the 2012 London Olympics Korean Olympic Committee (KOC) Training Camp Manager
at Brunel University from July 2012 to August 2012. Jihyun Cho also worked at the University
of Leeds as a postdoctoral research assistant, working on a project investigating ‘Cosmetic Sur-
gery Tourism,’ funded by the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC). She is currently
working for the Korean Olympic Community (KOC) as an editor.

Marcus P. Chu is Assistant Professor in the Department of Political Science at Lingnan Uni-
versity, Hong Kong. He has published extensively on the history and politics of sporting mega-
events in the Greater China region. His most recent book is Politics of Mega-events in China’s
Hong Kong and Macao (Palgrave, 2019).

Simon Creak is Assistant Professor at the National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technologi-
cal University, Singapore. He is a historian of modern Southeast Asia, particularly Laos and the
region as a whole, with research interests in the cultural and political history of sport, national-
ism, regionalism and the Cold War. Simon is author of Embodied Nation: Sport, Masculinity, and
the Making of Modern Laos (University of Hawai‘i Press) and has published in leading refereed
journals, including The Journal of Asian Studies, Journal of Contemporary Asia and Asian Studies
Review. Before joining NTU in 2018, he held teaching and research positions at the School of
Historical and Philosophical Studies, University of Melbourne (2014–2017) and Kyoto Uni-
versity’s Centre for Southeast Asian Studies (2011–2014). He holds a PhD in history from the
Australian National University.

James M. Dorsey, PhD, is Senior Fellow at Nanyang Technological University’s S. Rajaratnam

School of International Studies, Adjunct Senior Research Fellow at the National University of
Singapore’s Middle East Institute and Co-Director of the University of Würzburg’s Institute of
Fan Culture.

Abdul Rahim Al Droushi is Assistant Professor in Sport Policy and Management at the Physical
Education and Sports Sciences Department in Sultan Qaboos University, Oman. He completed

xviii
 Contributors

his Master of Business in the field of International Sport and Recreation Management from
Queensland University in Australia and earned his PhD from Loughborough University in the
United Kingdom in 2017. His thesis was titled ‘Discourses on the Modernization Agenda in
Sport Policy in Oman: between the Global and Local and Modernity and Authenticity.’ His major
research areas have been sport management; sport policy in the Arab world context; sport devel-
opment and development through sport; the modernisation agenda in sport policy in the Gulf
region; sport and globalisation; the governance of sport; sport and politics; the professionalisation
of sport; sport mega-events; sport innovation; sport tourism; marketing of sport and football.

Hitoshi Ebishima is Professor in the Faculty of Economics at Seijo University, Tokyo, Japan.
His research interests include globalisation of sport in Japan and Ireland, the linkage between
physical activities and sport, especially in cycling, and the social function of local sport clubs.
He co-authored a book chapter, ‘Tradition, Identity Professionalism and Tension in Japanese
Rugby,’ in G. Ryan, ed., The Changing Face of Rugby: The Union Game and Professionalism since
1995 (Cambridge Scholar Press, pp. 147–164), with R. Light and H. Hirai. He also co-authored
a book chapter, ‘FIFA 2002 World Cup in Japan: The Japanese Football Phenomenon in Cul-
tural Contexts,’ in Maguire, J. et al., ed., Japan, Sport and Society in a Globalizing World (Routledge,
pp. 125–139) with Yamashita, R. He edited and published a book about Introductory Irish Stud-
ies in Japanese. Its title is Ireland wo Shirutameno 70 shou (70 chapters to comprehend Ireland). In
this book he wrote chapters about Irish sport, education and culture.

Awang Firmansyah is Lecturer in Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia. He is active in

Southeast Asia Neighbourhoods Network (SEANNET) in research, teaching and dissemination
of knowledge of Asia through the prism of the city and urban communities.

Huang Fuhua obtained his PhD in Chinese Studies from University College Cork, Ireland, in
2014. He is Professor at the School of Physical Education and Sports, Jinan University, China.
His main research interests are globalisation and sport, the professionalisation and commerciali-
sation of sport, sport history and traditional sport.

Huang Gangqiang is Associate Professor within the School of Sport and Physical Education at
South West University of Science and Technology, China. His research interests are China’s sport
policy and sport industry.

Raúl Sánchez García, PhD, is Lecturer in the Social Sciences department at Universidad Poli-
técnica de Madrid-INEF and is President of the Sociology of Sport working group within the
Spanish Federation of Sociology (FES). He has published several papers and chapters on the
topic of the civilising process and martial arts/combat sport. In 2018 his book The Historical
Sociology of Japanese Martial Arts was published by Routledge.

Gerald R. Gems is full Professor Emeritus at North Central College in Naperville, Illinois, in
the United States. He is a past president of the North American Society for Sport History and
past vice-president of the International Society for the History of Physical Education and Sport.
In 2012 the United States government selected him as a Fulbright Scholar, and in 2016 he was
awarded the Routledge Prize for scholarship. He is the author of more than 250 publications,
including 20 books. He currently serves as an editor for the Sport, Identity, and Culture series
for Lexington Books.

xix
Contributors

Min Ge is Senior Lecturer at the University of Chester in the UK. He is the Programme
Leader of Chinese Studies; he is also leading the China Centre in the Faculty of Arts and
Humanities at the University. Before joining Chester, Min Ge lived for seven years in Ireland
and three years in Australia, working closely with the Chinese Studies Centres and the Con-
fucius Institute in three Irish universities and the University of Western Australia. His research
is focused mainly on Chinese sport and economy. He is currently researching LGBT+ sport
and athletes in Asia.

Gong He is a PhD candidate in the Institute of Media, Culture and Creative Arts, Curtin Uni-
versity, Australia. He received his BA from Chongqing University of Postal and Telecommuni-
cations and his MA from University of Southampton. His research interests are Chinese urban
middle-class and Chinese leisure sport market.

Xiong Huan is Professor in the School of PE and Sports Science at South China Normal Uni-
versity. She obtained her BA degree in Sociology at Fudan University in China and her PhD
in Sociology at De Montfort University in the UK. Prior to working at South China Normal
University, she was a Lecturer at the School of Asian Studies at University College Cork, Ireland.
Her main research interests include gender issues and the sociology of sport, along with urban
studies. Her main publications include Urbanisation and Transformation of Chinese Women’s Sport
since 1980s (2009), Body, Society and Sport: Sport from the Perspectives of Western Social Theories (2011,
in Chinese) and Gender, Body and Society:Theories, Methodology and Practices of Women’s Sports Stud-
ies (2016, in Chinese).

Zhang Huijie obtained her PhD in Asian Studies from The University of Western Australia in
2016, and is now a postdoctoral researcher at the Department of History, College of Liberal Arts,
Jinan University, China. Her main research interests are in the areas of sport history, especially in
Christian involvement in sport in modern China and traditional sport.

Wadih Ishac is Assistant Professor in Sport Management at Qatar University. His research
focuses on the social and political impacts of mega sport events and foreign investment in the
sport industry.

Zhang Jie obtained her PhD in Sports Studies from South China Normal University in 2014
and is now a Lecturer at Shenzhen Tourism College, Jinan University, Guangdong, China. She is
an editorial team member of the Asian Journal of Sport History & Culture and the Journal of Sports
Adult Education as well as a member of China’s Sports Anthropology Committee. Her research
interests focus mainly on Chinese traditional sport, the sport industry and sport and the devel-
opment of cities.

Feng Jing obtained her PhD degree in Chinese Studies from University College Cork in
2014. She is Lecturer in the School of Sport at Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics,
Nanchang, China. Her main research interests are social evolution, sport governance and sport
transformation in China.

Zheng Jinming is Lecturer/Assistant Professor in sport management and elite sport policy at
Northumbria University, UK. He has published 14 articles on elite sport policy and Olym-
pic medal distributions in journals such as Sport Management Review, European Sport Manage-
ment Quarterly, Journal of Sports Sciences and International Review for the Sociology of Sport. He is

xx
 Contributors

co-author of Sport Policy in China (Routledge, 2018) with Shushu Chen, Tien-Chin Tan and
Barrie Houlihan.

Dong Jinxia is Professor at Peking University and a prominent scholar in gender and children’s
sport studies. She received her PhD from University of Strathclyde. In the past two decades, she
has published several books and dozens of articles in both English and Chinese. She has also
organised a number of national and international conferences, including the ISSA 2014 World
Congress and the 2018 IASAPYC World Congress. She was a visiting scholar at Yale. She is the
co-founder and secretary general of the International Association of Sport and Play for Young
Children.

Benjamin N. Judkins is co-editor of the journal Martial Arts Studies and a Visiting Scholar at the
Cornell University East Asia Program.With Jon Nielson, he is co-author of The Creation of Wing
Chun: A Social History of the Southern Chinese Martial Arts (SUNY, 2015) with Jon Nielson. He
is also the author of long-running martial arts studies blog Kung Fu Tea: Martial Arts History,
Wing Chun and Chinese Martial Studies.

Selina Khoo is Associate Professor at the Centre for Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of
Malaya. Her research interests are related to participation in sport and physical activity by vari-
ous populations, including older adults and persons with disabilities. She has served on interna-
tional committees, including the Commonwealth Advisory Body on Sport (CABOS) and the
Development Committee of the Far East and South Pacific Games for the Disabled (FESPIC)
Federation. She is a current Vice President of the Asian Society for Adapted Physical Education
and Exercise (ASAPE) and member of the Women and Sports Committee of the Olympic
Council of Malaysia. Selina is also the country contact for Malaysia on the Global Observatory
for Physical Activity.

Minho Kim is Professor at the Department of Asian Martial Arts,Youngsan University in Yang-
san, South Korea. He has a PhD in Cultural Anthropology and teaches and researches in the
field of martial arts culture, focusing on martial arts in association with health-related issues. He
has published widely in these fields and has translated various books. He has almost 50 years of
practical martial arts experience.

Jörg Krieger is Assistant Professor for Sport and Social Science in the Sport and Body Culture
research unit of Aarhus University in Denmark. He has a PhD in Sport History from the German
Sport University Cologne and two MAs, in International Sport Policy (University of Brighton)
and Olympic Studies (German Sport University Cologne). In his research, he explores the his-
torical development of international sport politics with a focus on anti-doping, the International
Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF) and the Youth Olympic Games. His book Dope Hunters:
The Influence of Scientists on the Global Fight Against Doping in Sport, 1967–1992 investigates the
evolution of scientific knowledge to combat doping in sport. He became Chair of Sport &
Society, a Common Ground international Research Network, in 2019.

Koji Kobayashi is Senior Lecturer in the Department of Tourism, Sport and Society at Lincoln
University, New Zealand. His research interests include globalisation, nationalism, Japan/Asia,
media and mega-events as they relate to sport and recreation. His work appeared in journals
such as Sociology of Sport Journal, International Review for the Sociology of Sport, Sport in Society, Man-
aging Sport and Leisure, Leisure Studies, Consumption Markets & Culture, and International Journal of

xxi
Contributors

Cultural Studies. He also published a book chapter on the cultural economy of globalisation and
self-Orientalisation in Global Culture: Consciousness and Connectivity (2016) edited by Roland
Robertson and Didem Buhari-Gulmez (2016) and co-edited (with Younghan Cho) the special
issue on ‘Asian Sport Celebrity: The Nexus of Race, Ethnicity and Regionality’ in The Interna-
tional Journal of the History of Sport (2019).

Jung Woo Lee is Programme Director of MSc Sport Policy, Management and International
Development, and Lecturer in Sport and Leisure Policy at the University of Edinburgh, United
Kingdom. He received a PhD in the sociology of sport from Loughborough University, United
Kingdom. He is a guest editor of annual Asia Pacific Sport and Social Science Special Issue of
Sport in Society. Dr Lee is an editorial board member of the Journal of Global Sport Management
and the Asian Journal of History and Culture. He is also a special contributor to a British current
affair magazine, New Statesman. His research interests include sport mega-event studies, sport
diplomacy and international relations as well as globalisation of sport. He is co-editor of The
Routledge Handbook of Sport and Politics (2016).

Ka-Ram Lee is Assistant Professor at the Department of Physical Education in Gyeongsang

National University in Jinju, South Korea. His research focuses mainly on cultural and historical
aspects of sport in a Korean context. He is the author of Extraterritorial Outlet of Korean National-
ism in the Far Eastern Championship Games; 1913–1934: A War Without Weapons: Rugby, Korean
Resistance, and Japanese Colonialism and 1910–1945:The Influence of Philip L. Gillett on the Develop-
ment of Korea’s Modern Sports.

Seok Lee received his PhD at the University of Pennsylvania. He is currently Associate Direc-
tor of the James Joo-Jin Kim Program in Korean Studies at the University of Pennsylvania. His
publications include ‘Colonial Korea’s First Participation in the Olympic Games (1932),’ Seoul
Journal of Korean Studies, 2016, and a chapter in Sport in Korea: History, Development, Management
(Routledge, 2018). His research focuses on the intersections between sport and society in mod-
ern and contemporary Korea.

Shen Liang obtained his PhD from University College Cork, Ireland, and is now Associate Pro-
fessor in the School of Physical Education in Shanghai University, China. He His main research
interests are Chinese sport history, ideology and sport, sport and globalisation, sport policy and
transformation of Chinese society.

Peng Han Lim has a PhD in library and information science (2012), a MA in mass communi-
cations (1994), and a MSc in information studies (1998). He has worked alongside two of the
largest sport marketing companies in the world – ISL Marketing AG (with Keith Cooper) and
International Management Group (with Richard Avory). He has acquired extensive experience
in sport management, sport sponsorship, sport marketing and event management of multisport
events (the Southeast Asian Games and the Olympic Games) and single-sport events (the World
Badminton Championships and the Thomas and Uber Cup finals). He has also managed a spon-
sorship portfolio of football, badminton, squash and tennis teams and players.

Ko Ling-Mei is Associate Professor in the Department of Leisure, Recreation and Tourism Man-
agement in the College of Business at Southern Taiwan University of Science and Technol-
ogy. Her current research interests lie in issues relating to sport and leisure policies and sport

xxii
 Contributors

management, particularly in the area of human capital. She is co-editor of The Routledge Hand-
book of Sport Policy (2014).

Zhang Ling received her PhD degree in Chinese Studies from University College Cork, Ire-
land, in 2013, and is now Lecturer in Sports Studies at Guangdong University of Foreign Studies
in China. Her research centres on Chinese sport policy and the Chinese sport system, specifi-
cally on elite athletes’ education, training and re-employment.

Amung Ma’mun has been a Lecturer at the Faculty of Education and Health Education of the
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia (Indonesian Education University/FPOK UPI) since 1986.
He has been Leader of the Department of Physical Education (1996–2000), Dean of FPOK-
UPI (2000–2008), Head of the Sports and Youth Service for the Regional Government of West
Java Province (2008–2011) and was seconded to the Ministry of Youth and Sports (2011–2016)
– most recently as Expert Staff to the Minister. Since 2017 he has served as Chair of the Masters
Programme and Doctor of Physical Education at the UPI Postgraduate School. His research
concentrates on the fields of sport policy and sport governance.

Udo Merkel is a German social scientist at the University of Brighton’s School of Sport and
Service Management in the UK. He holds various degrees in the Social Sciences and Sport Sci-
ences from German and British universities. He has a keen interest in the politics and sociology
of mega sport events as a foreign policy and diplomatic tool, globalisation, comparative sport
studies and football cultures. The politics of physical culture and sport events in divided Korea
have become more prominent on his research agenda since he lived and worked in the South
and gained unprecedented access to the North in 2008 and, again, in 2012. Over the last few
years he has edited two cutting-edge books (Power, Politics and International Events (Routledge)
and Identity Discourses and Communities in International Events, Festivals and Spectacles (Palgrave
MacMillan). He is currently working on a book that explores the relationship between hosting
mega-events and international relations/foreign policy.

Udo Moenig is Associate Professor at the Department of Taekwondo, Youngsan University in

Yangsan, South Korea. He has a PhD in Physical Education, and teaches and researches in the
areas of martial arts and Asian studies. He was appointed as the first foreigner in Korea to teach
taekwondo at a university. He researches, lectures and publishes extensively in the fields of Asian
studies, martial arts and sport, and has over 40 years of practical martial arts experience.

Katsumi Mori is Professor at the National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, which is
the only national university in Japan specialising in sport, and a leader of the Faculty of the
Sports Humanities and Applied Social Science of NIFS. Professor Katsumi Mori has received
the Grants-in-aid for Scientific Research of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science
three times since 2010 and pushed forward a study concerning child protection systems in edu-
cation, sport and sport integrity in the UK. In addition, he has held two funded international
symposia in Japan. He is a member of the Board of Directors of the Japanese Society of Policy
for Physical Education and Sport and an inspector of the Japan Sports Law Association.

Toho Cholik Mutohir is Professor in the postgraduate program at Physical Education Depart-
ment and Sport Science Department. His research interests are physical education, sport devel-
opment index, sport science, sport history and culture.

xxiii
Contributors

Souvik Naha is Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions postdoctoral fellow at the Department of

History, Durham University. He is Associate Editor of Sport in Society, Editor of Sport in History
and Book Reviews Editor of Soccer & Society. His current research focuses on the significance
of sport to the Indo-British relationship in the twentieth century. He has edited three books
and one journal special issue, and he has written 20 journal articles and book chapters on vari-
ous aspects of sport, politics and popular culture. His monograph on the interplay of cricket,
media and public culture in modern India will be published by Cambridge University Press
in 2020.

Usha Sujit Nair is Associate Professor at Lakshmibai National College of Physical Education,
Thiruvananthapuram, India. Her publications include chapters in Routledge’s Elite Youth Sport
Policy Management: A Comparative Analysis, edited by Elsa Kristiansen, Milena M. Parent and
Barrie Houlihan; Springer’s Comparative Sport Development Systems, Participation and Public Policy,
edited by Kirstin Hallmann and Karen Petry; and Greenwood’s National Sports Policies: An Inter-
national Handbook, edited by Laurence Chalip, Arthur Johnson and Lisa Stachura.

Gwang Ok is Professor at Chungbuk National University in South Korea, Regional Board Edi-
tor of the International Journal of the History of Sport, and Editor of the Asia Pacific Journal of Sport
and Social Science. He is Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Korean Alliance of Martial Arts and the
Korean Journal of Golf Studies. He has published in the International Journal of the History of Sport,
the Korean Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance and the Korean Journal of Physical
Education.

Bonnie Pang directs a research program on Rethinking Health Experiences and Active Life-
styles with Chinese Communities (REHEAL-C), which focuses on the Chinese diaspora in
health education and the area of health and physical cultures. This research has examined Chi-
nese youths from Australia, the UK and Hong Kong and is underpinned by a range of (critical)
sociocultural theories, ethnographic methods and art-based methods. Dr Pang is a recipient of
the prestigious Marie Sklodowska-Curie Individual Fellowship (2019–2020). She has published
in key journals, including Sport, Education and Society; Teaching and Teacher Education; and Pedagogy,
Culture and Society. She is co-author of Interpreting the Chinese Diaspora: Socialisation, Identity and
Resilience According to Pierre Bourdieu (Routledge, 2019) with Guanglun Michael Mu.

Swarali Patil is a PhD candidate in the Sport Management and Leadership stream at Western
University’s School of Kinesiology in London, Canada. She holds an MA in Kinesiology (Sport
Management and Leadership) from Western University and has a BA (Hons) in Sport Manage-
ment from Coventry University. Her doctoral research focuses on building capacity for women
in sport, in their roles as athletes, coaches, officials and leaders. Her additional research interests
include gender equity in sport, organisational capacity and strategy in sport management.

Kyoungho Park is Research Professor at Jeju National University. He published his co-authored
article on the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games in The International Journal of the History of Sport in
2011. He has several publications in Korean journals.

Lee Ping-Chao is Professor in the Department of Physical Education at National Taichung

University of Education in Taiwan. He has published papers in the fields of sport history and
sport sociology. His current research interests include sport politics, sport policy and the field of
governance of professional baseball in Asia.

xxiv
 Contributors

Guy Podoler is Senior Lecturer in Korean Studies and Head of the Department of Asian Studies
at the University of Haifa. His research interests include memory and commemoration, sport
history, sport nationalism and sport diplomacy. He is author of Monuments, Memory, and Identity:
Constructing the Colonial Past in South Korea (Peter Lang AG, 2011), and his articles appeared in
journals such as Asian Studies Review, The International Journal of the History of Sport, The Inter-
national Journal of Cultural Policy, Acta Koreana, Korea Observer, The Review of Korean Studies and
others. He has also contributed chapters to edited volumes, and he acts as reviewer for various
academic journals. Dr Podoler is on the editorial board of The International Journal of the History
of Sport (Asia and the Middle East academic team).

Pierrick Porchet is a PhD candidate at the University of Geneva and works as a research and
teaching assistant at the Confucius Institute. He holds a Master degree in Chinese Studies and
Contemporary History from the University of Geneva. His current research focuses on the
circulation of martial arts’ body technics and representations in contemporary China. Relying
on the ethnographic studies of martial arts sites in the People’s Republic of China, his research
reflects on how Chinese cultural policy impacts practitioners’ everyday habits and views and
how this process can be traced back in the materiality of practitioners’ bodies.

Daniel J. A. Rhind is Chartered Psychologist and a Reader in Psychology at Loughborough

University. His research focuses on how children’s rights can be protected in, around and through
sport. Daniel’s research has been funded by the European Commission, Commonwealth Secre-
tariat, Oak Foundation, the Daiwa Foundation, International Inspiration, the Football Associa-
tion, the Rugby Football Union, the International Tennis Federation and the National Society
for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. His most recent research was the foundation of the
recently launched International Safeguards for Children in Sport which have been endorsed by
over 120 sport organisations around the world.

Larbi Sadiki is Professor of Arab Democratization at the Department of International Affairs,

Qatar University and LPI of the QNRF-funded project ‘Transitions of Islam and Democracy.’
He is editor of the Routledge Series on Middle Eastern Democratization and Governance and
editor of The Routledge Handbook of Middle East Politics (2019).

Yasuhiro Sakaue is Professor in the Graduate School of Social Sciences at Hitotsubashi Uni-
versity in Tokyo. He has published widely on the history and sociology of sport in Japan. His
most recent book is Showa Tennō to Supōtsu: Gyokutai no Kindaishi [The Showa Emperor and Sport:
A Modern History of the Imperial Presence],Yoshikawa Kōbunkan, 2016. He has written extensively
on the modern history of Japanese martial arts and is editor of the book Umi o Watatta Jūjutsu
to Jūdō: Nihon Budō no Dainamizumu [Jūjutsu and Jūdō Overseas:The Dynamism of Japanese Martial
arts], Seikyusha, 2010.

Layla Saleh is Assistant Professor of Political Science at Qatar University’s Department of Inter-
national Affairs. She earned her PhD in Political Science from the University of Wisconsin-
Milwaukee and is the author of US Hard Power in the Arab World: Resistance, the Syrian Uprising,
and the War on Terror (Routledge, 2017).

Andrea L. Stanton is Associate Professor of Islamic Studies and Chair of the Department of
Religious Studies at the University of Denver (Colorado, United States), where she is an affili-
ate faculty member at the Korbel Center for Middle East Studies. She holds a PhD in Middle

xxv
Contributors

Eastern history and has published on sport in Lebanon and Syria, with a focus on the Olympics
and Olympic-sanctioned regional games. She has received grants from the National Endow-
ment for the Humanities, the United States Institute of Peace, and the American Academy of
Religion.

Osamu Takamine is Professor in the School of Political Science and Economics at Meiji Uni-
versity, Japan, and a board chairperson of the Japan Society for Sport and Gender Studies. He
received a PhD in Health and Sport Sciences from Chukyo University, Japan. He has pub-
lished both qualitative and quantitative articles concerning sexual harassment in sport settings
and devoted himself for more than 15 years to solving issues of violence and sexual assault in
Japan. He is author of ”Women’s Sports in Japan: Enters a Period of Change,” in G. Molnar, S.
Amin, Y. Kanemasu, eds., Women, Sport and Exercise in the Asia-Pacific Region (Routledge, 2019,
pp. 173–187). He has recently developed an interest in a gender verification test from a socio-
logical perspective.

Lee Thompson is Professor of the Sociology of Sport and Media in the Faculty of Sport Sci-
ences at Waseda University in Tokyo. His research interests focus on the relationship between
sport and the media in Japan. He has published in several international journals, including Inter-
national Review for the Sociology of Sport, Sport in Society and The International Journal of the History
of Sport, as well as a range of Japanese publications. He is co-author with Allen Guttmann of
Japanese Sports: A History.

Friederike Trotier is a research assistant at the Chair of Comparative Development and Cultural
Studies – Southeast Asia at the University of Passau. Until 2017, she worked at the Department
of Southeast Asian Studies, Goethe University Frankfurt. She was awarded a PhD in Southeast
Asian Studies in 2018. In her thesis she analysed the role of sport events in the changing Indo-
nesian history and scrutinised the new local agency after Indonesia’s decentralisation process
with the example of Palembang as Indonesia’s new sport city. She has recently published in the
International Journal of the History of Sport on ‘The Legacy of the Games of the New Emerg-
ing Forces and Indonesia’s Relationship with the International Olympic Committee,’ and in
the Asia Pacific Journal of Sport and Social Science on ‘Changing an image through sports events:
Palembang’s success story.’

Wang Yan obtained her PhD in Sports Studies from Soochow University, Suzhou, China, in
2014. She is Associate Professor at the School of Physical Education and Sports, Soochow Uni-
versity, China. Her main research interest is sport history and culture, with particular focus on
modern China.

Ma Yang is a PhD candidate in the Department of Sport Governance and Event Management
at the University of Bayreuth, Germany. His research interests reside in sport governance in
China in general and Chinese football governance in particular. He has published articles in
International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, Sport Business and Management: An International
Journal and Journal of Global Sport Management.

Liu Yinya is Lecturer in Chinese Studies at Maynooth University, Ireland. She received both her
Bachelor and Master degrees in Philosophy from Sun Yat-Sen University in Guangzhou, China,
and obtained her PhD in philosophy from Maynooth University in 2011. She has worked in
the Department of Philosophy (Maynooth University), Department of Chinese Studies (Dublin

xxvi
 Contributors

City University) and the International Strategic Collaboration Programme (ISCP-China) before
joining the School of Modern Languages, Literatures and Cultures in Maynooth University in
2015. She publishes research articles and book chapters on philosophy, religion, culture and
media. Her research interests are Chinese philosophy, comparative philosophy, philosophy of
religion, philosophy in literature and Chinese Buddhism.

Zhong Yuting is a PhD candidate in the School of Sport, Health & Exercise Sciences, Bangor
University, UK. She received both her BA and MA from Zhejiang Normal University. Her
research interests centre around the Olympic Games and China’s sport policy and practice.

Zhong Yijing is a PhD candidate in the Institute of Population Research, Peking University.
She received her BA from Peking University and MA from Johns Hopkins University. She has
published articles in Chinese and English on New Energy strategies and the educational system
of China. She has been involved in a number of research projects on children’s sport and physi-
cal education in China.

Bakeel Al Zandani is Assistant Professor and Head of the Department of International Affairs,
Qatar University. He holds a PhD from the University of Nebraska, Lincoln, in the United
States. He was head of the Department of Political Science and Sana’a University,Yemen (2013–
2016). His latest publication, titled ‘Algeria’s National Reconciliation: An Analytical Approach,’
was co-authored with Professor Youcef Bouandel and appeared in the Algerian Review of Human
Security, July 2019.

Guan Zhixun received his PhD degree from the University of Western Australia in 2016 and is
now Senior Lecturer in Sports Studies and the Head of School of Sports Sociology and Sports
Management at the College of Physical Education and Health Sciences, Zhejiang Normal Uni-
versity, China. His research focus is on disability sport.

xxvii
 Preface

When Simon Whitmore suggested to us that we produce The Routledge Handbook of Sport in
Asia, we were thrilled with the idea. Naturally, as authors whose research areas are closely linked
to Asia, we hope to inspire publishers and readers with a slightly different perspective from
the familiar European and North American accounts of sport history. We aim to provide our
readership a platform for understanding and enjoying the history and culture of sport from the
perspective of the East. We thank Simon Whitmore for his vision and trust in providing us with
the opportunity to develop this book in a subject area that is very dear to our hearts.
This Handbook is the collective work of 74 fine scholars from across the world of academia –
both the East and the West. We thank them for their enthusiasm, passion and professionalism. It
is a unique moment for us to have had this opportunity to harvest their research fruits in this
single book!
There is a continuous flow of new discoveries, new evidence, new perspectives and new
conceptualisations related to the history and culture of sport in Asia. This Handbook is our first
attempt to show not only how much we know but how much more there is yet to know.We are
grateful to be taking our readers on this journey towards the future of changes and challenges in
Asia and in the sport world. As the famous Chinese poet Wang Zhihuan (688–742) once wrote:
‘Let us ascend another storey to see a thousand miles’ (欲穷千里目，更上一层楼).

Chinese names
Chinese family names (‘Deng’) appear before given names (‘Xiaoping’) and are listed in text,
notes and bibliographies in that order in this book.

xxviii
 Acknowledgements

We are grateful for the contributions of Aelred Doyle, Peter Herrmann, Arbi Sarkissian, Martin
Shiels and Zhong Yuting, who helped in proofreading and providing editorial feedback on the
manuscript. We thank Rebecca Connor for her generous and efficient administrative assistance.
We express our gratitude to all the anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments and sug-
gestions to this project.

xxix
 Abbreviations

All Japan Kendō Federation (AJKF)

All-China Women’s Federation (ACWF)
Asian Badminton Confederation (ABC)
Asian Football Confederation (AFC)
Asian Games Federation (AGF)
Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games (AIMAG)
Asian Indoor Games (AIG)
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP)
Batavia Badminton League (BBL)
Bataviasche Badminton Bond (BBB)
Bataviasche Badminton Unie (BBU)
Beijing Olympic Games Bid Committee (BOBICO)
Berber Cultural Movement (MCB)
Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)
Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI)
British American Tobacco (BAT)
Build, Operate and Transfer (BOT)
Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)
Calcutta Royal Golf Club (CRGC)
Cerebral Palsy International Sports and Recreation Association (CPISRA)
China Central Television (CCTV)
China Disabled Persons’ Federation (CDPF)
China General Administration of Sport (CGAS)
China National Amateur Athletic Federation (CNAAF)
China Youth Anti-Communist National Salvation Corps (CYC)
Chinese Basketball Association (CBA)
Chinese Basketball Association League (CBAL)
Chinese Communist Party (CCP)
Chinese Football Association (CFA)
Chinese Football Association Super League (CSL)
Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI)
Chinese Nationalist Party (Kuomintang, KMT)
Chinese Olympic Committee (COC)
Chinese Swimming Club (CSC)
Chinese Table Tennis Association (CTTA)

xxx
 Abbreviations

Chinese Taipei Olympic Committee (CTOC)

Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)
Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)
Democratic Progressive Party (DPP)
Department of Physical Education (DPE)
East Asian Games Association (EAGA)
Emerging Communitarian Caring Bureaucratic System (ECCBS)
Entreprise Nationale des Industries de l’Electroménager (ENIEM)
Étoile Nord-Africaine (ENA)
Eurasian Singapore Recreation Club (SRC)
Evergrande Real Estate Group (EREG)
Far East and South Pacific Disability Games (FESPIC)
Far East and South Pacific Games for the Disabled (FESPIC)
Far Eastern Athletic Association (FEAA)
Far Eastern Championship Games (FECG)
Far Eastern Games Federation (FEGF)
Far Eastern Olympiad (FEO)
Far Eastern Olympic Association (FEOA)
Federation of Malaya Olympic Council (FMOC)
Games of the New Emerging Forces (GANEFO)
Gender and Development (GAD)
Gender Gap Index (GGI)
Gender Inequality Index (GII)
Gender-related Development Index (GDI)
Government-General of Korea (GGK)
Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
Guangzhou Evergrande Football Club (GEFC)
Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)
Human Development Index (HDI)
Hong Kong Ving Tsun Athletic Association (VTAA)
Indian Premier League (IPL)
Indonesia Olympic Committee (KORI)
Indonesian Badminton Association (PBSI)
Indonesian Morning Gymnastics (SPI)
Indonesian National Sports Committee (KONI)
International Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF)
International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF)
International Badminton Federation (IBF)
International Basketball Federation (FIBA)
International Blind Sports Federation (IBSA)
International E-Sports Federation (IESF)
International Federation of Football Associations (FIFA)
International Federation of Wushu (IWUF)
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
International Olympic Academy (IOA)
International Olympic Committee (IOC)
International Sport and Leisure (ISL)
International Sports Federation for Persons with Intellectual Disability (INAS-FID)

xxxi
Abbreviations

International Taekwondo Federation (ITF)

International Wheelchair & Amputee Sports (IWAS)
Islamic Solidarity Sports Federation (ISSF)
Japan Sports Agency (JSA)
Jeunesse Sportive de Kabylie (JSK)
Joseon Sports Association (JSA)
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA)
Korea Development Institute (KDI)
Korea Taekwondo Association (KTA)
Korean Central Intelligence Agency (KCIA)
Korean Football Association (KFA)
Korean Professional E-Sports Association (KESPA)
Lakshmibai National Institute of Physical Education (LNIPE)
Lawn Tennis Association of Malaya (LTAM)
Liberal Democratic Party (LDP)
Malay Football Association (MFA)
Malaya Badminton Association (MBA)
Malayan Athletic Association (MAA)
Malayan Football Association (MFA)
Malayan Rugby Union (MRU)
Middle East and North African (MENA)
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
Ministry of Education (MoE)
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT)
Mixed Martial Arts (MMA)
National Fitness Programme (NFP)
National Liberation Front (FLN)
National Liberation Front’s (FNL)
National Olympic Committees (NOCs)
National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC)
National Sport Governing Body (NSGB)
National Sports Talent Contest (NSTC)
National Sports Training Centre (NSTC)
National Sports Week (PON)
Netaji Subhas National Institute of Sports (NSNIS)
New Emerging Forces (NEFOs)
Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs)
Old Established Forces (OLDEFOs)
Olympic Broadcasting Services (OBS)
Olympic Council of Asia (OCA)
Opposition Defiance Disorder (ODD)
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC)
Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO)
Parent Sports Organization (IOCO)
People’s Democratic Republic of Korea (DPRK)
People’s Republic of China (PRC)
People’s Consultative Assembly (MPR)
Perak Badminton Association (PBA)

xxxii
 Abbreviations

Physical Education (PE)

Physical Fitness Exercise (SKJ)
Prime Minister’s Office of Japan (PMOJ)
Public Works Department (PWD)
Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)
Radio Television Malaysia (RTM)
Raffles Institution (RI)
Rally for Culture and Democracy (RCD)
Republic of China (ROC)
Republic of China Sports Federation (ROCSF)
Republic of Korea (ROK)
Rethinking Health Experiences and Active Lifestyles with Chinese Communities (REHEAL-C)
SEAP Games Federation (SGF)
Self Defence Forces (SDF)
Senior High School of Sports (SMOA)
Seoul 1988 Organising Committee (SLOOC)
Singapore Cricket Club (SCC)
Singapore Football Association (SFA)
Singapore Recreation Club (SRC)
Southeast Asian (SEA)
Southeast Asian Peninsular (SEAP)
SEAP Games Federation (SEAPGF)
SEA Games Federation (SEAGF)
Special Administrative Region (SAR)
Special Area Games Scheme (SAG)
Sport for All (SFA)
Sport, Gender and Development (SGD)
Sport-for-Development (SFD)
Sports Administration (SA)
Sports Affairs Council (SAC)
Sports Authority of India (SAI)
Sports Development Authority of Tamil Nadu (SDAT)
Sports Federation & Olympic Committee of Hong Kong, China (SF&OC)
Straits Chinese Football Association (SCFA)
Straits Chinese Recreation Club (SCRC)
Surat Bukti Kewarganegaraan Republik Indonesia (SBKRI)
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
The International Committee of Special Olympics (IPC)
The International Committee of Sports for the Deaf (ICSD)
The International Paralympic Committee (IPC)
The Ladies Lawn Tennis Club (LLTC)
The Olympic Partnership (TOP)
The Straits Chinese Recreation Club (SCRC)
Three Nations Commission (KTN)
Unfederated Malay States (UMS)
United Arab Emirates (UAE)
United Nations (UN)
Women in Development (WID)

xxxiii
Abbreviations

World Ranking List (WRL)

World Taekwondo (WT)
World Taekwondo Federation (WTF)
World Trade Organization (WTO)
World War II (WWII)
Wushu Federation of Asia (WFA)
Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA)

xxxiv
 Introduction
The Asian century and Asian sport
Fan Hong and Lu Zhouxiang

As the largest continent in the world, Asia comprises one-fifth of Earth’s total surface area,
covering more than 17 million square miles (44.6 million square kilometres) of continental
landmasses and outlying archipelagos. At almost five times the size of the United States and more
than four times the size of Europe, it stretches from the eastern Mediterranean basin and Red
Sea across two-thirds of the Eurasian continent to the Pacific Ocean. Asia’s biophysical and
climatic diversity is matched by its cultural and social diversity. It encompasses 48 countries and
contains three dominant cultural characteristics: the Islamic, the Hindu-Buddhist and the Sinic.
Asia is home to 4.5 billion people, nearly 60 percent of the world’s population.1
For much of its recorded history, Asia has been considered the most important region of the
world. As Angus Maddison demonstrated, for most of the past two thousand years up until the
mid-1800s, China, India and Japan together generated higher gross GDP than the United States,
United Kingdom, France, Germany and Italy combined.2 But with the Industrial Revolution,
Western societies modernised their economies, expanded their empires and subjugated most of
Asia. Two centuries of European colonialism and rule around the world were followed by the
gradual independence of nations from European hegemony. As a former colony of the British
Empire, the United States eventually rose to become a global power after World War II. West-
ern laws, interventions, money and culture set the global agenda, and a Western global order
emerged whose dominance prevailed throughout the twentieth century.3 This late development
did have its own set of consequences. While the modern Western state is frequently classified as
‘TRUDI’ (Territorial State, the state that secures the Rule of Law, the Democratic State, and the Interven-
tion State),4 a different mode of development took place in Asia, which has been referred to as
‘ECCBS’ (Emerging Communitarian Caring Bureaucratic System).5 This suggests that the adoption
of ‘modernity’ is characterised by specific features; in particular, the ongoing meaning of tradi-
tional mechanisms of integration. It may be equally seen as successful development of govern-
ance mechanisms overcoming the shortcomings of the modern state, which had been often
criticised as a ‘havened modernity’ (Beck) or an ‘iron cage of bureaucracy’ (Weber).
At the beginning of the twenty-first century, the world system changed, and Asia moved from
an enforced wallflower existence at the periphery towards a central position in a new global
constellation. Its fresh and healthy orchards began to shine over the ruins of the old masters, with
some buds still waiting to burst forth. Over recent decades, Asia has gained the greatest share of

1
Fan Hong and Lu Zhouxiang

total global economic growth. Hundreds of millions of Asian people growing up in the past two
decades have experienced rapidly expanding prosperity and surging national pride. The world
they have come to know is not one of Western dominance but of Asian ascendance. The new
world order is no longer one of centre-periphery but rather one of a multifaceted character.
Nevertheless, in the framework of such a new world order, the ability to mindfully develop
differentiated policies in Asian countries – reaching from authoritarian statehood to well-
designed, non-authoritarian mechanisms of self-determination – require more skilful policy
developments than the simple defence of the quasi-hereditary power-positions. Again, the
merger of traditional and quasi post-modern policy mechanisms is a characteristic of a reason-
ably successful strategy. Also, the success cannot be assessed by simply applying the traditional
standards, such as GDP growth and employment rate; it must be assessed also through the UN’s
Human Development Index (HDI), which includes dimensions such as health, education and
standard of living.6
After an initial simple move of catching up, the consolidated development is characterised by
an emphasis on qualitative aspects that concern the quality of the techno-economic develop-
ment, the living standard and the search for new forms of social integration. As ‘late developers,’
many Asian countries have the opportunity to build things up from scratch instead of changing
badly run systems.
The Asian economic centre, which includes economies from the Arabian Peninsula and
Turkey in the west to New Zealand in the east, and from Russia in the North to Australia
in the south, now represents 50 per cent of global GDP and two-thirds of global economic
growth.7 Of the estimated $30 trillion in middle-class consumption growth calculated for the
years between 2015 and 2030, only $1 trillion is expected to come from today’s Western econo-
mies; most is projected to be generated from Asian economies. Asia produces and exports, as well
as imports, more goods than any other region. Moreover, Asian countries trade and invest more
with one another than they do with Europe and North America. Asia has several of the world’s
largest economies, much of the world’s foreign exchange reserves, many of the largest banks, and
many of the largest industrial and technology companies.8
To see the world from the Asian point of view requires overcoming decades of accumulated
and wilfully cultivated ignorance about Asia. To this day, Asian perspectives are often inflected
through Western narratives rather than global ones. For instance, the ‘global financial crisis’ was
not global; Asian growth rates continued to surge, and almost all the world’s fastest-growing
economies were in Asia. In 2018, the world’s highest growth rates were reported in India, China,
Indonesia, Malaysia and Uzbekistan.While economic stimulus arrangements and ultra-low inter-
est rates had been discontinued in the United States and Europe, they have continued in Asia.9
Similarly, Western populist politics, from Brexit to Trump, have not infected Asia, where
pragmatic governments are focused on inclusive growth and social cohesion. Americans and
Europeans see walls going up, but across Asia they are coming down. Rather than being
backwards-looking, navel-gazing and pessimistic, billions of Asians are forward looking, out-
ward-oriented and optimistic.10
On the whole, Asia is a nursery from where many civilisations were born. Evidently, there
has not been a singular Asian cultural resurgence across such a vast and diverse continent. How-
ever, there is a kind of renaissance emerging where the desire for sharing among Asian societies
reflects in shopping, eating, arts, entertainment, migration and tourism. Today, greater inter-
marriage and cultural integration through cross-border education, sporting events and labour
opportunities have produced an intra-Asian connectivity and regional understanding.The com-
bination of culture and modern technological advancement is binding Asians together in an era
when Western societies no longer serve as role models for the future of Asia. Asian cultures have

2
 Introduction

now become a part of the global culture, which is recognised by people from both the West
and the East. Martial arts,Yoga, music, dance, performing arts, literature, poetry, film, fashion and
languages are not only accelerating Asia’s journey of self-discovery but also bridging it to the
rest of the world.
Despite diversities in their culture and society, Asian countries have taken similar pathways
during the recent historical journey from political independence to social transformation and
modernity. In the twentieth century, through a triadic process of cultural continuity, assimilation
of contemporary ideas and resistance to imperial powers, individual Asian countries developed
a specific political modernity characterised as ECCBS.11
In 1998, Kishore Mahbubani published a provocative collection of essays titled Can Asians
Think? It warns the West that the global tide is turning and that Asia has as much to teach the
West as the reverse. As Asians come to adopt some semblance of a common world view, it is time
to explore not simply if Asians can think but how they think about the world.12
In 2014, Chinese President Xi Jinping declared to a gathering of Asian leaders in Shanghai,
‘It is for the people of Asia to run the affairs of Asia, solve the problems of Asia and uphold the
security of Asia.’13 Although there are differences between China and its neighbouring countries,
the Asian nations do share the common belief that ‘Asia should come first.’ Asia is confident
enough to fulfil an innovative role on the world stage!
In May of 2017, a decisive shift could be seen in the characterising of a new global order
and defining within this a new role for Asian countries. Sixty-eight countries, representing two-
thirds of the world population and half of the global GDP, gathered in Beijing for the first Belt
and Road Initiative (BRI) summit. This gathering of Asian, European and American leaders
symbolised the launch of the largest coordinated infrastructure investment plan in human his-
tory. Collectively, the assembled governments pledged to spend trillions of dollars in the coming
decades to connect the world’s largest population centres in a constellation of commerce and
cultural exchange.14 A new Silk Road era is born, and the Asian Century has begun!
Asia’s rise has become an increasingly discussed and debated topic over the past two decades.
The region’s fast-growing economy, as well as its cultural and political influence, has made it
one of the pillars of the international order in this new era of the Asian Century. In recent
years, scholars from both the East and West have been studying the history, culture, politics and
economy of Asian countries from diverse disciplinary perspectives.15
As Peter Frankopan stated,

The Silk Roads serves as a term that describes the ways in which people, cultures and con-
tinents were woven together – and in doing so help[s] us better to understand the way that
religions and languages spread in the past, while showing how ideas about food, fashion and
art disseminated, competed and borrowed from each other.16

Unfortunately, Frankopan and others missed the opportunity to mention sport as one of
the key contributions to the Silk Roads. The development of sport events has allowed us to
see the rhythms of history, in which the world has been connected for millennia, as being part
of the bigger and inclusive global past. Asian sport has become one of the popular topics among
academics, politicians and ordinary people.
Modern sport played an important role in stimulating political reassertion, a sense of national
identity and the arousal of Orientalism.17 The influence of sport on Asian societies has been
widely discussed, and an increasing number of English publications have emerged. They either
focus on sport in individual Asian countries, notably China, India, Japan and Korea,18 or they
focus on Asia as a whole, offering insights into Asian sport from a macro perspective.19

3
Fan Hong and Lu Zhouxiang

Written by a team of 74 international scholars, The Routledge Handbook of Sport in Asia pro-
vides a comprehensive overview of the history and development of sport in countries across East
Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia and West Asia. It aims to open different perspectives on Asian
sport and addresses a wide range of issues central to the development of sport in the context
of Asian culture, politics, economy and society. It explores a diverse set of topics: the history of
traditional sport; the rise of modern sport in Asia; the Olympic Movement in Asia; mega sport
events in Asia; sport governance and policy; gender, class and ethnicity in Asian sport; and Asia’s
sporting heroes and heroines. It offers a distinctive contribution to our knowledge and under-
standing of Asian sport and Asian society. It shows Asia from the inside-out and tells the story
of how sport in this mega-region is coming together and reshaping the world in the process.
This book is divided into seven parts: Asia’s Traditional Sports; The Rise of Modern Sport
and the Olympic Movement in Asia; Sport Policy and Practice: Public and Private Provision;
Social Stratification and Diversity in Asian Sport; Sport in West Asia and the Middle East; Asian
Mega Sporting Events; and Asia’s Sport Heroes and Heroines.
Ultimately, this book is just one example that shows how historians continue to refine and
improve their understanding of the history of sport regionally and globally. This is what makes
sport history such an exciting subject – there is a thrill in being provoked and encouraged to
think about things differently while also discovering connections that link peoples, regions, ideas
and themes together. We hope this book will bring some new discoveries, new definitions, new
perspectives and new evidence that will inspire our future study of the evolution of sport in
Asia and beyond.
The Routledge Handbook of Sport in Asia provides a detailed snapshot of historical and contem-
porary sport affairs in Asia. It offers readers a wide lens through which to better contextualise
what has happened and what is still going on between Asia and the world within the global
sport community. Asian sport lies at the heart of Asian culture, history, economy and politics. In
fact, it is so central to these areas that it is not possible to make sense of what the present and
future have in store for Asia without taking Asian sport into account. This handbook is, there-
fore, intended to bring the history up to date and to interpret what has happened in the sport
world, which has experienced profound transformation. It shows that the decisions being made
in today’s sport world are not only being made in Lausanne, London, Belgium and Washington
but also in Beijing, Tokyo, Doha, New Delhi, Jakarta and Moscow. It tells the story of how sport
once shaped the countries along the Silk Roads, and how it is re-emerging in the twenty-first
century to reshape the region and the world into the future. Asian sport is not only about the
past – it is already in the present, and it will continue to rise with the Asian Century.

Notes
1 Milton W. Meyer, Asia: A Concise History (New York: Portman & Littlefield, 1997), 1–2; Dorling Kinder-
sley, Reference Atlas of the World (London: Dorling Kindersley, 2003); Parag Khanna, The Future Is Asian
(London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2019).
2 Khanna, The Future Is Asian, 2.
3 Ibid.
4 Michael Zuern and Stephan Leibfried, ‘ “A New Perspective on the State: Reconfiguring the National
Constellation,”‘ European Review 13, no. 1 (2005): 1–36.
5 Ibid.‘’
6 ‘ “Human Development Index,”‘ United Nations Development Programme, http://hdr.undp.org/en/
content/human-development-index-hdi.
7 “ ‘Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific,”‘ Asian Development Bank, 2015, www.adb.org/sites/default/
files/publication/175162/ki2015.pdf.
8 ‘’Ibid.

4
 Introduction

9 Ibid.’’, 17
1 0 Ibid.’’, 18.
1 1 Jan Romein, The Asian Century: A History of Modern Nationalism in Asia (London: George Allen &
Unwin, 1965); Colin Mason, A Short History of Asia (London: Macmillan, 2000); P. W. Preston, Pacific
Asia in the Global System (Oxford: Blackwell, 1998); Donald G. McCloud, Southeast Asia: Tradition and
Modernity in the Contemporary World (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995); Milton Osborne, Southeast
Asia: An Introductory History (St Leonards: George Allen & Unwin, 1995); Albert Kolb, East Asian: China,
Japan, Korea,Vietnam: Geography of a Cultural Region (London: Methuen, 1971).
12 Kishore Mahbubani, ‘ “Can Asians Think?”‘ Media Asia (1997): 123–27.
13 Xi Jinping, “New Asian Security Concept for New Progress in Security Cooperation,” Remarks at
the Fourth Summit of the Conference on Interaction and Confidence Building in Asia, Ministry of
Foreign Affairs of People’s Republic of China, Beijing, May 21, 2014, 10.
14 Khanna, The Future Is Asian, 1.
15 Daniel Novotny, Torn Between America and China: Elite Perceptions and Indonesian Foreign Policy (Singa-
pore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2010); Ang Cheng Guan, Southeast Asia After the Cold War:
A Contemporary History (Singapore: National University of Singapore Press, 2019); Peter Frankopan, The
Silk Roads: A New History of the World (London: Bloomsbury, 2016); Fred Halliday, The Middle East in
International Relations: Power Politics and Ideology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005); Daron
Acemoglu and James A. Robinson, Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty (New
York: Crown Business, 2012); Osborne, Southeast Asia.
16 Peter Frankopan, The New Silk Roads: The Present and Future of the World (London: Bloomsbury,
2018), 2.
17 Fan Hong, ‘ “Nationalism, Orientalism and Globalization: The Future of the Asian Games,”‘ Sport in
Society 8, no. 3 (2005): 515–19.
18 Susan Brownell, Training the Body for China: Sports in the Moral Order of the People’s Republic (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1995); Fan Hong, Footbinding, Feminism and Freedom: The Liberation of
Women’s Bodies in Modern China (London: Routledge, 1997); Allen Guttmann and Lee Thompson,
Japanese Sports: A History (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2001); Andrew Morris, Marrow of the
Nation: A History of Sport and Physical Culture in Republican China (Berkeley, CA: University of California
Press, 2004); Joseph Maguire and Masayoshi Nakayama, Japan, Sport and Society: Tradition and Change in
a Globalizing World (London: Routledge, 2005); Gwang Ok, Transformation of Modern Korean Sport: Impe-
rialism, Nationalism, Globalization (Seoul: Hollym International Corporation, 2007); Rachael Miyung
Joo, Transnational Sport: Gender, Media, and Global Korea (Durham: Duke University Press Books, 2012);
Gerald R. Gems, Sport and the American Occupation of the Philippines: Bats, Balls, and Bayonets (Lanham,
MD: Lexington Books, 2016); Denis Gainty, Martial Arts and the Body Politic in Meiji Japan (London:
Routledge, 2015); Fan Hong and Lu Zhouxiang, The Politicisation of Sport in Modern China: Communists
and Champions (London: Routledge, 2014); Ronojoy Sen, Nation at Play: A History of Sport in India
(New York: Columbia University Press, 2015); Dae Hee Kwak, Yong Jae Ko, Inkyu Kang, and Mark
Rosentraub, eds., Sport in Korea: History, Development, Management (London: Routledge, 2017); Hong
and Zhouxiang, The Politicisation of Sport in Modern China; Liu Li and Fan Hong, The National Games
and National Identity in China: A History (London: Routledge, 2017); Huijie Zhang, Fan Hong, and
Fuhua Huang, Christianity and the Transformation of Physical Education and Sport in China (London: Rout-
ledge, 2019); Fuhua Huang and Fan Hong, eds., A History of Chinese Martial Arts (London: Routledge,
2018).
19 J. A. Mangan and Fan Hong, eds., Sport in Asian Society: Past and Present (London: Cass, 2002); Joseph
A. Reaves, Taking in a Game: A History of Baseball in Asia (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press,
2004); Victor Cha, Beyond the Final Score: The Politics of Sport in Asia (New York: Columbia University
Press, 2008); Fan Hong, ed., Sport, Nationalism and Orientalism: The Asian Games (London: Routledge,
2013); Younghan Cho, ed., Football in Asia: History, Culture and Business (London: Routledge, 2014);
Fan Hong and Lu Zhouxiang, eds., Sport and Nationalism in Asia: Power, Politics and Identity (London:
Routledge, 2014); Younghan Cho and Charles Leary, eds., Modern Sports in Asia: Cultural Perspectives
(London: Routledge, 2014); William Kelly and J. A. Mangan, The New Geopolitics of Sport in East Asia
(London: Routledge, 2014); Katrin Bromber, Birgit Krawietz, and Joseph Maguire, eds., Sport Across
Asia: Politics, Cultures, and Identities (London: Routledge, 2015); Stefan Huebner, Pan-Asian Sports and
the Emergence of Modern Asia, 1913–1974 (Singapore: National University of Singapore Press, 2016); J.
A. Mangan, Sandra Collins, and Gwang Ok, eds., The Triple Asian Olympics–Asia Rising: The Pursuit of
National Identity, International Recognition and Global Esteem (London: Routledge, 2017); John Horne and

5
Fan Hong and Lu Zhouxiang

Wolfram Manzenreiter, Football Goes East: Business, Culture and the People’s Game in East Asia (London:
Routledge, 2004); Fan Hong, ed., Sport in the Middle East: Power, Politics, Ideology and Religion (London:
Routledge, 2015).

Bibliography
Acemoglu, Daron, and James A. Robinson. Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty.
New York: Crown Business, 2012.
Bromber, Katrin, Birgit Krawietz, and Joseph Maguire, eds. Sport Across Asia: Politics, Cultures, and Identities.
London: Routledge, 2015.
Brownell, Susan. Training the Body for China: Sports in the Moral Order of the People’s Republic. Chicago: Uni-
versity of Chicago Press, 1995.
Cha,Victor. Beyond the Final Score:The Politics of Sport in Asia. Columbia University Press, 2008.
Cho,Younghan, ed. Football in Asia: History, Culture and Business. London: Routledge, 2014.
Cho, Younghan, and Charles Leary, eds. Modern Sports in Asia: Cultural Perspectives. London: Routledge,
2014.
Frankopan, Peter. The New Silk Roads:The Present and Future of the World. London: Bloomsbury, 2018.
Frankopan, Peter. The Silk Roads: A New History of the World. London: Bloomsbury, 2016.
Gainty, Denis. Martial Arts and the Body Politic in Meiji Japan. London: Routledge, 2015.
Gems, Gerald R. Sport and the American Occupation of the Philippines: Bats, Balls, and Bayonets. Lanham, MD:
Lexington Books, 2016.
Guan, Ang Cheng. Southeast Asia After the Cold War: A Contemporary History. Singapore: National University
of Singapore Press, 2019.
Guttmann, Allen, and Lee Thompson. Japanese Sports: A History. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press,
2001.
Halliday, Fred. The Middle East in International Relations: Power, Politics and Ideology. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2005.
Hong, Fan. Footbinding, Feminism and Freedom: The Liberation of Women’s Bodies in Modern China. London:
Routledge, 1997.
Hong, Fan. “Nationalism, Orientalism and Globalization: The Future of the Asian Games.” Sport in Society
8, no. 3 (2005): 515–19.
Hong, Fan, ed. Sport in the Middle East: Power, Politics, Ideology and Religion. London: Routledge, 2015.
Hong, Fan, ed. Sport, Nationalism and Orientalism:The Asian Games. London: Routledge, 2013.
Hong, Fan, and Lu Zhouxiang. The Politicisation of Sport in Modern China: Communists and Champions.
London: Routledge, 2014.
Hong, Fan, and Lu Zhouxiang, eds. Sport and Nationalism in Asia—Power, Politics and Identity. London:
Routledge, 2014.
Horne, John, and Wolfram Manzenreiter. Football Goes East: Business, Culture and the People’s Game in East
Asia. London: Routledge, 2004.
Huang, Fuhua, and Fan Hong, eds. A History of Chinese Martial Arts. London: Routledge, 2018.
Huebner, Stefan. Pan-Asian Sports and the Emergence of Modern Asia, 1913–1974. Singapore: National Uni-
versity of Singapore Press, 2016.
Joo, Rachael Miyung. Transnational Sport: Gender, Media, and Global Korea. Durham: Duke University Press,
2012.
Kelly, William, and J. A. Mangan. The New Geopolitics of Sport in East Asia. London: Routledge, 2014.
Khanna, Parag. The Future Is Asian: Global Order in the Twenty-First Century. London: Weidenfeld & Nicol-
son, 2019.
Kindersley, Dorling. Reference Atlas of the World. London: Dorling Kindersley, 2003.
Kolb, Albert. East Asian: China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam: Geography of a Cultural Region. London: Methuen,
1971.
Kwak, Dae Hee,Yong Jae Ko, Inkyu Kang, and Mark Rosentraub, eds. Sport in Korea: History, Development,
Management. London: Routledge, 2017.

6
 Introduction

Li, Liu, and Fan Hong. The National Games and National Identity in China: A History. London: Routledge,
2017.
Maguire, Joseph, and Masayoshi Nakayama. Japan, Sport and Society: Tradition and Change in a Globalizing
World. London: Routledge, 2005.
Mahbubani, Kishore. “Can Asians Think?” Media Asia (1997): 123–27.
Mangan, J. A., Sandra Collins, and Gwang Ok, eds. The Triple Asian Olympics—Asia Rising: The Pursuit of
National Identity, International Recognition and Global Esteem. London: Routledge, 2017.
Mangan, J. A., and Fan Hong, eds. Sport in Asian Society: Past and Present. London: Cass, 2002.
Mason, Colin. A Short History of Asia. London: Macmillan, 2000.
McCloud, Donald G. Southeast Asia: Tradition and Modernity in the Contemporary World. Boulder, CO: West-
view Press, 1995.
Meyer, Milton W. Asia: A Concise History. New York: Portman & Littlefield, 1997.
Morris, Andrew. Marrow of the Nation: A History of Sport and Physical Culture in Republican China. Berkeley,
CA: University of California Press, 2004.
Novotny, Daniel. Torn Between America and China: Elite Perceptions and Indonesian Foreign Policy. Singapore:
Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2010.
Ok, Gwang. Transformation of Modern Korean Sport: Imperialism, Nationalism, Globalization. Seoul: Hollym
International Corporation, 2007.
Osborne, Milton. Southeast Asia: An Introductory History. St Leonards: George Allen & Unwin, 1995.
Preston, P. W. Pacific Asia in the Global System. Oxford: Blackwell, 1998.
Reaves, Joseph A. Taking in a Game: A History of Baseball in Asia. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press,
2004.
Romein, Jan. The Asian Century: A History of Modern Nationalism in Asia. London: George Allen & Unwin,
1965.
Sen, Ronojoy. Nation at Play: A History of Sport in India. New York: Columbia University Press, 2015.
Xi, Jinping. “New Asian Security Concept for New Progress in Security Cooperation.” Remarks at the
Fourth Summit of the Conference on Interaction and Confidence Building in Asia, Ministry of Foreign
Affairs of People’s Republic of China, Beijing, May 21, 2014, 10.
Zhang, Huijie, Fan Hong, and Fuhua Huang. Christianity and the Transformation of Physical Education and
Sport in China. London: Routledge, 2019.
Zuern, Michael, and Stephan Leibfried. “A New Perspective on the State: Reconfiguring the National
Constellation.” European Review 13, no. 1 (2005): 1–36.

7
References
1 Paul Bowman, Mythologies of Martial Arts (London: Rowman & Littlefield International, 2017).
2 Johannes Fabian, Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object (New York and Guildford:
Columbia University Press, 1983); Gary J. Krug, “ ‘At the Feet of the Master:Three Stages in the Appro-
priation of Okinawan Karate into Anglo-American Culture’,” Cultural Studies: Critical Methodologies 1,
no. 4 (2001): 395–410.
3 Stephen Chan, “ ‘The Construction and Export of Culture as Artefact: The Case of Japanese Martial
Arts’,” Body & Society 6, no. 1 (2000): 69–74; Gichin Funakoshi, Karate-Do: My Way of Life ([S.l.]: Kodan-
sha, 1975); Udo Moenig, Taekwondo: From a Martial Art to a Martial Sport (London: Routledge, 2015).
4 Alex Gillis, A Killing Art: The Untold History of Tae Kwon Do (Ontario: ECW Press, 2008); Moenig,
Taekwondo.
5 Benjamin Judkins, “ ‘Inventing Kung Fu’,” JOMEC Journal no. 5 (July 28, 2014), https://publications.
cardiffuniversitypress.org/index.php/JOMEC/article/view/328; Brian Kennedy, Jingwu: The School
That Saved Kung Fu (Berkeley, CA: Blue Snake Books, 2010).
6 Douglas Wile, Lost T’ai Chi Classics of the Late Ch’ing Dynasty (New York: State University of New York,
1996).
7 Edward W. Said, Orientalism:Western Conceptions of the Orient (London: Penguin, 1978).
8 Fabian, Time and the Other.
9 Krug, “ ‘At the Feet of the Master’.”
1 0 Paul Bowman, Martial Arts Studies: Disrupting Disciplinary Boundaries (London: Rowman and Littlefield
International, 2015).
11 Kevin S.Y.Tan,“ ‘Constructing a Martial Tradition: Rethinking a Popular History of Karate-Dou’,” Journal
of Sport & Social Issues 28, no. 2 (January 5, 2004): 169–92, https://doi.org/10.1177/0193723504264772.
12 Benjamin N. Judkins and Jon Nielson, The Creation of Wing Chun: A Social History of the Southern Chinese
Martial Arts (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2015); Douglas Wile, “ ‘Book Review of:
The Creation of Wing Chun: A Social History of the Southern Chinese Martial Arts. 2015. Benjamin Judkins
and Jon Nielson. State University of New York Press’,” Martial Arts Studies 1, no. 1 (November 6, 2015):
83–85, https://doi.org/10.18573/j.2015.10021.
13 Judkins and Nielson, The Creation of Wing Chun.
14 E. J. Hobsbawm and T. O. Ranger, The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1992, 1983).
1 5 Jacques Rancière, The Ignorant Schoolmaster: Five Lessons in Intellectual Emancipation (Stanford: Stanford
University Press, 1991); Paul Bowman, “ ‘The Intimate Schoolmaster and the Ignorant Sifu: Poststruc-
turalism, Bruce Lee, and the Ignorance of Everyday Radical Pedagogy’,” Philosophy and Rhetoric 49, no.
4 (2016): 549–70, https://doi.org/10.5325/philrhet.49.4.0549.
1 6 Mark Law, The Pyjama Game: A Journey into Judo (London: Aurum Press, 2008); Kotaro Yabu, “ ‘Diffusion
of Judo in the United States During the Russo-Japanese War: Aiming to Overcome the ‘Match-Based
Historical View’‘,” Martial Arts Studies 6 (July 23, 2018), https://doi.org/10.18573/mas.67.
17 Esther Berg and Inken Prohl, “ ‘‘Become Your Best’: On the Construction of Martial Arts as Means of
Self-Actualization and Self-Improvement’,” JOMEC Journal (2014): 1–19; Alexandra Ryan, “ ‘Globali-
sation and the ‘Internal Alchemy’ in Chinese Martial Arts: The Transmission of Taijiquan to Britain’,”
East Asian Science, Technology and Society: An International Journal 2, no. 4 (2008): 525–43, https://doi.
org/10.1215/s12280-009-9073-x.
18 Tan, “ ‘Constructing a Martial Tradition’.”
19 Jean Baudrillard, Simulations (New York City, NY: Semiotext(e), Inc, 1983).
20 Jean Baudrillard, Simulacra and Simulation, Body, in Theory (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press,
1994).
21 Jean Baudrillard, America (London:Verso, 1989, 1988).
22 Chan, “ ‘The Construction and Export of Culture as Artefact”‘; Adam Frank, Taijiquan and the Search for
the Little Old Chinese Man: Understanding Identity Through Martial Arts (Palgrave Macmillan, 2006); Paul
Bowman, “ ‘Making Martial Arts History Matter’,” The International Journal of the History of Sport (2016):
1–19, https://doi.org/10.1080/09523367.2016.1212842.
23 Paul Bowman, Deconstructing Martial Arts (Cardiff: Cardiff University Press, 2019).
24 Frank, Taijiquan and the Search for the Little Old Chinese Man; Bowman, “ ‘Making Martial Arts History
Matter’.”
 25 Ackbar Abbas, Hong Kong: Culture and the Politics of Disappearance (Minneapolis and London: University
of Minnesota Press, 1997); Idil Osman, Media, Diaspora and the Somali Conflict (Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2017).
26 Jacques Derrida, Monolingualism of the Other, or, the Prosthesis of Origin (Stanford, CA: Stanford University
Press, 1998); Judkins and Nielson, The Creation of Wing Chun.
27 Joseph Heath and Andrew Potter, The Rebel Sell: How the Counterculture Became Consumer Culture
(Chichester: Capstone, 2006).
28 Douglas Wile, T’ai-Chi’s Ancestors: The Making of an Internal Martial Art (Sweet Ch’i Press, 1999); Wile,
Lost T’ai Chi Classics of the Late Ch’ing Dynasty; Frank, Taijiquan and the Search for the Little Old Chinese
Man; Judkins and Nielson, The Creation of Wing Chun; Mark Singleton, Yoga Body:The Origins of Modern
Posture Practice (Oxford University Press, 2010).
29 Wile, Lost T’ai Chi Classics of the Late Ch’ing Dynasty; Wile, T’ai-Chi’s Ancestors; Frank, Taijiquan and
the Search for the Little Old Chinese Man; Ryan, “ ‘Globalisation and the ‘Internal Alchemy’ in Chinese
Martial Arts’.”
30 Ryan, “ ‘Globalisation and the ‘Internal Alchemy’ in Chinese Martial Arts’,” 529.
31 Wile, Lost T’ai Chi Classics of the Late Ch’ing Dynasty.
32 Ryan, “ ‘Globalisation and the ‘Internal Alchemy’ in Chinese Martial Arts’,” 530.
33 Ibid.
34 Wile, Lost T’ai Chi Classics of the Late Ch’ing Dynasty; Frank, Taijiquan and the Search for the Little Old
Chinese Man.
35 Ryan, “ ‘Globalisation and the ‘Internal Alchemy’ in Chinese Martial Arts’,” 530.
36 Ibid., 527.
37 Ibid., 525.
38 Ibid., 531.
39 Judkins and Nielson, The Creation of Wing Chun; Wile, “ ‘Book Review Of ’.”
4 0 Wile, Lost T’ai Chi Classics of the Late Ch’ing Dynasty.
4 1 Frank, Taijiquan and the Search for the Little Old Chinese Man; John R. Eperjesi, “ ‘Crouching Tiger, Hid-
den Dragon: Kung Fu Diplomacy and the Dream of Cultural China’,” Asian Studies Review 28 (2004):
25–39.
42 Ryan, “ ‘Globalisation and the ‘Internal Alchemy’ in Chinese Martial Arts’,” 532.
4 3 Ibid.
4 4 Frank, Taijiquan and the Search for the Little Old Chinese Man; Bowman, Martial Arts Studies.
45 Zygmunt Bauman, “ ‘Culture and Management’,” Parallax 10 (2004): 63–72.
46 Raúl Sánchez García, “ ‘An Introduction to the Historical Sociology of Japanese Martial Arts’,” Martial
Arts Studies 6 (July 23, 2018), https://doi.org/10.18573/mas.64.
4 7 Wile, Lost T’ai Chi Classics of the Late Ch’ing Dynasty.
48 Ryan, “ ‘Globalisation and the ‘Internal Alchemy’ in Chinese Martial Arts’,” 527.
4 9 Ibid., 525.
5 0 David A. Palmer, Qigong Fever: Body, Science and Utopia in China, Kindle ed. (London: Hurst & Co. in
association with the Centre d’Etudes et de Recherches Internationales, Paris, 2007).
51 Tan, “ ‘Constructing a Martial Tradition’.”
52 Chan, “ ‘The Construction and Export of Culture as Artefact”‘; Gillis, A Killing Art: The Untold History
of Tae Kwon Do; Moenig, Taekwondo.
5 3 Law, The Pyjama Game.
54 Brian Kennedy and Elizabeth Guo, Jingwu: The School That Transformed Kung Fu (Blue Snake Books,
2010).
1 See Barry Allen, Striking Beauty: A Philosophical Look at the Asian Martial Arts (New York: Columbia
University Press, 2015).
2 On the Laozi legend, see Angus C. Graham, “ ‘The Origins of the Legend of Lao Tan,’ ” in Studies in
Chinese Philosophy and Philosophical Literature (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1990).
The idea of ‘schools’ of Chinese philosophy is not satisfactory. See Kidder Smith, “Sima Tan and the
Invention of Daoism,” Journal of Asian Studies 62, no. 1 (2003): 129–56; Nathan Sivin, “On the Word
‘Taoist’ as a Source of Perplexity,” Religious Studies 17 (1978): 303–30.
3 Huandou Cao,“ ‘Secret Transmission of Acupuncture Point’s Hand Combat Formulas’,” in Shaolin Mon-
astery: History, Religion, and the Chinese Martial Arts, ed. Meir Shahar (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i
Press, 2008), 118.
4 Ibid., 126.
 5 Angus C. Graham, Chuang-Tzu:The Inner Chapters (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 2001), 138.
6 The Daodejing of Laozi. Parenthetically embedded references are chapters, abbreviated DDJ.
7 On wuwei, see Edward Slingerland, Effortless Action: Wu-Wei as Conceptual Metaphor and Spiritual Ideal in
Early China (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003); Barry Allen, Vanishing into Things: Knowledge in
Chinese Tradition (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015).
8 Sunzi, “The Art of War,” in The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China, ed. and trans. Ralph D. Sawyer
(New York: Basic Books, 1993), 168.
9 Ibid.
10 Benjamin Pang-Jeng Lo, Martin Inn, Robert Amacher, and Susan Foe, ed. and trans., The Essence of T’ai
Chi Ch’uan:The Literary Tradition (Berkeley, CA: Blue Snake Books, 1979), 81.
11 Douglas Wile, Lost T’ai-chi Classics from the Late Ch’ing Dynasty (Albany, NY: State University of New
York Press, 1996), 45.
12 Brian Kennedy and Elizabeth Guo, Chinese Martial Arts Training Manuals (Berkeley, CA: Blue Snake
Books, 2005). On the usual understanding of ‘internal’ and ‘external’ martial arts, see Thomas A. Green,
‘External vs. Internal Chinese Martial Arts’, in Martial Arts of the World: An Encyclopedia, ed. Thomas A.
Green,Vol. 1 (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2001), 119–23.
13 Chang Naizhou, in Douglas Wile, Ta’i Chi’s Ancestors: The Making of an Internal Martial Art (New City,
NY: Sweet Ch’i Press, 1999), 95.
14 On Bodhidharma and the origin of Chan, see John R. McRae, The Northern School and the Formation of
Early Ch’an Buddhism (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1986); Mario Poceski, Ordinary Mind As
the Way:The Hongzhou School and the Growth of Chan Buddhism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).
15 Nikolas Broy, “Martial Monks in Medieval Chinese Buddhism,” Journal of Chinese Religions 40 (2012):
45–89.
16 Takuan Soho, The Unfettered Mind, trans. William Scott Wilson (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1986).
17 See, for example, Analects, 15.1, and Mencius, 4A14, 2B1.
18 Chao Xu, ed., The Book of Rites (Jinan: Shandong Friendship Press, 2000), 411.
19 See Analects, 3.16.
20 Ibid., 2.24.
21 See Mencius, 2A2.
22 Ibid., 7B4; Xunzi, 15.3.
23 See Alastair Iain Johnston, Cultural Realism: Strategic Culture and Grand Strategy in Chinese History
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), 183, 213, 216; Peter A. Lorge, Chinese Martial Arts: From
Antiquity to the Twenty-First Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 180; Nicola Di
Cosmo, ed., Military Culture in Imperial China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009).
24 Douglas Wile, “ ‘Taijiquan and ’Daoism,” Journal of Asian Martial Arts 16, no. 4 (2007): 8–21. On the
‘Epitaph for Wang Zhengnan’, see Wile, Ta’i Chi’s Ancestors, 53.
25 Marnix Wells, Scholar Boxer: Chang Naizhou’s Theory of Internal Martial Arts (Berkeley, CA: Blue Snake
Books, 2005), 47.
1 Guoshu (国术), literally ‘national skills’, was used in China between the 1920s and 1940s when a
nationwide campaign was launched by the nationalist government to promote Chinese martial arts in
the education sector and in society. After the nationalist government retreated to Taiwan in 1949, they
continued to promote guoshu there.The term was also used by martial arts practitioners in Hong Kong
and Southeast Asia; kung fu (功夫), literally ‘effort’, ‘ability’ or ‘skills’, is used in both China and foreign
countries, notably the United States; wuyi (武艺), literally ‘martial arts’ or ‘feats’, first appeared in Han
dynasty literature; wushu (武术), literally ‘martial skills’, first appeared in an essay collection edited by
Prince Xiao Tong (501–31) of the Southern Liang Dynasty (502–57). At first, the term referred to mili-
tary affairs and operations. Its meaning changed over the course of time and became a collective term
for military skills, combat skills, weapon techniques and martial arts performances. The term came into
common use in the late nineteenth century. It has been used as the official term for Chinese martial
arts in mainland China since the 1950s.
2 Cai Xu, Xucai wushu wenji [Collection of Xu Cai’s Essays on Wushu] (Beijing: Renmin tiyu chuban she,
1995), 3–4.
3 Yuntai Xi, Zhongguo wushu shi [A History of Chinese Wushu] (Beijing: Renmin tiyu chuban she, 1985),
22–23; Dali Cheng, “Xia Shang Xizhou shiqi wushu” [Wushu in the Xia, Shang and Western Zhou
dynasties], in Zhognguo wushu baike quanshu [Encyclopaedia of Chinese wushu], ed. Editorial Team of
Zhognguo wushu baike quanshu (Beijing: Zhongguo dabaike quanshu chuban she, 1998), 43–44.
4 Xi, Zhongguo wushu shi, 28–31.
 5 Ibid., 35–36.
6 Ibid., 60–62.
7 Beng Liao, Song Yuan xiqu wenwu yu minsu [Song and Yuan Drama, Cultural Relics and Folk Customs]
(Beijing:Wenhua yishu chuban she, 1989);Tonxu Tian, Yuan zaju tonglun [Study of Yuan Poetic Drama]
(Taiyuan: Shanxi jiaoyu chuban she, 2007), 82–83, 188.
8 Guangxi Wang, Chinese Kung Fu (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 17–18.
9 Shengli Lu, Combat Techniques of Taiji, Xingyi, and Bagua: Principles and Practices of Internal Martial Arts,
trans. Zhang Yun (Berkeley, CA: Blue Snake Books, 2006), 73.
10 Weiliang Zhou, “Yetan Tiandi hui Shaolin gushi de xingcheng yuanyin ji dui chuantong wushu suo
chansheng de yingxiang” [Formation of the Legend of the Heaven and Earth Society and Shaolin Tem-
ple and Its Influence on Traditional Wushu], Journal of Beijing Institute of Physical Education no. 4 (1991):
81–84.
11 Jinhuan Hu and Chongxiong Sun, Nanquan huizong [Southern Boxing] (Fuzhou: Fujian renmin chu-
ban she, 1985), 24.
12 Xingtan Chen, Wenlong Zhao, Jiyuan Li, and Yongfeng Xu, “Lingnan chuantong Hongquan de wen-
hua yanjiu” [Study of the Hongquan, a Tradition of Lingnan], Journal of Guangzhou Sport University 36,
no. 4 (2016): 53–54.
13 Boyuan Lin, “Lun Yapian zhanzheng zhi Xinhai geming qian Zhongguo chuantong tiyu de fazhan
bianhua” [On the Changes of the Development of Chinese Traditional Physical Culture from the
Opium War to the Revolution of 1911], Tiyu kexue 12, no. 4 (1992): 12.
14 Zuhui Wu and Xuesong Guo, “Xinhai geming zhong de nan Shaolin wushu yanjiu” [Southern Shaolin
Martial Arts in the 1911 Revolution], Journal of Shandong Institute of Physical Education and Sports 27, no.
9 (2011): 41.
15 Melody Chung, “The Father of Modern Wushu–Wu Bin,” Kungfu Tai Chi (March–April 2007): 49.
1 Benjamin N. Judkins and Jon Nielson, The Creation of Wing Chun: A Social History of the Southern Chinese
Martial Arts (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2015).
2 Robert Chu, Rene Ritchie, and Y. Wu, Complete Wing Chun: The Definitive Guide to Wing Chun’s His-
tory and Traditions (North Clarendon, VT: Tuttle Publishing, 1998). For a detailed comparison of the
unarmed and weapons sets taught in the most commonly encountered Wing Chun lineages, see the
reference work provided by Chu, Ritchie and Wu.
3 J. Elliott Bingham, Narratives of the Expedition to China, from the Commencement of the Present Period,Vol.
1 (London: Henry Colburn Publishers, 1842), 177–78. Bingham provides a historically important first-
hand account of militia troops in southern China training with the hudiedao during the period of the
Opium Wars. Also see Judkins and Nielson, The Creation of Wing Chun, 70, 94.
4 Judkins and Nielson, The Creation of Wing Chun, 92–99, 117–18.
5 Yimin He, ‘ “Prosperity and Decline: A Comparison of the Fate of Jingdezhen, Zhuxianzhen, Foshan
and Hankou in Modern Times’,” Frontiers of History in China 5, no. 1 (2010): 52–85. Translated by Wei-
wei Zhou from Xueshu Yuekan (Academic Monthly) 12 (2008): 122–33.
6 Researchers should note, for instance, that Foshan is also remembered for the important contributions
which it made to the development of styles such as Choy Li Fut and Hung Gar, and its thriving Jingwu
Hall prior to the Japanese invasion in 1938. All of these styles were better known than Wing Chun
during the Republic of China period.
7 Frederick Wakeman Jr., Strangers at the Gate: Social Disorder in South China, 1839–1861 (Los Angeles,
CA: University of California Press, 1997), chapters 13–15.
8 Douglas Wile, Lost T’ai-Chi Classics from the Late Ch’ing Dynasty (Albany, NY: State University of New
York Press, 1996), 5, 20–26.
9 Ip Chun and Michael Tse, Wing Chun Kung Fu: Traditional Chinese Kung Fu for Self-Defense and Health
(New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 1998), 20–21.
10 Douglas Wile, in his 1996 introduction to the Lost T’ai-Chi Classics, systematically laid out the reasons
why many of the most ancient-seeming Chinese martial arts are fundamentally products of the mod-
ern era. Everything that he argued in that work applies equally as well to the hand combat systems of
southern China, including Wing Chun.
11 Ip Man, ‘ “The Origins of Ving Tsun: Written by the Late Grand Master Ip Man’,” www.vingtsun.org.
hk/; Ip Ching, ‘ “History of Wing Chun”‘ (Ip Ching Ving Tsun Association, 1998), DVD; Chun and Tse,
Wing Chun Kung Fu’, 17–20.
12 Judkins and Nielson have provided a review of the known biographical details of all three of these
individuals, which goes beyond the confines of the current discussion.
 13 Meir Shahar, The Shaolin Monastery (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2008), especially chapter 6.
14 Stanley Henning, ‘ “Thoughts on the Origins and Transmission to Okinawa of Yongchun Boxing’,”
Classical Fighting Arts 2, no. 15 (2009): 42–47.
15 John Christopher Hamm, Paper Swordsman: Jin Yong and the Modern Chinese Martial Arts Novel (Hono-
lulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2006), 34–36.
16 Andrew D. Morris, Marrow of the Nation: A History of Sport and Physical Culture in Republican China
(Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2004), chapter 7.
17 Judkins and Nielson, The Creation of Wing Chun, 169–211.
18 Ibid.
19 Ip Ching and Ron Heimberger, Ip Man: Portrait of a Kung Fu Master (Springville, UT: King Dragon
Press, 2003), 25, 33.
20 Daniel M. Amos, ‘ “Spirit Boxing in Hong Kong: Two Observers, Native and Foreign’,” Journal of Asian
Martial Arts 8, no. 4 (1999): 10.
21 Judkins and Nielson, The Creation of Wing Chun, 214–15.
22 Chun and Tse, Wing Chun Kung Fu, 40–42; Yip Chun and Danny Connor, Wing Chun Martial Arts:
Principles  & Techniques (San Francisco, CA: Weiser Books, 1992), 26.
23 Judkins and Nielson, The Creation of Wing Chun, 228.
24 Michael Tse, ‘ “Master Ip Ching’,” Qi Magazine 24 (1996): 16–20; Chun and Tse, Wing Chun Kung Fu,
40–42.
25 R. Clausnitzer and Greco Wong, Wing Chun Kung Fu: Chinese Self-Defence Methods (London: Paul H.
Crompton Ltd, 1969), 10.
26 Ibid., 12.
27 Ching, ‘ “History of Wing Chun’,” 1998.
28 Matthew Polly, Bruce Lee: A Life (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2018).
29 Anthony DeLeonardis, ‘ “Martial Arts in Red China Today’,” Black Belt (February 1968): 22. The inclu-
sion of a photograph of Ip Man and text block highlighting Wing Chun in one of Black Belt’s earlier
features on the Chinese martial arts is typical of Lee’s success in promoting his teacher’s reputation
abroad.
30 Paul Bowman, Beyond Bruce Lee: Chasing the Dragon Through Film, Philosophy and Popular Culture (New
York: Wallflower, 2013).
1 Gary Alan Fine, ‘ “Towards a Peopled Ethnography: Developing Theory from Group Life’,” Ethnography
4, no. 1 (2003): 41–60.
2 Hervé Munz and Philippe Gesin, ‘ “Le patrimoine culturel immatériel à l’épreuve des savoir-faire hor-
logers dans l’Arc jurassien’,” Museum.ch 5 (2010): 29.
3 Guillemette Bolens, The Style of Gesture: Embodiment and Cognition in Literary Narrative (Baltimore: The
Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012), 1.
4 Jean-Marc De Grave, ‘ “L’initiation rituelle javanaise et ses modes de transmission. Opposition entre
javanisme et islam’,” Techniques & Culture [En Ligne] 48–49 (2007): 17, http://tc.revues.org/3032.
5 Bonnie McDougall, Mao Zedong’s ‘‘Talks at the Yan’an Conference on Literature and Art’: A Translation of the
1943 Text with Commentary (The University of Michigan Center for Chinese Studies, 1980), 5.
6 On this issue, see Pascale Bugnon, ‘ “L’art d’accomoder les ancêtres de la nation: Analyse du patrimoine
culturel musulman en Chine’,” Tsantsa 23 (2018); Vincent Durand-Dastes, ‘ “La Grande muraille des
contes’,” Carreau de la BULAC (2014); Florence Graezer, ‘ “Le Festival de Miaofeng shan: culture popu-
laire et politique culturelle’,” Etudes chinoises 22 (2003); Florence Graezer Bideau,‘ “L’instrumentalisation
de la culture populaire. Le cas de la danse du yangge en Chine’,” Tsantsa 13 (2008); Evelyne Micollier,
‘ “Qigong et ‹nouvelles religions› en Chine et à Taiwan: instrumentalisation politique et processus de
légitimation des pratiques’,” Autrepart 2, no. 42 (2007).
7 ‘ “The Rules of Martial Ethics,’ ” Chinese Wushu Association, accessed November 20, 2017, http://
zgwx.wushu.com.cn/w_wdsz.asp.
8 Graezer, ‘ “Le Festival de Miaofeng shan’,” 294.
9 Zhouxiang Lu and Hong Fan, Sport and Nationalism in China (New York: Routledge, 2014).
10 Benjamin Judkins and Jon Nielson, The Creation of Wing Chun: A Social History of the Southern Chinese
Martial Arts (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2015).
11 Peter A. Lorge, Chinese Martial Arts: From Antiquity to the Twenty-First Century (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2012), 223–25.
12 Anne-Marie Thiesse, La Création Des Identités Nationales: Europe XVIIIe-XXe Siècle (Editions du Seuil,
1999), 242.
 13 Lorge, Chinese Martial Arts, 226.
14 ‘ “Constitution,’ ” Chinese Wushu Association, accessed November 20, 2017, http://zgwx.wushu.com.
cn/xhzc.asp.
15 Lorge, Chinese Martial Arts, 234–35.
16 Bailong Jiang, Basic Théories of Wushu (Beijing: Renmin tiyu chubanshe, 1995).
17 Jie Song and Hongli Yue, ‘ “Considerations on Wushu’s National Culture Characteristics,’ ” Asia Pacific
Journal of Sport and Social Sciences 5, no. 1 (2016): 28–34.
18 Lu and Fan, Sport and Nationalism in China, 103–5.
19 Marc Theeboom, Dong Zhu, and Jikkemien Vertonghen, ‘‘ “ ‘Wushu Belongs to the World’’. But the
Gold Goes to China. . .: The International Development of the Chinese Martial Arts,’ ” International
Review for the Sociology of Sport 52, no. 1 (2017): 5.
20 Shaojun Lu and Weikai Zhang, ‘ “The Social and Cultural Grounds of Martial Arts Communities’,”
Journal of Beijing Sport University 36, no. 9 (2013): 8 (translation by the author).
21 On this subject, see Paul Bowman, ‘ “Making Martial Arts History Matter,’ ” The International Journal of
the History of Sport 33, no. 9 (2016); Judkins and Nielson, The Creation of Wing Chun; Douglas Wile, Lost
T’ai-Chi Classics from the Late Ch’ing Dynasty (Albany, NY: University of New York Press, 1996).
22 Caroline Bodelec, ‘ “Etre Une Grande Nation Culturelle. Les Enjeux Du Patrimoine Culturel Immaté-
riel Pour La Chine,’ ” Tsanta 19 (2014): 19.
23 Christina Maags and Marina Svensson, eds., Chinese Cultural Heritage in the Making: Experiences, Negotia-
tions and Contestations (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2018), 121–45.
24 ‘ “National List’,” Chinese ICH Website, accessed August 15, 2018, www.ihchina.cn/5/5_1.html.
25 Joël Pinson, ‘ “Heritage Sporting Events: Theoretical Development and Configurations,’ ” Journal of
Sport  & Tourism 21, no. 2 (2017): 134.
26 ‘ “Beijing Shichahai Sport School,’ ” China Sport School Federation Website, Accessed November 25,
2019, www.cssf.net.cn/news/26.html.
27 Brooke Harrington and Gary Alan Fine, ‘ “Opening the ‘Black Box’: Small Groups and 21st Century
Sociology,’ ” Social Psychology Quarterly 63, no. 4 (2000): 312–23, 321.
28 Gary Alan Fine and Ugo Corte, ‘ “Group Pleasures: Collaborative Commitments, Shared Narrative, and
the Sociology of Fun,’ ” Sociological Theory 35, no. 1 (2017): 64–86, 65.
29 John Fiske, Understanding Popular Culture (New York: Routledge, 1994), 32.
1 The analyses presented in this chapter result from the figurational/process-sociology approach of Nor-
bert Elias. In fact, the long-term development of Japanese martial arts can be fruitfully studied through
the civilising process theory. For a fully developed figurational argumentation of the long-term devel-
opment of Japanese martial arts, see Sánchez García Raúl, The Historical Sociology of Japanese Martial Arts
(London: Routledge, 2019).
2 W. William Farris, Heavenly Warriors:The Evolution of Japan’’s Military, 500–1300 (Cambridge, MA: Har-
vard University Press, 1995), 111–12; Karl F. Friday, Hired Swords: The Rise of Private Warrior Power in
Early Japan (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1996), 120.
3 The term ryū is commonly translated as ‘school’, but a more precise translation would be ‘current’ or
‘flow’.
4 William De Lange, Famous Japanese Swordsmen of the Period of Unification (Warren: Floating World Edi-
tions, 2008), 128.
5 Yokose Tomoyuki, ‘ “What Is Kobudō?’ ” in Budo: The Martial Ways of Japan, ed. Alexander Bennett,
87–101 (Tokyo: Nippon Budokan Foundation, 2009), 94.
6 Karl F. Friday, Samurai,Warfare and the State in Early Medieval Japan (London: Routledge 2004).
7 David A. Hall, Encyclopedia of Japanese Martial Arts (Tokyo: Kodansha USA, 2012), 350.
8 Karl F. Friday, ‘ “Off the Warpath: Military Science & Budō in the Evolution of Ryūha Bugei’,” in Budo
Perspectives, ed. Alexander Bennett,Vol. 1, 249–68 (Auckland: Kendo World Publications, 2005).
9 Takenouchi ryū joined the other three in a group known as the ‘big four schools of grappling’ of the
Tokugawa period.
10 G. Cameron Hurst III, Armed Martial Arts of Japan: Swordsmanship and Archery (New Haven:Yale Univer-
sity Press, 1998), 78.
11 Serge Mol, Classical Fighting Arts of Japan: A Complete Guide to Koryū Jūjutsu (Tokyo: Kodansha Interna-
tional, 2001), 41.
12 Alexander C. Bennett, Kendo: Culture of the Sword (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press,
2015), 90.
 13 Matt Hlinak, ‘ “Jūdō Comes to California: Jūdō vs Wrestling in the American West, 1900–1920,”‘ Jour-
nal of Asian Martial Arts 18, no. 2 (2009): 8–19; Joseph R. Svinth, ‘ “The Spirit of Manliness: Boxing in
Imperial Japan, 1868–1945’,” in Martial Arts in the Modern World, ed. Thomas A. Green and Joseph R.
Svinth (London: Praeger, 2003), 37–46.
14 Tetsuya Nakajima and Lee Thompson,‘ “Jūdō and the Process of Nation-Building in Japan: Kanō Jigorō
and the Formation of Kōdōkan Jūdō’,” Asia Pacific Journal of Sport and Social Science 1, no. 2–3 (2012):
97–110, 9.
15 In Meiji, no monolithic discourse on bushidō was in place. During the 1890s, the term spread, linking
budō and shidō, its meaning becoming something like ‘samurai ethics’. See: Oleg Benesch, Inventing the
Way of the Samurai (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), 73.
16 The participation of women in warfare and martial arts prior to Meiji existed, though on a smaller
scale compared to men. For instance, armour tailored for women’s bodies has been found, and his-
torical documents such as the diary of Chancellor Tōin Kinkata register the participation of female
cavalry in battles fought in western Japan in 1351. See: Thomas Conlan, State of War: The Violent Order
of Fourteenth-Century Japan (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, 2003), 128. During the late Toku-
gawa period, Ōtagaki Rengetsu (1791–1875), a Buddhist monk and acclaimed poet known as Lotus
Moon, was also keen in martial arts. She received a samurai education from an early age, training in
martial arts on a regular basis.
17 Ellis Amdur, ‘ “The Role of Arms Bearing Women in Japanese History’,” Journal of Asian Martial Arts 5,
no. 2 (1996): 10–35, 24.
18 Bennett, Kendo, 123.
19 Sasaki Sadami, ‘ “Twentieth Century Budō and Mystic Experience’,” in Budo Perspectives, ed. Alexander
Bennett,Vol. 1, 15–44 (Auckland: Kendo World Publications, 2005).
20 Kiyoto Motomura, ‘ “The History of Budō in Schools’,” in Nippon Budokan: The Martial Ways of Japan
(Tokyo: Nippon Budokan Foundation, 2009), 61–65, 61.
21 Eiko Maruko Siniawer, Ruffians, Yakuza, Nationalists: The Violent Politics of Modern Japan, 1860–1960
(Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2008), 109.
22 Ellis Amdur, Dueling with O-Sensei (Wheaton: Freelance Academy Press, 2015), 148–49.
23 Allen Guttmann and Lee Thompson, Japanese Sports: A History (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press,
2001), 181.
24 Paul Droubie, ‘ “Phoenix Arisen: Japan as Peaceful Internationalist at the 1964 Tokyo Summer Olym-
pics’,” The International Journal of the History of Sport 28, no. 16 (2011): 2309–22.
25 Jessamyn R. Abel, ‘ “Japan’s Sporting Diplomacy: The 1964 Tokyo Olympiad’,” The International History
Review 34, no. 2 (2012): 203–20.
26 Yoshinobu Hamaguchi, ‘ “Innovation in Martial Arts’,” in Japan, Sport and Society: Tradition and Change in
a Globalizing World, ed. Joseph Maguire and Masayoshi Nakayama (London: Routledge, 2006), 7–18, 16.
27 The birth of Pride in 1997 was influenced not only by the autochthonous Japanese development of
pro wrestling but also by the global impact of the Ultimate Fight Championship (UFC), an American
promotion.The original idea and organisation in 1993 came from Rorion Gracie (1952–), an expert in
Gracie jiu-jitsu, a Brazilian discipline based on ground work that was highly influenced by the Japanese
judo/jūjutsu pioneers who toured the world during the first half of the twentieth century.
28 Yoshio Sugimoto, ‘ “Japanese Society: Inside Out and Outside in’,” International Sociology 29, no. 3
(2014): 191–208.
1 Shoji Enomoto, ‘ “Edojidai Zenki niokeru Shigei toshiteno Kenjutsu no Seiritsu to Gekiken no Shut-
sugen nitsuite” [A Historical Approach to ‘Kenjutsu’ and ‘Gekiken’ in the Early Edo Period: About the
Rise of ‘Heiho Dojo’ and the Differentiation of ‘Heiho’ in the 17th Century]’,” Tokai Journal of Budo 12
(2017): 1–15.
2 Yasuhiro Sakaue,‘ “Nichiro Senchū Sengo niokeru Dai Nippon Butokukai” [The Dai Nippon Butoku-
kai Under/After the Russo-Japanese War: Its Political and Military Function, the Change of Plan to
Promote Martial Arts, and Name-Change to Kendō and Judō]’, Hitotsubashi Annual of Sport Studies 37
(2018): 29–30.
3 Masaaki Takahashi, Bushi no Seiritsu Bushi-zō no Sōshutsu [The Making of the Samurai, Inventing the
Image of Samurai] (Tokyo: Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 1999), 233–50.
4 Yoshio Imamura, 19seiki ni okeru Nihon Taiiku no Kenkyū [A Study on Physical Education in the Nine-
teenth Century] (Tokyo: Fumaidō, 1967), 342.
5 Masaaki Takahashi, Higashi Ajia Bujin Seiken no Hikakushi Kenkyū [A Comparative History of Military
Government in East Asia] (Tokyo: Azekura Shobō, 2016), 85–153.
 6 Matsunosuke Nishiyama, ‘ “Kinsei Geidou Shisō no Tokushitsu to sono Tenkai” [The Characteristic of
the Performing Arts and Its Development in Tokugawa Period],’ in Kinsei Geido-ron [The Thought on
the Performing Arts in Tokugawa Period], ed. Matsunosuke Nishiyama et al. (Tokyo: Iwanami Shotten,
1972), 599–601.
7 Takahashi, Higashi Ajia Bujin Seiken no Hikakushi Kenkyū, 148–49.
8 Tsuneo Sogawa, Nihon Budō to Toyō Shisō [Japanese Martial Arts and Oriental Thought] (Tokyo: Hei-
bonsya, 2015), 54–58.
9 Kenji Tomiki, Taiiku to Budō [Physical Education and Japanese Martial Arts] (Tokyo: Waseda Daigaku
Shuppanbu, 1970), 216–17.
10 Alexander C. Bennet, Kendo: Culture of the Sword (Oakland: University of California Press, 2015), 66–68.
11 See, for example, Takahide Koyama, ‘ “Shintai Gijittsu Densho no Kindaika: Kyu Hirosaki-han niokeru
Kinsei Ryūha Kenjutsu kara Kin-gendai Kendō eno Henyō nitsuite” [A Modernization of the Trans-
mission of Physical Technique: The Transformation of Kenjutsu in the Hirosaki Domain, from Toku-
gawa Period to Modern Time]’ ” Aomori-ken Minzoku no Kai 3 (2003): 57–59.
12 Thomas C. Smith, Native Sources of Japanese Industrialization, 1750–1920 (Berkley and Los Angeles, CA:
University of California Press, 1988), 133–47.
13 Eric Hobsbawm and Terrance Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 1983).
14 Takahashi, Higashi Ajia Bujin Seiken no Hikakushi Kenkyū, 179–84; Oleg Benesch, Inventing the Way
of the Samurai: Nationalism, Internationalism, and Bushidō in Modern Japan (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2016), 77–149; Yoshikazu Nakada, ‘ “Kindai Bushidō ga Umareru Toki” [The Birth of Modern
Bushidō],’ in Nihon Kindai niokeru Kokkaishiki Keisei no Syomondai to Ajia: Seiji Shiso to Taishu Bunka
[The Problems of the Making of National Consciousness and Asia in Modern Japan: Political Thought
and Popular Culture], ed. Kaoru Endo (Tokyo: Keiso Shobō, 2019), 41–62.
15 Basil H. Chamberlain, The Invention of a New Religion (London: Rationalist Press, 1912).
16 Jigorō Kanō, ‘ “Kōdōkan Judō Gaisetu” [An Outline of the Kōdōkan Judō],’ Judō 2 (1915): 25–26.
17 For further details of its founding and growth in Maji era, see Yasuhiro Sakaue, ‘ “Dai Nippon Butoku-
kai no Seiritsukatei to Kōzō, 1895–1904” [The Organizing Process and Structure of the Dai Nippon
Butokukai, from 1895 to 1904]’, The Journal of Administrative and Social Sciences 1, no. 3–4, Fukushima
University (1989): 59–112; Denis Gainty, Martial Arts and the Body Politic in Meiji Japan (London: Rout-
ledge, 2013), 35–72.
18 Sakaue, ‘ “Dai Nippon Butokukai no Seiritsukatei to Kōzō’,” 86–87.
19 Sakaue, ‘ “Nichiro Senchū Sengo niokeru Dai Nippon Butokukai,’ ” 22–28.
20 Yasuhiro Sakaue, ‘ “Teikoku Gikai Shūgiin niokeru Taiiku nikansuru Kengian no Shingi Katei [The
Deliberations of the 1905 Proposal to Include Kendō and Judō in the School Regular Curriculum in
the Imperial Diet]’,” Hitotsbashi Annual of Sport Studies 32 (2013): 26–43.
21 Sakaue, ‘ “Nichiro Sentyū Sengo niokeru Dai Nippon Butokukai,’ ” 29–30.
22 Yasuhiro Sakaue, ‘ “The Historical Creation of Kendo’s Self-Image from 1895 to 1942: A Critical Anal-
ysis of an Invented Tradition’,” Martial Arts Studies 6 (2018): 13–14.
2 3 Ibid., 15–16.
2 4 Yasuhiro Sakaue, ‘ “Taishō-ki niokeru Dai Nippon-Butokukai” [Dai Nippon Butokukai in the Taisho
Era (1912–26): An Analysis of its Political and Military Function]’, Japanese Journal of the History of Physi-
cal Education 7 (1990): 44–45.
2 5 Sogawa, Nihon budō to Toyō shisō, 224–27.
2 6 Sakaue, ‘ “Taishō-ki niokeru Dai Nippon-Butokukai’,” 41.
27 Another example is the concept of Jita Kyōei (the idea of cooperation and of the development of
mankind or of a global society/community) advocated by Jigorō Kanō in 1922. For the concept see
Yasuhiro Sakaue,‘ “Judo Shisō to Orinpizumu no Kōsaku: Kanō Jigorō no Jita Kyōei Shisō” [The Idea of
Judo and Olympism: Jigorō Kanō’s concept of Jita Kōei]’, in Nippon no Orinpikku: Nihon ha Orinpizumu
to ikani Mukiatte kitaka [Japan and Olympic: How Did Japan See Olympism], ed. Yasunao Kojita et al.
(Tokyo: Seikyūsha, 2018), 131–62; Andreas Niehaus, ‘ “ ‘Attaining Useful Abilities Is by Nature the High-
est Goal of Education’: Kanō Jigorō’s Concept of Seiryoku Zen’yō Jita Kyōei as Applied Moral ’Princi-
ples,” in Knowledge and Arts on the Move:Transformation of the Self-Aware Image Through East-West Encounters,
ed. Craig Christopher, Enrico Fongaro, and Akihiro Ozaki, Vol. 2 (Milan: Mimesis, 2018), 59–76.
28 Sakaue, ‘ “The Historical Creation of Kendo’s Self-Image from 1895 to 1942’,” 16.
29 Ibid., 17.
 30 Tadayoshi Ōtsuka, Nihon Kendō no Rekishi [The History of Japanese Kendō] (Tokyo: Madosha, 1995),
60–64.
31 Ysuhiro Sakaue, ‘ “Kendō no Kinshi to Saishuppatsu” [The Kendō Ban and Its Restart]’, Kendo Nippon
511 (2019): 72.
32 Yasuhiro Sakaue, ‘ “Budōkai no Senji-taiseika: Budo Sōgō Dantai Dai Nippon Butokukai no Seiritsu”
[The Reorganization of the World of Martial Arts for the War: The Establishment of the Dai Nippon
Butokukai in 1942]’, in Maboroshi no Tōkyō Orinpikku to Sono Jidai: Supōtsu, Toshi, Shintai [The Tokyo
Olympics of 1940 and Its period: Sport, Body and Urban Areas in the Wartime], ed. Yasuhiro Sakaue
and Hiroyuki Takaoka (Tokyo: Seikyūsha, 2009), 248–49.
33 Ibid., 255.
34 Masaru Kōzu, ‘ “Budō,”‘ in Gendai Kyōikushi Jiten [Dictionary of the History of Japanese Education], ed.
Yoshizo Kubo et al. (Tokyo: Tokyo Shoseki, 2001), 245. See also Bennett, Kendo, 147–54.
35 Sakaue, “The Historical Creation of Kendō’s Self-Image from 1895 to 1942,” 18–20.
36 Sakaue, ‘ “Budōkai no Senji-taiseika’,” 249–50; Ōtsuka, Nihon Kendō no Rekishi, 129–53.
37 Yasuhiro Sakaue, Supōtsu to Seiji [Sport and Politics] (Tokyo:Yamakawa Shuppan, 2001), 82–87.
38 Tatsuo Nishio, Nihon Shokuminchika Chōsen ni okeru Gakkō Taiiku Seisaku [The Policy of School Physi-
cal Education in Korea Under Japanese Occupation] (Tokyo: Akashi Shoten, 2003), 408–15.
39 Yasuhiro Sakaue, ‘ “GHQ Senryōka niokeru Kendō” [Kendō Under the GHQ Occupation in Japan:
Ban, Surviving, Transforming into Sport and Entertainment]’, Hitotsubashi Annual of Sport Studies 35
(2016): 3–17.
40 Ibid.
41 Sakaue, ‘ “Kendō no Kinshi to Saishuppatsu’,” 71–72; Zennihon Kendō Renmei (AJKF), ed., Zennihon
Kendō Renmei Gojūnenshi [50 Years History of the AJKF] (Tokyo: Zennihon Kendō Renmei, 2003), 11.
42 Yasuhiro Sakaue, ‘ “The Nationalization of the Body in Martial Arts: A Case of Postwar Japan’,” Journal
of Martial Arts Research 2, no. 2 (2019): 4.
43 Ibid., 5.
44 Ibid.,‘’ 7.
45 Zennihon Kendo Renmei, Zennihon Kendō Renmei Gojūnenshi, 27.
46 Ibid.
47 Sogawa, Nihon Budō to Toyō Shisō, 270.
48 Sakaue, ‘ “The Nationalization of the Body in Martial Arts’,” 6–7.
49 On the global diffusion of kendō, see Bennett, Kendo, 200–30.
1 Nicolas Soames and Roy Inman, Olympic Judo: History and Techniques (Swindon: Ippon/Crowood, 1990);
Sandra Wilson, ‘ “Exhibiting a New Japan: The Tokyo Olympics of 1964 and Expo ‘‘70 in Osaka’,” His-
torical Research 85, no. 227 (2012): 159–78.
2 Syd Hoare, A History of Judo (London:Yamagi, 2009); John Stevens, The Way of Judo: A Portrait of Jigoro
Kano and His Students (Boulder, CO: Shambhala Publications Inc, 2013).
3 Jigoro Kanō, ‘ “The Contribution of Judo to Education,”‘ Journal of Health and Physical Education 3, no.
9 (1932): 37–58.
4 Mike Callan and Slaviša Bradić, ‘ “Historical Development of Judo’,” in The Science of Judo, ed. M. Callan
(London: Routledge, 2018), 25–31.
5 IJF Statutes, Swiss Association, Translated from the French Original (2017).
6 Inazo Nitobe, Bushido: The Soul of Japan. An Exposition of Japanese Thought (Eastford: Martino Fine
Books, 2013).
7 Stevens. The Way of Judo.
8 Callan and Bradić, ‘ “Historical Development of Judo’.”
9 Van Wyck Brooks, ‘ “Ernest Fenollosa and Japan’,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 106, no.
2 (1962): 106–10.
10 Herbert Spencer, Education: Intellectual, Moral and Physical ([S.l.]: Williams and Norgate, 1861).
11 Mike Callan, Elite Sport and Education Support Systems: A Case Study of the Team Bath Judo Programme at
the University of Bath (Bath: University of Bath, 2008).
12 Mike Callan, ‘ “Judo as a Physical, Intellectual and Moral Education’,” in The Science of Judo, ed. M. Cal-
lan (London: Routledge, 2018), 32–36.
13 David Waterhouse, “Kano Jigoro and the Beginnings of the Judo Movement” (Paper presented at the
5th Canadian Symposium on the History of Sport and Physical Education, Toronto School of Physical
and Health Education, 1982).
 14 Joseph R. Svinth, ‘ “The Evolution of Women’’s Judo 1900–1945’,” Yo: Journal of Alternative Perspectives
no. 2 (2001).
15 Hoare, A History of Judo.
16 Alex Bennett, Jigoro Kano and the Kodokan: An Innovative Response to Modernisation, 1st ed. (Tokyo:
Kōdōkan Judo Institute, 2009).
17 Hoare, A History of Judo.
18 Mike Callan, Conor Heffernan, and Amanda Spenn,‘ “Women’s Jūjutsu and Judo in the Early Twentieth-
Century: The Cases of Phoebe Roberts, Edith Garrud, and Sarah Mayer’,” International Journal of the
History of Sport (2019): 1–24.
19 Charles à Court Repington, The War in the Far East, 1904–1905 (London: J. Murray, 1905).
20 Michel Brousse and David Matsumoto, Judo in the U.S.: A Century of Dedication (Berkeley, CA: North
Atlantic, 2005).
21 Joseph R. Svinth, ‘ “Yamashita Goes to Washington’,” Journal of Combative Sport (October 2000).
22 Richard Bowen, 100 Years of Judo in Great Britain (Brighton: IndePenPress, 2011).
23 Japan Olympic Committee, Chronology, Jigoro Kano Memorial International Sport Institute, 2019,
www.100yearlegacy.org/english/Kano_Jigoro/Chronology/.
24 Bowen, 100 Years of Judo in Great Britain.
25 Mike Callan, “History of the Budokwai, London: The Adoption of Kōdōkan Judo in the Early Years,”
(Paper presented at the 4th European Science of Judo Research Symposium & 3rd Scientific and Pro-
fessional Conference on Judo: ‘Applicable Research in Judo’, Porec, Croatia, 2017).
26 Mikonosuke Kawaishi, My Method of Judo (London: W Foulsham & Co. Ltd., 1955).
27 Moshé Feldenkrais, ‘ “Research Work at the Budokwai’,” Judo Quarterly 5, no. 4 (1950).
28 Michel Brousse, Judo for the World (Paris: International Judo Federation, 2015).
29 Trevor Leggett, The Spirit of Budo: Old Traditions for Present-Day Life (London: Kegan Paul International,
1998).
30 Callan, Heffernan, and Spenn, ‘ “Women’s Jūjutsu and Judo in the Early Twentieth-Century.’ ”
31 Sarah Mayer, “Seven Letters from Sarah Mayer Addressed to G. Koizumi re Her Training Visit to Japan,
February 1934–January 1935,” The Richard Bowen Collection Database (C64), University of Bath,
1934.
32 A. Spenn, “Having a Bath in Japan” (PhD thesis, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton, 2019).
33 Richard Bowen, ‘ “Origins of the British Judo Association, the European Judo Union, and the Interna-
tional Judo Federation’,” in Martial Arts in the Modern World, ed.Thomas Green and Joseph Svinth (Santa
Barbara: Praeger, 2003), 173.
3 4 Bowen, 100 Years of Judo in Great Britain.
35 P. Nichols, “Anton Geesink Obituary,” The Guardian, September 6, 2010.
36 S. Kido, ‘ “New Look at Judo’,” Black Belt Magazine 1, no. 4 (1962).
3 7 Brousse, Judo for the World.
38 Barbara Barnett and Marie C. Hardin, ‘ “Advocacy from the Liberal Feminist Playbook: The Framing
of Title IX and Women’s Sports in News Releases from the Women’s Sports Foundation’,” International
Journal of Sport Communication 4, no. 2 (2011): 178–97.
3 9 Hoare, A History of Judo.
40 Peter D. Dijkstra and Paul T.Y. Preenen, ‘ “No Effect of Blue on Winning Contests in Judo’,” Proceedings:
Biological Sciences 275, no. 1639 (2008): 1157–62.
41 Ursula F. Julio, Bianca Miarka, João P. P. Rosa, Giscard H. O. Lima, Monica Y.Takito, and Emerson Fran-
chini, ‘ “Blue Judogi May Bias Competitive Performance When Seeding System Is Not Used: Sex, Age,
and Level of Competition Effects’,” Perceptual and Motor Skills 120, no. 1 (2015): 28–37.
42 David Matsumoto, Jun Konno, Stephanie Hata, and Masayuki Takeuchi, ‘ “Blue Judogis May Bias Com-
petition Outcomes’,” Research Journal of Budo 39, no. 3 (2007): 1–7.
43 Sanja Smojver-Ažić, Matija Jug-Dujaković, Slaviša Bradić,Vladimir Takšić, and Veno Đonlić, ‘ “Relation
Between Motoric and Psychological Characteristics of Young Judokas’,” Applicable Research in Judo no.
59 (2016): 59–64.
44 Geert Claes, ‘ “Analysis of Winning and Losing the Bronze Medal in International Women’s Judo Com-
petitions 2012–2016 and the Consistency with the IJF Ranking List’,” Research Journal of Budo 50
(2017): S_125; Emerson Franchini and Ursula Ferreira Julio, ‘ “The Judo World Ranking List and the
Performances in the 2012 London Olympics’,” Asian Journal of Sports Medicine 6, no. 3 (2015): e24045; F.
D. Lascau and D. Rosu, ‘ “Study Regarding the Prediction of Medal Winning in Olympic Games Judo
Competitions’,” Journal of Physical Education and Sport 13, no. 3 (2013): 386–90.
 45 Slaviša Bradić and Mike Callan, ‘ “Kata Training for Judo: Value and Application of Judo Kata to Judo
Training’,” in The Science of Judo, ed. Mike Callan (London: Routledge, 2018), 37–46; Slavisa Bradic,
Mike Callan, and Isamu Nakamura, ‘ “Value of Nage-No-Kata: Analysis of Motoric Movement and
Principles with the Goal of Teaching Applicability of Throwing Techniques in Simulated Combat Situ-
ations’,” in Proceedings of the 4th European Science of Judo Research Symposium & 3rd Scientific and Pro-
fessional Conference on Judo: ‘Applicable Research in Judo’, ed. H. Sertić, S. Čorak, and I. Segedi (Porec:
Croatian Judo Federation, 2017); Sumuyuki Kotani, Kata of Kodokan Judo Revised (Kobe: Koyano Bussan
Kaisha Ltd., 1970).
46 Syd Hoare, Judo (Sevenoaks: Teach Yourself Books, 1980).
1 For the concept of ‘invention of tradition’, see Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The Invention
of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983).
2 Karl E. Friday and Seki Humitake, Legacies of the Sword:The Kashima-Shinryū and Samurai Martial Culture
(Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1997), 119; Udo Moenig, Taekwondo: From a Martial Art to a
Martial Sport (London: Routledge, 2015), 1–2; Paul Bowman, ‘ “Making Martial Arts History Matter’,”
The International Journal of the History of Sport 33, no. 9 (2016): 915–33.
3 Denis Gainty, Martial Arts and the Body Politic of Meiji Japan (London: Routledge, 2013); Alexander C.
Bennett, Kendo: Culture of the Sword (Oakland: University of California Press, 2015); G. Cameron Hurst
III, Armed Martial Arts of Japan (New Haven:Yale University Press, 1998).
4 Moenig, Taekwondo, 84–94.
5 Compare the ‘official’ historical narrative of the Korea Taekwondo Association (KTA) (accessed May 25,
2019, www.koreataekwondo.co.kr/d002; meanwhile, the World Taekwondo [WT] deleted all history
references on its homepage recently) to leading alternative narratives: Steven D. Capener, ‘ “Problems
in the Identity and Philosophy of T’aegwŏndo and Their Historical Causes’,” Korea Journal 35, no. 4
(1995): 80–94; Won Shik Kang and Kyong Myong Lee, A Modern History of Taekwondo (Seoul: Pokyŏng
Munhwasa, 1999), 2–29 [parts available in English online]; Eric Madis, ‘ “The Evolution of Taekwondo
from Japanese Karate’,” in Martial Arts in the Modern World, ed. Thomas A. Green and Joseph R. Svinth
(Westport: Praeger Publishers, 2003), 185–209; In-uk Hŏ, Taekwondo’s Formation History (Kyŏngki-Do:
Han’guk Haksul Ch’ŏngbo, 2008), 39–108 [in Korean]; Moenig, Taekwondo.
6 Stanley E. Henning, ‘ “Traditional Korean Martial Arts’,” Journal of Asian Martial Arts 9, no. 1 (2000): 8–15;
Sungkyun Cho, Udo Moenig, and Dohee Nam,‘ “The Available Evidence Regarding T’aekkyŏn and Its Por-
trayal as a ‘Traditional Korean Martial Art’‘,” Acta Koreana 15, no. 2 (2012): 341–68; Moenig, Taekwondo, 13–33.
7 Moenig, Taekwondo, 13–33; Udo Moenig and Minho Kim, ‘ “The Invention of Taekwondo Tradition,
1945–1972: When Mythology Becomes History’,” Acta Koreana 19, no. 2 (2016): 131–64.
8 Approximately 1610, a replica of the Muye Chepo, and the last surviving original text in Korea.
9 Ibid.
1 0 Tŏk-ki Song and Chong-gwan Pak, T’aekkyŏn (Seoul: Sŏrim Munhwasa, 1983), 8 [in Korean]; Moenig,
Taekwondo, 13–33. However, the modern t’aekkyŏn community also promotes the fictional, invented
narrative of t’aekkyŏn being a traditional Korean martial art.
1 1 Moenig, Taekwondo, 13–33; Moenig and Kim, ‘ “The Invention’.”
12 Capener, ‘ “Problems in the ’Identity”; Kang and Lee, A Modern History, 2–29; Madis, “ ‘The ’Evolu-
tion”; Hŏ, Taekwondo’s Formation, 39–108; Udo Moenig, Sungkyun Cho, and Taek Yong Kwak, ‘ “Evi-
dence of Taekwondo’s Roots in Karate: An Analysis of the Technical Content of Early ‘Taekwondo’
Literature’,” Korea Journal 54, no. 2 (2014): 150–78; Moenig, Taekwondo, 34–79.
13 Kang and Lee, A Modern History, 22–29; Hŏ, Taekwondo’s Formation, 110–14.
14 In addition, during the late 1950s, the Chinese-based term subak was adopted by Hwang Kee. For more
information regarding subak, see Moenig and Kim, ‘ “The Invention’,” 147–51.
15 The first character in both sets of characters has the same kun reading in Japanese, hence the common
pronunciation karate-dō. Funakoshi Gichin made the modification to ‘way of the empty hand’ during
the 1930s, which soon gave karate recognition as an ‘official’ Japanese martial art.
16 Due to the phonetic choice of the term tae-kwon-do (跆拳道), Choi Hong Hi also misrepresented its
meaning. According to Choi (Taekwondo: The Art of Self-Defence [Seoul: Daeha Publication Company,
1965], 14), ‘Tae [跆] literally means to jump or kick or smash with the foot’, and very similar definitions
remained in all later taekwondo literature. In fact, the character tae has the meaning of ‘to step on’ or ‘to
trample down’. Kwon (拳): ‘fist’; do (道): ‘way’. T’aekkyŏn represents a purely Korean term and therefore is
not written with Chinese characters. Regarding the choice of the name, see Moenig, Taekwondo, 48–49.
17 Alex Gillis, A Killing Art:The Untold History of Tae Kwon Do (Toronto: ECW Press, 2008), 49.
 18 Choi, Taekwondo, cover note: 22. Shortly before Choi’s death (2002), he admitted in an interview that
there was actually no connection between taekwondo and t’aekkyŏn, and that he had never learned any
t’aekkyŏn in his youth. As cited in Pyŏng-ch’ŏl Han, Kosu [In Search for the Master] (Seoul:Yŏngwŏn
Munhwasa, 2003), 193 [in Korean].
19 Kang and Lee, A Modern History, 29–31; Gillis, A Killing Art, 54.
20 Yong-Sup Han, ‘ “The May Sixteenth Military ’Coup,” in The Park Chung Hee Era:The Transformation of
South Korea, ed. Byung-Kook Kim and Ezra F.Vogel (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011),
35–57, 43, 51–57.
21 Kang and Lee, A Modern History, 55–57; Hŏ, Taekwondo’s Formation, 123–43; Moenig, Taekwondo, 93.
22 Chong Woo Lee, as cited in Sung-chul Yook [Interview with Chong Woo Lee], ‘ “Kukkiwon Vice
President Chong Woo Lee’s Shocking Confession of Olympic Competition Result Manipulation!’ ”
Shin Dong-A, trans. Soo Han Lee, April 2002, p. 303, http://tkdreform.com/yook_article.pdf.
23 Kang and Lee, A Modern History, 49; Gillis, A Killing Art, 76–78.
24 Gillis, A Killing Art, 64–69.
25 Moenig, Taekwondo, 92.
26 Sang Mi Park, ‘ “The Paradox of Postcolonial Korean Nationalism: State-Sponsored Cultural Policy in
South Korea, 1965-Present’,” The Journal of Korean Studies 15, no. 1 (2010): 67–94, 74–78.
27 Hyug Baeg Im, ‘ “The Origins of the Yushin Regime: Machiavelli Unveiled’,” in The Park Chung Hee
Era:The Transformation of South Korea, ed. Byung-Kook Kim and Ezra F.Vogel (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 2011), 233–64, 234.
28 Steven D. Capener, ‘ “The Making of a Modern Myth: Inventing a Tradition for Taekwondo’,” Korea
Journal 56, no. 1 (2016): 61–92, 71.
29 Park, ‘ “The Paradox’,” 80.
30 Yong-ok Kim, Principles Governing the Construction of the Philosophy of Taekwondo (Seoul: T’ongnamu,
1990), 130–32 [in Korean].
31 Heiko Bittmann, Karatedô: Der Weg der leeren Hand [Karatedô: The Way of the Empty Hand] (Ludwigs-
burg:Verlag Heiko Bittmann, 1999), 36 [in German, but available in English]; see a detailed discussion
about bushidō in Oleg Benesch, Inventing the Way of the Samuari (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014).
32 There are other possible translations for the term, based solely upon language.
33 Richard Rutt, ‘ “The Flower Boys of Silla (Hwarang)’,” Royal Asiatic Society 38 (October 1961): 1–66,
30; see a detailed discussion in Moenig and Kim, ‘ “The Invention’,” 136–41. Silla conquered the
Paekche and Koguryŏ kingdoms during the seventh century, which is often considered the first unified
Korean kingdom.
34 Codruta Sintionean, ‘ “Heritage Practices During the Park Chung Hee Era’,” in Key Papers on Korea, ed.
Andrew David Jackson (Kent: Global Oriental, 2013), 253–74, 268.
35 Capener, ‘ “The Making’,” 73.
36 Park, ‘ “The Paradox’,” 79–80.
37 Capener, ‘ “The Making’,” 73.
38 The Japanese budō sport include judō, kendō, karate-dō and several others.
39 The South Korean National Assembly designated taekwondo as the official national sport by legislation
in 2018.
40 The name Kukkiwon was likely borrowed from the Japanese national sport sumō (Japanese wrestling)
and its headquarters.
41 Kang and Lee, A Modern History, 73–74, 97–99.
42 Gillis, A Killing Art, 110–11.
43 Ibid., 147–66; Andrew Jennings and Vyv Simson, The Lord of the Rings (London: Simon & Schuster Ltd,
1992); Andrew Jennings, The New Lords of the Rings (London: Simon & Schuster, 1996.
1 Thongchai Winichakul, ‘ “The Quest for ‘Siwilai’: A Geographical Discourse of Civilizational Think-
ing in the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth-Century Siam,’ ” The Journal of Asian Studies 59, no. 3
(2000): 528–49.
2 Ibid.‘‘
3 Anthony Reid, Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce 1450‑1680: The Lands Below the Winds (New
Haven:Yale University Press, 1988).
4 Ibid.
5 Pekin Pyan Win Ko, Facts About Myanmar Traditional Chinlone Game and Correct Methods of Chinlone Play-
ing (Yangon: DuWun Publishing, 2013).
6 Vincenzo Sangermano, A Description of the Burmese Empire (Rome: Joseph Salviucci and Son, 1833).
 7 James George Scott, The Burman, His Life and Notions (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1910, 1896).
8 Ibid.
9 Ibid.
10 Ibid.
11 Ko, Facts About Myanmar Traditional Chinlone Game.
12 Ibid.
13 Ibid.
1 Victor D. Cha, Beyond the Final Score:The Politics of Sport in Asia (New York: Columbia University Press,
2009).
2 Mads A. Wickstrøm and Stine Alvad, Autonomy in National Olympic Committees 2017, Report
June 2017 (Copenhagen: Playthegame, 2017), www.playthegame.org/knowledge-bank/downloads/
autonomy-in-national-olympic-committees-2017-/e3cb0290-dadf-4ed0-940b-a78b00b46398.
3 Mithlesh K. Singh Sisodia, ‘ “India and the Asian Games: From Infancy to ’Maturity,” Sport in Society 8,
no. 3 (2005): 404–13.
4 Sombat Karnjanakit and Supitr Samahito, ‘ “Thailand and the Asian Games: Coping with ’Crisis,” Sport
in Society 8, no. 3 (2005): 440–48.
5 Ibid.
6 Yair Galily, ‘ “Sport, Politics and Society in Israel: The First Fifty-Five ’Years,” Israel Affairs 13, no. 3
(2007): 515–28.
7 Rusli Lutan and Fan Hong, ‘ “The Politicization of Sport: GANEFO—A Case ’Study,” Sport in Society
8, no. 3 (2005): 425–39.
8 “Correspondence from IOC Technical Director to IOC President,” File H-FC02-ASIAN/001, ‘Asian
Games and Asian Games Federation: Correspondence,’ Files on the Asian Games Federation, IOC
Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland, May 25, 1977.
9 Fan Hong, ed., Sport, Nationalism and Orientalism:The Asian Games (London: Routledge, 2013).
10 “Letter from IAAF President Adriaan Paulen to IAAF Members in Asia,” File H-FC02-ASIAN/001,
‘‘Asian Games and Asian Games Federation: ’Correspondence,’ Files on the Asian Games Federation,
IOC Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland, November 22, 1978.
11 Fan Hong and Lu Zhouxiang, ‘ “China, the Asian Games and Asian ’Politics,” The International Journal
for the History of Sport 29, no. 12 (2012): 74–97.
12 “Report: Basic Information on the Olympic Council of Asia,” File D-RM01-AAOCA/007, ‘OCA
Publications,’ Files on the Olympic Council of Asia, IOC Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland.
13 Vyv Simons and Andrew Jennings, Dishonored Games: Corruption, Money & Creed at the Olympics
(Toronto: Stoddard, 1992).
14 Hong and Zhouliang, ‘ “China, the Asian Games’.”
15 “Report: Sport Inside,” File D-RM01-AAOCA/002, ‘OCA: Correspondence,’ Files on the Olympic
Council of Asia, IOC Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland, March 31, 1982.
16 Hong and Zhouliang, ‘ “China, the Asian Games’.”
17 “Letter: Datuk Seri Haji Hamzah Bin Haji Abu Samah to IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch,”
File D-RM01-AAOCA/002, ‘OCA: Correspondence,’ Files on the Olympic Council of Asia, IOC
Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland, December 10, 1982.
18 James M. Dorsey, ‘ “Gulf Autocrats and Sports Corruption: A Marriage Made in Heaven’,” The Interna-
tional Journal of the History of Sport 33, no. 18 (2016): 2226–37.
19 “Fax: Israel Olympic Committee to IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch,” File D-RM01-

AAOCA/002, ‘OCA: Correspondence,’ Files on the Olympic Council of Asia, IOC Archive, Lausanne,
Switzerland, November 18, 1982.
20 Simons and Jennings, Dishonored Games.
21 “Letter: Richard Pound to IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch,” File CIO MBR-ALSAB-CORR,
‘Biography, Cuttings and Correspondence of Cheik Fahad Al-Ahmad AL-SABAH,’ Files on Al-Sabah
Sr and Al-Sabah Jr., IOC Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland, June 25, 1982.
22 Simons and Jennings, Dishonored Games. Also see: Fan Hong, ‘ “Sport, Social Transformation and Politi-
cal Independence:The Asian ’Games,” (Paper presented at the ECPR Joint Sessions Intercollege, Nico-
sia, Cyprus, April 25–30, 2006).
23 Eunha Koh, ‘ “South Korea and the Asian Games: The First Step to the World,”‘ Sport in Society 8, no. 3
(2005): 468–78.
 24 William W. Kelly and Susan Brownell, The Olympics in East Asia: Nationalism, Regionalism, and Globalism
on the Center Stage of World Sports, CEAS Occasional Publication Series. Book 3, http://elischolar.
library.yale.edu/ceas_publication_series/3.
25 Jung Woo Lee, ‘ “The Olympics and Post Soviet Era: The Case of Two Koreas’,” in The Politics of the
Olympics, ed. Alan Bairner and Gyozo Molnar (London: Routledge, 2010), 117–28.
26 Fan Hong and Lu Zhouxiang, The Politicisation of Sport in Modern China: Communists and Champions
(London: Routledge, 2014).
27 Fan Hong, ‘ “Communist China and the Asian Games 1951–1990: The Thirty-Nine Year Struggle to
Victory,”‘ Sport in Society 8, no. 3 (2005): 479–92.
28 Hong and Zhouliang, ‘ “China, the Asian Games’.”
29 Hong, ‘ “Sport, Social Transformation and Political Independence’.”
30 Liang Lijuan, He Zhengliang and China’s Olympic Dream (London: Foreign Language Press, 2007).
31 Hong, ‘ “Sport, Social Transformation and Political Independence’.”
32 “Letter: Sheikh Fahad Al-Sabah to SLOOC President Park She Jik,” File D-RM01-AAOCA/004,
‘OCA: Correspondence,’ Files on the Olympic Council of Asia, IOC Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland,
September 19, 1988.
33 Koh, ‘ “South Korea and the Asian Games’.” Also see: Kelly and Brownell, ‘ “The Olympics in East Asia’.”
3 4 Hong, ‘ “Communist China’.”
35 Jeffrey K. Parker, ‘ “Iraq Booted from Asian Games’,” UPI, September 20, 1990, www.upi.com/

Archives/1990/09/20/Iraq-booted-from-Asian-Games/8488653803200/.
36 Marie Therese Zammit and Ian Henry, ‘ “Evaluating Olympic Solidarity 1982–2012’,” in Routledge
Handbook of Sport Policy, ed. Ian Henry and Ling-Mei Ko (London: Routledge, 2014), 93–105.
37 “Various Letters,” ‘OCA: Correspondence,’ Files on the Olympic Council of Asia, IOC Archive, Laus-
anne, Switzerland.
38 Hong, ‘ “Sport, Social Transformation and Political Independence’.”
39 Friederike Trotier and Alan Barnier, eds., Sport and Body Cultures in East and Southeast Asia (London:
Routledge, 2018).
40 “Welcome Address: Sheikh Fahad Al-Sabah to 13th Olympic Council of Asia General Assembly,” File
D-RM01-AAOCA/018, ‘OCA: 15th General Assembly in Bangkok from 7 to 9 December 1996:
Programme and Report,’ Files on the Olympic Council of Asia, IOC Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland,
October 5–6, 1995.
41 “Minutes: 99th IOC Session in Barcelona,” IOC Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland, July 21–23, 1992.
42 “Minutes: 101st IOC Session in Monaco,” IOC Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland, September 21–24,
1993.
43 “Fax: IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch to Sheikh Fahad Al-Sabah,” File D-RM01-AAOCA/013,
‘OCA: Correspondence,’ Files on the Olympic Council of Asia, IOC Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland,
November 1, 1993.
44 “Letter: Uday Saddam Hussein to IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch,” File D-RM01-

AAOCA/013, ‘OCA: Correspondence,’ Files on the Olympic Council of Asia, IOC Archive, Lausanne,
Switzerland, August 22, 1994. Also see: “Letter: Iraqi National Olympic Committee to Centennial
Olympic Congress,” File D-RM01-AAOCA/013, ‘OCA: Correspondence,’ Files on the Olympic
Council of Asia, IOC Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland, August 23, 1994.
45 “Letter: Awad Khleifat to IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch,” File D-RM01-AAOCA/013,
‘OCA: Correspondence,’ Files on the Olympic Council of Asia, IOC Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland,
June 29, 1995.
46 “Letter: Francois Carrad to Sheikh Fahad Al-Sabah,” File D-RM01-AAOCA/013, ‘OCA: Corre-
spondence,’ Files on the Olympic Council of Asia, IOC Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland, June 28, 1995.
Also see: “Letter: Francois Carrad to Sheikh Fahad Al-Sabah,” File D-RM01-AAOCA/014, ‘OCA:
Correspondence,’ Files on the Olympic Council of Asia, IOC Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland, Novem-
ber 17, 1997.
47 Thomas M. Hunt, Drug Games:The International Olympic Committee and the Politics of Doping, 1960–2008
(Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2010), 101.
48 Steven Mufson, ‘ 
“China’s Leap Backward’,” Washington Post, December 6, 1994, www.washing
tonpost.com/archive/sports/1994/12/06/chinas-leap-backward/13f2284e-f30b-4225-ab91-
5a784d5deb9f/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.833c00059673.
 49 ‘ 
“Busan Hosts the 2002 Asian Games,” Donga-A Ilbo, May 24, 1995, https://newslibrary.naver.
com/viewer/index.nhn?articleId=1995052400209101004&editNo=45&printCount=1&publishD
ate=1995-05-24&officeId=00020&pageNo=1&printNo=22862&publishType=00010#.
50 Ibid.
51 Cheongrak Choi, Myungsoo Shin, and Chang-Gyun Kim, ‘ “Globalization, Regionalism and Rec-
onciliation in South Korea’’s Asian Games,”‘ The International Journal of the History of Sport 32, no. 10
(2015): 1308–20.
52 Mahfoud Amara, ‘ “Qatar Asian Games: A ‘Modernization’ Project from Above?’ ” Sport in Society 8, no.
3 (2005): 493–514.
53 Edmund Jan Osmanczyk, Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements, 3rd ed. (London
and New York: Routledge, 2003), 1877.
54 Dorsey, ‘ “Gulf Autocrats and Sports Corruption’.”
55 Cha, Beyond the Final Score, 25.
1 International Olympic Committee, The Olympic Movement (Lausanne, Switzerland: International Olym-
pic Committee, 1984), 12.
2 Ibid., 9.
3 Tracy Holmes, “China Takes the Olympic Limelight’,” CNN, September 14, 2004, http://edition.cnn.
com/2004/SPORT/08/30/athens.games/.
4 Fan Hong, Ping Wu, and Huan Xiong, “Beijing Ambitions: An Analysis of the Chinese Elite Sports
System and Its Olympic Strategy for the 2008 Olympic Games,” The International Journal of the History of
Sport 22, no. 4 (2005): 510–29.
5 David Miller, From Athens to Athens: The Official History of the Olympic Games and the IOC, 1894–2004
(Edinburgh: Mainstream Publishing Company, 2004).
6 Lynn Pan, New Chinese Revolution (London: Sphere Books, 1988).
1 J. A. Mangan, The Games Ethic and Imperialism: Aspects of the Diffusion of an Ideal (Harmondsworth:
Penguin, 1985); Allen Guttmann, Games and Empires: Modern Sports and Cultural Imperialism (New York:
Columbia University Press, 1994).
2 Paul Dimeo,‘ “Sporting and the ‘Civilising Mission’ in India,”‘ in Colonialism and Civilising Mission: Cultural
Ideology in British India, ed. Harald Fischer-Tiné and Michael Mann (London: Anthem, 2004), 165–78.
3 Cecil Headlam, Ten Thousand Miles Through India and Burma: An Account of the Oxford University Authen-
tics Cricket Tour with Mr KJ Key in the Year of the Coronation Durbar (London: J. M. Dent, 1903), 169.
4 Guttmann, Games and Empires, 33.
5 Mangan, The Games Ethic and Imperialism.
6 Tony Mason, ‘ “Football on the ’Maidan,” International Journal of the History of Sport 7, no. 1 (1990):
85–96.
7 Prashant Kidambi, Cricket Country: An Indian Odyssey in the Age of Empire (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2019).
8 Ramachandra Guha, A Corner of a Foreign Field: The Indian History of a British Sport (London: Picador,
2002), 17.
9 Paul Dimeo, ‘ “The Social History of the Royal Calcutta Golf Club, 1829–2003,”‘ in Subaltern Sports:
Politics and Sport in South Asia, ed. James Mills (London: Anthem, 2005), 123–38.
10 Guha, A Corner of a Foreign Field.
11 Satadru Sen, Migrant Races: Empire, Identity and K.S. Ranjitsinhji (Manchester: Manchester University
Press, 2004).
12 Ashis Nandy,  The Tao of Cricket: On Games of Destiny and the Destiny of Games (New Delhi: Viking,
1989).
13 Boria Majumdar, Twenty-Two Yards to Freedom: A Social History of Indian Cricket (New Delhi: Penguin,
2004).
14 Projit B. Mukharji, ‘ “The Early Cricketing Tours: Imperial Provenance and Radical ’Potential,” Interna-
tional Journal of the History of Sport 21, no. 3–4 (2012): 351–62.
15 James Mills, ‘ “A Historiography of South Asian ’Sport,” Contemporary South Asia 10, no. 2 (2001):
207–21.
16 Kausik Bandyopadhyay,  Scoring Off the Field: Football Culture in Bengal, 1911–1980 (New Delhi: Rout-
ledge, 2011).
17 Guha, A Corner of a Foreign Field.
 18 Souvik Naha, ‘ “Producing the First Indian Cricketing Superhero: Nationalism, Body Culture, Con-
sumption and the C.K. Nayudu Phenomenon,”‘ International Journal of the History of Sport 29, no. 4
(2012): 562–82.
19 Berry Sarbadhikary, Presenting Indian Cricket (Calcutta: A. Mukherjee & Co., 1946).
20 John Rosselli, ‘ “The Self-Image of Effeteness: Physical Education and Nationalism in Nineteenth-
Century Bengal,”‘ Past & Present 86 (1980): 121–48.
21 Joseph S. Alter, The Wrestler’s Body: Identity and Ideology in North India (Berkeley, CA: University of Cali-
fornia Press, 1992).
22 Boria Majumdar, ‘ “Forward and Backward: Women’s Soccer in Twentieth-Century India,”‘ Compara-
tive Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 25, no. 1 (2005): 204–13; Kausik Bandyopadhyay,
Mahatma on the Pitch: Gandhi & Cricket in India (New Delhi: Rupa, 2017).
23 Boria Majumdar and Nalin Mehta, Olympics:The India Story (New Delhi: Harper Collins, 2008).
24 Harald Fischer-Tiné, ‘ “Fitness for Modernity? The YMCA and Physical-education Schemes in Late-
colonial South Asia (circa 1900–40),”‘ Modern Asian Studies 53, no. 2 (2019): 512–59.
25 Guha, A Corner of a Foreign Field.
26 Ibid.
27 Majumdar, Twenty-Two Yards to Freedom.
28 Bandyopadhyay, Scoring Off the Field.
29 Alter, The Wrestler’s Body.
30 Souvik Naha,‘ “Adams and Eves at the Eden Gardens:Women Cricket Spectators and the Conflict of Femi-
nine Subjectivity in Calcutta, 1920–70,”‘ International Journal of the History of Sport 29, no. 5 (2012): 711–29.
3 1 Ronojoy Sen, Nation at Play: A History of Sport in India (New York: Columbia University Press, 2015).
3 2 Richard Cashman, Patrons, Players and the Crowd: The Phenomenon of Indian Cricket (Hyderabad: Orient
Longman, 1979).
1 Allen Guttmann and Lee Thompson, Japanese Sports: A History (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press,
2001), 13–41.
2 Hideaki Kinoshita, Heishiki taisō kara mita gun to kyōiku [Military Drills in the Military and in Educa-
tion] (Tokyo: Kyōrin Shoin, 1982).
3 Yūzō Kishino and Kyūzō Takenoshita, Kindai nihon gakkō taiikushi [The History of School Physical
Education in Modern Japan] (Tokyo: Tōyōkan Shuppan, 1959).
4 Tōru Watanabe, “ ‘Meijiki chūgakkō ni okeru supōtsu katsudō” [Sport Activities in Middle School in
the Meiji Era],‘ The Proceedings of the Department of Sports Sciences College of Arts and Sciences, the University
of Tokyo 12 (1978): 1–22.
5 Nobumasa Kawamoto, ed., Orimpikku no jiten [Dictionary of the Olympics] (Tokyo: Sanseidō, 1984);
Fumio Tsukahara, ‘ “1912 nen – 2008 nen kaki Orimpikku Nihon daihyō senshudan ni kansuru shiryō:
shozoku soshiki to saishū gakureki wo chūshin ni” [The Japanese National Team at the Summer Olym-
pic Games, 1912–2008: Affiliation and Educational Background]’, Supōtsu kagaku kenkyū [Sport Science
Research, Waseda University] 10 (2013): 241–316.
6 Ibid.
7 Keiō Gijuku Taiikukai, Keiō gijuku taiikukai nempyō (Tokyo: Keiō gijuku taiikukai, 1977).
8 Yasuhiro Sakaue, Nippon yakyū no keifugaku [A Genealogy of Japanese Baseball] (Tokyo: Seikyūsha,
2001).
9 Donald Roden, ‘ “Baseball and the Quest for National Dignity in Meiji Japan’,” American Historical
Review 85 (1980): 513.
10 Ibid., 519.
11 Allen Guttmann, Games and Empires: Modern Sports and Cultural Imperialism (New York: Columbia Uni-
versity Press, 1994), 79.
12 Ikuo Abe, ‘ “Historical Significance of the Far Eastern Championship Games: An International Political
Arena’,” in Olympic Japan: Ideals and Realities of (Inter)Nationalism, ed. Andreas Niehaus and Max Seinsch
(Würzburg: Ergon Verlag, 2007), 67–87.
13 Kō Takashima, ‘ “Kyokutō senshuken kyōgi taikai to YMCA” [Far Eastern Championship Games and
YMCA]’, in Chūgoku Higashi-Ajia gaikō kōryū shi no kenkyū [The History of Diplomacy in China and
East Asia], ed. Susumu Fuma (Kyoto: Kyōto Daigaku gakujutsu shuppankai, 2007), 479.
14 Stefan Huebner, Pan-Asian Sports and the Emergence of Modern Asia, 1913–1974 (Singapore: National
University of Singapore Press, 2016).
15 Takashima, ‘ “Kyokutō senshuken kyōgi taikai to YMCA’,” 487.
 16 Yūji Ishizaka, ‘ “Senzen no supōtsukai no sokuseki: Orimpikku hatsusanka kara maboroshi ni itaru
made” [Sport in Prewar Japan: From First Olympic Participation to the Cancellation of the 1940
Games]’, in Nippon no Orimpikku: Nihon wa Orimpizumu to ikani mukiatte kitaka, ed.Yasunao Kojita et al.
[Japan and the Olympics: How Japan Has Viewed Olympism] (Tokyo: Seikyūsha, 2018), 86–112.
17 For further details of the games, see Katsumi Irie, Meijijingū kyōgitaikai to kokumin seishin sōdōin undō
[The Meiji Shrine Games and Full Mobilisation] (Tokyo: Fumaidō Shuppan, 1991); K. Takashima, Tei-
koku Nihon to Supōtsu [The Japanese Empire and Sport] (Hanawa Shobō, 2012).
18 This and the following three paragraphs reference Yasuhiro Sakaue, Kenryoku sochi toshite no supōtsu:
Teikoku Nihon no kokka senryaku [State and Sport in Inter-War Japan] (Tokyo: Kōdansha, 1998), 56–77;
Yasuhiro Sakaue, Shōwa Tennō to supōtsu: Gyokutai no kindaishi [The Showa Emperor and Sport: A Mod-
ern History of the Imperial Presence] (Tokyo:Yoshikawa Kōbunkan, 2016), 110–32, 173–76.
19 Kō Takashima, Guntai to supōtsu [The Military and Sport in Modern Japan] (Tokyo: Seikyūsha, 2015).
20 Nihon Taiiku Kyōkai, Nihon Taiiku Kyōkai 75 nenshi [75-Year History of Japan Amateur Sports Associa-
tion] (Tokyo: Nippon taiiku kyokai, 1986).
21 Fūta Suzuki, ‘ “Senjiki no supōtsu to jendā: Monbushō no ‘jūten seisaku’ wo chūshin ni” [Sport and
Gender in Japan During the Asia-Pacific War: Focusing on the ‘Priority System’ Policy of the Ministry
of Education]’, Hitotsubashi Annual of Sport Studies 31 (2012): 48.
22 Masaru Kōzu, Nihon kindai supōtsu shi no teiryū [Undercurrents of Sport History in Modern Japan]
(Tokyo: Sōbun Kikaku, 1994), 238–55. .
23 Monbu Daijin Kanbō Taiiku-ka 1933, quoted in Sakaue, Kenryoku sochi toshite no supōtsu, 32
24 Sakaue, Kenryoku sochi toshite no supōtsu, 44–45.
25 Nobuyoshi Tasaki, ‘ “Senkanki to atarashii seikatsu bunka” [The New Life Culture in the Inter-War
Period],’ in Kindai Nihon no toshi to nōson: Gekido no 1920–50 nendai [Cities and Villages in Modern
Japan: The Turbulent 1920s–50s], ed. Nobuyoshi Tasaki (Tokyo: Seikyūsha, 2012), 25.
26 Sakaue, Kenryoku sochi toshite no supōtsu, 61.
27 Kōzu, Nihon kindai supōtsu shi no teiryū, 14–22.
28 Peter Donnelly and Kevin M.Young, ‘ “Reproduction and Transformation of Cultural Forms in Sport:
A Contextual Analysis of Rugby,”‘ International Review for the Sociology of Sport 20, no. 1–2 (1985): 19.
29 Ibid.
30 Ibid., 20.
31 For example, Sakaue, Nippon yakyū no keifugaku; Thomas Blackwood, ‘ “Bushidō Baseball? Three

‘Fathers’ and the Invention of a Tradition’,” Social Science Japan Journal 11, no. 2 (2008): 223–40.
32 Kōzu, Nihon kindai supōtsu shi no teiryū, 79–177.
33 Ibid., 250.
34 Sakaue, Kenryoku sochi toshite no supōtsu, 188–92.
35 Kō Takashima, ‘‘ “Manshūkoku no tanjō to Kyokutō supōtsukai no saihen” [The Birth of Manchuria
and Its Impact on Sports in the Far East], Memoirs of the Faculty of Letters, Kyoto University 47 (2008):
131–81; Huebner, Pan-Asian Sports and the Emergence of Modern Asia, 70–73.
36 Sakaue, Kenryoku sochi toshite no supōtsu, 210–19.
37 Sachie Hamada, Nihon ni okeru media Orimpikku no tanjō: Los Angeles, Berlin, Tokyo [The Birth of the
Mediated Olympics in Japan: Los Angeles, Berlin and Tokyo] (Kyoto: Mineruva shobō, 2016), 139–204.
38 Tetsuo Nakamura, ‘ “IOC Kaichō Baillet-Latour karamita Tokyo Orimpikku” [How IOC President
Baillet-Latour perceived the 1940 Tokyo Olympic Games]’, in Maboroshi no Tōkyō Orimpikku to sono
jidai: Supōtsu, toshi, shintai [The 1940 Tokyo Olympics and Its Period: Sport, Body and Urban Areas in
Wartime], ed.Yasuhiro Sakaue and Hiroyuki Takaoka (Tokyo: Seikyūsha, 2009), 26–28.
39 Sandra Collins, The 1940 Tokyo Games: The Missing Olympics: Japan, the Asian Olympics and the Olympic
Movement (London: Routledge, 2007).
40 Junko Tahara, ‘ “Dai 12 kai Orimpikku Tōkyō taikai no kaisai chūshi wo meguru shogaikoku no hannō
ni tuite: Gaimushō gaikō shiryōkan bunsho no bunseki wo toshite” [A Study of the Responses of For-
eign Countries to the Cancellation of the Games of the 12th Olympiad, Tokyo: Through an Analysis
of the Documents in the Possession of the Diplomatic Record Office, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of
Japan]’, Japanese Journal of Physical Education 38, no. 2 (1993): 87–98; Nakamura, ‘ “IOC Kaichō Baillet-
Latour karamita Tokyo Orimpikku’,” 48–49.
41 Fūta Suzuki, ‘ “Taiiku supōtsu no senji hensei to jendā” [Sport and Gender in Japan During Wartime]’
(PhD diss., Hitotsubashi University, 2014).
42 Suzuki, ‘ “Senjiki no supōtsu to jendā’,” 51.
 43 Tetsuya Nakamura and Toshio Kunugi, ‘ “Gakusei yakyū no kokkatōsei to jichi: Senjika no Tobita
Suishū” [The Autonomy of Interscholastic Baseball and State Control: Suishū Tobita During the War]’,
in Maboroshi no Tōkyō Orimpikku to sono jidai: Supōtsu, toshi, shintai [The 1940 Tokyo Olympics and Its
Period: Sport, Body and Urban Areas in Wartime], ed.Yasuhiro Sakaue and Hiroyuki Takaoka (Tokyo:
Seikyūsha, 2009), 354–78.
44 Suzuki, ‘ “Senjiki no supōtsu to jendā’,” 51–53.
45 Yasuhiro Sakaue, ‘ “Hyōteki toshiteno toshi: Kōseishō ni yoru undōshisetsu kakujū seisaku no tenkai”
[Targeting the Cities: The Policy of the Ministry of Health and Welfare During the War]’, in Maboroshi
no Tokyo Orimpikku to sono jidai: Supōtsu, toshi, shintai [The 1940 Tokyo Olympics and Its Period: Sport,
Body and Urban Areas in Wartime], ed. Yasuhiro Sakaue and Hiroyuki Takaoka (Tokyo: Seikyūsha,
2009), 279–319; Yasuhiro Sakaue, ‘ “Taiheiyō sensō ka no supōtsu shōrei: 1943 nen no Kōseishō no
seisaku hōshin, undōyōgu oyobi kyōgitaikai no tōsei” [Sport Promotion During the Pacific War: The
Policy and Control Over the Production of Sporting Goods and the Holding of Athletic Meetings by
the Welfare Ministry in 1943]’, Hitotsubashi Annual of Sport Studies 29 (2010): 11–18; Suzuki, ‘ “Taiiku
supōtsu no senji hensei to jendā’.”
46 Nihon Hōsō Kyōkai Hōsō Yoron Chōsasho, Tōkyō Orimpikku [Tokyo Olympics] (Tokyo: Nihon Hōsō
Kyōkai Hōsō Yoron Chōsasho, 1967), 141.
47 Itaru Kikumura, ‘ “Yattemite yokatta” [It Was a Good Experience]’, Yomiuri shimbun, October 24, 1964.
1 T’aejin Yi, Kojong sidae ŭi chaejomyŏng [Refocusing on the Kojong Period] (Seoul: T’aehaksa, 2000),
26–73.
2 J. A. Mangan and Nam-gil Ha, ‘ “Confucianism, Imperialism, Nationalism: Modern Sport, Ideology and
Korean Culture,’ ” in Europe, Sport,World: Shaping Global Societies, ed. J. A. Mangan (Portland: Frank Cass,
2001), 49–76.
3 Koen De Ceuster, ‘ “Wholesome Education and Sound Leisure: The YMCA Sports Programme in
Colonial ’Korea,” European Journal of East Asian Studies 2, no. 1 (2003): 39–62.
4 Pak Noja, Ssissikhan namja mandŭlgi: Han’guk ŭi isangjŏk namsŏngsŏng ŭi yŏksa rŭl p’ahech’ida (Seoul:
P’urŭn yŏksa, 2009), 156–57.
5 Andre Schmid, Korea Between Empires, 1895–1919 (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002).
6 Andrew D. Morris, Marrow of the Nation: A History of Sport and Physical Culture in Republican China
(Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2004), 6.
7 Han-sŏp Yi, Ilbonŏ esŏ on uri mal sajŏn (Seoul: Koryŏ Taehakkyo Ch’ulp’anbu, 2014), 804–6.
8 Jun Uchida, Brokers of Empire: Japanese Settler Colonialism in Korea, 1876–1945 (Cambridge, MA: Har-
vard University Press, 2014).
9 Frederick R. Dickinson, World War I and the Triumph of a New Japan, 1919–1930 (Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 2013), 132–34.
10 Michael E. Robinson, Cultural Nationalism in Colonial Korea, 1920–1925 (Seattle: University of Wash-
ington Press, 2015).
11 Ibid., 49–50.
12 Katsumi Irie, Shōwa supōtsu shiron: Meiji Jingū Kyōgi Taikai to kokumin seishin sōdōin undō (Tokyo: Fumaidō
shuppan, 1991), 3–5.
13 C. L. R. James, Beyond a Boundary (New York: Pantheon, 1983), 112.
14 Jung Woo Lee, ‘ “Examining Korean Nationalisms, Identities, and Politics through ’Sport,” Asia Pacific
Journal of Sport and Social Science 4, no. 3 (2015): 179–85, 180.
15 J. A. Mangan, Kyongho Park, and Gwang Ok, “ ‘Japanese Imperial Sport as Failed Cultural Condition-
ing: Korean ‘Recalcitrance‘,” in Japanese Imperialism: Politics and Sport in East Asia: Rejection, Resentment,
Revanchism, ed. J. A. Mangan, Peter Horton, Tianwei Ren, and Gwang Ok (Singapore: Springer Singa-
pore, 2018), 43–70, 54–55.
16 Mark E. Caprio, ‘ “Janus-Faced Colonial Policy: Making Sense of the Contradictions in Japanese
Administrative Rhetoric and Practice in Korea,”‘ Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies 17, no. 2 (2017):
125–47.
17 Gi-Wook Shin and Michael Robinson, eds., Colonial Modernity in Korea (Cambridge: East Asia Council
Publications, 1999).
18 Ceuster, ‘ “Wholesome Education and Sound Leisure’.”
19 Deug Heon Yun, Sŭp’och’ŭ wa midio (Seoul: Reinbou Puksu, 2008).
20 Joseph A. Reaves, Taking in a Game: A History of Baseball in Asia (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press,
2002), 123.
 21 Sung-yeon Yoo, “ ‘Ilche kangjŏmgi kyŏnggi ssirŭm e taehan yŏn’gu,”‘ Taehan mudo hakhoe chi 19, no. 1
(2017): 67–79.
22 Jung Hwan Cheon, ‘ “Bend It Like a Man of Chosun: Sports Nationalism and Colonial Modernity
of 1936’,” in The Korean Popular Culture Reader, ed. Kyung Hyun Kim and Youngmin Choe, 199–227
(Durham: Duke University Press, 2014), 205–6.
23 Ceuster, ‘ “Wholesome Education and Sound Leisure’,” 53–54; Brian Bridges, The Two Koreas and the
Politics of Global Sport (Leiden: Global Oriental, 2012), 27–28.
24 Cheon, ‘ “Bend It Like a Man of Chosun’,” 222–24.
25 Gwang Ok, The Transformation of Modern Korean Sport: Imperialism, Nationalism, Globalization (Elizabeth:
Hollym, 2007), 257–96.
26 Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Vintage
Books, 1975).
27 Sandra S. Collins, The Missing Olympics: The 1940 Tokyo Games, Japan, Asia and the Olympic Movement
(London: Routledge, 2007).
28 Andre Schmid, ‘ “Colonialism and the ‘Korea Problem’ in the Historiography of Modern Japan:

A Review Article,”‘ Journal of Asian Studies 59, no. 4 (2000): 951–76.
29 Karen Farquharson and Timothy Marjoribanks, ‘ “Transforming the Springboks: Re-Imagining the
South African Nation Through Sport’,” Social Dynamics 29, no. 1 (2003): 27–48.
30 Hangnae Yi, Han’’guk ch’’eyuksa yŏn’’gu (Seoul: Kukhak Charyowŏn, 2003).
31 Victor D. Cha, Beyond the Final Score (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009), 23–24.
32 Oh Miyoung, ‘ “ ‘Eternal Other’ Japan: South Koreans’ Postcolonial Identity’,” International Journal of the
History of Sport 26, no. 3 (2009): 371–89.
1 Seong-Gon Kim and Jeong Hyeong-Ho, trans., Culture and Imperialism (Seoul: Chang, 1997), 381.
2 Jung-Sim Park, The History of Korean Modern Thought (Seoul: Cheonnyeon-ui Sangsang, 2016), 77, 148.
3 ‘ “The Pride of Nation, the Cradle of Strengthened Fighting Spirit’,” Donga-Ilbo, April 1, 1975.
4 Hak-Rae Lee, A Study on the History of Modern Sports (Seoul: Jishik Sanupsa, 1990), 20–21; U-Young
Back and Ka-Ram Lee, ‘ “Seo Jae-Pil’s Contribution to the Evolution of Korea’s Modern Physical
Education and Sports Culture’,” Asian Journal of Physical Education and Sport Science 7, no. 2 (2019):
51–64.
5 Lee, A Study on the History of Modern Sports, 30.
6 Ibid.
7 Ka-Ram Lee, ‘ “A Study on Sports Articles Published in the Independent’,” Korean Journal of Physical
Education 55, no. 3 (2016): 1–14.
8 James A. Mangan, The Games Ethic and Imperialism (London:Viking Penguin, 1986), 168.
9 Yeong-Seok Lee, Modern Scenery (Seoul: Pureun-yeogsa, 2003), 208.
10 Lak-Geoon G. Paik, The History of Protestant Missions in Korea 1832–1910 (Seoul: Yonsei University
Press, 1970), 308–19.
11 ‘ “American Missionary Bruen First Spread Baseball in 1899’,” Sindong-a, January 21, 2014.
12 Kim Jae-Woo, ‘ “A Study on the Physical Education of the Korean YMCA in the Period of Gu-Han-
Mal’,” Journal of Sport Information & Technology 1 (2006): 75–86.
13 Ka-Ram Lee, ‘ “The Influence of Philip L. Gillett on the Development of Korea’s Modern Sports,”‘
Korean Journal of History for Physical Education, Sport, and Dance 19, no. 2 (2014): 101–14.
14 Lee Jong-Seong, Sports Culture History (Seoul: Keomyunikeisyeonbugseu, 2014), 113.
15 Lee, A Study on the History of Modern Sports, 111.
16 Kim Jae-Woo, The 100-Year Sports History of the Seoul YMCA (Seoul: Sangrok Munwha, 2009), 95.
17 Ka-Ram Lee and Jae-Pil Ha, “ ‘A Study on the Introduction Process of Korean Volleyball,”‘ Korean
Journal of History for Physical Education, Sport, and Dance 21, no. 1 (2016): 10.
18 Philip Loring Gillett, Annual Report of the Foreign Secretaries of the International Committee September 30,
1910. Reports of Foreign Secretaries 1910, 1. Kautz Family YMCA Archives, University of Minneapo-
lis, USA.
19 ‘ “10th Anniversary of Joseon Baseball History (9) Mr Tiger’s Visit and Mr Ohseong’s Remarkable ’Per-
formance,” Donga-Ilbo, April 11, 1930.
20 Hwan Son, ‘ “A Study on Establishment and Activity of Joseon Sports Associations,”‘ Korean Journal of
Physical Education 47, no. 3 (2008): 1–13.
2 1 Nam-Gil Ha, New Theory on Sports History (Jinju: Gyeongsang University, 2010), 662.
2 2 Kyunghyang Daily News, July 12, 1962; Kyunghyang Daily News, January 12, 1974.
 23 Gwang Ok, ‘ “Coercion for Asian Conquest: Japanese Militarism and Korean Sport, 1938–45,”‘ Interna-
tional Journal of the History of Sport 24, no. 3 (2007): 338–56, 340.
24 Ha, New Theory on Sports History, 657–58.
25 Seong Heo, ‘ “Need for Healthy Life,”‘ Cheongnyeon, November 20, 1922.
26 Taek-Bu Cheon, The History of Korean YMCA Sports (Seoul: Beomwosa, 1994), 195–209.
27 The Independent, May 5, 1896.
28 Korean Society for History of Physical Education, Sport and Dance, Korea Sports History (Seoul: Dae-
hanmidieo, 2015), 86.
29 Jung-Hwan Cheon, Never-Ending Syndrome (Seoul: Pureun Yeoksa, 2005), 145.
30 ‘ “To Be World-Class, Take Part in the Track and Field Competition,”‘ Donga Ilbo, June 3, 1924.
31 Hui-Jun Jeong, Sports Korea Fantasy (Seoul: Gaemagowon, 2009), 41–42.
32 Allen Guttman and Lee Thompson, Japanese Sports: A History (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press,
2001), 117–18.
33 Ibid., 119–21.
34 ‘ “Poor Nationalism Obsessed with the Olympics,”‘ Sindonga, August 27, 2004.
35 ‘ “Kwon Tae-ha, Kim Eun-bae, Both on Away Game Overseas,”‘ Donga-Ilbo, May 31, 1932; ‘ “Kim Eun-
bae, Kwon Tae-ha, Hwang Eul-su,”‘ Kyunghyang Daily News, July 6, 1979.
36 ‘ “Olympics and Our Nation,”‘ Donga Ilbo, August 20, 1960.
37 ‘ “Thunderous Shouts of Hurrah Everywhere’,” Donga Ilbo, August 10, 1936.
38 Cheon, Never-Ending Syndrome, 54.
39 Kee-Chung Sohn, My Homeland, My Marathon (Seoul: Hankook Ilbo Press Publishing Department,
1983), 89.
40 Jung-Hee Ha, ‘ “Historical Review of Sports Hero Shon Kee Chung’s Sport Activities”‘ (PhD diss.,
Chung-Ang University, 2012), 15.
41 Cheon, Never-Ending Syndrome, 68–69; Gwang Ok, The Transformation of Modern Korean Sport: Imperial-
ism, Nationalism, Globalization (Elizabeth: Hollym, 2007), 235.
42 Hwan Son, ‘ “A Study on Olympic Movement in Korea After Independence,”‘ Korean Journal of History
for Physical Education, Sport, and Dance 15, no. 2 (2010): 17–26.
43 ‘ “The Olympic Support Lotto Collected 140 Million Won’,” Donga-Ilbo, December 11, 1947.
44 ‘ “A Star Player of a Half-Century of Physical Education’,” Kyunghyang Daily News, July 11, 1970.
45 ‘ “Korean Marathon Falls Behind Japan for More than 10 Years’,” Donga-Ilbo, December 9, 1987.
46 ‘ “The Seoul Olympics: A Great Opportunity for East-West Unity’,” Hankyoreh, October 4, 1988; ‘ “The
Seoul Olympics: A Catalyst for East-West ’Harmony,” Kyunghyang Daily News, September 12, 1989;
Sandra Collins, ‘ “Asian Soft-Power: Globalization and Regionalism in the East Asia Olympic Games’,”
in Rethinking Matters Olympic: Investigation into the Socio-Cultural Study of the Modern Olympic Movement,
ed. R. Barney, Tenth International Symposium for Olympic Research (London: The University of
Western Ontario, 2010), 169–70.
1 Roland St. J. Braddell, ‘ “A Short History of the Colony’,” in One Hundred Years of Singapore, ed. Walter
Makepeace, G. E. Brooke, and Ronald St. John Braddell,Vol. 1 (London: John Murray, 1921), 17–22.
2 John H. Drabble, An Economic History of Malaysia, c. 1800–1990: The Transition to Modern Economic
Growth (London: Macmillan, 2000).
3 John F. A. MacNair, C. B.Walker, and A. Knight, Report of the Census Officers, for the Settlement of Singapore,
1871 (Singapore: Government Printing Office, 1871), 6.
4 ‘ “’Penang,” Singapore Free Press Mercantile Advertiser, May 31, 1866, 3.
5 Peng Han Lim, ‘ “The Diffusion and Transmission of Cricket Among European, Indigenous and
Migrant Communities in the British Straits Settlements and the Federated Malay States During the
Late Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century, 1786–1899,” International Journal of the History of Sport 30, no.
3 (2013): 214–20, https://dx.doi/org/10.1080/09523367.2012.755346.
6 Ibid.,‘’ 215–18.
7 ‘ “The Penang Recreation Club Visitors’,” Straits Times, February 2, 1894, 3.
8 J. D. Vaughan, The Manners and Customs of the Chinese of the Straits Settlements (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford
University Press, 1974), 2–6.
9 S. Dunlop, Report on the Census of Singapore, 1881 (Singapore: Government Printing Office, 1881), 3, 6,
21, 43.
10 Theodore R. Hubback, ‘ “Sport’,” in Twentieth Century Impression of British Malaya, ed. Arnold Wright
and H. A. Cartwright (London: Lloyd’s Greater Britain Publishing Company, 1908), 584; ‘ “’Untitled,”
Straits Times, January 14, 1885, 2.
1 1 ‘ “Chinese New Year’s ’Sports,” Straits Times, February 8, 1894, 3.
12 Hubback, ‘ “’Sport,” 584.
13 Ibid.
14 J. C. Jackson, ‘ “Population Changes in Selangor, 1850–’1891,” Journal of Tropical Geography 19, no. 19
(1964): 42.
15 Brian Harrison, Southeast Asia: A Short History (London: Macmillan, 1966), 204.
16 J. M. Gullick, Glimpses of Selangor 1860–1898 (Kuala Lumpur: Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic
Society, 1993), 8.
17 Kay Kim Khoo, ‘ “The Formation of the Federated Malay ’States,” in Encyclopaedia of Malaysia: Early
Modern History, 1800–1940, ed. Boon Kheng Cheah (Singapore: Archipelago Press, 2001), 80–81.
18 Boon Kheng Cheah, ‘ “The Unfederated Malay ’States,” in Encyclopaedia of Malaysia: Early Modern His-
tory, 1800–1940, ed. Boon Kheng Cheah (Singapore: Archipelago Press, 2001), 92–93.
19 C. E. Carrington, Singapore and Malaya (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1956), 3.
20 Ibid., 584–85.
21 E. M. Merewether, Report of the Census of the Straits Settlements Taken on 5th April 1891 (Singapore: Gov-
ernment Printing Office, 1892), 156.
22 Mark Foenander, ‘ “J. R. Crawford: A Veteran of ’Perak,” British Malaya 10, no. 9 (1936): 226.
23 Arnold Wright and H. A. Cartwright, Twentieth Century Impressions of British Malaya: Its History, People,
Commerce, Industries and Resources (London: Lloyd’s Greater Britain Publishing, 1908), 875.
24 ‘ “The Opening of the ‘Selangor Club’,”‘ Straits Times, October 18, 1884, 6.
25 Merewether, Report of the Census, 156.
26 D. J. M. Tate, The Lake Club 1890–1990 (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1990), 2–3.
27 Correspondent, ‘ “The Lake ’Club,” Straits Times, February 27, 1896, 2.
28 ‘ “Malayan Golden ’Jubilee,” Straits Times, November 24, 1935, 14.
29 Lim, ‘ “The Diffusion and Transmission’,” 221.
30 Wright and Cartwright, Twentieth Century Impressions, 589.
31 James C. Jackson, ‘ “Population Changes in Selangor State, 1850–1891’,” The Journal of Tropical Geography
17 (1964): 50–51.
32 ‘ “Advance of Chinese Sport in Selangor’,” Straits Times, May 19, 1935, 14.
33 ‘ “The Club That Beat the Slump’,” Straits Times, January 8, 1933, 13.
3 4 ‘ “Ipoh Athletic Sports’,” SFPMA, September 27, 1906, 199.
35 “The Ipoh Athletic Meeting,” SFPMA, September 13, 1906, 8.
36 “The Athletic Meeting at Ipoh’,” SFPMA, September 24, 1906, 5.
3 7 ‘ “Ipoh Athletic Sports’,” Eastern Daily Mail and Straits Morning Advertiser, September 29, 1906, 5.
3 8 ‘ “Malayan Athletic Sports’,” Straits Times, July 21, 1920, 10.
39 Allan E. Moreira, The Malaya Sports Record (Kuala Lumpur: Huxley, Palmer & Co., 1923), 101–3.
40 ‘ “Malayan Athletics: Colour-Bar Broken’,” SFPMA, August 30, 1921, 12.
4 1 ‘ “Malayan Sports’,” Straits Times, September 13, 1922, 10.
4 2 ‘ “Malayan Sports’,” Straits Times, September 18, 1922, 10.
43 ‘ “Singapore Wins the Championship’,” SFPMA, September 21, 1922, 185.
44 ‘ “Malaya Cup Final’,” Straits Times, October 3, 1921, 10.
4 5 ‘ “Malayan Football’,” Straits Times, September 13, 1926, 10.
46 Peng Han Lim and Mohd Salleh Aman, ‘ “The HMS Malaya Cup Football League, 1921–1941:Towards
the Institutionalization of Football in British Malaya’,” International Journal of the History of Sport 34, no.
17/18 (2017): 1981–2007, https://doi.org/10.1080/09523367.2018.1495194.
47 ‘ “Malayan R. U. Affairs’,” Straits Times, September 14, 1928, 10.
4 8 Moreira, The Malaya Sports Record, 82.
4 9 ‘ “Lawn Tennis’,” Malaya Tribune, September 10, 1921, 5.
5 0 ‘ “Tennis Association Formed’,” SFPMA, August 6, 1924, 16.
51 “ ‘The History of Rugby in Malaya’,” Sunday Tribune, August 30, 1936, 20.
52 ‘ “Malaya Badminton Association Formed’,” Straits Times, November 13, 1934, 14.
5 3 ‘ “Malaya Badminton Association’,” SFPMA, November 14, 1934, 16.
5 4 ‘ “Triangular Badminton Tournament’,” Straits Times, June 2, 1935, 16.
55 ‘ “Foong Seong Cup’,” SFPMA, July 30, 1936, 15.
56 ‘ “Malayan Badminton Survey’,” Sunday Tribune, April 25, 1937, 19.
57 ‘ “Where Shuttles Are Scarce Players Progress!’ ” Sunday Tribune, July 10, 1938, 19.
58 ‘ “All About Badminton in Malaya’,” Malaya Tribune, December 2, 1934, 18.
5 9 ‘ “Singapore Stars Defeated in Badminton Championships’,” Straits Times, December 6, 1937, 16.
60 ‘ “First Malayan Badminton Champion to Retire’,” Sunday Tribune, January 30, 1938.
61 ‘ “Indonesian May Be B.A.M. Singles Champion’,” Straits Times, July 31, 1954, 14.
62 Sports Editor, ‘ “Sonneville,Yusuf Here for Experience’,” Straits Times, August 10, 1954, 14.
63 H. R. Hone, British Military Administration, Malaya: Advisory Council, Singapore: Report of Proceedings
(Kuala Lumpur: Malayan Union Government Press, 1946), 2.
64 ‘ “Singapore to Remain a Separate Colony’,” Straits Times, October 1, 1945, 1.
65 ‘ “Federation Olympic Council Formed’,” Straits Times, August 16, 1953, 20.
66 ‘ “Malayanisation It’s Making Its Debut in Sport’,” Straits Times, June 2, 1957, 18.
67 Richard Winstedt, Malaya and Its History, 7th ed. (London: Hutchinson University Library, 1966), 148.
68 Andrew Barber, The Making of a Nation 1510–1957 (Malaysia: AB &A, 2008), 126.
69 ‘ “K.L. Stadium to Be ‘Best in East’’,” Straits Times, June 11, 1958, 26.
70 ‘ “Tengku Is Re-Elected’,” Straits Times, February 17, 1958, 14.
71 Norman Siebel, “ ‘FAM’s Rise to Leading Role in Asia’,” Straits Times, December 7, 1961, 18.
72 V. Nayagam, ‘ “Tengku Agrees to Lead ABC’,” Straits Times, July 30, 1959, 14.
73 Norman Siebel, ‘ “The Is 1st Asian Champion’,” Straits Times, May 6, 1962, 20.
74 Charles Bryce, ‘ “One Thing Malay Has Plenty of Games Officials’,” Singapore Free Press, April 10, 1958,
14.
75 Organising Committee, Official Report of III Asian Games, Tokyo 1958 (Tokyo: Organising Committee,
1958), 116–17, 122.
76 Peng Han Lim and Mohd Salleh Aman, ‘ “The History of the South East Asian Peninsular Games’,”
International Journal of the History of Sport 33, no. 5 (2016): 545–68, https://doi.org/10.1080/09523367.
2015.1062371.
77 Organising Committee, The Official Report of the 1st SEA Peninsular Games, Bangkok 1959 (Bangkok:
Organising Committee, 1959), 35–36.
78 ‘ “Our Team’,” Straits Times, August 18, 1960, 6.
79 Organizing Committee, The Second South East Asia Peninsular Games Rangoon 1961 (Rangoon: The
Organizing Committee, 1962), 119.
80 ‘ “Malayans Look Smart in the Opening Ceremony’,” Straits Times, August 25, 1962, 19.
81 Harrison, Southeast Asia, 256.
82 Ministry of Culture, Singapore Year Book 1964 (Singapore: Ministry of Culture, 1965), 10–11.
83 Aba Mardjadi, Dari SEAP Games Ke SEA Games [From SEAP Games to SEA Games] (Jakarta: Media
Gema Olahraga, 1997), ix.
84 Organising Committee, III SEAP Games: Kuala Lumpur 1965 (Kuala Lumpur: South East Asia Penin-
sular Games Federation, 1966), 36.
85 Ernest Frida, ‘ “Games in Phnom Penh’,” Straits Times, December 22, 1965, 22.
86 Organising Committee, III SEAP Games, 36.
87 Mansoor Rahman, ‘ “King to Open the Capital’s First SEAP Games at Impressive Ceremony’,” Straits
Times, December 12, 1965, 16.
88 ‘ “TV Live and Well’,” Straits Times, December 17, 1965, 12.
89 Organising Committee, III SEAP Games, 130.
90 Lim Kee Chan, ‘ “World Record’,” Straits Times, December 16, 1965, 22.
91 Organising Committee, III SEAP Games, 156.
1 James Bradley, The Imperial Crusade: Secret History of Empire and War (New York: Little, Brown & Co.,
2009), 203.
2 Warren Zimmerman, The First Great Triumph: How Five Americans Made Their Country a World Power
(New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2002), 348.
3 Gerald R. Gems, Sport and the American Occupation of the Philippines: Bats, Balls, and Bayonets (Lanham,
MD: Lexington Books, 2016), 41–62.
4 Ibid., 130–31.
5 Ibid., 131–32; Peter W. Stanley, A Nation in the Making:The Philippines and the United States, 1899–1921
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974), 315; Glenn May, Social Engineering in the Philippine:
The Aims, Execution, and Impact of American Colonial Policy, 1900–1913 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press
1980), 83; Stanley Karnow, In Our Image: America’s Empire in the Philippines (New York: Random House,
1989), 206–7.
6 Dean C. Worcester, The Philippines Past and Present (New York: Macmillan, 1914), 928.
 7 Celia Bocobo-Olivar, History of Physical Education in the Philippines (Quezon City, Philippines: Univer-
sity of the Philippines Press, 1972), 40–50; Frederic S. Marquardt Papers, University of Michigan, Bent-
ley Library; Elwood S. Brown, Annual Report, October 1, 1914–October 1, 1915, n.p.; Lou Antolihao,
Playing with the Big Boys: Basketball, American Imperialism, and Subaltern Discourse in the Philippines (Lin-
coln: University of Nebraska Press, 2015), 38, cites that 95 percent of the 700,000 students participated
in physical education classes in 1911.
8 Gems, Sport and the American Occupation of the Philippines, 136–37; Julie A. Tuason, ‘ “The Ideology of
Empire in National Geographic Magazine’s Coverage of the Philippines, 1898–1908’,” Geographical Review
89, no. 1 (1999): 34–53 (quote, 43).
9 Gems, Sport and the American Occupation of the Philippines, 95.
10 Ibid., 92.
11 Ibid., 57, 66, 93, 136.
12 Gerald R. Gems, The Athletic Crusade: Sport and American Cultural Imperialism (Lincoln: University of
Nebraska Press, 2006), 50, 55, 59.
13 Ibid., 59; Gems, Sport and the American Occupation of the Philippines, 147–53.
14 Gems, Sport and the American Occupation of the Philippines, 34–35, 96–97 (quote), 154–55; Elwood S.
Brown, Annual Reports, 1911–1914, YMCA Archives, Box Philippines, NP, Correspondence Reports,
1911–1968, administrative reports file. The reporter conveniently forgot that the Japanese had already
participated in the 1912 Olympics in Stockholm, Sweden. Brown drew the ire of Pierre de Coubertin
for invoking the word Olympics in his title and duly changed the name to the Far East Games.
15 Brown, Annual Report.
16 Bishop Charles H. Brent Papers, Library of Congress, Box 47, Philippine Islands folder; Alexander C.
Zabriskie, Bishop Brent: Crusader for Christian Unity (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1948), 56, 70–72;
Gems, Sport and the American Occupation of the Philippines, 136.
17 Gems, The Athletic Crusade, 58; Gems, Sport and the American Occupation of the Philippines, 118–19 (quote,
118).
18 Gems, Sport and the American Occupation of the Philippines, 118–19, 158–61; Gerald R. Gems, Boxing:
A Concise History of the Sweet Science (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2014), 38–39, 99–100.
19 Theresa Runstedtler, ‘ “The New Negro’s Brown Brother: Black American and Filipino Boxers and the
‘Rising Tide of Color‘,” in Escape from New York:The New Negro Renaissance Beyond Harlem, ed. Davarian
L. Baldwin and Minkah Makalani (Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press, 2013), 105–26, 117
(quote).
20 Robert A. Reid, The Greatest of Exhibitions: Completely Illustrated, official publication (St. Louis: Samuel
F. Myerson, 1904); Susan Brownell, ed., The 1904 Anthropology Days and Olympic Games: Sport, Race,
and American Imperialism (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2008); Claire Prentice, The Lost Tribe of
Coney Island: Headhunters, Luna Park, and the Man Who Pulled Off the Spectacle of the Century (New York:
Houghton Mifflin, 2014).
21 Dean C. Worcester, ‘ “Field Sports Among the Wild Men of Luzon’,” National Geographic 22, no. 3 (1911):
215–67; Dean C.Worcester,‘ “Head-Hunters of Northern Luzon’,” Dean C.Worcester, National Geographic
23, no. 9 (1912): 833–930; Dean C. Worcester, ‘ “The Non-Christian Peoples of the Philippine Islands:
With an Account of What Has Been Done for Them Under American Rule’,” National Geographic 24, no.
11 (1913): 1157–256; Dean C. Worcester, The Philippines: Past and Present (New York: Macmillan, 1913).
22 Gems, Sport and the American Occupation of the Philippines, 152–53; Carlos Bulosan America Is in the Heart:
A Personal History (New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1946), 66–67; Amos Alonzo Stagg Papers, Uni-
versity of Chicago, Special Collections, Box 27, folder 2.
23 Paul A. Kramer, The Blood of Government: Race, Empire, the United States & the Philippines (Chapel Hill:
University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 229, 264–65 (quotes, respectively).
24 Gems, Boxing, 100; “Pancho Villa,” accessed February 2, 2019, boxrec.com/media/index.php/Pancho_
Villa; Stanley Weston, ‘ “Pancho Villa: The Gigantic Runt’,” Clipping in the Villa File, International
Boxing Hall of Fame.
25 Christina Evangelista Torres, The Americanization of Manila, 1898–1921 (Quezon City, Philippines: Dili-
man, 2010), 176. His wife later charged that he was murdered with an overdose of anaesthetic at the
behest of gamblers who had lost a large sum on his last fight.
26 Gems, Boxing, 39; Joseph R. Svinth,‘ “The Origins of Filipino Boxing, 1899–1926’,” Journal of Combative
Sport (2001): 6 (quote), accessed July 8, 2011, http://ejmas.com/jcs/jcsart_svinth_0701.htm.
27 Kramer, The Blood of Government, 401–24.
 28 Gems, Boxing, 132–33; Gems, Sport and the American Occupation of the Philippines, 160–61; Linda Espana-
Maram, Creating Masculinity in Los Angeles in Little Manila: Working-Class Filipinos and Popular Culture,
1920s–1950s (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006), 79 (quote).
29 Gems, Boxing, 187–88; Gems, Sport and the American Occupation of the Philippines, 167–82; Antolihao,
Playing with the Big Boys.
1 Nick Aplin, ‘ “Sports and Games in Colonial Singapore: 1819–1867’,” Sport in Society: Cultures, Com-
merce, Media, Politics 15, no. 10 (2012): 1329–40.
2 Ibid.
3 K. G. Tregonning, “Tan Cheng Lock: A Malayan Nationalist,” Journal of Southeast Asian History 10, no. 1
(1979): 25–76.
4 Walter Makepeace, Gilbert E. Brooke, and Roland St. J. Braddell, eds., One Hundred Years of Singapore
(London: John Murray, 1921), 355–60.
5 Nick Aplin, ‘ “British Imperialism and Sport in Asia’,” in Sports Around the World: History, Culture and
Practice, ed. John Nauright and Charles Parrish (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2012), 206–7.
6 J. A. Mangan, ‘ “Imperial Singapore–Culture Imperialism and Imperial Control: Athleticism as Ideologi-
cal Intent’,” The International Journal of the History of Sport 30, no. 11 (2013): 1193–220.
7 Straits Times Overland Journal, January 4, 1872, 2.
8 Straits Times, June 27, 1874, 2.
9 Makepeace, One Hundred Years of Singapore, 331.
1 0 Straits Times Overland Journal, October 31, 1878, 6.
1 1 Straits Times Overland Journal, November 8, 1879, 3; Singapore Monitor, December 3, 1983, 31.
1 2 Makepeace, One Hundred Years of Singapore, 335.
1 3 Singapore Free Press, July 19, 1889, 61.
1 4 Makepeace, One Hundred Years of Singapore, 333.
1 5 Ibid., 338.
1 6 Ibid., 334.
1 7 Straits Times, February 3, 1894, 2.
1 8 Straits Times Weekly Issue, February 4, 1890, 12.
1 9 Singapore Free Press, July 7, 1891, 1.
20 E. W. Birch, ‘ “British Malaya’,” Malayan Sport in the Earlier Days 1, no. 1 (1926): 23–26.
2 1 Singapore Free Press, January 7, 1891, 9.
22 Nick Aplin, ‘ “The Slow Contagion of Scottish Example: Association Football in Nineteenth-Century
Colonial Singapore’,” Soccer & Society 14, no. 5 (2014): 588–602.
23 Nick Aplin and Quek Jin Jong, ‘ “Celestials in Touch: Sport and the Chinese in Colonial Singapore’,”
The International Journal of the History of Sport 19, no. 2–3 (2002): 67–98.
24 Straits Times Weekly Issue, January 28, 1890, 12.
25 Straits Times Weekly Issue, May 29, 1889, 1.
26 Singapore Free Press, November 19, 1894, 2.
27 Straits Times, October 9, 1896, 2.
28 Straits Times, July 6, 1894, 3.
29 Straits Times, September 8, 1896, 3.
30 Straits Times, September 4, 1905, 5.
31 Makepeace, One Hundred Years of Singapore, 601.
3 2 Straits Times, May 20, 1905, 5.
3 3 Straits Times Weekly Issue, October 31, 1887, 5.
3 4 Straits Times Weekly Issue, November 14, 1893, 2.
3 5 Singapore Free Press, June 5, 1894, 339.
3 6 Singapore Free Press, May 26, 1891, 9.
3 7 Singapore Free Press, September 17, 1889, 347.
3 8 The Motor Car and Athletic Journal, 1908, 11.
3 9 Singapore Free Press, August 27, 1890, 233.
4 0 Singapore Free Press, August 24, 1905, 116.
4 1 Singapore Free Press, November 26, 1889, 654.
4 2 Straits Times, October 30, 1938, 31.
43 Alan E. Moreira, The Malaya Sports Record (Kuala Lumpur: Huxley, Palmer and Co., 1923).
4 4 Ibid.
 45 World YMCA, ‘Brief YMCA History’, https://www.ymca.int/member/ymca-in-asia-and-pacific/
ymca-sri-lanka/.
46 Weekly Sun, March 22, 1913, 5.
47 YMCA India, ‘History and Growth’, http://www.ymcaindia.org/index.php/about-us/history-and-
growth.
48 Emily Fishbein, ‘It’s fun to stay at the Myitkyina YMCA’, www.ymca.int/member/ymca-in-asia-and-
pacifi c/ymca-sri-lanka/.
49 Straits Times, June 15, 1903, 5.
50 Jonathan Kolatch, Sports Politics and Ideology in China (Middle Village, NY: Jonathan David, 1972).
51 Singapore Free Press, January 13, 1904, 22. The League for junior clubs included the Prison Warders; the
Police; Raffles Cricket Club;YMCA; 62 Co Royal Garrison Artillery; 64 Co Royal Garrison Artillery;
Tanjong Pagar Recreation Club; Army Temperance Association; Howarth Erskine, Manchester Regi-
ment, Singapore Volunteer Artillery; and Singapore Volunteer Infantry.
52 Singapore Free Press, January 13, 1904, 22.
1 John Nauright, ‘ “Selling Nations to the World Through Sports: Mega Events and Nation Branding as
Global Diplomacy’,” PD Magazine, Winter 2013, p. 23.
2 Malcolm Foley, David McGillivray, and Gayle McPherson, Event Policy: From Theory to Strategy (London:
Routledge, 2012), 3.
3 Udo Merkel, ‘ “The Critical Social-Scientific Study of International Events: Power, Politics and Con-
flicts’,” in Power, Politics and International Events: Socio-cultural Analyses of Festivals and Spectacles, ed. Udo
Merkel (London: Routledge, 2014), 3–30.
4 John R. Gold and Steven Ward, eds., Place Promotion:The Use of Publicity and Marketing to Sell Towns and
Regions (Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 1994).
5 Adam Jones, ‘ “London 2012: Urban Imagery and City Branding’,” in Identity Discourses and Communi-
ties in International Events, Festivals and Events, ed. Udo Merkel (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015),
96–115.
6 Louisa Devismes, ‘ “Regional Events and Festivals in Europe: Revitalizing Traditions and Modernizing
Identities’,” in Identity Discourses and Communities in International Events, Festivals and Events, ed. Udo
Merkel (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), 33–52.
7 Ying Fan, ‘ “Branding the Nation: Towards a Better Understanding,” Place Branding and Public Diplomacy
6, no. 2 (2010): 98.
8 Simon Anholt, ‘Competitive Identity: The New Brand Management for Nations, Cities and Regions (Hound-
mills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007); Simon Anholt, ‘ “Place Branding: Is It Marketing or Isn’t It?’ ” Place
Branding and Public Diplomacy 4, no. 1 (2008): 1–6.
9 Zala Volcic and Mark Andrejevic, ‘ “Nation Branding in the Era of Commercial Nationalism’,” Interna-
tional Journal of Communication 5 (2011): 598–618.
10 Joseph Nye, Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power (New York: Basic Books, 1990);
Joseph Nye, Soft Power:The Means to Success in World Politics (New York: Public Affairs, 2004).
11 Joseph Nye, ‘ “Public Diplomacy and Soft Power,” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and
Social Science 616, no. 1 (2008): 97.
12 Virginie Grzelczyk, ‘ “Hard, Soft, Smart? North Korea and Power: It’s All Relative’,” Asian International
Studies Review 18, no. 1 (2017): 137.
13 This is also essential for a driving force for military governments that came to power through a coup
d’état and/or dictatorships.
14 Brian Bridges, ‘ “Playing Games: The Two Koreas and the Beijing Olympics’,” Japan Focus (March 17,
2008): 1.
15 Bradley K. Martin, Under the Loving Care of the Fatherly Leader: North Korea and the Kim Dynasty (New
York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2006).
16 Bruce Cumings, North Korea (New York:The New Press, 2004); Bruce Cumings, Korea’s Place in the Sun:
A Modern History (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2005); Brian Reynolds Myers, The Cleanest Race:
How North Koreans See Themselves: And Why It Matters (Brooklyn, NY: Melville House Publishing, 2010).
17 Bruce Cumings, North Korea: Another Country (New York and London: The New Press, 2004).
18 E. J. R. Cho, ‘ “North Korea’s ‘Grand Theatre’ for Survival: Nation Branding or Nation Bulding?’ ” Geo-
politics 22, no. 3 (2017): 603.
19 Grzelczyk, ‘ “Hard, Soft, Smart?’ ” 138.
20 For a full account, see Martin Polley, ‘ “The Diplomatic Background to the 1966 Football World Cup’,”
The Sports Historian 18, no. 2 (2009): 1–18.
 21 Chollima is the nickname of North Korea’s national football team. A Chollima is a mythical horse with
wings that has its roots in Chinese classics and frequently features in East Asian mythology.This winged
horse is said to be too swift and elegant to be mounted.
22 Louise Taylor, ‘ “How Little Stars from North Korea Were Taken to Middlesbrough’s Heart: Memories
of North Korea, the Adopted Boys of 1966, Have Lingered on Teesside as the 2010 World Cup Beck-
ons’,” The Guardian, June 8, 2010, 14.
23 The Game of their Lives’ is a feature-length documentary by Nick Bonner and Daniel Gordon. It
comes highly recommended as it empathetically tells the story of how North Korea’s team arrived in
England in 1966, at the height of the Cold War, and how the players won the sympathy and support of
the local people of Middlesbrough (UK).
24 Jong-il Kim, On Popularizing Physical Training and Sport and Developing Sporting Skills Rapidly (Pyong-
yang: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1989), 11.
25 Ibid., 12.
26 Ibid., 14–15.
27 Ibid., 5.
28 Ibid., 3–4.
29 Ibid., 22.
30 Jung-woo Lee and Alan Bairner, ‘ “The Difficult Dialogue: Communism, Nationalism and Political
Propaganda in North Korean Sport’,” Journal of Sport and Social Issues 33, no. 4 (2009): 390–410.
31 For example: Brian Oliver, ‘ “North Korea Creates History with Weightlifting Success,’ ” The Guardian,
November 15, 2014, 26; Smiriti Sinha, ‘ “North Korea Just Dominated the World Weightlifting Cham-
pionship and No One Knows How,” Vice Sports, November 17, 2014, 28; Brian Oliver, ‘ “Weight Lifting
Pries Open Doors to a Hermit Kingdom’,” New York Times, November 17, 2014, 28.
32 Eunah Hong, ‘ “Women’s Football in the Two Koreas: A Comparative Sociological Analysis’,” Journal of
Sport and Social Issues 36, no. 2 (2012): 115–34.
33 Some observers speculated that they were volunteers who had been recruited in China; others sug-
gested they were ethnic North Koreans living in Japan. One rumor claimed they were members of
the DPRK’s armed forces, whose mission was to offer a colourful, noisy and fun-loving face of North
Korean socialism.
34 John Duerden, ‘ “Jong Tae-se Is North Korea’s Answer to Wayne Rooney’,” Observer, May 30, 2010, 35.
35 Udo Merkel,‘ “Pyongyang Proudly Presents: Mass Displays and Displays of the Masses in North Korea’,”
in Leisure Identities and Authenticity, ed. Louise Mansfield and Dikaia Chatziefstathiou (Eastbourne: Lei-
sure Studies Association, 2010), 1–28.
36 Jane Portal, Art Under Control in North Korea (London: Reaktion Books, 2005), 135.
37 Udo Merkel, “ ‘The Grand Mass Gymnastics and Artistic Performance Arirang’ (2002–2012): North
Korea’s Socialist-Realist Response to Global Sports Spectacles’,” in The New Geopolitics of Sport in East
Asia, ed. William Kelly and Tony Mangan, Special Issue, The International Journal of the History of Sport
30, no. 11 (2013): 1247–59.
38 Nicola Smith and Julian Ryall, ‘ “Kim Jong-un to Re-launch Mass Games in Bid to Lure Tourism Dol-
lars’,” Telegraph, March 19, 2018, 22.
39 Lee and Bairner, ‘ “The Difficult Dialogue’,” 394.
40 Udo Merkel, ‘ “Sport and Physical Culture in North Korea: Resisting, Recognizing and Relishing
Globalization’,” in Glocalization of Sports in Asia, ed.Young-han Cho, Charles Leary, and Steve Jackson,
Special Issue, Sociology of Sport Journal 29, no. 4 (2012): 506–25.
41 Cho, ‘ “North Korea’s ‘Grand Theatre’ for Survival’,” 606.
42 John Sugden, ‘ “Running Havana: Observations on the Political Economy of Sport Tourism in Cuba’,”
Leisure Studies 26, no. 2 (2007): 248–49.
43 Guy Podoler, ‘ “Running in the Sun: The Pyongyang Marathon and Is Evolution into Sports Tourism
Event’,” The International Journal of the History of Sport 33, no. 18 (2017): 2207–25.
44 See for example Eunah Hong, ‘ “Elite Sport and Nation-building in South Korea: South Korea as the
Dark Horse in Global Elite Sport’,” The International Journal of the History of Sport 28, no. 7 (2011): 977–89.
45 Hyung-jong Won and Eunah Hong, ‘ “The Development of Sport Policy and Management in South
Korea’,” International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics 7, no. 1 (2015): 142.
46 Hong, ‘ “Elite Sport and Nation-building in South Korea’,” 982.
47 Hak-soon Yim, ‘ “Cultural Identity and Cultural Policy in South Korea’,” The International Journal of
Cultural Policy 8, no. 1 (2002): 37–48.
 48 Victor Cha, Beyond the Final Score: The Politics of Sport in Asia (New York: Columbia University Press,
2009) 59.
49 Doosik Min and Yujeong Choi, ‘ “Sport Cooperation in Divided Korea: An Overstated Role of Sport
Diplomacy in South Korea’,” Sport in Society 22, no. 8 (2018): 1383.
50 Cha, Beyond the Final Score, 59.
51 Ji-hyun Cho and Alan Bairner, ‘ “The Socio-Cultural Legacy of the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games’,”
Leisure Studies 31, no. 3 (2012): 285.
52 Penelope Vandenberghe, ‘ “PyeongChang 2018 and South Korea’s Strategic Use of Soft Power’,” in
Korea’s Soft Power and Public Diplomacy, ed. Kadir Ayhan (Seoul: Hangang Network, 2017), 130.
53 Ibid.,‘’ 131.
54 Oliver Butler, ‘ “Getting the Games: Japan, Korea and the Co-hosted World Cup’,” in Japan, Korea and
the 2002 World Cup, ed. John Horne and Wolfram Manzenreiter (London: Routledge, 2002), 43–55.
55 Yu-min Joo,Yooil Bae, and Eva Kassens-Noor, Mega-Events and Mega-Ambitions: South Korea’s Rise and
the Strategic Use of the Big Four Events (Houndmills: Palgrave, 2016), 75.
56 Hyun-jung Lee and Cho Young-han, ‘ “Performing Nation-ness in South Korea During the 2002
Korea-Japan World Cup’,” Korea Journal 49, no. 3 (2009): 93–120.
57 Joo, Bae, and Kassens-Noor, Mega-Events and Mega-Ambitions, 85.
58 Udo Merkel and Kim Misuk, ‘ “Third Time Lucky!? PyeongChang’s Bid to Host the 2018 Winter Olym-
pics: Politics, Policy and Practice’,” The International Journal of the History of Sport 28, no. 16 (2011): 2365–83.
59 This symbol was first used at the 1991 World Table Tennis Championships in Japan, where athletes from
the North and the South did not only march together but competed as one team.
60 Competing together as one team happened on two previous occasions: in 1991 athletes from the North
and South participated as one team in the World Table Tennis Championships in Japan and eventually
won the women’s team event, beating the invincible powerhouse of this sport, China. In the same year,
a joint soccer team went to Portugal where they made a big impression by reaching the quarter-finals
of the FIFA World Youth Championships after beating Argentina 1–0 in group qualification
61 Hong, ‘ “Elite Sport and Nation-building in South Korea’,” 985.
62 Wolfram Manzenreiter and John Horne, ‘ “Global Governance in World Sport and the 2002 World
Cup Korea/Japan’,” in Japan, Korea and the 2002 World Cup, ed. John Horne and Wolfram Manzenreiter
(London: Routledge, 2002), 1–26.
1 Jung Woo Lee, ‘ “A Tale of Two Summits: Why North Korea Is Finally Speaking to Its Enemies’,”
New Statesman, March 12, 2018, www.newstatesman.com/world/asia/2018/03/tale-two-summits-
why-north-korea-finally-speaking-its-enemies.
2 David Rowe and Jung Woo Lee, ‘ “The Winter Olympics and the Two Koreas: How Sport Diplo-
macy Could Save the World’,” The Conversation, January 10, 2018, http://theconversation.com/
the-winter-olympics-and-the-two-koreas-how-sport-diplomacy-could-save-the-world-89769.
3 Stuart Murray, Sports Diplomacy: Origins, Theory and Practice (London: Routledge, 2018); Geoffrey A.
Pigman, ‘ “International Sport and Diplomacy’’s Public Dimension: Governments, Sporting Federations
and the Global Audience’,” Diplomacy & Statecraft 25, no. 1 (2014): 94–114; Simon J. Rofe, ‘ “Sport and
Diplomacy: A Global Diplomacy Framework,”‘ Diplomacy & Statecraft 27, no. 2 (2016): 212–30.
4 Yangmo Ku, In yeop Lee, and Jongseok Woo, Politics in North and South Korea: Political Development,
Economy, and Foreign Relations (London: Routledge, 2018).
5 Jung Woo Lee, ‘ “The Politics of Sports Mega Events in South Korea: A Diachronic Approach’,” in Rout-
ledge Handbook of Sport and Politics, ed. Alan Bairner, John Kelly, and Jung Woo Lee (London: Routledge,
2017), 471–82; Udo Merkel, ‘ “The Politics of Sport Diplomacy and Reunification in Divided Korea:
One Nation, Two Countries and Three Flags’,” International Review for the Sociology of Sport 43, no. 3
(2008): 289–311.
6 Jung Woo Lee, ‘ “The Olympics in the Post-Soviet Era: The Case of the Two Koreas’,” in The Politics of
the Olympics: A Survey, ed. Alan Bairner and Gyozo Molnar (London: Routledge, 2010), 117–28.
7 Brian Bridges, ‘ “The Seoul Olympics: Economic Miracle Meet the World’,” The International Journal of
the History of Sport 25, no. 14 (2008): 1939–52.
8 Lee, ‘ “The Olympics in the Post-Soviet Era’,” 117–28.
9 Charles Armstrong, ‘ “South Korea’’s ‘Northern Policy’‘,” Pacific Review 3, no. 1 (1990): 35–45; Jung
Woo Lee, ‘ “Do the Scale and Scope of the Event Matter? The Asian Games and the Relations Between
North and South Korea’,” Sport in Society 20, no. 3 (2007): 369–83.
10 James F. Larson and Heung S. Park, Global Television and the Politics of the Seoul Olympic Games (Oxford:
Westview Press, 1993).
 11 Brian Bridges, The Two Koreas and the Politics of Global Sport (Boston: Global Oriental, 2012).
12 Richard W. Pound, Five Rings Over Korea:The Secret Negotiations Behind the 1988 Olympic Games in Seoul
(New York: Little, Brown & Company, 1994).
13 Ku, Lee and Woo, Politics in North and South Korea.
14 Bridges, The Two Koreas and the Politics of Global Sport.
15 Jung Woo Lee, ‘ “North and South Korean Relations and Sport: Displaying Unified Korean National-
ism at the 2002 Busan Asian Games’,” in Sport in Korea: History, Development and Management, ed. Dae
Hee Kwak,Yong Jae Ko, Inkyu Kang, and Mark Rosentraub (London: Routledge, 2018), 105–18.
16 Lee, ‘ “Do the Scale and Scope of the Event Matter?’ ” 369–83.
17 Jung Woo Lee, ‘ “A Game for the Global North: The 2018 Winter Olympic Games in Pyeongchang
and South Korean Cultural Politics’,” The International Journal of the History of Sport 33, no. 12 (2016):
1411–26.
18 Rachael Miyung Joo, Transnational Sport: Gender, Media, and Global Korea (Durham: Duke University
Press, 2012).
19 Jung Woo Lee and Alan Bairner, ‘ “The Difficult Dialogue: Communism, Nationalism, and Political
Propaganda in North Korean sport’,” Journal of Sport and Social Issues 33, no. 4 (2009): 390–410.
20 Udo Merkel, ‘ “The Grand Mass Gymnastics and Artistic Performance Arirang (2002–2012): North
Korea’’s Socialist–Realist Response to Global Sports Spectacles’,” The International Journal of the History
of Sport 30, no. 11 (2013): 1247–58.
21 Kim Soyoung, ‘ “Bukhan, 150yeo Dongpo Danche ae Arirang Chukjeon Chochungjang Balsong”
[North Korea Sent an Invitation to the Arirang Festival to More than 150 Korean Diaspora Groups]’,
LA Joongang, June 6, 2002, 27.
22 Youngsun Im, ‘ “2002 World Cup gwa Pyeongyang Arirang Chkjeon” [The 2002 World Cup and the
Arirang Festival in Pyeongyang]’, Future Korea, July 9, 2002, www.futurekorea.co.kr/news/articleView.
html?idxno=465.
23 PyeongChang was a candidate city for the 2010, 2014 and 2018 Winter Olympics. As the first two
unsuccessful campaigns similarly highlighted the improvement of the relations between the two Koreas
as a potential legacy of hosting the event, this chapter omits the case of PyeongChang’s 2010 candidacy
in order to avoid repetition.
24 Udo Merkel and Misuk Kim, ‘ “Third Time Lucky!? PyeongChang’’s Bid to Host the 2018 Winter
Olympics: Politics, Policy and Practice’,” The International Journal of the History of Sport 28, no. 16 (2011):
2365–83.
25 Byung H. Chun, ‘ “4 nyun-jeon Prague sim-gum ul-ryut-dun hal-mer-nee sae-sang ddeu-go-seo-do”
[The Old Lady Who Emotionally Appealed in Prague Four Years Ago Has Passed Away]’, The Han-
kyoreh, July 5, 2007, www.hani.co.kr/arti/PRINT/220426.html.
26 Mansik Choi, ‘ “4 nyun-jeon choi-jong presentation u-tuk-kae e-roo-uh jut-na?” [How Did We
Deliver the Final Presentation Four Years Ago]’, Chosun Ilbo, February 20, 2011, http://news.chosun.
com/site/data/html_dir/2011/02/20/2011022000375.html.
27 KTV, ‘ “Nambuk Danil Team Chuljeon” [A North and South Korean Unified Olympic Team Would
Take Part]’, KTV, July 2, 2007, www.ktv.go.kr/content/view?content_id=66025.
28 The Blue House, ‘ “Lee Daetongryung ‘Gongjung Pyoungga Hamyun PyeongChang ee Yoochi-

hal Gut’ ” [President Lee, ‘PyeongChang Would Win the Olympic Rights If the Evaluation Is Done
Objectively’]’, The Republic of Korea Policy Briefing, July 5, 2011, www.korea.kr/news/policyNewsView.
do?newsId=148714650.
29 Jung Woo Lee and Alan Bairner, ‘ “Sport and Communism: The Examples of North Korea and Cuba’,”
in Routledge Handbook of Sport and Politics, ed. Alan Bairner, John Kelly, and Jung Woo Lee (London:
Routledge, 2017), 66–78.
30 Jung Woo Lee, ‘ “The Politics of Female Football in North Korea: Socialism, Nationalism, and Propa-
ganda’,” in Women and Sport in the Asia-Pacific Region, ed. Gyozo Molnar,Yoko Kanemasy, and Sara Amin
(London: Routledge, 2019), 37–48.
31 Hunter Felt, ‘ 
“How NBA Star Dennis Rodman Came to Stand Between the World and
Nuclear War,” The Guardian, September 14, 2017, www.theguardian.com/sport/2017/sep/14/
dennis-rodman-north-korea-kim-jong-un-basketball.
32 DPRK Ministry of Sport, Masik-ryong Ski Resort (Pyongyang: DPRK Ministry of Sport, 2013).
33 Chris Summers, ‘ “Snow Business: Kim Jong-un’’s Ski Resort Is Empty Because Impoverished Nation
Can’’t Afford Food, Never Mind a Night in a Chalet’,” The Daily Mail, April 25, 2017, www.dailymail.
co.uk/news/article-4442334/Snow-business-slopes-N-Koreas-ski-resort.html.
 34 Dean J. Ouellette, ‘ “The Tourism of North Korea in the Kim Jong-un Era: Propaganda, Profitmaking,
and Possibilities for Engagement’,” Pacific Focus 31, no. 3 (2017): 421–51.
35 Lucy Aspden, ‘ “North Korea ‘‘Using Child Labour’’ to Keep Luxury Ski Resort Open for Coun-
try’’s Elite’,” The Daily Telegraph, January 30, 2017, www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/ski/news/north-korea-
ski-resort-kept-open-by-child-labour/.
36 Ki-hyun Park, ‘ “Park Geun-hye daetongryung ‘PyeongChang donggye Olympic boonsan gaechoi
umi upseo’ ” [The President Park Geun-hye Said ‘It Is Meaningless to Host the PyeongChang Winter
Olympics Jointly’]‘, YTN, December 15, 2014, http://ytn.co.kr/_ln/0101_201412151502381305.
37 Justin McCurry, ‘ “North Korea Could Co-Host 2018 Winter Olympics, Seoul Suggests’,” The Guard-
ian, June 21, 2017, www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jun/21/seoul-proposes-north-korea-host-
some-winter-olympics-skiing-events.
38 Reuters, ‘ “Pyeongchang 2018: North Korean Athletes to Travel Through Demilitarised Zone,” The
Daily Telegraph, May 18, 2017, www.telegraph.co.uk/olympics/2017/05/18/pyeongchang-2018-
north-korean-athletes-travel-demilitarised/.
39 Byung S. Jung, ‘ “Chang Ung, sport ae jung-chi yeon-gyul-si-ki-myun gon-ran” [Chang Ung Said
Sport and Politics Should Not Be Mixed]’, Chosun Ilbo, June 26, 2017, http://news.chosun.com/site/
data/html_dir/2017/06/26/2017062600151.html.
40 Yonhap,‘ “UN Adopts Olympic Truce for PyeongChang Winter Olympics,” The Korean Herald, Novem-
ber 14, 2017, www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20171114000199.
4 1 Ibid.
42 Rowe and Lee, “ ‘The Winter Olympics and the Two Koreas.’ ”
43 IOC, ‘ “Olympic Korean Peninsula Declaration’,” International Olympic Committee, January 20, 2018,
https://stillmed.olympic.org/media/Document%20Library/OlympicOrg/News/2018/2018-
01-20-Declaration.pdf.
44 Jung Woo Lee, ‘ “North Korea Got What It Wanted from the Winter Olympics’,” BBC, February 9,
2018, www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-42983425.
45 Nicola Smith, ‘ “Koreas Unite . . . as Pence Carefully Keeps His Distance’,” The Daily Telegraph, Febru-
ary 10, 2018, 15.
46 Benjamin Hass, ‘ “Kim Jong-un’’s Sister Invites South Korean President to Pyongyang’,” The Guardian,
February 10, 2018, www.theguardian.com/world/2018/feb/10/kim-yo-jong-meets-south-korean-
president-in-seoul-as-thaw-continues.
47 Lee, ‘ “The Politics of Sports Mega Events in South Korea’,” 471–82.
48 Oliver Brown,“Nakedly Brazen Show Gets Message Across in Blitz of Symbolism’,” The Daily Telegraph,
February 10, 2018, 10–12.
4 9 Ibid.
50 Sean Ingle,‘ “Winter Olympics Begin with Powerful Message of Peace’,” The Guardian, February 9, 2018,
www.theguardian.com/sport/2018/feb/09/winter-olympics-begin-with-powerful-message-of-peace.
51 Ivan Watson, Stella Ko, and Sheena McKenzie, ‘ “Joint Korean Ice Hockey Team Plays for First Time
Ahead of Olympics,” CNN, February 5, 2018, https://edition.cnn.com/2018/02/04/sport/north-
south-korea-ice-hockey-intl/index.html.
52 David Rowe, “The Worlds That Are Watching: Media, Politics, Diplomacy, and the 2018 PyeongChang
Winter Olympics,” Communication & Sport 7, no. 1 (2019): 3–22.
53 Rowe and Lee, ‘ “The Winter Olympics and the Two Koreas.’ ”
54 Lee, ‘ “A Tale of Two Summits.’ ”
5 5 Jonathan Grix, Sport Politics: An Introduction (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016).
1 Dongfeng Liu, James J. Zhang, and Michel Desbordes, ‘ “Sport Business in China: Current State and
Prospect’,” International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship 18, no. 1 (2017): 2–10; Yang Ma and
Markus Kurscheidt, ‘ “Governance of the Chinese Super League: A Struggle Between Governmental
Control and Market Orientation’,” in Football and Its Shifting Global Powerbase, ed. Paul Widdop, Simon
Chadwick, and Dan Parnell, Special Issue, Sport, Business and Management: An International Journal 9, no.
1 (2019): 4–25.
2 Bates Gill, ‘ “China’s Future Under Xi Jinping: Challenges Ahead’,” Political Science 69, no. 1 (2017):
1–15.
3 Ma and Kurscheidt, ‘ “Governance of the Chinese Super League’,” 5.
4 Fulong Wu, ‘ “China’s Great Transformation: Neoliberalization as Establishing a Market Society’,” Geo-
forum 39, no. 3 (2008): 1093–96.
 5 Ma and Kurscheidt, ‘ “Governance of the Chinese Super League’,” 5; Emanuel Leite, Jr. and Carlos
Rodrigues, ‘ “The Chinese Plan for Football Development: A Perspective from Innovation Theory’,” in
Football and Its Shifting Global Powerbase, ed. Paul Widdop, Simon Chadwick, and Dan Parnell, Special
Issue, Sport, Business and Management: An International Journal 9, no. 1 (2019): 63–77.
6 Ma and Kurscheidt, ‘ “Governance of the Chinese Super League’,” 5.
7 Liu, Zhang, and Desbordes, ‘ “Sport Business in China’,” 6.
8 Lin Yu et al., ‘ “The Transition Game: Toward a Cultural Economy of Football in Post-Socialist China’,”
International Review for the Sociology of Sport 54, no. 6 (2019): 711–37.
9 Qi Peng, James Skinner, and Barrie Houlihan, ‘ “An Analysis of the Chinese Football Reform of 2015:
Why then and Not Earlier?’ ” International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics 11, no. 1 (2019): 1–18.
10 Hong Fan and Zhouxiang Lu, ‘ “The Professionalisation and Commercialisation of Football in China
(1993–2013)’,” The International Journal of the History of Sport 30, no. 14 (2013): 1637–54.
11 Qi, Skinner, and Houlihan, ‘ “An Analysis of the Chinese Football Reform of 2015’,” 2.
12 Tien-Chin Tan et al., ‘ “Xi Jin-Ping’s World Cup Dreams: From a Major Sports Country to a World
Sports Power’,” The International Journal of the History of Sport 33, no. 12 (2016): 1449–65.
13 Ma and Kurscheidt, ‘ “Governance of the Chinese Super League’,” 16.
14 Liu, Zhang, and Desbordes, ‘ “Sport Business in China’,” 8.
15 Markus Kurscheidt and Angela Deitersen-Wieber, ‘ “Sport Governance in Germany’,” in Sports Gov-
ernance in the World: A Socio-Historic Approach, ed. Claude Sobry (Paris: Editions Le Manuscrit, 2011),
259–306.
16 Leite and Rodrigues, ‘ “The Chinese Plan for Football Development’,” 67.
17 Jinming Zheng et al., Sport Policy in China (London: Routledge, 2019).
18 State Council, ‘ “Guidelines on Promotion of Sport Industry and Sport Consumption’,” State Council,
accessed August 13, 2019, www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2014-10/20/content_9152.htm.
19 Liu, Zhang, and Desbordes, ‘ “Sport Business in China’,” 6.
20 Qi, Skinner, and Houlihan, ‘ “An Analysis of the Chinese Football Reform of 2015’,” 2.
21 State Council, ‘ “The Overall Plan for Chinese Football Reform and Development’,” State Council,
accessed August 13, 2019, www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2015-03/16/content_9537.htm.
22 Wolfram Manzenreiter and John Horne, ‘ “Playing the Post-Fordist Game in/to the Far East:The Foot-
ballisation of China, Japan and South Korea’,” Soccer & Society 8, no. 4 (2007): 561–77.
23 Leite and Rodrigues, ‘ “The Chinese Plan for Football Development’,” 63.
24 Dennis C. Mueller, Public Choice III (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).
25 Yang Ma and Markus Kurscheidt, ‘ “The National Games of China as a Governance Instrument in Chi-
nese Elite Sport: An Institutional and Agency Analysis’,” International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics
(2019): 1–21, doi:10.1080/19406940.2019.1633383.
26 Zheng et al., Sport Policy in China, 48.
2 7 Ibid., 102.
28 Fan and Lu, ‘ “The Professionalisation and Commercialisation of Football in China (1993–2013)’,”
1642.
29 Ma and Kurscheidt, ‘ “Governance of the Chinese Super League’,” 30.
30 Mahfoud Amara et al., ‘ “The Governance of Professional Soccer: Five Case Studies–Algeria, China,
England, France and Japan’,” European Journal of Sport Science 5, no. 4 (2005): 189–206.
31 Ma and Kurscheidt, ‘ “Governance of the Chinese Super League’,” 14.
3 2 Ibid.
33 Benjamin Ostrov, ‘ “Corruption in Chinese Sport Culture’,” in Corruption in International Business: The
Challenge of Cultural and Legal Diversity, ed. Sharon Eicher (New York: Routledge, 2009), 91–98.
34 Fan and Lu, ‘ “The Professionalisation and Commercialisation of Football in China (1993–2013)’.”
35 iFeng, ‘ “The Dynamics of Value Change of Guangzhou Evergrande FC: Spent RMB 1bn on Purchas-
ing Guangyao and Increased 23 Times in 4 Years’,” iFeng Sport, June 5, 2014, accessed August 16, 2019,
http://sports.ifeng.com/gnzq/special/maxu/content-3/detail_2014_06/05/36671926_0.shtml.
36 Sohu,‘ “Guangzhou Evergrande FC Get Promoted to the Top-Tiered League as a Champion of Lower-
Tiered League: Spent RMB 1.7bn One Season’,” Sohu Sport, November 3, 2010, accessed August 16,
2019, http://sports.sohu.com/20101103/n277088213.shtml.
37 Ma and Kurscheidt, ‘ “Governance of the Chinese Super League’,” 16.
3 8 Ibid., 17.
 39 Jianxin Li and Hansheng Liu, ‘ “An Interpretation and Reflection on the Characteristics of Chinese
Professional Football-Based on the Case Study of Chinese Soccer Super League’,” Journal of Sports and
Science 37, no. 2 (2016): 30–36.
40 Xinhuanet, ‘ “10m Euro! Splendid Salary of Marcello Lippi, Partly Paid by Guangzhou Evergrande’,”
Xinhuanet Sport, October 21, 2016, accessed July 27, 2018, www.xinhuanet.com/sports/2016-
10/21/c_1119759463.htm.
41 Daniel Lemus Delgado and Francisco Javier Valderrey Villar, ‘ “It Is Not a Game: Soccer and China’s
Search for World Hegemony’,” Soccer & Society (2018): 1–14, doi:10.1080/14660970.2018.1561441.
42 Sohu, ‘ “Schmidt: National Team Plus Three Foreign Players Equals Evergrande’,” Sohu Sport, July 7,
2017, accessed August 19, 2019, http://sports.sohu.com/20170707/n500324901.shtml.
43 Ecns, ‘ “Dongfeng Nissan Disappointed by Evergrande Move’,” Ecns Business, November 23, 2015,
accessed August 16, 2019, www.ecns.cn/business/2015/11-23/189686.shtml.
44 Paul Martin, ‘ “Football, Community and Cooperation: A Critical Analysis of Supporter Trusts in
England’,” Soccer & Society 8, no. 4 (2007): 636–53.
45 Jinming Zheng and Borja García, ‘ “Conclusions: The Rising Importance of Supporter Activism in
European Football’,” in Football and Supporter Activism in Europe:Whose Game Is It? ed. Borja García and
Jinming Zheng (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), 277–85.
46 Udo Merkel, ‘ “Milestones in the Development of Football Fandom in Germany: Global Impacts on
Local Contests’,” Soccer & Society 8, no. 2–3 (2007): 221–39.
47 Zhu Zhang, Doyeon Won, and Donna L. Pastore, ‘ “The Effects of Attitudes Toward Commercialization
on College Students: Purchasing Intentions of Sponsors’ Products’,” Sport Marketing Quarterly 14, no. 3
(2005): 177–87.
48 Tien-Chin Tan and Barrie Houlihan, ‘ “Chinese Olympic Sport Policy: Managing the Impact of Glo-
balisation’,” International Review for the Sociology of Sport 48, no. 2 (2012): 131–52.
49 Sohu, ‘ “6 Fan Clubs of Guangzhou Published an Open Letter, Evergrande Promised to Take Care
of Fans’,” Sohu Sport, June 9, 2014, accessed August 16, 2019, http://sports.sohu.com/20140609/
n400584402.shtml.
50 Kurscheidt and Deitersen-Wieber, ‘ “Sport Governance in Germany’,” 285.
1 Juming Hao, “Economic System: Evolution Track and Basic Experience,” Modern Economic Research no.
8 (2009): 29–34.
2 Donglian Xiao, “Evolution of the Thinking on China: Economic Restructuring from 1978 to 1984,”
Contemporary China History Studies 11, no. 5 (2004): 59–70.
3 Chusheng Ye and Lianfa Luo, “Private Enterprise and the Dual Structure,” Liangshan Tribune no. 9
(2008): 9–13.
4 Fengyi Liu, “Sixty Years of China’s State-owned Enterprise: Theoretical Exploration and Policy Evolu-
tion,” Economist no. 1 (2010): 21–28.
5 Qin Hao, “A Discussion of the Concept, Characteristics and Function of the Juguo Tizhi in Chinese
Sports,” Journal of Chengdu Sport University 30, no. 1 (2004): 51–59.
6 Fan Hong and Lu Zhouxiang, “The Professionalisation and Commercialisation of Football in China
(1993–2013),” International Journal of the History of Sport 30, no. 14 (2013): 1637–54.
7 Shaozhu Wu, China Sport History (Beijing: China Book Press, 1999), 7.
8 Hong and Zhouxiang, ‘ “The Professionalisation and Commercialisation of Football in China (1993–
2013)’,” 1638.
9 Chi Liu, “Reform in Member Associations of Chinese Soccer Association,” Journal of Shandong Sport
University 21, no. 5 (2005): 30–35.
10 Shouxun Song et al., “Feasibility of the Implementation of Professional Soccer Club System in China,”
China Sport Science and Technology 28, no. 9 (1992): 1–10.
11 Qi Chen,“Research on the Status and Counter-measures of China’s Professional Soccer Club Manage-
ment,” Sport Science 17, no. 3 (1997): 23–27.
12 Ibid., 27.
13 Chunfei Xiao,Yongjun Cai, and Renwei Zhao, “State-owned Enterprise Soccer, Lost Money and Lost
Face,” Outlook Weekly no. 10 (2006): 12–13.
14 Shanghai Sports Commission, “Moral Education of Professional Sports Clubs,” Journal of Shanghai Sport
University 21, no. 4 (2017): 1–7.
15 Shaoxia Liang, “Review of Soccer Occupation in China,” Journal of Guangzhou Sport University 28, no.
2 (2008): 55–59.
 16 Jinsheng Liu and Yan Wang, “Policy Barriers of the Professionalisation of Soccer in China,” Journal of
Chengdu Sport University 36, no. 10 (2010): 9–12.
17 Ping Ling et al., “Problems of Soccer in Zhejiang,” Zhejiang Sport Science 18, no. 6 (1996): 21–28.
18 ‘ “Men’’s Ranking’,” FIFA, www.fifa.com/fifa-world-ranking/ranking-table/men/rank/id12679/#all.
19 Bowen Yang, “Research on the Development of Chinese Table Tennis Super League” (Master’s thesis,
Beijing Sport University, 2014).
20 Lin Zhang et al., “Research on the Development of China’s Elite Table Tennis Clubs,” Sport Science 18,
no. 5 (2005): 31–34.
21 Tong Lan, “Exploration into the Chinese Table Tennis Management System” (PhD diss., Beijing Sport
University, 2007).
22 Ibid.
23 Zhang, ‘ “Research on the Development of China’s Elite Table Tennis Clubs’.”
24 Ibid.‘’’
25 William James, “Pragmatism’’s Conception of Truth,” Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Meth-
ods 4, no. 6 (1907): 141–55, 141.
26 See:Yajun Chen, Philosophy Reform: From Pragmatism to New Pragmatism (Beijing: China Social Sciences
Press, 1982).
1 Alan Bairner, Tien-chin Tan, and Jung Woo Lee, “Sport in the Asia-Pacific Region,” in Sport in Society:
A Student Introduction, ed. Barrie Houlihan and Dominic Malcolm (London: Sage, 2016), 490–513.
2 A-chin Hsiau, “Narrating Taiwan Out of the Chinese Empire: Rewriting Taiwan’s History from a Tai-
wanese Perspective in the 1970s,” Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism 18, no. 2 (2018): 93–126.
3 Ping-chao Lee, Ling-mei Ko, and Tien-chin Tan, “The Changes in Post-War Taiwanese State and Polit-
ical Structures with Legislative and Administrative Policy toward Sport and Physical Education,” Journal
of Sport and Recreation Management no. 7 (2010): 1–18.
4 Ping-chao Lee, “Understanding the Match-fixing Scandals of Professional Baseball in Taiwan: An
Exploratory Study of a Confucianism-oriented Society,” European Sport Management Quarterly no. 17
(2017): 45–66.
5 Ling-mei Ko, Meng-chi Ting, and Ping-chao Lee, “The Development of Chinese Martial Arts in Tai-
wan since 1949,” The International Journal of the History of Sport no. 34 (2017): 1603–16.
6 Tien-chin Tan et al., “Sport Policy in Taiwan, 1949–2008: A Brief History of Government Involvement
in Sport,” International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics no. 1 (2009): 99–111.
7 Kuisong Yang and Sheng Mao, “Unafraid of the Ghost: The Victim Mentality of Mao Zedong and the
Two Taiwan Strait Crises in the 1950s,” China Review no. 16 (2016): 1–34.
8 Ping-chao Lee and Bai-sheng Li, “Does China Matter? Taiwan’s Successful Bid to Host the 2017 Sum-
mer Universiade,” The International Journal of the History of Sport no. 32 (2015): 1044–56.
9 Richard C. Bush and Ryan Hass, Taiwan’s Democracy and the China Challenge (Washington, DC: Brook-
ings Institution Press, 2019).
10 Bairner, Tan, and Lee, “Sport in the Asia-Pacific Region,” 490–513.
11 Heather Smith, “Taiwan’s Industrial Policy in the 1980s: An Appraisal,” Asian Economic Journal no. 11
(1997): 1–33.
12 Bruce J. Jacobs and I-hao Ben Liu, “Lee Teng-hui and the Idea of ‘Taiwan’,” The China Quarterly no. 190
(2007): 375–93.
13 Bush and Hass, Taiwan’s Democracy and the China Challenge.
14 David J. Sarquis and Wei-chiao Ying, “Cross-Strait Relations: From the Sole China,Two Chinas and the
Greater China,” International Relations no. 7 (2019): 258–78.
15 Yu-jie Chen and Jerome A. Cohen, “China–Taiwan Relations Re-examined: The ‘1992 Consensus’
and Cross-Strait Agreements,” University of Pennsylvania Asian Law Review no. 1 (2019): 2–40.
16 Wei-qian Dai, “National Ideology and Sports Policy,” in Sports Education and Humane Concerns: Policy
and Ideology, ed.Yi-hsiung Hsu (Taipei: Shta Book, 1998), 159–86.
17 Chien-yu Lin and Ping-chao Lee, “Sport as a Medium of National Resistance: Politics and Baseball in
Taiwan During Japanese Colonialism, 1895–1945,” The International Journal of the History of Sport no. 24
(2007): 319–37.
18 Vassil Girginov, “Sport, Society and Militarism—In pursuit of the Democratic Soldier: J.A. Mangan’’s
Exploration of Militarism,” The International Journal of the History of Sport 20, no. 4 (2003): 90–117.
19 Tan et al., “Sport Policy in Taiwan, 1949–2008,” 99–111.
20 Ya-wen Huang and Tien-chin Tan, “Sport-for-All Policy in Taiwan: A Case of Ongoing Change?” Asia
Pacific Journal of Sport and Social Science no. 2 (2015): 85–98.
 21 Yun-han Chu and Jih-wen Lin, “Political Development in 20th Century Taiwan: State-building,
Regime Transformation and the Construction of National Identity,” The China Quarterly no. 165
(2001): 102–29.
22 David Shilbury, Kalliopi Sotiriadou, and Christine B. Green, “Sport Development. Systems, Policies and
Pathways: An Introduction to the Special Issue,” Sport Management Review no. 11 (2008): 217–23.
23 Dong-jhy Hwang et al., “Sport, National Identity, and Taiwan’s Olympic History,” in The Olympics in
East Asia: Nationalism, Regionalism, and Globalism on the Center Stage of World Sports, ed. William W. Kelly
and Susan Brownell, CEAS Occasional Publications Series Book 3 (New Haven, CT: Yale University,
2011), 119–46.
24 Liqun Cao, Lanying Huang, and Ivan Sun, “From Authoritarian Policing to Democratic Policing:
A Case Study of Taiwan,” Policing and Society 26, no. 6 (2016): 642–58.
25 Melissa J. Brown, Is Taiwan Chinese? The Impact of Culture, Power, and Migration on Changing Identities
(London: University of California Press, 2004); Qingxin Ken Wang, “Taiwanese NGOs and the Pros-
pect of National Reunification in the Taiwan Strait,” Australian Journal of International Affairs no. 54
(2000): 111–24.
26 Tan et al., “Sport Policy in Taiwan, 1949–2008,” 99–111.
27 Tien-chin Tan and Chih-fu Cheng, “Sports Development and Young People in Taiwan,” in Routledge
Handbook of Sports Development, ed. Barrie Houlihan and Mick Green (London: Routledge, 2010),
184–97.
2 8 Junwei Yu, Playing in Isolation: A History of Baseball in Taiwan (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press,
2007).
29 Ministry of Education, Taiwan, Developing Sports for All and Excellent Sportsmen Training Programs, Educa-
tion Act (Taipei: Cheng-chung Publisher, 1968).
30 Lee and Li, “Does China Matter?” 1044–56.
31 Ko, Ting, and Lee, “The Development of Chinese Martial Arts in Taiwan,” 1603–16.
32 Yi-hsiung Hsu and Yuan-ming Hsu, Chinese Physical Education in Modern Times: The Development of Ide-
ology (Taipei: Shta Book, 1999); Chien-yu Lin, “Seeking a Separate National Identity: The Taiwanese
State, Politics and the 2007 Baseball World Cup,” The International Journal of the History of Sport no. 29
(2012): 2435–49.
33 Lee, Ko, and Tan, “The Changes in Post-War Taiwanese State,” 1–18.
3 4 Ibid.
35 Hung-yu Liu, “A Study of The Political Intervention in Sports: The Case of the 2001 Taipei World
Baseball Cup,” Journal of Physical Education in Higher Education no. 8 (2006): 13–32.
36 Department of Physical Education, Physical Education Regulation (Taipei: Ministry of Education, 1984).
37 R. S. Jiang, “The Development of Basketball in Taiwan: From the Perspectives of Theories of Govern-
ance and Strategic Relations” (PhD diss., Institute of Sport and Leisure Policy, Loughborough Univer-
sity, 2013).
38 Bairner, Tan, and Lee, “Sport in the Asia-Pacific Region,” 490–513.
39 Mei-chiang Shih, Milan Tung-wen Sun, and Guang-xu Wang, “The Historical Institutionalism Analysis
of Taiwan’s Administrative Reform,” International Review of Administrative Sciences no. 78 (2012): 305–27.
40 Lee, Ko, and Tan, “The Changes in Post-War Taiwanese State,” 1–18.
4 1 Ibid.
42 Department of Physical Education, Physical Education Regulation (Taipei: Ministry of Education, 1990).
43 Ministry of Education, Ministry Education Bulletin (Taipei: Ministry of Education, 1989).
44 Jiang, “The Development of Basketball in Taiwan.”
45 Alan Bairner, “Sport and the Politics of National Identity in the Two Chinas,” in Sport and National
Identities: Globalization and Conflict, ed. Paddy Dolan and John Connolly (New York: Routledge, 2017),
37–54.
46 Lee and Li, “Does China Matter?” 1044–56.
47 Ministry of Education, Taiwan, The 7th National Education Conference (Taipei: Ministry of Education,
1994).
48 Jiang, “The Development of Basketball in Taiwan.”
4 9 Sports Affairs Council, Taiwan, National Physical Education Law (Taipei: Executive Yuan, 1998).
50 Hsing-nuan Yu and Chia-wen Hong, “A Discussion on Central Physical Education Budget Allocation
and Implementation,” Physical Education Journal no. 39 (2006): 121–34.
51 Tan et al., “Sport Policy in Taiwan, 1949–2008,” 99–111.
52 Jiang, ‘ “The Development of Basketball in Taiwan.”
 53 Ibid.
54 Yu-liang Lin and Chin-hsung Kao, “A Study on the Policy of Sport for All in Taiwan from the Perspec-
tive of the New Public Service,” Asian Sports Management Review no. 10 (2016): 2–10.
55 Huang and Tan, “Sport-for-All Policy in Taiwan: A Case of Ongoing Change?” 85–98.
56 Sports Affairs Council,Taiwan, The Active Scheme of Sport Development in the 21st Century (Taipei: Execu-
tive Yuan, 2000).
57 Lee, Ko, and Tan, “The Changes in Post-War Taiwanese State,” 1–18.
58 Huang and Tan, “Sport-for-All Policy in Taiwan: A Case of Ongoing Change?” 85–98.
59 Tan et al., “Sport Policy in Taiwan, 1949–2008,” 99–111.
60 Sports Administration, Taiwan, 2013 Sports Policy White Paper (Taipei: Ministry of Education, 2013).
61 National Sports Training Center, “History,” accessed July 17, 2019, www.nstc.org.tw/English/#about.
62 ExecutiveYuan,“The Establishment of the Physical Education and Sport Development Council,” accessed
July 17, 2019, www.ey.gov.tw/Page/9277F759E41CCD91/db395958-4455-4ce7-a4a7-b0134f442a03.
63 Ministry of Education, “Main Education Policies: Sports and Physical Education,” accessed July 17,
2019, http://history.moe.gov.tw/policy.asp?id=23.
64 Sports Administration, Taiwan, 2013 Annual Report (Taipei: Ministry of Education, 2014).
65 Sports Administration, Taiwan, 2017 Sports Policy White Paper (Taipei: Ministry of Education, 2017).
66 Lin and Kao, “A Study on the Policy of Sport for All in Taiwan from the Perspective of the New Public
Service.”
67 Sports Administration, Taiwan, 2016 Annual Report (Taipei: Ministry of Education, 2017).
68 Sports Administration, Taiwan, Women’’s Sport Participation Advocacy White Paper (Taipei: Ministry of
Education, 2017).
69 Tan et al., “Sport Policy in Taiwan, 1949–2008,” 99–111.
70 Executive Yuan, “President Tsai Promises to Increase Budget for Sports Development,” press release,
accessed July 17, 2019, https://english.ey.gov.tw/News_Content.aspx?n=3FA02B129BCA256C&sms
=925E4E62B451AB83&s=1331ADA5056EB048.
71 Executive Yuan, “Taiwan Condemns Chinese Interference in 2019 East Asian Youth Games Hosting
Rights,” press release, accessed July 17, 2019, https://english.ey.gov.tw/News_Content2.aspx?n=8262
ED7A25916ABF&sms=DD07AA2ECD4290A6&s=9F128A13A441BA3C.
72 Ko, Ting, and Lee, “The Development of Chinese Martial Arts in Taiwan,” 1603–16.
73 Sports Administration, 2016 Annual Report.
1 They included the Hong Kong Open Badminton Championships, the Hong Kong Squash Open, the
Hong Kong Open (golf), the Hong Kong Sevens (rugby), the Hong Kong Tennis Open and the Chi-
nese New Year Cup (football).
2 Hong Kong’s holding of the four Asian Football Confederation (AFC) Women’s Asian Cup events from
1975 to 1989 was one of these instances.
3 Louis Kraar and Joe McGowan, ‘ “The Death of HK’,” Fortune, June 26, 1995, accessed July 8, 2019,
http://archive.fortune.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/1995/06/26/203948/index.htm.
4 The Hong Kong International Cricket Sixes and the Hong Kong Marathon are two instances.
5 Marcus P. Chu, ‘ “Post-handover Hong Kong’s International Sporting Bids: A Win-less-lose-more Jour-
ney’,” International Journal of the History of Sport 30, no. 10 (2016): 1194–97; Marcus P. Chu, Politics of
Mega-events in China’s Hong Kong (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019), 62–67.
6 ‘ “Gang Shenban Yayun Gonghuafei Yiqian Wubai ’Wanyuan” [Hong Kong’s Asian Games Bid Cost
HKD 15 Million], Wen Wei Po, November 17, 2000, p. A14.
7 ‘ “Sports Development in Hong Kong’,” Hong Kong SAR Legislative Council, June 12, 2015, p. CB2/PL/
HA, accessed July 8, 2019, www.legco.gov.hk/yr14-15/english/panels/ha/papers/ha20150612cb2-
1637-4-e.pdf.
8 Chu, ‘ “Post-handover Hong Kong’s International Sporting Bids 2016’,” 1197–200.
9 Chu, Politics of Mega-events in China’s Hong Kong, 71–72.
10 ‘ “Buhua Gongtang Mahui 8 Yi Jianchangdi” [Hong Kong Jockey Club Spends HKD 800 Million to
Build Stadium So Hong Kong Government Would Not Use Public Money for Holding Equestrian
Events], Hong Kong Economic Times, July 9, 2005, p. A18.
11 ‘ 
“Zhengfu Chengli Liangweiyuanhui Tuiguang ’Tiyu” [Government Forms Two Committees
to Promote Sports], Hong Kong SAR Government, accessed July 8, 2019, www.info.gov.hk/gia/
general/200310/05/1004183.htm.
 12 ‘ “Major Sports Events Committee Terms of References’,” Hong Kong SAR Government Homes Affairs
Bureau, accessed July 8, 2019, www.hab.gov.hk/file_manager/en/documents/policy_responsibilities/
msec_tor-e.pdf.
13 ‘ “M Pinpai Jihuan Zhichi Daxing Tiyu ’Huodong” [M Mark System Supports Sporting Mega-
events], Hong Kong SAR Government, November 12, 2004, accessed July 8, 2019, www.info.gov.hk/gia/
general/200411/12/1112224.htm.
14 ‘ “Delegates See Local Support for 2009 East Asian Games’,” Hong Kong SAR Government, June 17,
2006, accessed July 8, 2019, www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/200606/17/P200606160277.htm.
15 One of the instances was that President Hu Jintao, in the ceremonies of the tenth anniversary of
the Hong Kong handover, emphasised the importance of letting local young people accept national
education.
16 Chu, Politics of Mega-events in China’s Hong Kong, 74–75.
17 Donald Tsang, ‘ “The 2006–07 Policy Address: Proactive Pragmatic Always People First’,” Hong Kong
SAR Government, accessed July 8, 2019, www.policyaddress.gov.hk/06-07/eng/pdf/speech.pdf; Donald
Tsang, ‘ “The 2007–08 Policy Address: A New Direction for Hong Kong’,” Hong Kong SAR Gov-
ernment, accessed July 8, 2019, www.policyaddress.gov.hk/07-08/eng/docs/policy.pdf; Donald Tsang,
‘ “The 2008–09 Policy Address: Embracing New Challenges’,” Hong Kong SAR Government, accessed
July 8, 2019, www.policyaddress.gov.hk/08-09/eng/docs/policy.pdf.
18 ‘ “Xingzheng Zhangguan Lifahui Dawen Dahui Tanhua Quanwen (Si)’ ” [Full Script of Chief Execu-
tive’s Reply to Legislative Council Members’ Questions (Part Four)], Hong Kong SAR Government,
January 15, 2009, accessed July 8, 2019, www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/200901/15/P200901150307.
htm.
19 Chu, Politics of Mega-events in China’s Hong Kong, 75–76.
20 The people did not believe the Asian Games would bring financial benefits to the city. They also
deemed that the money budgeted for the event should be used to fill the gap between the rich and the
poor, as the ongoing economic growth caused severe wealth disparity in society.
21 Brian Bridges, ‘ “Booing the National Anthem: Hong Kong’s Identities Through the Mirror of Sport’,”
Contemporary Chinese Political Economy and Strategic Relations 2, no. 2 (2016): 819–43.
22 Chan Kin-wa, ‘ “Hong Kong’s Major Sports Events Under Threat with Government Set to Scrap
Mega Events Fund’,” South China Morning Post, October 18, 2016, accessed July 8, 2019, www.
scmp.com/sport/hong-kong/article/2029128/marquee-golf-tennis-and-dragon-boat-events-may-
lose-millions-funding.
23 Leung Chun-ying, ‘ “The 2015 Policy Address: Uphold the Rule of Law Seize the Opportunities Make
the Right Choices Pursue Democracy Boost the Economy Improve People’s ’Livelihood,” Hong Kong
SAR Government, accessed July 8, 2019, www.policyaddress.gov.hk/2015/eng/pdf/PA2015.pdf; Leung
Chun-ying, ‘ “The 2016 Policy Address: Innovate for the Economy Improve Livelihood Foster Har-
mony Share Prosperity’,” Hong Kong SAR Government, accessed July 8, 2019, www.policyaddress.gov.
hk/2016/eng/pdf/PA2016.pdf.
24 One of the instances was the Hong Kong LGBT community’s quest for the 2022 Gay Games. The
government did not deliver words of support, although the business sectors believed the event had
potential to boost local tourism, and the organiser promised to invite the people of mainland China to
take part. For details see Chu, Politics of Mega-events in China’s Hong Kong, 81–84.
25 Chun-ying, ‘ “The 2016 Policy Address’.”
26 The Greater Bay Area is a President Xi Jinping-endorsed project with the aim of forming an 11-city
single market in the Pearl River Delta. These cities include Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Zhuhai, Foshan,
Dongguan, Zhongshan, Jiangmen, Huizhou, Zhaoqing, Hong Kong and Macao.
27 ‘ “National Anthem Bill Gazetted Today’,” Hong Kong SAR Government, January 11, 2019, accessed
July 8, 2019, www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201901/11/P2019011100265.htm?fontSize=1.
28 ‘ “CE Presents Flag to Hong Kong Delegation to 13th National Games’,” Hong Kong SAR Government,
August 10, 2017, accessed July 8, 2019, www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201708/10/P2017081000582.
htm?fontSize=1.
29 Chan Kin-wa, ‘ “Kai Tak Sports Park Operator to Be Hit with Huge Fines for Failing to Fill Facili-
ties; HK$4.3m Per Day for Construction Delay’,” South China Morning Post, April 24, 2019, accessed
July 8, 2019, www.scmp.com/sport/hong-kong/article/3007347/kai-tak-sports-park-operator-be-
hit-huge-fines-failing-fill.
 30 Karen Zhang and Peace Chiu, ‘ “Hong Kong Olympic Committee Plans Bid to Host 2021 World
Beach Games’,” South China Morning Post, November 7, 2018, accessed July 8, 2019, www.scmp.com/
news/hong-kong/society/article/2172014/hong-kong-plans-bid-host-2021-world-beach-games.
31 ‘ “Statement by Non-official ExCo Members on Amendments to Fugitive Offenders Ordinance’,” Hong
Kong SAR Government, June 15, 2019, accessed July 8, 2019, www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201906/15/
P2019061500713.htm?fontSize=1.
32 ‘ “Government Response to Public Procession’,” Hong Kong SAR Government, June 16, 2019, accessed
July 8, 2019, www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201906/16/P2019061600803.htm; ‘ “Opening Remarks
by CE at Media Session’,” Hong Kong SAR Government, June 18, 2019, accessed July 8, 2019, www.info.
gov.hk/gia/general/201906/18/P2019061800812.htm.
33 Yu Kam-yin, ‘ “Prospects for Fresh Constitutional Reforms Dialogue Get Dimmer’,” Hong Kong Eco-
nomic Journal Insight, July 8, 2019, accessed July 8, 2019, www.ejinsight.com/20190708-prospects-for-
fresh-constitutional-reforms-dialogue-get-dimmer/.
1 “World Population Prospects:The 2017 Revision, Population Division,” United Nations, accessed Feb-
ruary 19, 2019, https://population.un.org/wpp/DataQuery/.
2 “India: A Microcosm of Linguistic Unity in Diversity,” Mayflower Language Services, accessed Febru-
ary 19, 2019, www.mayflowerlanguages.com/india-microcosm-linguistic-unity-diversity/.
3 “CIA World Factbook,” CIA, accessed February 13, 2019, www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-
world-factbook/fields/print_2122.html.
4 Ibid., 1.
5 Ibid.
6 Kaushik Basu, “India’s Demographic Dividend,” BBC News: South Asia, accessed July 25, 2007, http://
news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6911544.stm.
7 Abheek Singhi and Nimisha Jain, “The Rise of India’s Neo Middle Class,” Live Mint, accessed Octo-
ber 4, 2016, www.livemint.com/Politics/HY9TzjQzljCZNRHb2ejC2H/The-rise-of-Indias-neo-
middle-class.html.
8 Alyson Ross and Sue Thomas, “The Health Benefits of Yoga and Exercise: A Review of Comparison
Studies,” The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 16, no. 1 (2010): 3–12.
9 Ishwar V. Basavaraddi, “Yoga: Its Origin, History and Development,” Ministry of External Affairs: Gov-
ernment of India, accessed April 23, 2015, www.mea.gov.in/in-focus-article.htm?25096/Yoga+Its+Or
igin+History+and+Development.
10 “About Pro Kabaddi,” Vivo Pro Kabaddi League, accessed February 13, 2019, www.prokabaddi.com/
about-prokabaddi.
11 “About the Indian Premier League,” VIVO IPL, accessed February 13, 2019, www.iplt20.com/.
12 Gaurav Gupta, “Brand IPL Now Soars to $6.3 Billion,” Times of India, accessed August 8, 2018, https://
timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/ipl/top-stories/brand-ipl-now-soars-to-6-3-billion/arti
cleshow/65321837.cms.
13 “Shuttle Time: India,” Badminton Association of India, accessed February 19, 2019, www.badmin
tonindia.org/shuttle-time/.
14 “India’s Olympic Heroes: Babu Narayan Takes Us Through His 1956 and 1960 Experience,” Goal.com,
July 25, 2012, www.goal.com%2Fen-india%2Fnews%2F136%2Findia%2F2012%2F07%2F25%2F326
3069%2Findias-olympic-heroes-babu-narayan-takes-us-through-his-1956-and-&usg=AOvVaw1tpz-
IM77MY2MjlE9QwDHjR.
15 Press Trust of India, “I Could Have Won Gold Had Equipment Arrived Earlier: CWG Medalist
Ashish,” Hindustan Times, October 9, 2010, https://web.archive.org/web/20101218050807/www.
hindustantimes.com/I-could-have-got-gold-had-equipment-arrived-earlier-CWG-medallist-Ashish/
Article1-610455.aspx.
16 Shivani Naik,“After a Flight,a Landing:Why Dipa Karmakar’s Medal in Commonwealth Games Is Its Bravest
Bronze,” Indian Express, accessed April 18, 2016, https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/sport-others/
after-a-flight-a-landing-why-dipa-karmakars-medal-in-commonwealth-games-is-its-bravest-bronze/.
17 Chander Shekar Luthra, “Indian Gymnasts’ CWG Participation in Doubt Over Selection Issues,”
DNA, accessed July 10, 2014, www.dnaindia.com/sport/report-indian-gymnasts-cwg-participation-
in-doubt-over-selection-issues-2000982.
18 “About the NBA Academy India,” NBA Academy India, accessed February 11, 2019, https://nba
academy.nba.com/location/india/.
19 “About SAI: Introduction,” Sports Authority of India, September 8, 2014, http://sportsauthorityof
india.nic.in/index1.asp?ls_id=54.
 20 “Aims and Objectives,” Sports Authority of India, October 29, 2013, www.sportsauthorityofindia.nic.
in/index1.asp?ls_id=91.
21 “SAI Training Centres–STC,” Sports Authority of India, November 10, 2014, http://sportsauthority
ofindia.nic.in/index1.asp?ls_id=629.
22 “National Sports Development Fund,” Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports, June 11, 2018, https://yas.
nic.in/sports/national-sports-development-fund-0.
23 “Department of Sports: Scheme of Human Resources Development in Sports,” Ministry ofYouth Affairs
and Sports, May 22, 2019, https://yas.nic.in/sports/scheme-human-resources-development-sports-0.
24 “Department of Sports: National Sports Development Fund,” Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports,
November 13, 2018, https://yas.nic.in/sites/default/files/Operational%20Guidelines%20-%20Promo-
tion%20of%20rural%20and%20indigenoustribal%20games.pdf.
25 “Department of Sports: Ek Bharat Shreshtha Bharat Programme,” Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports,
January 24, 2019, https://yas.nic.in/sports/ek-bharat-shreshtha-bharat-programme.
26 Nikhilesh Bhattacharya, “India’s Olympic Program Under Spotlight Again,” New York Times,

accessed August 13, 2012, https://india.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/08/13/indias-olympic-program-
under-spotlight-again/.
27 “Year End Review: OPEX 2012,” Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports, December 14, 2012, http://pib.
nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=90676.
28 “Come and Play Scheme,” Sports Authority of India, June 12, 2019, www.sportsauthorityofindia.nic.
in/index1.asp?ls_id=5708.
29 “Sports Minister Jitendra Singh launches the Community Connect Scheme to Include Sports and
Recreational Facilities in Stadia,” Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports, March 5, 2014, http://pib.nic.
in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=104492.
30 “National Sports Talent Contest Scheme–NSTC,” Sports Authority of India, accessed February 24,
2019, http://sportsauthorityofindia.nic.in/index1.asp?ls_id=628.
31 Ibid., 21.
32 “Army Boys Sports Company Scheme–ABSC,” Sports Authority of India, November 10, 2014, http://
sportsauthorityofindia.nic.in/index1.asp?ls_id=626.
33 “Special Areas Games Scheme–SAG,” Sports Authority of India, November 10, 2014, http://sports
authorityofindia.nic.in/index1.asp?ls_id=630.
34 “Centre of Excellence Scheme–COE,” Sports Authority of India, November 10, 2014, http://sports
authorityofindia.nic.in/index1.asp?ls_id=627.
35 Press Trust of India, “SAI Expedites Efforts to Make ‘Vision 2020’ a Reality,” Times of India, May 19,
2013, http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/more-sports/others/SAI-expedites-efforts-to-make-
Vision-2020-a-reality/articleshow/20134525.cms.
36 “Rajiv Gandhi Khel Abhiyan,” Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports, May 26, 2015, http://pib.nic.in/
newsite/mbErel.aspx?relid=122013.
37 “Impact of National Coaching Scheme of Sports Authority of India,” Planning Commission, New
Delhi, December 1, 2002, http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/sereport/ser/stdy_ncsprts.pdf.
38 Amit Kumar Srivastava et al., “Corporate Social Responsibility: A Case Study of TATA Group,” IOSR
Journal of Business and Management 3, no. 5 (2012): 17–27.
39 “Youth Welfare and Sports Development Department: About Us,” Sports Development Authority of
Tamil Nadu, accessed February 16, 2019, www.sdat.tn.gov.in/about_us.php?token=about.
40 Gavin J. Kilduff, Hillary Anger Elfenbein, and Barry M. Staw, “The Psychology of Rivalry: A Relation-
ally Dependent Analysis of Competition,” Academy of Management Journal 53, no. 5 (2010): 943–69.
41 Arpita Mukherjee, “Sports Retailing in India: Opportunities, Constraints and Way Forward” (Work-
ing Paper No. 250, Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations (ICRIER),
2010).
42 Ibid., 41.
43 Homi Kharas, “The Emerging Middle Class in Developing Countries” (OECD Development Centre
Working Papers No. 285, OECD Publishing, Paris, 2010), https://doi.org/10.1787/18151949.
1 Iain Christopher Adams, “Pancasila: Sport and the Building of Indonesia–Ambitions and Obstacles,”
The International Journal of the History of Sport 19, no. 2–3 (2002): 295–318.
2 Amung Ma’mun, “Governmental Roles in Indonesian Sport Policy: From Past to Present,” The Interna-
tional Journal of the History of Sport 36, no. 4–5 (2019): 1–19.
3 Rusli Lutan, Olahraga, Kebijakan dan Politik [Sport, Policy and Politics] (Jakarta: Directorate General of
Sport, Ministry of National Education, 2004), 20.
 4 UNESCO, “International Charter of Physical Education and Sport,” November 1978, www.unesco.
org/education/pdf/SPORT_E.PDF.
5 M. A. Harsuki, “Sport for All Movement in Indonesia,” Asian Journal of Physical Education 8, no. 3–4
(1986): 32–48.
6 Kevin Blackburn, “War Memory and Nation-Building in South East Asia,” South East Asia Research 18,
no. 1 (2010): 5–31.
7 Harsuki, “Sport for All Movement in Indonesia.”
8 R. E. Elson, “Constructing the Nation: Ethnicity, Race, Modernity and Citizenship in Early Indonesian
Thought,” Asian Ethnicity 6, no. 3 (2005): 145–60.
9 Peter J. Beck, “The British Government and the Olympic Movement: The 1948 London Olympics,”
The International Journal of the History of Sport 25, no. 5 (2008): 615–47.
10 Harsuki, “Sport for All Movement in Indonesia.”
11 Reported in Merdeka Daily, September 10, 1948.
12 Colin Brown, “Sport, Modernity and Nation Building: The Indonesian National Games of 1951 and
1953,” Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia 164, no. 4 (2008): 431–49.
13 Rusli Lutan, “Indonesia and the Asian Games: Sport, Nationalism and the ‘New Order’,” Sport in Society
8, no. 3 (2005): 414–24.
14 Stefan Hübner, “The Fourth Asian Games (Jakarta 1962) in a Transnational Perspective: Japanese and
Indian Reactions to Indonesia’s Political Instrumentalisation of the Games,” The International Journal of
the History of Sport 29, no. 9 (2012): 1295–310.
15 Rusli Lutan and Fan Hong, “The Politicisation of Sport : GANEFO – A Case Study,” Sport in Society 8,
no. 3 (2005): 425–39.
16 Ewa T. Pauker, “Ganefo I: Sports and Politics in Djakarta,” Asian Survey 5, no. 4 (1965): 171–85.
17 Russell Field, “Re-entering the Sporting World: China’s Sponsorship of the 1963 Games of the New
Emerging Forces (GANEFO),” International Journal of the History of Sport 31, no. 15 (2014): 1852–67.
18 Chris A. Connolly, “The Politics of the Games of the New Emerging Forces (GANEFO),” International
Journal of the History of Sport 29, no. 9 (2012): 1311–24.
19 Udo Merkel, “The Politics of Sport and Identity in North Korea,” International Journal of the History of
Sport 31, no. 3 (2014): 376–90.
20 John Hunter, “Flying the Flag: Identities, the Nation, and Sport,” Identities 10, no. 4 (2003): 409–25.
21 John Bale, “Sport and National Identity: A Geographical View,” The International Journal of the History
of Sport 3, no. 1 (1986): 18–41; Joseph A. Maguire, “Globalisation, Sport and National Identities,” Sport
in Society 14, no. 7–8 (2011): 978–93; Li Liu and Fan Hong, “The National Games and National Iden-
tity in the Republic of China, 1910–1948,” International Journal of the History of Sport 32, no. 3 (2015):
440–54.
22 Fan Hong, “Communist China and the Asian Games 1951–1990: The Thirty-Nine Year Struggle to
Victory,” Sport in Society 8, no. 3 (2005): 479–92.
23 Denis Warner, “Sukarno’s Grand Design,” Challenge 12, no. 2 (1963): 23–26.
24 Simon McNeely,“Unesco Places Physical Education and Sport in Global Perspective,” Journal of Physical
Education and Recreation 51, no. 7 (1980): 21–25.
25 Kathleen Lloyd and Christopher Auld, “Leisure, Public Space and Quality of Life in the Urban Envi-
ronment,” Urban Policy and Research 21, no. 4 (2003): 339–56.
26 UNESCO, “International Charter of Physical Education and Sport.”
27 Jason Gulbin et al., “An Integrated Framework for the Optimisation of Sport and Athlete Develop-
ment: A Practitioner Approach,” Journal of Sports Sciences 31, no. 12 (2013): 1319–31.
28 Jason Gulbin, et al., “Patterns of Performance Development in Elite Athletes,” European Journal of Sport
Science 13, no. 6 (2013): 605–14.
29 Greg Poulgrain, The Incubus of Intervention: Conflicting Indonesia Strategies of John F. Kennedy and Allen
Dulles (Petaling Jaya, Malaysia: SIRD, 2015).
30 Ma’mun, “Governmental Roles in Indonesian Sport Policy.”
1 United Nations, Convention on the Rights of the Child (United Nations, 1989), www.unicef.org.uk/
UNICEFs-Work/Our-mission/UN-Convention//.
2 Marije Stoltenborgh et al., “The Prevalence of Child Maltreatment Across the Globe,” Child Abuse
Review 24 (2014): 37–50.
3 Celia H. Brackenridge, Tess Kay, and Daniel J. A. Rhind, Sport, Children’s Rights and Violence Prevention:
A Source Book on Global Issues and Local Programmes (London: Brunel University Press, 2012).
4 UN, Convention on the Rights of the Child.
 5 World Health Organisation, Preventing Child Maltreatment: A Guide to Taking Action and Generating Evi-
dence (Geneva: World Health Organisation, 2006).
6 Daniel J. A. Rhind and Frank Owusu-Sekyere, International Safeguards for Children in Sport (London:
Routledge, 2018).
7 Margo Mountjoy et al., “Safeguarding the Child Athlete in Sport: A Review, a Framework and Rec-
ommendations for the IOC Youth Athlete Development Model,” British Journal of Sports Medicine 49
(2016): 883–86.
8 John S. Raglin et al., “Training Practices and Staleness in 13–18 Year-Old Swimmers: A Cross Cultural
Study,” Paediatric Exercise Science 12 (2000): 61–70.
9 Albert C. Lin et al., “Rhabdomyolysis in 119 Students After Repetitive Exercise,” British Journal of Sports
Medicine 39 (2005): 3–4.
10 Fan Hong, “Innocence Lost: Child Athletes in China,” Sport in Society 7, no. 3 (2004): 338–54.
11 Keiji Kawai, The Issue of Corporal Punishment and Abuse Concerning School Sports: From the Comparison
Between Japan and the United States (Tokyo: Tetsuro Sugawara & Koichiro Mochizuki, 2014), 71–72.
12 Shoko Kawauchi, “Corporal Punishment as a Disciplinary Punishment: Present Situations and Issue
from History of Institutionalisation and Judicial Precedents,” Study of School Compliance 3 (2015): 30.
13 Katsumi Mori, Daniel Rhind, and Misia Gervis, “The Present State of Abuse or Corporal Punishment
Involving Children and Sports Authority Figures and the Necessity for a Child Protection System in
Sports in Japan,” Annals of Fitness and Sports Science 50 (2015): 1–8.
14 Precedent by Tokyo District Court Judgement, February 24, 2016. Refer to Precedent Times, 1432,
204–46.
15 Aogu Sakata, “Vestiges of ‘Theory of Forgiven Corporal Punishment’: The Case of Suicide of Osaka
City Provided Sakuranomiya Senior High School,” Study of School Compliance 7 (2019).
16 Celia H. Brackenridge, Daniel J. A. Rhind, and Sarah Palmer-Felgate, “Locating and Mitigating Risks to
Children Associated with Major Sporting Events,” Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events
7 (2015): 1–14.
17 Rhind and Owusu-Sekyere, International Safeguards for Children.
18 Daniel J. A. Rhind, Tess Kay, Laura Hills, and Frank Owusu-Sekyere, “Building a System to Safeguard
Children in Sport: The 8 Children Pillars,” Journal of Sport and Social Issues 41 (2017): 151–71.
1 Edward W. Said, Orientalism:Western Conceptions of the Orient (1978) (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1995).
2 Ibid.
3 Vahid Rashidvash and Fatemeh Moosavi Mirak, “Ethnic Groups in Aisa,” International Journal of Human-
ities & Social Science Studies 3, no. 3 (2015): 181–86, 181.
4 The Five Regions of Asia–Asia Countries and Regions, www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-four-
regions-of-asia.html.
5 Rashidvash and Mirak, “Ethnic Groups,” 181.
6 The Five Regions of Asia–Asia Countries and Regions.
7 “Ethnic Minorities in China,” Asia Society, accessed June 6, 2019, https://asiasociety.org/
ethnic-minorities-china.
8 The Five Regions of Asia–Asia Countries and Regions.
9 Rashidvash and Mirak, “Ethnic Groups” 181.
10 Gerald Clarke, “From Ethnocide to Ethnodevelopment? Ethnic Minorities and Indigenous Peoples in
Southeast Asia,” Third World Quarterly 22, no. 3 (2001): 413–36.
11 Ibid.
12 Ibid., 181.
13 Bryan S. Turner and Yangwen Zheng, eds., The Body in Asia,Vol. 3 (New York: Berghahn Books, 2009).
14 Eva Kit Wah Man, “Bodies in China: Philosophy, Aesthetics, Gender and Politics,” Journal of Aesthetics
and Art Criticism 76, no. 2 (2018): 240–43.
15 David Rowe and Callum Gilmour, “Sport, Media, and Consumption in Asia: A Merchandised Milieu,”
American Behavioral Scientist 53, no. 10 (2010): 1530–48, 1530.
16 John Horne, “Understanding Sport and Body Culture in Japan,” Body & Society 62, no. 2 (2000): 73–86.
17 David Kirk, “Physical Culture, Physical Education and Relational Analysis,” Sport, Education and Society
4, no. 1 (1999): 63–73.
18 William W. Kelly, “Japan’’s Embrace of Soccer: Mutable Ethnic Players and Flexible Soccer Citizenship
in the New East Asian Sports Order,” The International Journal of the History of Sport 30, no. 11 (2013):
1235–46.
 19 Udo Merkel, “The Politics of Sport and Identity in North Korea,” The International Journal of the History
of Sport 31, no. 3 (2014): 376–90.
20 Alan Bairner and Dong-Jhy Hwang, “Representing Taiwan: International Sport, Ethnicity and National
Identity in the Republic of China,” International Review for the Sociology of Sport 46, no. 3 (2011): 231–48, 231.
21 J. A. Mangan et al., “From Honeymoon to Divorce: Fragmenting Relations Between China and South
Korea in Politics, Economics – and Sport,” The International Journal of the History of Sport 30, no. 10
(2013): 1113–29, 1113.
22 Payoshni Mitra, “Challenging Stereotypes: The Case of Muslim Female Boxers in Bengal,” The Interna-
tional Journal of the History of Sport 26, no. 12 (2009): 1840–51.
23 Kausik Bandyopadhyay, “Feel Good, Goodwill and India’s Friendship Tour of Pakistan, 2004: Cricket,
Politics and Diplomacy in Twenty-First-Century India,” The International Journal of the History of Sport
25, no. 12 (2008): 1654–70.
24 Paul Dimeo and Joyce Kay, “Major Sports Events, Image Projection and the Problems of ‘Semi-
Periphery’: A Case Study of the 1996 South Asia Cricket World Cup,” Third World Quarterly 25, no. 7
(2004): 1263–76.
25 Ibid., 1263.
26 Ibid., 1840.
27 Ibid.
28 Shaun Lopez, “Sport and Society in the Middle East: An Alternate Narrative of Middle Eastern History
for the American College Classroom,” Middle East Critique 18, no. 3 (2009): 251–60.
29 Ian P. Henry et al., “Sport, Arab Nationalism and the Pan-Arab Games,” International Review for the
Sociology of Sport 38, no. 3 (2003): 295–310, 295.
30 Danyel Reiche, “Investing in Sporting Success as a Domestic and Foreign Policy Tool: The Case of
Qatar,” International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics 7, no. 4 (2015): 489–504.
31 Jennifer Hargreaves, Heroines of Sport:The Politics of Difference and Identity (London: Routledge, 2000).
32 Hjorleifur Jonsson, “Mien Through Sports And Culture: Mobilizing Minority Identity in Thailand,”
Journal of Anthropology Museum of Ethnography 68, no. 3 (2003): 317–40.
3 3 Ibid.
34 Callum Gilmour and David Rowe, “Sport in Malaysia: National Imperatives and Western Seductions,”
Sociology of Sport Journal 29, no. 4 (2012): 485–505, 485.
35 Amira Firdaus, “Ethnic Identity and News Media Preferences in Malaysia” (Paper delivered at ARC
APFRN Signature Event, Curtin University, Perth), March 26–29, 2006, accessed June 10, 2019, http://
citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.452.9920&rep=rep1&type=pdf.
36 Janice N. Brownfoot, “Healthy Bodies, Healthy Minds: Sport and Society in Colonial Malaya,” The
International Journal of the History of Sport 19, no. 2–3 (2002): 129–56.
3 7 Ibid.
3 8 Elliot Sperling, The Tibet-China Conflict: History and Polemics, Policy Studies (Washington, DC: East-West
Center Washington, 2004).
39 Ibid., 1654.
40 Ibid.
41 Alex McKay, “Playing for the Tibetan People: Football and History in the High Himalayas,” in Sabaltern
Sports: Politics and Sport in South Asia, ed. James Mills (London: Anthem Press, 2005), 191–204.
42 E. Patricia Tsurumi, Japanese Colonial Education in Taiwan, 1895–1945 (Cambridge: MA Harvard Uni-
versity Press, 1977).
43 Junwei Yu, Playing in Isolation: A History of Baseball in Taiwan (Lincoln and London: University of
Nebraska Press, 2007), 14.
44 Peter Parkes, “Indigenous Polo in Northern Pakistan: Game and Power on the Periphery,” in Sabaltern
Sports: Politics and Sport in South Asia, ed. James Mills (London: Anthem Press, 2005), 123–38.
45 Ibid.
46 Paul Dimeo, “The Social History of the Royal Calcutta Golf Club, 1829–2003,” in Sabaltern Sports:
Politics and Sport in South Asia, ed. James Mills (London: Anthem Press, 2005), 123–38.
47 Megan M. Mills, “Community, Identity and Sport: Anglo-Indians in Colonial and Postcolonial India,”
in Sabaltern Sports: Politics and Sport in South Asia, ed. James Mills (London: Anthem Press, 2005), 205–16.
4 8 Ibid.
49 Daniel Burdsey et al., eds., Playing Through Time and Space: Sport and South Asian Diasporas (London:
Routledge, 2013), 212.
 50 David Rowe et al., “The China Question in Football in Australia,” in Softpower, Soccer, Supremacy: The
Chinese Dream, ed. J. A. Mangan et al. (Switzerland: Peter Lang, in press).
51 Ibid.
52 Bonnie Pang et al., “ ‘Do I Have a Choice?’ The Influences of Family Values and Investments on Chi-
nese Migrant Young People’’s Lifestyles and Physical Activity Participation in Australia,” Sport, Education
and Society 20, no. 8 (2015): 1048–64, 1048; Bonnie Pang and Joanne Hill, “Representations of Chinese
Gendered and Racialised Bodies in Contemporary Media Sites,” Sport, Education and Society 23, no. 8
(2018): 773–85, 773; Sheila Scraton et al., “Bend It Like Patel: Centring ‘Race’, Ethnicity and Gender
in Feminist Analysis of Women’s Football in England,” International Review for the Sociology of Sport 40,
no. 1 (2005): 71–88, 71.
53 Pang and Hill, “Representations of Chinese,” 773–85, 773.
54 Scraton et al., “Bend It Like Patel,” 71–88, 71; Scott Fleming, “Sport and South Asian Youth: the Perils
of ‘False Universalism’ and Stereotyping,” Leisure Studies 13, no. 3 (1994): 159–77.
55 Tess Kay, “Daughters of Islam: Family Influences on Muslim Young Women’’s Participation in Sport,”
International Review for the Sociology of Sport 41, no. 3–4 (2006): 357–73.
56 Annette Stride, “Let US Tell YOU! South Asian, Muslim Girls Tell Tales About Physical Education,”
Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy 19, no. 4 (2014): 398–417.
57 Annette Stride, “Centralising Space: The Physical Education and Physical Activity Experiences of
South Asian, Muslim Girl,” Sport, Education and Society 21, no. 5 (2016): 677–97.
58 Jonathan Long, Kevin Hylton, and Karl Spracklen,“Whiteness, Blackness and Settlement: Leisure and the
Integration of New Migrants,” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 40, no. 11 (2014): 1779–97, 1779.
59 Ben Carrington, “Introduction: Sport Matters,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 35, no. 6 (2012): 961–70.
6 0 Ibid.
61 Sanjeiv Johal, “Playing Their Own Game: A South Asian Football Experience,” in Race, Sport and British
Society, ed. Ben Carrington and Ian McDonald (London: Routledge, 2001), 153–69.
62 Daniel Burdsey, “ ‘One of the Lads’? Dual Ethnicity and Assimilated Ethnicities in the Careers of British
Asian Professional Footballers,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 27, no. 5 (2004): 757–79.
63 Daniel Burdsey, “ ‘If I Ever Play Football, Dad, Can I Play for England or India?’ British Asians, Sport
and Diasporic National Identities,” Sage Journals 40, no. 1 (2006): 11–28, 23.
64 Ben Carrington, “Assessing the Sociology of Sport: On Race and Diaspora,” International Review for the
Sociology of Sport 50, no. 4–5 (2015): 391–96.
65 Guanglun Michael Mu and Bonnie Pang, Interpreting the Chinese Diaspora: Identity, Socialisation, and
Resilience According to Pierre Bourdieu (London: Routledge, 2019).
1 Aimee Lewis,“When Sports and Politics Collide–What Happened When North and South Korea Uni-
fied on the Ice,” CNN, February 7, 2019, accessed July 5, 2019, https://edition.cnn.com/2019/02/07/
sport/south-korea-north-korea-unified-ice-hockey-team-winter-olympics-2018-spt-intl/index.html.
2 Motoko Rich and Seth Berkman, “For South Korea’s Hockey Women, Unity with North Is a Bitter
Burden,” New York Times, January 22, 2018, accessed July 6, 2019, www.nytimes.com/2018/01/22/
sports/olympics/south-korea-hockey-north-olympics.html.
3 World Economic Forum, The Global Gender Gap Report 2018 (Geneva: World Economic Forum,
2018).
4 Socio-economic gaps among women should be considered too in order to gain a fuller understanding
of issues related to both gender equality and women in sport.Yet since this chapter is too short to delve
into this discussion, it relates to women in general.
5 June Larkin, with the assistance of Sabrina Razack and Fiona Moola, “Gender, Sport and Develop-
ment,” in Literature Reviews on Sport for Development and Peace (Toronto: Sport for Development and
Peace International Working Group, 2007), 96.
6 Shahrashoub Razavi and Carol Miller, From WID to GAD: Conceptual Shift in the Women and Develop-
ment Discourse, Occasional Paper 1 (Geneva: United Nations Research Institute for Social Development,
1995), 2.
7 Marianne Meier, Gender Equity, Sport and Development, Working Paper (Biel/Bienne: Swiss Academy
for Development, 2005), 6; Martha Saavedra, “Women, Sport and Development,” Sport and Development
International Platform (2005), accessed July 22, 2019, www.sportanddev.org/sites/default/files/down
loads/56__women__sport_and_development.pdf.
8 Razavi and Miller, From WID to GAD, 1.
9 Ibid., 12; Larkin, “Gender, Sport and Development,” 96; Meier, Gender Equity, 6.
 10 Alexis Lyras and Jon Welty Peachey, “Integrating Sport-for-Development Theory and Praxis,” Sport
Management Review 14 (2011): 311. It is worth noting that policy makers, scholars, and activists some-
times prefer to use Sport for Development and Peace (SDP) rather than SFD.
11 Fred Coalter, “The Politics of Sport-for-Development: Limited Focus Programmes and Broad Gauge
Problems,” International Review for the Sociology of Sport 45, no. 3 (2010): 301.
12 Ibid.
13 United Nations Office on Sport for Development and Peace, “Contribution of Sport to the Mil-
lennium Development Goals,” February (2010), 1, www.un.org/sport/sites/www.un.org.sport/files/
ckfiles/files/Sport%20and%20the%20MDGs_FACTSHEET_February%202010.pdf.
14 Coalter, “The Politics of Sport-for-Development,” 301–3.
15 World Health Organization, “Millennium Development Goals (MDGS),” accessed July 30, 2019, www.
who.int/topics/millennium_development_goals/about/en/.
16 M. Hancock, A. Lyras, and J. P. Ha, “Sport for Development Programme for Girls and Women:
A Global Assessment,” Journal of Sport for Development 1, no. 1 (2013), https://jsfd.org/2013/04/11/
sport-for-development-programmes-for-girls-and-women-a-global-assessment/#ref1.
17 Saavedra, “Women, Sport and Development.”
18 Meier, Gender Equity, 7.
19 Saavedra, “Women, Sport and Development.”
20 Larkin, “Gender, Sport and Development,” 98.
21 Ibid., 99.
22 Jennifer Hargreaves, “The ‘Women’s International Sports Movement’: Local-Global Strategies and
Empowerment,” Women’s Studies International Forum 22, no. 5 (1999): 470. It should be noted that crit-
ics have argued that SFD initiatives have been dominated by Western perspectives, namely, by ‘forces’
from the Global North, thus voices from the Global South are yet to be more involved and better heard.
Hargreaves analysed this phenomenon in this paper (461–71).Writing a decade and a half later, Sumaya
F. Samie et al., argued that the topic of women’s empowerment in the Global South is at the centre of
the discourse, yet Global North perspectives still dominated it (see “Voices of Empowerment:Women from
the Global South Re/Negotiating Empowerment and the Global Sports Mentoring Programme,” Sport
in Society 18, no. 8 (2015): 923–37).
23 Tess Kay, “Development through Sport? Sport in Support of Female Empowerment in Delhi, India,” in
Routledge Handbook of Sports Development, ed. Barrie Houlihan and Mick Green (London: Routledge,
2011), 312.
24 Cited in Ibid.
25 Marianne Meier, “The Value of Female Sporting Role Models,” Sport in Society 18, no. 8 (2015): 968.
26 Saavedra, “Women, Sport and Development.”
27 Ibid.
28 This very brief discussion on the concept of ‘empowerment’ serves the purpose of the analysis. A vast
body of critical literature exists on ‘empowerment,’ yet it is beyond the scope of this chapter to engage
with it.
29 See, e.g., Larkin’s assessment in “Gender, Sport and Development,” 100–7.
30 A good starting point on the state of the field is Nico Schulenkorf, Emma Sherry, and Katie Rowe,
“Sport for Development: An Integrated Literature Review,” Journal of Sport Management 30 (2016):
22–39.
31 Ibid., 29.
32 Chung-hee Sarah Soh, “Sexual Equality, Male Superiority, and Korean Women in Politics: Changing
Gender Relations in a ‘Patriarchal Democracy’,” Sex Roles 28, no. 1–2 (1993): 73–74.
33 Seungsook Moon, “Carving Out Space: Civil Society and the Women’s Movement in South Korea,”
The Journal of Asian Studies 61, no. 2 (2002): 492.
34 Ibid., 490.
35 Eunha Kim and Hansol Park, “Perceived Gender Discrimination, a Belief in a Just World, Self-Esteem,
and Depression in Korean Working Women: A Moderated Mediation Model,” Women’s Studies Interna-
tional Forum 69 (2018): 143.
36 Claire Lee, “Reasons for Divorce Have Changed Since the ‘50s in South Korea: Study,” Korea Herald,
June 18, 2016, accessed August 5, 2019, www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20160617000753.
37 Hyun-ju Ock, “Koreans’ Changing Perceptions on Marriage,” Korea Herald, March 27, 2015, accessed
August 5, 2019, www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20150327001036%20; Simon Maybin,“Why I Never
Want Babies,” BBC, August 16, 2018, accessed August 5, 2019, www.bbc.com/news/stories-45201725.
 38 Kim and Park, “Perceived Gender Discrimination,” 143;Yonjoo Cho et al., “Asian Women in Top Man-
agement: Eight Country Cases,” Human Resource Development International 18, no. 4 (2015): 414.
39 Ann Swidler, “Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies,” American Sociological Review 51, no. 2 (1986):
273–86.
40 A good analysis of how gender politics by the South Korean state has actively marginalised women
during the nation-building process and beyond is Seungsook Moon, Militarized Modernity and Gendered
Citizenship in South Korea (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2005).
41 Kim and Park, “Perceived Gender Discrimination,” 143.
42 Ibid.; Cho et al., “Asian Women in top Management,” 414; Yoon Soo-Yeon, “Is Gender Inequality a
Barrier to Realizing Fertility Intentions? Fertility Aspirations and Realizations in South Korea,” Asian
Population Studies 12, no. 2 (2016): 206.
43 Eunha Koh, “Chains, Challenges and Changes: The Making of Women’s Football in Korea,” Soccer and
Society 4, no. 2–3 (2004): 69–70.
44 Taeyon Kim, “Neo-Confucian Body Techniques:Women’s Bodies in Korea’s Consumer Culture,” Body
and Society 9, no. 2 (2003): 99–102.
45 Koh, “Chains, Challenges and Changes,” 69.
46 Ibid., 70; Gwang Ok, “The Political Significance of Sport: An Asian Case Study–Sport, Japanese Colo-
nial Policy and Korean National Resistance,” The International Journal of the History of Sport 22, no. 4
(2005): 649–70.
47 Gwang Ok, “Coercion for Asian Conquest: Japanese Militarism and Korean Sport, 1938–45,” The Inter-
national Journal of the History of Sport 24, no. 3 (2007): 344, 348.
48 Kim, “Neo-Confucian Body Techniques,” 102; Kenneth M. Wells, “The Price of Legitimacy: Women
and the Kŭnuhoe Movement, 1927–1931,” in Colonial Modernity in Korea, ed. Gi-Wook Shin and
Michael E. Robinson (Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press, 1999), 197.
49 Wells, “The Price of Legitimacy,” 219.
50 Ibid., 220.
51 Jae-Pil Ha et al., “From Development of Sport to Development Through Sport: A Paradigm Shift for
Sport Development in South Korea,” The International Journal of the History of Sport 32, no. 10 (2015):
1267.
52 Jae-Pil Ha et al., “From Development of Sport,” 1267–68.
53 Ibid., 1267; Koh, “Chains, Challenges and Changes,” 70.
54 See the data at Cheong Rak Choi et al., “A Modern History of Women Taekwondo in Korea Since the
Second World War,” The International Journal of the History of Sport 30, no. 3 (2013): 320.
55 Koh, “Chains, Challenges and Changes,” 72–73.
56 Hyung-Joong Won and Eunah Hong, “The Development of Sport Policy and Management in South
Korea,” International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics 7, no. 1 (2015): 146.
57 Ha et al., “From Development of Sport,” 1269.
58 See Yang-Rea Kim, “The Study on the Trend and Discourse of Women’s Sports Participation in Korea,”
The Journal of Korean Society of Aerobic Exercise 11, no. 1 (2007): 133.
59 Ibid., 34–35.
60 Ha et al., “From Development of Sport,” 1270.
61 Dean J. Myers and Sung-Joo Park, “Sport as a Means of Empowerment for Korean Women,” Philosophy
of Movement: Journal of Korean Philosophic Society for Sport and Dance 24, no. 2 (2016): 1–22.
62 Yeomi Choi, “ ‘Seupocheu heoseutory’: Hanguk yeoseong cheyuksa yeongu donghyang gwa gwaje,
2007–2016,” Cheyukgwahakyeongu 29, no. 1 (2018): 179–85.
63 Kyung Hwa Yoo, “Discrimination and Women in Sport Management in Pusan, Republic of Korea”
(PhD diss., United States Sports Academy, 1997).
64 Koh, “Chains, Challenges and Changes,” 77.
65 Min-Chul Kim and Eunah Hong, “A Red Card for Women: Female Officials Ostracized in South
Korean Football,” Asian Journal of Women’s Studies 22, no. 2 (2106): 114–30.
66 Marianne Meier and Martha Saavedra, “Esther Phiri and the Moutawakel Effect in Zambia: An Analysis
of the Use of Female Role Models in Sport-for-Development,” Sport in Society 12, no. 9 (2009): 1168.
67 Ibid.
68 Ibid., 1169.
69 Ibid., 1168.
 70 Kyoung-yim Kim, “Producing Korean Women Golfers on the LPGA Tour: Representing Gender,
Race, Nation and Sport in Transnational Context” (PhD diss., University of Toronto, 2012), 2, 59, 101,
244–45.
71 Philip Hersh, “Kim Yuna Has South Korea’s Full Attention,” Los Angeles Times, February 11, 2010,
accessed August 6, 2019, www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2010-feb-11-la-sp-olympics-kim11-
2010feb11-story.html.
72 Chuyun Oh, “Nationalizing the Balletic Body in Olympic Figure Skating,” in Sport in Korea: History,
Development, Management, ed. Dae Hee Kwak et al. (London: Routledge, 2018), 119, 122; Dong-hwan
Ko, “Teenage Skaters Extend Kim Yuna’s Legacy,” The Korea Times, January 14, 2019, accessed August 7,
2019, https://m.koreatimes.co.kr/pages/article.asp?newsIdx=262008.
73 Yun Jung Kim, “Restructuring the Male Dominant Sport: The Case of Korean Women Boxers” (Mas-
ter’s thesis, Seoul National University, 2014), ii, 3, 20, 92.
74 Kim, ‘ “Restructuring the Male Dominant Sport.”
75 On Kim Yuna see Oh, “Nationalizing the Balletic Body,” 119–32; and on Pak Se Ri refer to Rachael
Miyung Joo, Transnational Sport: Gender, Media, and Global Korea (Durham and London: Duke Univer-
sity Press, 2012), passim.
76 Oh, “Nationalizing the Balletic Body,” 128.
77 Joo, Transnational Sport, 156.
78 Eoin J. Trolan, “The Impact of the Media on Gender Inequality Within Sport,” Procedia–Social and
Behavioral Sciences 91 (2013): 222–23.
79 “The 5 Korean Beauties of the Asian Games,” Chosun ilbo, November 17, 2010, http://english.chosun.
com/site/data/html_dir/2010/11/17/2010111700281.html.The Korean-language version is at http://
sports.chosun.com/news/news.htm?id=201011120100119100006872&ServiceDate=20101111.
80 Sangmin Yoon, “Seupocheu seongpongnyeok ui siltae, gyuje wa daechaek,” Seupocheu wa beop 14, no. 1
(2011): 60.
81 Yonhap, “Nearly 4 in 10 South Korean Pro Female Athletes Have Experienced Sexual Harassment:
Survey,” Korea Times, February 26, 2019, accessed August 8, 2019, www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/
sports/2019/02/663_264419.html.
82 AP, “#MeToo in South Korea: Olympic Skater Among Women Accusing Coaches of Sexual

Abuse,” ABC, January 21, 2019, accessed August 8, 2019, www.abc.net.au/news/2019-01-21/
south-korean-woman-skaters-accuse-sport-of-sexual-abuse/10733126.
1 World Health Organization and World Bank, World Report on Disability (Geneva:World Health Organi-
zation, 2011), 29.
2 Ministry of Human Resources Malaysia, Statistik Pekerjaan Dan Perburuhan [Employment and Labour
Statistics] (Putrajaya: Ministry of Human Resources Malaysia, 2019), 3.
3 Ibid., 110.
4 Selina Khoo, “New Direction: Disability Sport in Malaysia,” Sport in Society 14, no. 9 (2011): 1285.
5 Government of Malaysia, Act 685 Persons with Disabilities Act, 2008.
6 Ibid., 7.
7 Lynne K. Norazit, “How Much Difference Can One ‘‘Word’ Make? Changing Perceptions of Disability
in Malaysia,” International Journal of Arts and Sciences 3, no. 15 (2010): 268.
8 Harlida Abdul Wahab and Zainal Amin Ayub, “Employment Right of Persons with Disabilities in
Malaysia,” in Social Interactions and Networking in Cyber Society, ed. Ford Lumban Gaol and Fonny
Dameaty Hutagalung (Singapore: Springer, 2017), 217; Veena Babulal, “Malaysia’’s Disabled Still Mar-
ginalised, Says Suhakam,” New Straits Times, December 6, 2017, accessed July 9, 2019, www.nst.com.
my/news/nation/2017/12/311353/malaysias-disabled-still-marginalised-says-suhakam.
9 Furuoka Fumitaka et al., “Employment Situation of Person with Disabilities: Case Studies of US, Japan
and Malaysia,” Researchers World 2, no. 4 (2011): 1.
10 Esther Landau, “Employ More Disabled People, Public Sector Urged,” New Straits Times, Novem-
ber 17, 2018, accessed July 8, 2019, www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2018/11/432156/employ-more-
disabled-people-public-sector-urged.
11 Ling Ta Tiun, Lay Wah Lee, and Suet Leng Khoo, “Employability of People with Disabilities in the
Northern States of Peninsular Malaysia: Employers’ Perspective,” Disability, CBR & Inclusive Development
22, no. 2 (2011): 82, 92.
12 Melissa Ng Lee, Yen Abdullah, and Ching Mey See, “Employment of People with Disabilities in
Malaysia: Drivers and Inhibitors,” International Journal of Special Education 26, no. 1 (2011): 118; Selvi
 Narayanan, “A Study on Challenges Faced by Disabled People at Workplace in Malaysia,” International
Journal for Studies on Children,Women, Elderly and Disabled 5 (2018): 90.
13 Seok Hong Tan,“Unmet Health Care Service Needs of Children with Disabilities in Penang, Malaysia,”
Asia Pacific Journal of Public Health 27, 8 Suppl. (2015): 44S–46S.
14 Muhamad Nadhir Abdul Nasir and Alfa Nur Aini Erman Efendi, “Special Education for Children with
Disabilities in Malaysia: Progress and Obstacles,” Geografia-Malaysian Journal of Society and Space 12, no.
10 (2017): 84.
15 Ministry of Education Malaysia, Higher Education Statistics 2018 (Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of Education,
2019), 9–10, 28, 100–5, 135.
16 Government of Malaysia, Act 685, 26.
1 7 United Nations, Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (New York: United Nations, 2006).
1 8 Ibid., 4.
19 Selina Khoo, “Disability Sport in Malaysia,” Journal of Paralympic Research Group 6 (2016): 19.
20 Eric Samuel, “Newly Opened Sports Centre Aims to Spur Paralympic Champions,” The Star,

March 6, 2014, accessed July 6, 2019, www.thestar.com.my/sport/other-sport/2014/03/06/
rm49mil-sporting-facility-to-spur-paraathletes.
21 Tee Ching Ooi, “RM1 Million for Malaysian Para-Athletes Who Win Gold at Rio Paralympics,”
New Straits Times, August 28, 2016, accessed July 6, 2019, www.nst.com.my/news/2016/08/168849/
rm1-million-malaysian-para-athletes-who-win-gold-rio-paralympics.
22 Paralympic Council of Malaysia, http://paralympic.org.my/.
23 Siti Zaharah Abdul Khalid (Secretary General, Malaysian Paralympic Council), in discussion with the
author, March 14, 2018.
24 Jadeera Phaik Geok Cheong, Selina Khoo, and Rizal Razman, “Spotlight on Athletes with a Disabil-
ity: Malaysian Newspaper Coverage of the 2012 London Paralympic Games,” Adapted Physical Activity
Quarterly 33, no. 1 (2016): 21.
25 Jadeera Cheong, Selina Khoo, and Rizal Razman, “A Quantitative Analysis of Malaysian Newspaper
Coverage of the 2016 Rio Paralympic Games” (Paper presented at the 15th Asian Society for Adapted
Physical Education and Exercise Symposium, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, July 11–13, 2018).
26 Cheong, Khoo, and Razman, “Spotlight on Athletes with a Disability,” 27.
27 “PM Ucap Tahniah Kepada Atlet Paralimpik Mohamad Ridzuan Puzi” [PM Congratulates Paralympic
Athletes Mohamad Ridzuan Puzi], Utusan, January 4, 2019, accessed July 6, 2019, www.utusan.com.
my/berita/nasional/pm-ucap-tahniah-kepada-atlet-paralimpik-mohamad-ridzuan-puzi-1.816213.
28 Sufian Hadi Sojak, “Deaflympics: Malaysia Menang Perak” [Deaflympics: Malaysia Wins Silver],

Utusan, July 28, 2017, accessed July 6, 2019, www.utusan.com.my/sukan/badminton/deaflympics-
malaysia-menang-perak-1.508467; Aftar Singh, “World Champion Suresh a Beacon of Hope for the
Disabled,” Star, June 13, 2019, accessed July 6, 2019, www.thestar.com.my/sport/archery/2019/06/13/
world-champion-suresh-a-beacon-of-hope-for-the-disabled#4E43jptM4MylHFtz.99.
29 Nur Aqidah Azizi, “Paralympics Gold Medallist Muhammad Ziyad Marries College Sweetheart,” New
Straits Times, November 11, 2016, accessed July 7, 2019, www.nst.com.my/news/2016/11/187892/
paralympics-gold-medallist-muhammad-ziyad-marries-college-sweetheart.Fazurawati; Che Lah, “Atlet
Paralimpik Terima Biasiswa” [Paralympic Athletes Receive Scholarship], Harian Metro, March 25, 2019,
accessed July 7,2019,www.hmetro.com.my/bestari/2019/03/437419/atlet-paralimpik-terima-biasiswa.
30 Ahmad Solihim Mohd Nor (national athlete with a physical disability), in discussion with the author,
July 9, 2019.
31 Mohd Amirul Arif (captain of the national blind football team), in discussion with the author, July 9, 2019.
32 Noela C. Wilson and Selina Khoo, “Benefits and Barriers to Sports Participation for Athletes with Dis-
abilities: The Case of Malaysia,” Disability & Society 28, no. 8 (2013): 1133–34.
33 Jeffrey J. Martin, “Benefits and Barriers to Physical Activity for Individuals with Disabilities: A Social-
Relational Model of Disability Perspective,” Disability and Rehabilitation 35, no. 24 (2013): 2031–32.
34 Oscar Castro et al., “Scoping Review on Interventions to Promote Physical Activity Among Adults
with Disabilities,” Disability and Health Journal 11, no. 2 (April 2018): 175.
35 James H. Rimmer and Alexandre C. Marque, “Physical Activity for People with Disabilities,” Lancet 380,
no. 9838 (July 2012): 193.
36 Eva A. Jaarsma, Pieter U. Dijkstra, Jan H. Geertzen, and Rienk Dekker, “Barriers to and Facilitators of
Sports Participation for People with Physical Disabilities: A Systematic Review,” Scandinavian Journal of
Medicine & Science in Sports 24, no. 6 (December 2014): 871.
37 Government of Malaysia, Act 685.
 38 Hazreena Hussein and Naziaty Mohd Yaacob, “Malaysian Perspective on the Development of Acces-
sible Design,” Asian Journal of Environment-Behaviour Studies 3, no. 8 (2018): 155.
39 International Paralympic Committee, “IPC President Speaks at Human Rights Council Event,”

accessed June 30, 2019, www.paralympic.org/news/ipc-president-speaks-human-rights-council-event.
40 Ian Brittain and Aaron Beacom, “Leveraging the London 2012 Paralympic Games: What Legacy for
Disabled People?” Journal of Sport & Social Issues 40, no. 6 (December 2016): 515; Jason Bantjes and
Leslie Swartz, “Social Inclusion Through Para Sport a Critical Reflection on the Current State of Play,”
Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics of North America 29, no. 2 (May 2018): 414.
41 Azmah Othman and Rohana Jani, “Employment Prospect of Persons with Disability: The Myth and
Reality” (Paper presented at Scholar Summit 2017: Scholar Summit on Shaping a Better World, Depok,
Indonesia, October 10–11, 2017).
42 United Nations Children’’s Fund (UNICEF) Malaysia, Childhood Disability in Malaysia: A Study of
Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices (Kuala Lumpur: UNICEF Malaysia, 2017), 6.
43 United Nations General Assembly, “Transforming Our World:The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Devel-
opment,” 2015, www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/70/1&Lang=E.
44 United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs,“#Envision2030: 17 Goals to Transform the
World for Persons with Disabilities,” www.un.org/development/desa/disabilities/envision2030.html.
45 Sherry R. Fairchild, “Women with Disabilities: The Long Road to Equality,” Journal of Human Behavior
in the Social Environment 6, no. 2 (2002): 14.
1 Jingxia Dong, Women, Sport and Society in Modern China: Holding Up More Than Half the Sky (London:
Frank Cass, 2003), 1.
2 Fan Hong, Footbinding, Feminism and Freedom:The Liberation of Women’s Bodies in Modern China (London:
Frank Cass, 1997); Huan Xiong, Urbanisation and Transformation of Chinese Women’s Sport Since 1980s:
Reconstruction, Stratification and Emancipation (London: VDM Verlag, 2009); Jianming You, Beyond Gen-
dered Body:Women’’s Sports in Modern East China (Beijing: Beijing University Press, 2012).
3 Xiaozheng Xiong and Binshu Zhong, 60 Years of Sport in New China (Beijing: Beijing Sports University
Press, 2010), 294.
4 Dong, Women, Sport and Society in Modern China, 14.
5 Hong, Footbinding, Feminism and Freedom.
6 Ibid., xiv.
7 Huan Xiong, “Urbanisation, Women’s Body Image, and Women’s Sport Under Chinese Socialism
1949–1979: A Historical Review,” Sport History Review 39, no. 2 (2008): 127–51.
8 Fan Hong and Xiaozheng Xiong, “Communist China: Sport, Politics and Diplomacy,” The International
Journal of the History of Sport 2, no. 3 (2002): 319–42.
9 Fan Hong, “Women’s Sport in the People’s Republic of China: Body, Politics and Unfinished Revolu-
tion,” in Sport and Women: Social Issues in International Perspective, ed. IIse Hartmann-Tews and Gertrud
Pfister (London: Routledge, 2003), 224–37.
10 Xiong, “Urbanisation, Women’s Body Image, and Women’s Sport Under Chinese Socialism 1949–
1979,” 127–51.
11 Xiong and Zhong, 60 Years of Sport in New China, 265–71.
12 Huan Xiong, “The Evolution of Urban Society and Social Changes in Sports Participation at the
Grassroots in China,” International Review for the Sociology of Sport 42, no. 4 (2007): 441–71.
13 Xiong and Zhong, 60 Years of Sport in New China, 260–62.
14 China State Council, “The No. 8 Document of the State Council – The Suggestion of Central Com-
mittee of the CCP and the Government on How to Strengthen and Improve Sport in the New Era,”
internal document, July 22, 2002. Accessed in CGAS, 2003.
15 State Council and Chinese Olympic Committee, “National Fitness Programme (NFP)” (Collection of
Documents of NFP), 1995, 1–6.
16 State Council and COC, “National Fitness Programme (NFP),” 1–6.
17 Ibid., 5.
18 All-China Women’s Federation and CGAS, “A Notice of Conducting Programme of ‘A Hundred Mil-
lion Women Participating in Fitness Activities’,” in Collection of Documents and Articles of NFP, ed. Mass
Sport Department of CGAS (Beijing: Beijing Sports Press, 2000), 20–25.
19 Huan Xiong, “Female Mass Sport Development Path in China in New Era,” Journal of Sports Adult
Education 33, no. 1 (2017): 66–71.
20 Ibid.
 21 Huan Xiong, “Free of Choices and Empowered Body–Resolution of Sport to the Dilemma of Wom-
en’s Leisure,” China Sport Science 34, no. 4 (2014): 47–53.
22 Huan Xiong, “A Study on Sports Participation of Middle-Class Women in Urban China,” Journal of
Beijing Sport University 31, no. 8 (2008): 1042–44.
23 “Fitness Fetish,” China Daily, July 18, 2005, C3.
24 Kaizhen Wang and Hai Ren, “Social Transformation in China and Reform of Urban Social Sports
Management System,” Journal of Beijing University of Physical Education 27, no. 4 (2004): 433–39.
25 Ibid.
26 Huan Xiong,“Transformation of Women’s Mass Sport in the Process of Urbanisation in Contemporary
China,” International Journal of the History of Sport 31, no. 13 (2014):1617–38.
27 Liu Wang and Jie Li, “Community Grassroots Sports Organization: Living Conditions and Future
Development,” Journal of Wuhan Institute of Physical Education 45, no. 2 (2011): 17–21.
28 Jay Coakley, Sport in Society: Issues & Controversies (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001), 281.
29 Xiong, “Free of Choices and Empowered Body,” 47–53.
30 Huan Xiong, “The Construction of Women’s Social Spaces Through Physical Exercise in Urban
China,” Sport in Society 22, no. 8 (2019): 1415–32. http://10.1080/17430437.2019.16149192019.
31 Huan Xiong, “Stratification of Women’s Sport in Contemporary China,” The International Journal of the
History of Sport 28, no. 7 (2011): 990–1015.
32 Xiong, “Stratification of Women’s Sport.”
33 Xiong, “A Study on Sports Participation of Middle-Class Women,” 1042–44.
34 Xiong, “Stratification of Women’s Sport,” 990–1015.
35 ’Ibid.
36 Yalin Huang, Chinese Sports Associations (Beijing: Beijing Sports University Press, 2004), 88.
37 Huan Xiong, “Consideration on the Developing Goals of Chinese Women’s Mass Sport,” Journal of
Physical Education 23, no. 4 (2016): 68–72.
38 Ibid.
39 Jennifer Hargreaves, Sporting Females: Critical Issues in the History and Sociology of Women’s Sports (London:
Routledge, 1994).
1 ‘ “Jin yi bu tuidong funv jiji touru dao zengchang jieneng de yundong de gaochao – quangguo sheng
shi zizhiqu fulan zhuren kuoda huiyi tongbao”‘ [Further Mobilise Women of the Country to Enthu-
siastically Participate in the Surging Campaign of Increasing Production and Saving Energy – Bulletin
of the Enlarged Meeting of the Directors of the Women’’s Federations at Provincial, Municipal and
Autonomous Levels], China’s Women no. 17 (1959).
2 ‘ “Gaojun Mao Ze Dong sixiang de qizhi, jin yi bu fadong funv wei shixian 1960 nian jixu yuejin er
fendou – cai chang zhuxi zai quanguo fulian di san jie di er ci zhixing weiyuan hui de baogao”‘ [Rais-
ing the Banner of Mao Zedong Thought and Further Mobilising Women to Continue to Struggle to
Realise the Continuing Great Leap Forward in 1960 – Chairman Cai Chang’s Report on the Second
Executive Committee of the Third Women’s Federation], Women’s Work no. 5 (1960).
3 Qing Zai,‘ “Jiti hua xia de tong nian:‘da yue jin’ shiqi nongcun you er yuan yanjiu”‘ [Childhood Under
Collectivisation: Research on Rural Kindergarten in the Period of the ‘Great Leap Forward’], Journal of
Chinese Women’s Studies 140, no. 2 (2017): 36–49.
4 Hongmei Cai, ‘ “20 shiji woguo you er yuan kecheng gaige de lishi huigu”‘ [The Historic Retrospect
of Kindergarten Curriculum Reform in the 20th Century in China], Journal of Nanjing Xiaozhuang
College 21, no. 2 (2005): 71–74.
5 Leng Xiao Gang, “1994 nian shanghai shi qu you er yuan tiyu huodong xianzhuang diaocha baogao”
[Investigation Report on the Current Situation of Kindergarten Sports Activities in Shanghai in 1994],
Early Childhood Education no. 1 (1996): 47–48.
6 Li Runfa, ‘ “Nian quanguo zuqiu tese you er yuan mingdan 2019”‘ [National Football Specialised Kin-
dergarten List 2019], PRC Central Government, August 17, 2019, www.gov.cn/xinwen/2019-08/17/
content_5421854.htm.
7 Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Simon &
Schuster, 1996), 229.
8 Zhiyan zhixun jituan, ‘ “2017 nian zhongguo jiaoyu jingfei ji xue qian jiaoyu jingfei zhichu qingkuang
tongji fenxi”‘ [Statistical Analysis of China’’s Education Funds and Pre-School Education Expenditure
in 2017], China Industry Information, August 23, 2017, www.chyxx.com/industry/201708/553387.html.
 9 Zhiyan zhixun jituan, ‘ “2018–2024 nian zhongguo zao jiao shichang shendu fenxi ji touzi zhanlve yan-
jiu baogao” [In-Depth Analysis and Investment Strategy Research Report of China’’s Early Education
Market in 2018–2024], www.chyxx.com/research/201805/639443.html.
10 Han Tian, ‘ “2018 zhongguo ma la song 1581 chang chanye zong chan chu da 746 yi” [China Marathon
Reached 1581 in Number in 2018 with Consumption of 74.6 Billion Yuan], China Sport, March 12,
2019, www.sports.cn/cydt/jsby/2019/0312/214722.html.
11 ‘ “Chen Baosheng xiang quanguo renda chang wei hui zuo guanyu xue qian jiaoyu shiye gaige he
fazhan qingkuang baogao”‘ [Chen Baosheng Made a Report to the Standing Committee of the
National People’’s Congress on the Reform and Development of Preschool Education Under the
State Council], China Education Daily, August 23, 2019.
1 It was claimed that Deng Pufang may have jumped or fallen out of the window in an attempt to com-
mit suicide as he could not bear the Red Guards’ torture and humiliation any longer.
2 Yan Qin, Deng Pufang de lu [The Deng Pufang Road] (Taiyuan: Shuhai Chubanshe, 1992).
3 Luyao Liang, “The Study on Paralympic Games Report on People’s Daily, 1880–1900: A Study in
Social Mobility” (Master’s thesis, Soochow University), 41–43.
4 Xiaocen Hao, “The Vicissitudes of the Research into the Sports Policy for Disabled People in China:
From Right Protection to Right Remedy,” Chinese Journal of Special Education 9, no. 9 (2010): 45–51.
5 Sun Shuhan et al., “China and the Development of Sport for Persons with a Disability, 1978–2008:
A Review,” Sport in Society 14, no. 9 (2011): 1192–210.
6 Minxue He, “Characteristics of Scholastic Physical Education in Special Education,” Journal of Physical
Education 14, no. 5 (2007): 96–99.
7 Peiping Sun, “FESPIC Introduction,” China Disabled 5, no. 5 (1994): 10–15.
8 Fan Hong, Ping Wu, and Huan Xiong, “Beijing Ambitions: An Analysis of the Chinese Elite Sports
System and Its Olympic Strategy for the 2008 Olympic Games,” The International Journal of the History
of Sport 22, no. 4 (2005): 510–29.
9 Shuhan et al., “Development of Sport,” 1200.
10 Long Zhang, “Comparison Between the Disabled Sports Organization and Management System,”
Journal of Physical Education 16, no. 4 (2009): 34–36.
11 Shuhan et al., “Development of Sport,” 1200.
12 Guan Zhixun and Fan Hong, ‘ “The Development of Elite Disability Sport in China: A Critical
’Review,” The International Journal of the History of Sport 33, no. 5 (2016): 485–510, 494.
13 Zhixun and Hong, ‘ “The Development of Elite Disability Sport in China: A Critical Review’,” 494.
14 Guan Zhixun and Fan Hong, Body and Politics: Elite Disability Sport in China (New York: Nova, 2018).
15 Chuanyin Cheng and Wenhui Li, “Successful Experience and Enlightenment of Jiangsu Province Disa-
bled Competitive Sports Development,” Journal of Beijing Sports University 7, no. 7 (2004): 34–37.
16 CPDF, Working Report 1987–1993 (Beijing: CPDF, 1994).
17 Ming Zhang, “Optimization of Management Mode of Competitive Sports for Disabled in China,”
Journal of Wuhan Institute of Physical Education 46, no. 5 (2012): 19–23.
18 Ibid.
19 Ibid.
20 Zhang, “Comparison Between,” 34–36.
21 Ibid.
22 Ibid.
23 CPDF, Results of 3rd Far East and South Pacific Games for the Disabled (Beijing: CPDF, 1982); CPDF,
Results of 4th Far East and South Pacific Games for the Disabled (Beijing: CPDF, 1986); CPDF, Results of 5th
Far East and South Pacific Games for the Disabled (Beijing: CPDF, 1989); CPDF, Results of 6th Far East and
South Pacific Games for the Disabled (Beijing: CPDF, 1994); CPDF, Results of 7th Far East and South Pacific
Games for the Disabled (Beijing: CPDF, 1998); CPDF, Results of 8th Far East and South Pacific Games for
the Disabled (Beijing: CPDF, 2002); CPDF, Result of 9th Far East and South Pacific Games for the Disabled
(Beijing: CPDF, 2006); CPDF, Results of 1st Asian Paralympic Games (Beijing: CPDF, 2010); CPDF, Results
of 2nd Asian Paralympic Games (Beijing: CPDF, 2014); CPDF, Results of 3rd Asian Paralympic Games (Bei-
jing: CPDF, 2018).
24 CPDF, “Sport,”, Deaflympics, 2003, accessed July 18, 2015, www.caspd.org.cn/web/viewpage.
aspx?subid=361&infoid=939.
1 Alan Bairner, “Back to Basics: Class, Social Theory, and Sport,” Sociology of Sport Journal 24, no. 1 (2007):
20–36; Ben Carrington and Ian McDonald, eds., Marxism, Cultural Studies and Sport (London: Rout-
ledge, 2009); Richard Giulianotti, Sport: A Critical Sociology (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2005).
 2 Yuko Kusaka, “The Emergence and Development of Japanese School Sport,” in Japan, Sport and Society:
Tradition and Change in a Globalizing World, ed. Joseph Maguire and Masayoshi Nakayama (London:
Routledge, 2006), 19–34.
3 Ibid., 21.
4 Ibid.
5 Ibid.
6 Ibid., 26.
7 Ibid., 30.
8 Koichi Kiku, “The Japanese Baseball Spirit and Professional Ideology,” in Japan, Sport and Society:Tradi-
tion and Change in a Globalizing World, ed. Joseph Maguire and Masayoshi Nakayama (London: Rout-
ledge, 2006), 35–54.
9 Takayuki Yamashita, “Kigyōsupōtsu to Nihon No Supōtsu Rejiimu: Sono Tokusei Wo Ukibori Ni
Suru” [Company-Organized Sport and Japanese Sport Regime], Japan Journal of Sport Sociology 17, no.
2 (2009): 17–31.
1 0 Ibid.
1 1 Ibid.
1 2 Kazuo Uchiumi, “Supōtsu No Kenri Kōkyōsei to Shinjiyūshugi Kojinteki Shōhishugi Tono Taikō (1):
70nendai No Supōtsu Dōkō to Seisaku,” Hitotsubashi Daigaku Kenkyū Nenpō: Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyū 38
(2001): 3–90.
1 3 Uchiumi, “Supōtsu No Kenri Kōkyōsei to Shinjiyūshugi Kojinteki Shōhishugi Tono Taikō (1),” 64.
1 4 Yamashita, “Kigyōsupōtsu,” 25.
1 5 Ibid.
1 6 Toshio Saeki, Gendai Kigyō Supōtsuron (Tokyo: Fumaidō Shuppan, 2004).
1 7 Yamashita, “Kigyōsupōtsu,” 26.
1 8 Ibid.
1 9 Uchiumi, “Supōtsu No Kenri Kōkyōsei to Shinjiyūshugi Kojinteki Shōhishugi Tono Taikō (1),” 6.
20 Reproduced Based on Yamashita, “Kigyōsupōtsu,” 20. The original graph was produced by Yamashita
with the data from MEXT’s Taiiku supōtsu shisetsu genjō chōsa hōkoku (Research report on the current
provision of facilities for sport and physical education).
2 1 Yamashita, “Kigyōsupōtsu,” 28.
2 2 Uchiumi, “Supōtsu No Kenri Kōkyōsei to Shinjiyūshugi Kojinteki Shōhishugi Tono Taikō (1),” 20.
2 3 Ibid., 35.
2 4 Ibid., 45.
2 5 Ibid.
2 6 Yamashita, “Kigyōsupōtsu,” 28.
2 7 Kazuo Uchiumi, “Supōtsu No Kenri Kōkyōsei to Shinjiyūshugi Kojinteki Shōhishugi Tono Taikō (2):
80nendai No Supōtsu Dōkō to Seisaku,” Hitotsubashi Daigaku Kenkyū Nenpō: Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyū 39
(2002): 3–97.
2 8 Yamashita, “Kigyōsupōtsu,” 28.
2 9 Uchiumi, “Supōtsu No Kenri Kōkyōsei to Shinjiyūshugi Kojinteki Shōhishugi Tono Taikō (2),” 13.
30 James Tapper and Koji Kobayashi, “ ‘It’s a Harsh Fact of Life with the RMA’: Neo-Liberalism and the
Realities of Community Sports Facility Development by the Private Sector in New Zealand,” Leisure
Studies 37, no. 3 (2018): 282–94.
3 1 Ibid., 50.
3 2 Ibid., 61.
33 Michał Lenartowicz, “Family Leisure Consumption and Youth Sport Socialization in Post-Communist
Poland: A Perspective Based on Bourdieu’s Class Theory,” International Review for the Sociology of Sport
51, no. 2 (2016): 219–37.
3 4 Kazuo Uchiumi, “Supōtsu No Kenri Kōkyōsei to Shinjiyūshugi Kojinteki Shōhishugi Tono Taikō (3):
90nendai No Supōtsu Dōkō to Seisaku,” Hitotsubashi Daigaku Kenkyū Nenpō: Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyū 40
(2003): 3–102, 48.
3 5 Ibid.
36 M. Osawa, “Government Approaches to Gender Equality in the Mid-1990s,” Social Science Japan Journal
3, no. 1 (April 1, 2000): 3–19.
37 Jamie Peck and Adam Tickell, “Neoliberalizing Space,” Antipode 34, no. 3 (2002): 380–404.
3 8 Uchiumi, “Supōtsu No Kenri Kōkyōsei to Shinjiyūshugi Kojinteki Shōhishugi Tono Taikō (3),” 15.
 39 John Horne and Wolfram Manzenreiter, “Football, Komyuniti and the Japanese Ideological Soccer
Apparatus,” Soccer & Society 9, no. 3 (2008): 359–76.
40 Anne Allison, Precarious Japan (Durham: Duke University Press, 2013).
41 Uchiumi, “Supōtsu No Kenri Kōkyōsei to Shinjiyūshugi Kojinteki Shōhishugi Tono Taikō (3),” 18.
42 Hitoshi Ebishima, “Supōtsu Ni Yoru Chiiki No ‘Sairyōikika’ No Kanōsei: Genjō to Sono Kadai” [Can
Communities Be Revitalized by the Re-Territorialization Through Sport?], Biwako Seikei Sport Univer-
sity Kenkyū Kiyō 4 (2007): 39–50.
43 Ibid., 44.
44 Hidesato Takahashi, “Supōtsu Yokkyū Kara Kōkyōsei e” [Establishing ‘Publicness’ and the Self-Interest
of Sport], Japan Journal of Sport Sociology 19, no. 2 (2011): 33–48.
45 Ibid., 35.
46 Ibid., 36.
47 E.g. Lenartowicz, “Family Leisure Consumption.”
1 “Strategy for Sports Nation 2010,” MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Tech-
nology), accessed July 15, 2019, www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/sports/rikkoku/1297182.htm.
2 “The Basic Act on Sport,” MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology),
accessed July 15, 2019, www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/sports/kihonhou/attach/1336024.htm.
3 “The First Sport Basic Plan 2012,” MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and
Technology), accessed July 15, 2019, www.mext.go.jp/sports/b_menu/sports/mcatetop01/list/
detail/1383695.htm.
4 “The Second Sport Basic Plan 2017,” MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Tech-
nology), accessed July 15, 2019, www.mext.go.jp/sports/b_menu/sports/mcatetop01/list/1372413.
htm.
5 “Gender Inequality Index 2017,” United Nations Development Programme, accessed July 15, 2019,
hdr.undp.org/en/content/gender-inequality-index-gii.
6 “Gender-Related Development Index 2017,” United Nations Development Programme, accessed
July 15, 2019, hdr.undp.org/en/content/gender-development-index-gdi.
7 “Global Gender Gap Report 2018,” World Economic Forum, accessed July 15, 2019, http://reports.
weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report-2018/data-explorer/#economy=JPN.
8 All figures are based on information concerning Japan from the World Economic Forum website,
accessed July 15, 2019, http://reports.weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report-2018/data-explorer/
#economy=JPN.
9 “Fourth Basic Plan for Gender Equality 2015,” Cabinet Office, accessed July 15, 2019, www.gender.
go.jp/about_danjo/basic_plans/4th/index.html (in Japanese).
10 This does not necessarily mean that the Abe government is sensitive to or has a deep understanding of
the issue of gender equality.
11 “Intensive Policy to Accelerate the Empowerment of Women 2019,” Prime Minister’s Office of Japan,
accessed July 15, 2019, www.kantei.go.jp/jp/headline/brilliant_women/.
12 “White Paper on Gender Equality 2018,” Cabinet Office, accessed July 15, 2019, www.gender.go.jp/
english_contents/about_danjo/whitepaper/index.html.
13 Yasuko Kudo, “Doing Sports and Women,” in De-ta de miru supo-tu to jenda- [Understanding Sport and
Gender with Data], Japan Society for Sport and Gender Studies (Tokyo: Yachiyo Shuppan K. K., 2016),
42–43.
14 Osamu Takamine, “Women’s Sports in Japan: Enters a Period of Change,” in Women, Sport and Exercise
in the Asia-Pacific Region, ed. Gyozo Molnar et al. (Oxford: Routledge, 2018), 176–81.
15 Ibid., 175–76.
16 “7th IWG World Conference Women and Sports, Sports and Women–Efforts by the Japan Sports
Agency,” Japan Sports Agency, accessed July 15, 2019, www.mext.go.jp/sports/b_menu/shingi/014_
index/shiryo/1407076.htm.
17 All figures are as of October 2018, “Fiscal Year 2018: Survey on Participation in Determination of
Measures and Policies Concerning Women,” Cabinet Office, accessed July 15, 2019, www.gender.
go.jp/research/kenkyu/sankakujokyo/2018/index.html#senmon.
18 Shizuho Okatsu, De-ta de miru supo-tu to jenda- [Understanding Sport and Gender with Data], Japan Society
for Sport and Gender Studies (Tokyo:Yachiyo Shuppan K. K., 2016), 59–60.
19 “Policy on the Promotion of Women’s Sports 2018,” Japan Sports Agency, accessed July 15, 2019. www.
mext.go.jp/sports/b_menu/sports/mcatetop11/list/1410705.htm.
 20 “Main Items in the Fiscal Year 2019 Budget (Proposed),” Japan Sports Agency, accessed July 15, 2019,
www.mext.go.jp/sports/a_menu/kaikei/detail/1412467.htm.
21 The J. League is Japan’s men’s professional soccer league, established in 1993. Since its launch, the league
has promoted collaboration with local communities.
22 “Concerning the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),” Ministry of Foreign Affairs, accessed

July 15, 2019, www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/gaiko/oda/sdgs/pdf/about_sdgs_summary.pdf.
1 H. Dick and P. J. Rimmer, Cities, Transport and Communications (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003),
81–116.
2 G. Hugo, Demography of Race and Ethnicity in Indonesia (Berlin: Springer, 2015), 259–80.
3 A. Kaur, Demography of Race and Ethnicity in Southeast Asia (Berlin: Springer, 2015), 171–87.
4 A. Widyanti et al., “Ethnic Differences in Indonesian Anthropometry Data: Evidence from Three Dif-
ferent Largest Ethnics,” International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 47 (2015): 72–78.
5 Z. Hidayah, Ensiklopedi Suku Bangsa di Indonesia (Jakarta:Yayasan Pustaka Obor Indonesia, 2015).
6 “Profil Pengidentifikasian Diri Suku Tionghoa Indonesia (Yinhua = yinni huaren) Sebagai Bangsa
Indonesia dalam era Globalisasi Studi kasus.”
7 C. Casram, “Membangun Sikap Toleransi Beragama dalam Masyarakat Plural,” Wawasan J. Ilm. Agama
dan Sos. Budaya 1, no. 2 (2016): 187–98.
8 I. Adams, Sport in Asian Society: Past and Present (London: Frank Cass, 2005).
9 G. Lertari, “Bhineka Tunggal Ika: Khasanah Multikultural Indonesia di Tengah Kehidupan SARA,” J.
Pendidik. Pancasila dan Kewarganegaraan 28, no. 1 (2016).
10 H. Poerwanto, “Suku Bangsa dan Ekspres Kesukubangsaan,” J. Hum no. 9 (2013): 112–22.
11 K. R. Adhe, “Penanaman Karakter Anak Usia 4–5 Tahun pada Masyarakat Samin,” J. Pendidik. Usia Dini
8, no. 2 (2014): 275–90.
12 D. Hanan, “Regions and Regional Societies and Cultures in the Indonesian Cinema,” in Cultural Speci-
ficity in Indonesian Film (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), 91–157.
13 A. Rianti et al., “Ketupat as Traditional Food of Indonesian Culture,” Journal of Ethnic Foods 5, no. 1
(2018): 4–9.
14 A. Sutini, “Meningkatkan Keterampilan Motorik Anak Usia Dini Melalui Permainan Tradisional,”
Cakrawala Dini J. Pendidik. Anak Usia Dini 4, no. 2 (2018).
15 J. C. Ranciu, H. D. Waluyanto, and A. Zacky, “Perancangan Buku Ilustrasi Permainan Tradisional dan
Penanaman Nilai Etika Dasar,” J. DKV Adiwarna 1, no. 2 (2013): 11.
16 T. Andriani, “Permainan Tradisional Dalam Membentuk Karakter Anak Usia Dini,” Sos. Budaya 9, no. 1
(2012): 121–36.
17 I. Khasanah, A. Prasetyo, and E. Rakhmawati, ‘ “Permainan Tradisional Sebagai Media Stimulasi Aspek
Perkembangan Anak Usia Dini,’ ” Paudia J. Penelit. Dalam Bid. Pendidik. Anak Usia Dini 1, no. 1 (2011);
D. Hidayat, “Permainan Tradisional dan Kearifan Lokal Kampung Dukuh Garut Selatan Jawa Barat,”
Acad. Maj. Ilmu Sos. dan Ilmu Polit 5, no. 2 (2013).
18 H. Nur, “Membangun Karakter Anak Melalui Permainan Anak Tradisional,” J. Pendidik. Karakter no. 1
(2013).
19 Adhe, “Penanaman Karakter Anak Usia 4–5 Tahun pada Masyarakat Samin.”
20 U. Fajarini, “Peranan Kearifan Lokal dalam Pendidikan Karakter,” Sosio-Didaktika Soc. Sci. Educ. J. 1, no.
2 (2014): 123–30.
21 A. Sudrajat, “Mengapa Pendidikan Karakter?” J. Pendidik. Karakter 1, no. 1 (2011).
22 B. Maunah, “Implementasi Pendidikan Karakter dalam Pembentukan Kepribadian Holistik Siswa,” J.
Pendidik. Karakter no. 1 (2016).
23 M. A. Ramdhani,“Lingkungan Pendidikan dalam Implementasi Pendidikan Karakter,” J. Pendidik. Uniga
8, no. 1 (2017): 11.
24 S. Judiani, “Implementasi Pendidikan Karakter di Sekolah Dasar Melalui Penguatan Pelaksanaan Kuri-
kulum,” J. Pendidik. dan Kebud 16, no. 9 (2010): 280.
25 N. Asriati, “Mengembangkan Karakter Peserta Didik Berbasis Kearifan Lokal Melalui Pembelajaran di
Sekolah,” J. Pendidik. Sosiol. dan Hum 3, no. 2 (2013).
26 Y. Wulandari and M. Kristiawan, “Strategi Sekolah dalam Penguatan Pendidikan Karakter Bagi Siswa
dengan Memaksimalkan Peran Orang Tua,” JMKSP (Jurnal Manajemen, Kepemimpinan, dan Supervisi
Pendidikan) 2, no. 2 (2017).
27 B. Manullang, “Grand Desain Pendidikan Karakter Generasi Emas 2045,” J. Pendidik. Karakter no. 1
(2013).
2 8 A. Fad, Kumpulan Permainan Anak Tradisional Indonesia (Jakarta: Cerdas Interaktif, 2014).
 29 E. Purwaningsih, “Permainan Tradisional Anak: Salah Satu Khasanah Budaya yang Perlu Dilestarikan,”
Sej. dan Budaya Jawa 1, no. 1 (2006): 40.
30 S. Y. Saputra, “Permainan Tradisional VS Permainan Modern Dalam Penanaman Nilai Karakter di
Sekolah Dasar | Saputra | ELSE (Elementary School Education Journal): Jurnal Pendidikan dan Pemb-
elajaran Sekolah Dasar,” J. Pendidik. dan Pembelajaran di Sekol. Dasar 1, no. 1 (2017).
31 P. Widodo and R. Lumintuarso, “Pengembangan model permainan tradisional untuk membangun
karakter pada siswa SD kelas atas,” J. Keolahragaan 5, no. 2 (2017): 183.
32 M. A. Al Ardha et al., “Multiple Intelligences and Physical Education Curriculum: Application and
Reflection of Every Education Level in Indonesia” (Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference
on Education Innovation, 2018).
33 H. P. Yudiwinata, “Permainan Tradisional Dalam Budaya dan Perkembangan Anak,” Paradigma 2, no. 3
(2014).
34 A. Amirudin and Z. Mukarom, “Pendidikan Karakter dalam Kaulinan Budak Baheula: Studi Nilai Pen-
didikan Karakter Melalui Permainan Anak Tradisional Sorodot Gaplok Dari Jawa Barat,” Al-Bidayah J.
Pendidik. Dasar Islam 10, no. 2 (2018).
35 M. Kosim, “Urgensi Pendidikan Karakter,” KARSA J. Soc. Islam. Cult 19, no. 1 (2012): 84–92.
36 A. N. Aeni, “Pendidikan Karakter untuk Siswa SD dalam Perspektif Islam,” Mimb. Sekol. Dasar 1, no. 1
(2014): 50–58.
37 S. Islam, “Karakteristik Pendidikan Karakter; Menjawab Tantangan Multidimensional Melalui Imple-
mentasi Kurikulum 2013,” J. Edureligia 1, no. 2 (2017): 89–100.
38 A. Syarbini, Model Pendidikan Karakter Dalam Keluarga (Jakarta: Gramedia, 2014).
39 K. D. Putri and A. Dewantara, “Mulai Punahnya Nilai Kejujuran Dikaji Dengan Buku Diskursus Pan-
casila Dewasa Ini.,” https://osf.io/waz2q/.
40 Ramdhani, “Lingkungan Pendidikan dalam Implementasi Pendidikan Karakter,” 11.
41 R. M. Ardila, N. Nurhasanah, and M. Salimi, “Pendidikan Karakter Tanggung Jawab Dan Pembelajaran-
nya di Sekolah,” Pros. Semin. Nas. Inov. Pendidik (2017): 79–85.
42 N. Ernawati, “Pembentukan Karakter Tanggung Jawab dan Kreativitas Melalui Ekstrakurikuler March-
ing Band (Studi Kasus di MIN Bawu Jepara) Tahun 2017,” Universitas Islam Negeri Walisongo, 2018.
43 Khasanah and Rakhmawati, “Permainan Tradisional Sebagai Media Stimulasi Aspek Perkembangan Anak
Usia Dini.”; Hidayat,“Permainan Tradisional dan Kearifan Lokal Kampung Dukuh Garut Selatan Jawa Barat.”
44 Y. Babuta, Y. Y. I. Babuta, and O. D. Wahyurini, “Perancangan Buku Pendidikan Karakter Toleransi dan
Cinta Damai untuk Anak Usia 3–5 Tahun,” J. Sains dan Seni ITS 3, no. 1 (2014): F28–F32.
45 Purwaningsih, “Permainan Tradisional Anak: Salah Satu Khasanah Budaya yang Perlu Dilestarikan.”
46 W. Wuryandani, F. Fathurrohman, and U. Ambarwati, “Implementasi Pendidikan Karakter Kemandirian
di Muhammadiyah Boarding School,” J. Cakrawala Pendidik 15, no. 2 (2016).
47 S. W. Tanshzil, “Model Pembinaan Pendidikan Karakter Pada Lingkungan Pondok Pesantren Dalam
Membangun Kemandirian Dan Disiplin Santri (Sebuah kajian pengembangan Pendidikan Kewargane-
garaan),” Penelit. Pendidik 12, no. 2 (2012).
48 A. Riyanti and P. Rini, “Kemandirian Remaja Berdasarkan Urutan Kelahiran,” J. Pelopor Pendidik 3, no.
1 (2012).
49 S. D.Yulianti, E. T. Djatmika, and A. Santoso, “Pendidikan karakter kerja sama dalam pembelajaran siswa
Sekolah Dasar pada kurikulum 2013,” J.Teor. dan Praksis Pembelajaran IPS 1, no. 1 (2017): 33–38.
50 D. Campbell, Mengembangkan Kreativitas (Yogyakarta: Kanisius, 1986).
51 A. F. Helmi, ‘ “Disiplin Kerja,’ ” Bul. Psikol 4, no. 2 (2016): 32–41.
5 2 Ibid.
1 Morley D. Glicken, Evidence-Based Practice with Emotionally Troubled Children and Adolescents (Burling-
ton: Elsevier, 2009), accessed on November 13, 2018, www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780123745231/
evidence-based-practice-with-emotionally-troubled-children-and-adolescents.
2 Leo Kanner, “Do Behavior Symptoms Always Indicate Psychopathology,” Journal of Child Psychology and
Psychiatry 1, no. 1 (2006):17–25.
3 Keith Davis and James M. Benshoff, “A Proactive Approach to Couples Counseling with Adolescents,”
Professional School Counseling 2 (1999): 391–94.
4 Ronald C. Kessler, National Comorbidity Survey: Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A), 2001–2004.
Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research July 13, 2015, www.icpsr.umich.edu/
icpsrweb/HMCA/studies/28581/version/4.
 5 Matthew K. Nock et al., “Lifetime Prevalence, Correlates, and Persistence of Oppositional Defiant
Disorder: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication,” Journal of Child Psychology and
Psychiatry 48, no. 7 (2007): 703–13.
6 Glorisa Canino et al., “Does the Prevalence of CD and ODD Vary Across Cultures?” Social Psychiatry
and Psychiatric Epidemiology 45, no. 7 (2010): 695–704.
7 Barbara Maughan et al., “Conduct Disorder and Oppositional Defiant Disorder in a National Sample:
Developmental Epidemiology,” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 45, no. 3 (2004): 609–21.
8 Elizabeth M. O’Laughlin, Jessica L. Hackenberg, and Maria M. Riccardi, “Clinical Usefulness of the
Oppositional Defiant Disorder Rating Scale (ODDRS),” Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 18,
no. 4 (2010): 247–55.
9 Karen Carver, Kara Joyner, and Richard J. Udry, “National Estimates of Adolescent Romantic Rela-
tionships,” in Adolescent Romantic Relationships and Sexual Behavior:Theory, Research, and Practical
Implications, ed. Paul Florsheim (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum and Associates, 2003), 20–60; Lloyd
Grieger,Yasamin Kusunoki, and David J. Harding, “The Social Contexts of Adolescent Romantic Rela-
tionships,” Focus 31, no. 1 (2014): 15–17.
10 Susan Moore et al., “Characteristics and Predictors of Romantic Relationships in Late Adolescence and
Young Adulthood in Hong Kong and Australia,” Australian Psychologist 47 (2012): 108–17.
11 Luca Ventura, “The Most Peaceful Countries in the World 2018,” Global Finance, June 21, 2019, www.
gfmag.com/global-data/non-economic-data/most-peaceful-countries.
12 “Youth in India,” Statistics Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government
of India (Social Statistics Division), 2017: 3.
13 Georg Feuerstein, “East Comes West: An Historical Perspective,” in Feuerstein, Sacred Paths (Burdett, NY:
Larson Publications, 1991).
14 C. G. Jung, The Psychology of Kundalini Yoga (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012).
1 5 Ibid., xxxii.
16 Dmitry Danilov, “What Is Kundalini? Theorizing on the Question,” accessed November 16, 2018,
www.academia.edu/4579028/What_is_Kundalini_Theorizing_on_the_question.
17 Stephanie Bryan, Genevieve Pinto Zipp, and Raju Parasher, “The Effects of Yoga on Psychosocial Vari-
ables and Exercise Adherence: A Randomized, Controlled Pilot Study,” Alternative Therapies in Health
and Medicine 18, no. 5 (2012): 50–59.
18 Alison R. Bond et al., “Embodied Health: The Effects of a Mind–Body Course for Medical Students,”
Medical Education Online 18, no. 1 (2013): 1–8.
19 Andrea Elibero, Kate Janse Van Rensburg, and David J. Drobes, “Acute Effects of Aerobic Exercise and
Hatha Yoga on Craving to Smoke,” Nicotine and Tobacco Research 13, no. 11 (2011): 1140–48.
2 0 Swami Satyananda Saraswati, Kundalini Tantra, accessed November 18, 2018, http://thek
ingdomwithin.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Swami-Satyananda-Saraswati-Kundalini-
Tantra.pdf.
1 James Montague, “Qatar: From Obscure Desert Kingdom to World Cup Host,” CNN, December 3,
2010, http://edition.cnn.com/2010/SPORT/football/12/02/world.cup.qatar.opinion/index.html.
2 “International Day of Sport for Development and Peace 6 April,” United Nations, undated, www.
un.org/en/events/sportday/index.shtml.
3 Stuart Murray and Geoffrey Allen Pigman, “Mapping the Relationship Between International Sport
and Diplomacy,” Sport in Society 17, no. 9 (2014): 1098–118.
4 Udo Merkel, “Sport as a Foreign Policy and Diplomatic Tool,” in Routledge Handbook of Sport and Poli-
tics, ed. Alan Bairner, John Kelly, and Jung Woo Lee (New York: Routledge, 2017), 28–38.
5 Azadeh Erfani, “Kicking Away Responsibility: FIFA’s Role in Response to Migrant Worker Abuses in
Qatar’s 2022 World Cup,” Jeffrey S Moorad Sports Law Journal 22, no. 2 (2015): 623–62.
6 James Montague and Tariq Panja, “Ahead of Qatar World Cup, a Gulf Feud Plays Out in the Shad-
ows,” New York Times, January 2, 2019, www.nytimes.com/2019/02/01/sports/world-cup-2022-qatar.
html?module=inline.
7 Mahfoud Amara, “Sport and Political Leaders in the Arab World,” Histoire Politique 2, no. 23 (2014):
142–53.
8 Alon Raab, “Sport in the Middle East,” in The Oxford Handbook of Sports History, ed. Robert Edelman
and Wayne Wilson (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017), 287–300.
9 Murat Yildiz, “Strengthening Male Bodies and Building Robust Communities: Physical Culture in the
Late Ottoman Empire” (Diss., University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 2015).
 10 “Kuwait Constitution of 1962,” English translation by the International Constitutional Law (ICL)
Project, www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/ku00000_.html.
11 “Syrian Constitution of 1973,” English translation by the International Constitutional Law (ICL) Pro-
ject, www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/sy00000_.html.
12 “Constitution of the Republic of Turkey,” November 7, 1982, www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b5be0.
html.
13 Raab, “Sport in the Middle East.”
14 Paul A. Silverstein, “Sports, Bodily Habitus, and the Subject(s) of the Middle East,” International Journal
of Middle East Studies 51, no. 3 (August 2019): 482–85.
15 Amara, “Sport and Political Leaders in the Arab World.”
16 Danyel Reiche, “Investing in Sporting Success as a Domestic and Foreign Policy Tool: The Case of
Qatar,” International Journal of Sports Policy and Politics 7, no. 4 (2015): 489–504.
17 Mahfoud Amara, “Sport and Politics in the Arab World,” in Routledge Handbook of Sport and Politics, ed.
Alan Bairner, John Kelly, and Jung Woo Lee (New York: Routledge, 2017), 129–36.
18 Ibid., 134.
19 John Fahy, “International Relations and Faith-based Diplomacy: The Case of Qatar,” The Review of
Faith and International Affairs 16, no. 3 (2018): 76–88.
20 Charlotte Lysa, “Football Femininities: Lessons from the Gulf,” International Journal of Middle East Studies
51, no. 3 (August 2019): 479–81.
21 “National Olympic Committees,” International Olympic Committee website, www.olympic.org/

national-olympic-committees?q=AlphabeticalOrderFilter.
22 Ola Salem, “Dubai’s Olympic Wait Will Be Worth It, Officials Say,” The National, August 1, 2011, www.
thenational.ae/uae/dubai-s-olympic-wait-will-be-worth-it-officials-say-1.463994.
23 Don Yaeger, “Son of Saddam as Iraq’s Top Olympic Official, Uday Hussein Is Accused of the Torture
and Murder of Athletes Who Fail to Win,” Sports Illustrated March 24, 2003, 110–12, archived online,
www.si.com/vault/2003/03/24/340225/son-of-saddam-as-iraqs-top-olympic-official-uday-hussein-
is-accused-of-the-torture-and-murder-of-athletes-who-fail-to-win.
24 Andrea L. Stanton, “ ‘Pioneer of Olympism in the Middle East’: Gabriel Gemayel and Lebanese Sport,”
International Journal of the History of Sport 15, Special Issue on Middle East Sport (Fall 2013): 2115–30.
25 “Academy Members”, Laureus World Sports Awards, www.laureus.com/world-sports-academy/

members/nawal-el-moutawakel.
26 “Saudi Royals Appointed to International Olympic Committee,” Arab News, August 29, 2019, www.
arabnews.com/node/1363626/saudi-arabia.
27 “Kuwait Olympic Committee Elects New President and Board of Directors,” Association of

National Olympic Committees website, March 7, 2019, www.anocolympic.org/nocs-highlights/
kuwait-olympic-committee-elects-new-president-and-board-of-directors/.
28 Amara, “Sport and Political Leaders in the Arab World,” (2014).
29 Scott Rosner and Deborah Low, “The Efficacy of Olympic Bans and Boycotts on Effectuating Inter-
national Political and Economic Change,” Texas Review of Entertainment and Sports Law 11, no. 1 (Fall
2009): 27–80.
30 Danyel Reiche, “Not Allowed to Win: Lebanon’s Sporting Boycott of Israel,” Middle East Journal 71, no.
1 (Winter 2018): 28–47.
31 Stanton, “Pioneer of Olympism.”
32 Mahfoud Amara, “The Olympic Movement and the Middle East and North African Region: History,
Culture, and Geopolitics–An Introduction,” International Journal of the History of Sport 34, no. 13 (2017):
1343–46.
33 Andrea L. Stanton, “Syria and the Olympics: National Identity on an International Stage,” International
Journal of the History of Sport 31, no. 3 (2014): 290–305.
34 Lesley Kitchen Lababidi and Nadia El-Arabi, Silent No More: Special Needs People in Egypt (Cairo and
New York: American University in Cairo Press, 2002).
35 Jonathan Grix, “The Mixed Record of Sports Diplomacy,” interview by Eleanor Albert, Council on
Foreign Relations, February 6, 2018, www.cfr.org/interview/mixed-record-sports-diplomacy.
36 Stanton, “Pioneer of Olympism.”
37 Nadim Nassif and Mahfoud Amara,“Sport, Policy, and Politics in Lebanon,” International Journal of Sports
Policy and Politics 7, no. 3 (2015): 443–55.
 38 Zafer Yildiz and Sinem Cekic, “Sport Tourism and Its History and Contribution of Olympic Games to
Touristic Promotion,” International Journal of Science Culture and Sport, Special Issue on the Proceedings
of the 4th ISCS Conference (August 2015): 326–37.
39 Luis Henrique Rolim Silva and Hans-Dieter Gerber, “Our Games! The Pan-Arab Games (1953–
1965),” International Journal of the History of Sport 29, no. 15 (2012): 2099–114.
40 Mohd Ma’Sum Billah, “Role of the OIC and Other International Organizations in the Sustainable
Development of Islamic Finance,” in Islamic Financial Products: Principles, Instruments, and Structures (Pal-
grave Macmillan, 2019), 13–31.
41 Murad Ismayilov, Post-Soviet Modernity and the Changing Contours of Islamic Azerbaijan (London: Row-
man & Littlefield, 2018).
42 Frank Pingue, “Wrestling: Putting Politics Aside, Iran Beats US in World Cup Final,” Reuters, Febru-
ary 17, 2017, www.reuters.com/article/us-wrestling-worldcup-idUSKBN15W1T1.
43 Gerald M. Steinberg, “The Limits of Peacebuilding Theory,” in The Routledge Handbook of Peacebuilding,
ed. Roger MacGinty (New York: Routledge, 2013), 36–53.
44 Yair Galily, Ilan Tamir, and Moshe Levy, “The Games Must Go on? The Influence of Terror Attacks on
Hosting Sporting Events in Israel,” Israel Affairs 8, no. 4 (October 2012): 629–44.
45 Tamir Sorek, “Introduction: Is There a Middle Eastern Sport?” International Journal of Middle East Studies
51, no. 3 (August 2019), 465–67.
46 James Dorsey, “Qatar’s Sports-Focused Public Diplomacy Backfires,” The Turbulent World of Middle East
Soccer (Blog), February 3, 2014, http://mideastsoccer.blogspot.com/2014/02/qatars-sports-focused-
public-diplomacy.html.
47 Sorek, “Is There a Middle Eastern Sport?” 465.
1 Barrie Houlihan, Sport and International Politics (New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1994), 15.
2 Allison Lincoln,‘ “The Changing Context of Sporting Life,’ ” in The Changing Politics of Sport, ed. Allison
Lincoln (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993), 17.
3 Steven J. Jackson and Steven Haigh, “Introduction: Between and Beyond Politics: Sport and Foreign
Policy in a Globalizing World,” in Sport and Foreign Policy in a Globalizing World, ed. Steven J. Jackson and
Steven Haigh (London: Routledge, 2009), 3.
4 Jim Riordan and Arnd Kruger, The International Politics of Sport in the 20th Century (New York: E & FN
Spon, 1999), 62.
5 Brian Stoddard, “Changing Perspectives on Global Sport, International Relations and World Poli-
tics,” Global Policy (Blog), July 16, 2012, accessed June 16, 2019, www.globalpolicyjournal.com/
blog/16/07/2012/changing-perspectives-global-sport-international-relations-and-world-politics-0.
6 Karen A. Mingst, Essentials of International Relations (New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 1999).
7 Robert O. Keohane, International Institutions and State Power (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989), 2.
8 Joseph Nye, Soft Power:The Means to Success in World Politics (New York: Public Affairs, 2004).
9 David Black, “Dreaming Big: The Pursuit of ‘Second Order’ Games as a Strategic Response to Glo-
balization,” in Sport and Foreign Policy in a Globalizing World, ed. Steven Jackson and Stephen Haigh
(London: Routledge, 2009), 121.
10 Stoddard, “Changing Perspectives on Global Sport.”
1 1 Ibid.
1 2 Ibid.
13 Michel Raspaud, “Cairo Football Derby: Al-Ahly-Zamalek,” in Sport Around the World: History, Culture
and Practice, ed. John Nauright and Charles Parrish (ABC-CLIO, 2012), 283–84.
14 Mahfoud Amara and Youcef Bouandel, “Algeria,” in The Palgrave International Handbook of Football and
Politics, ed. Jean-Michel De Waele et al. (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018), 329–45.
1 5 Ibid.
16 Interview with a former member of the Algerian national team that played in the 1982 and 1986 world
cups. Algiers, August 2016.
17 “Jordanian Judo Athlete Refuses to Fight Israeli at Major Tournament,” Al Araby, August 15, 2018,
accessed June 1, 2019, www.alaraby.co.uk/english/blog/2018/8/15/jordanian-judo-athlete-refuses-to-
fight-israeli-competitor.
18 Larbi Sadiki and Youcef Bouandel, “The Post-Arab Spring Reform: The Maghreb at a Cross Roads,”
DOMES -Digest of Middle East Studies 25, no. 1 (Spring 2016): 109–31.
19 Press Association, “UN Security Council Resolution on Libya: Key Points,” The Guardian, March 18, 2011,
accessed May 5,2019,www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/mar/18/un-security-council-resolution-key-points.
 20 Brookings,“Lessons from the 2019Asian Cup:Sport,Globalization,and Politics in theArabWorld,”accessed
June 14, 2019, www.brookings.edu/events/lessons-from-the-2019-asian-cup-sport-globalization-and-
politics-in-the-arab-world/.
21 Al Jazeera, “FIFA Shelves Plan to Expand 2022 World Cup to 48 Teams,” Al Jazeera, May 23, 2019,
accessed May 28, 2019, www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/05/fifa-qatar-2022-world-cup-32-teams-19
0522195332047.html.
22 David Conn, “Qatar Would Help Middle East Peace by Sharing 2022 World Cup,” The Guardian,
November 21, 2018, accessed June 2, 2019, www.theguardian.com/football/2018/nov/21/
qatar-2022-world-cup-48-teams-gianni-infantino-fifa.
1 Ernst & Young, “Rapid-Growth Markets Soft Power Index,” Ey.com, accessed April 4, 2019, www.
ey.com/Publication/vwLUAssets/Rapid-growth_markets:_Soft_power_index/$FILE/Rapid-
growth_markets-Soft_Power_Index-Spring_2012.pdf.
2 James Riordan, “Soviet Sport and Soviet Foreign Policy,” Soviet Studies 26, no. 3 (1974): 322–43.
3 Veerle De Bosscher, The Global Sporting Arms Race: An International Comparative Study on Sports Policy
Factors Leading to International Sporting Success (Meyer & Meyer Verlag, 2008).
4 Janis Van Der Westhuizen and Kamilla Swart, “Bread or Circuses? The 2010 World Cup and South Afri-
ca’’s Quest for Marketing Power,” The International Journal of the History of Sport 28, no. 1 (2011): 168–80.
5 Doug Guthrie, China and Globalization:The Social, Economic and Political Transformation of Chinese Society
(New York: Routledge, 2012).
6 Stefan A. Schirm, “Leaders in Need of Followers: Emerging Powers in Global Governance,” European
Journal of International Relations 16, no. 2 (2010): 197–221.
7 Ian Taylor, China’’s New Role in Africa (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2009).
8 Roland Robertson, Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture,Vol. 16 (London: Sage, 1992).
9 Lawrence A. Wenner, ed., MediaSport (Psychology Press, 1998).
10 Sean Wilsey, “This Month 32 Nations Will Compete for the World Cup of Soccer, the ‘Beautiful Game’
That Unites and Divides Countries Around the Globe,” National Geographic 209, no. 6 (2006): 42.
11 L. Fredline, “Host Community Reactions to Motorsport Events: The Perception of Impact on Quality
of Life,” Sport Tourism: Interrelationships, Impacts and Issues (2004): 155–73.
12 Robert Gramling and William R. Freudenburg, “Opportunity-Threat, Development, and Adaptation:
Toward a Comprehensive Framework for Social Impact Assessment 1,” Rural Sociology 57, no. 2 (1992):
216–34.
13 John Crompton, “Beyond Economic Impact: An Alternative Rationale for the Public Subsidy of Major
League Sports Facilities,” Journal of Sport Management 18, no. 1 (2004): 40–58.
14 John D. Horne and Wolfram Manzenreiter, “Accounting for Mega-Events: Forecast and Actual Impacts
of the 2002 Football World Cup Finals on the Host Countries Japan/Korea,” International Review for the
Sociology of Sport 39, no. 2 (2004): 187–203.
15 Richard Sharpley, “Planning for Tourism:The Case of Dubai,” Tourism and Hospitality Planning & Devel-
opment 5, no. 1 (2008): 13–30.
16 J. C. Henderson, “Tourism in Dubai: Overcoming Barriers to Destination Development,” International
Journal of Tourism Research 8, no. 2 (2006): 87–99, https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.557.
17 Scarlett Cornelissen, “Sport Mega-Events in Africa: Processes, Impacts and Prospects,” Tourism and Hos-
pitality Planning & Development 1, no. 1 (2004): 39–55.
18 Barrie Houlihan and Dominic Malcolm, eds., Sport and Society: A Student Introduction (London: Sage,
2015).
19 Shaun Lopez, “Football as National Allegory: Al-Ahram and the Olympics in 1920s Egypt,” History
Compass 7, no. 1 (2009): 282–305.
2 0 Ibid.
21 Shaun Lopez, “Race, Place and Soccer: Egypt, Morocco and ‘African’ Identity in the Competition to
Host the 2010 FIFA World Cup,” Soccer & Society 13, no. 5–6 (2012): 639–52.
2 2 Ibid.
23 Rayana Khalaf, “Egypt Wants to Host the World Cup and People Are Cracking Jokes,” Stepfeed.
com, July 13, 2018, accessed April 17, 2019, https://stepfeed.com/egypt-wants-to-host-the-world-
cup-and-people-are-cracking-jokes-3115.
24 P. Ignatiev and P. Bovsunivskyi, “Egypt’s Foreign Policy Under Abdel Fattah El-Sisi,” Actual Problems of
International Relations 134 (2018): 4–15.
25 Houlihan and Malcolm, Sport and Society.
26 Mahfoud Amara, “Sport and Political Leaders in the Arab World,” Histoire Politique 2 (2014): 142–53.
 27 Driss Abbassi, “ Sport et usages politiques du passé dans la Tunisie des débuts du XXIe siècle,” Politique
et Sociétés 26, no. 2–3 (2007): 125–42.
28 Houlihan, Barrie, and Dominic Malcolm, Sport and Society.
29 Ewan Morgan, “Why Does Morocco Keep Bidding, and Failing, to Host the World Cup?” These-
footballtimes.co, accessed May 17, 2019, https://thesefootballtimes.co/2019/04/02/why-does-morocco-
keep-bidding-and-failing-to-host-the-world-cup/.
30 Houlihan and Malcolm, Sport and Society.
31 Amara, “Sport and Political Leaders,” 142–53.
32 Daniel Etchells,“Algerian Olympic CommitteeAnnounces Country to Host 2021 Mediterranean Games,”
Insidethegames.biz,September 18,2015,accessed May 17,2019,www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1030320/
algerian-olympic-committee-announces-country-to-host-2021-mediterranean-games.
33 Amara, “Sport and Political Leaders,” 142–53.
34 Associated Press,“At Beirut Marathon, Lebanese Call for PM to Return,” En.annahar.com, November 12,
2017, accessed May 17, 2019, https://en.annahar.com/article/699955-at-beirut-marathon-lebanese-
call-for-pm-to-return.
35 Agence France-Presse “I’’m Free to Return to Lebanon from Saudi Arabia, Says Saad Hariri,” Theguard-
ian.com, November 12, 2017, accessed May 19, 2019, www.theguardian.com/world/2017/nov/12/
beirut-marathon-runners-missing-lebanon-prime-minister-saad-hariri.
36 Amara, “Sport and Political Leaders,”142–53.
37 Adam Reed,“Khashoggi Disappearance Puts Saudi Arabia’sVision of Hosting Major Sports Events Under
the Microscope,” cnbc.com, October 17, 2018, accessed May 19, 2019, www.cnbc.com/2018/10/17/
khashoggi-disappearance-puts-saudi-arabias-vision-of-hosting-major-sports-events-under-the-micro
scope.html.
38 Arab News, “Saudi Arabia Has ‘Ambitious’ Plans to Land ‘Big Sporting Events,” Arab News, February 7,
2018, accessed June 8, 2019, www.arabnews.com/node/1242116/sports.
39 Ibid.
40 Tom Kershaw, “European Tour Confirm First Golf Event in Saudi Arabia Despite Scrutiny Following
Jamal Khashoggi Murder,” Independent, October 29, 2018, accessed June 8, 2019, www.independent.
co.uk/sport/golf/european-tour-saudi-arabia-golf-event-crown-prince-mohammad-bin-salman-pat
rick-reed-dustin-johnson-a8607276.html.
41 Andy Sambidge, “Qatar Set to Launch New Tourism Ad Campaign,” Arabian Business, November 6,
2008, www.arabianbusiness.com/qatar-set-launch-new-tourism-ad-campaign-83434.html.
42 Andy Sambidge, “Tourism Set to Double Qatar GDP Contribution – Report,” Arabian Business,
March 19, 2009, www.arabianbusiness.com/tourism-set-double-qatar-gdp-contribution-report-64
917.html.
43 Henderson, “Tourism in Dubai.”
44 Wadih Ishac, “Furthering National Development Through Sport, the Case of Qatar” (PhD diss., Uni-
versité Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 2018).
45 Ibid.
1 Mahfoud Amara, Sport, Politics, and Society in the Arab World (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012).
2 A. R. Al Droushi, “Discourses on the Modernization Agenda in Sport Policy in Oman; Between the
Global and Local and Modernity and Authenticity” (PhD diss., School of Sport, Exercise and Health
Sciences, Loughborough University, 2017).
3 Gertrud Pfister, “Outsiders: Muslim Women and Olympic Games-Barriers and Opportunities,” Interna-
tional Journal of the History of Sport 27, no. 16–18 (2010): 2925–57.
4 Amara, Sport, 8.
5 Ummah can be translated as the nation of Muslim believers or the Muslim nation.
6 For more details on the foundation of the Islamic Solidarity Sports Federation (ISSF), see the official
ISSF website, accessed May 10, 2019, http://issf.sa/en/.
7 Ibid.
8 “The Idea of Establishing the Union,”The Islamic Solidarity Sports Federation, accessed May 10, 2019,
http://issf.sa/en/?page_id=3479.
9 Ibid.
10 Mahfoud Amara, “The Muslim World in the Global Sporting Arena,” Brown Journal of World Affairs 14,
no. 2 (2008): 67–75.
11 Kourosh Ziabari, “Boycotting the Islamic Solidarity Games Over the Words ‘Persian Gulf ’,”

Foreign Policy Journal, accessed June 14, 2019, www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2009/05/13/
boycotting-the-islamic-solidarity-games-over-the-words-persian-gulf/.
12 The Women’s Islamic Games took place four times in Iran: in 1993, 1997, 2001 and 2005. The event
was organised in gender-segregated venues and all the officials and referees were women.
13 “The Objectives and Tasks of the Union,” The Islamic Solidarity Sports Federation, accessed May 10, 2019,
http://issf.sa/en/?page_id=3479.
14 Friederike Trotier, “Changing an Image Through Sports Events: Palembang’s Success Story,” Asia Pacific
Journal of Sport and Social Science 6, no. 1 (2017): 3–18.
15 Amara, “The Muslim World,” 67–75.
16 In this chapter, it will be called the Gulf; assuming that the reader will know that the current work is
discussing issues related to the Arabian/Persian Gulf, rather than, for example, the Gulf of Mexico.
17 Amara, “The Muslim World,” 67–75.
18 This was the first issue to be announced.
19 Martin Levinson, “Mapping the Persian Gulf Naming Dispute,” A Review of General Semantics 68, no. 3
(2011): 279–87.
20 Ibid.
21 “The Islamic Solidarity Games in Iran is Cancelled,” Al-Madina News, accessed May 17, 2019, www.
al-madina.com/article/10475.
22 Ibid.
23 Meris Lutz, “Iran, Saudi Arabia: Islamic Solidarity Games in Tehran Canceled Over ‘Persian Gulf ’ Spat,”
Los Angeles Times, accessed June 12, 2019, https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/babylonbeyond/2010/01/
iran-tehran-loses-islamic-solidarity-games-over-persian-gulf-spat.html.
24 “Tensions Mar Islamic Solidarity Games,” Aljazeera Media Network, accessed June 14, 2019, www.alja
zeera.com/sport/2013/2013/09/201392081139796687.html.
25 “The Third Islamic Solidarity Games Report, 2019,” The Islamic Solidarity Sports Federation, accessed
May 24, 2019, http://issf.sa/ar/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/140136541229.pdf.
26 “Baku Brings Down Solidarity Games Curtain in Style,” Baku 2017, accessed July 7, 2019, www.
baku2017.com/baku-brings-down-solidarity-games-curtain-in-style.html.
27 “Baku 2017 Islamic Solidarity Games: Opening Ceremony Speech,” Baku 2017, accessed June 10,
2019, www.baku2017.com/images/m.a.eng_oc_speech_mehribanaliyeva_%20eng.pdf.
28 Gurbanov Rafi, “Azerbaijan Celebrates Religious Solidarity: Not Just Islamic,” The Jerusalem Post,
accessed June 22, 2019, www.jpost.com/Blogs/Gurbanov-Rafi/Azerbaijan-celebrates-religious-soli
darity-Not-just-Islamic-532690.
29 Baku 2017, “Baku Brings Down.”
30 Mahfoud Amara and Ian Henry, “Deconstructing the Debate Around Sport and the ‘Question’ of
‘Muslim Minorities’ in the West,” in Islam in the West, ed. Max Farrar, Simon Robinson,Yasmin Valli, and
Paul Wetherly (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 138–53.
31 Ansyor Idrus and Mustofid,“Athletes Not Bound to Muslim Dress Code,” Jakarta Post, accessed May 24,
2019, www.thejakartapost.com/news/2013/09/18/athletes-not-bound-muslim-dress-code.html.
32 Ibid.
33 Trotier, “Changing,” 3–18.
34 Note: The organising committee also was not clear on the number of the countries that were con-
cerned about organising events on the same days for male and female athletes during the Games.
35 Alberto Testa, “Engaging in Sport:The Islamic Framework,” In Sport in Islam and in Muslim Communities,
ed. Alberto Testa and Mahfoud Amara (London and New York: Routledge, 2016), 13–29.
36 Idrus and Mustofid,“Athletes Not Bound.”That the Gulf that is referenced in the discussion is the same
Gulf that caused the dispute.
37 “The Problem Islamic Solidarity Games Begin in Baku,” Turan News Agency, accessed June 14, 2019,
http://turan.az/ext/news/2017/5/free/analytics/en/117859.htm.
38 The ISSF appeared to have clear and strong positions in situations such as changing the logos and print-
ing materials of the Second Islamic Solidarity Games. However, it was not evident in setting the limits
in dress code, separating female and male venues and dates, etc.
39 Teimar Ataev is a political scientist and author of three books on Islam.
1 Tom Clark, “Aspects of the Psychology of Games and Sports,” British Journal of Psychology 31, no. 4
(1941): 279–93.
 2 Houchang E. Chehabi, “The Politics of Football in Iran,” in Fringe Nations in World Soccer, ed. Kausik
Bandyopadhyay and Sabyasachi Mallick (London: Routledge, 2008), 77.
3 Christian Bromberger, “Football as World-View and as Ritual,” French Cultural Studies 6 (1995):
293–311.
4 Janet Lever, Soccer Madness: Brazil’s Passion for the World’s Most Popular Sport (Long Grove:Waveland Press,
1983), 29.
5 Benedict Anderson, Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, Kindle ed. (London:Verso, 1983).
6 Dogu Ergil, “On Football,” Today’s Zaman, July 19, 2014, www.todayszaman.com/columnist/dogu-
ergil/on-football_353397.html.
7 Anthony D. Smith, The Nation in History: Historiographical Debates About Ethnicity and Nationalism
(London: Polity Press. 2000), 3.
8 Alan Bairner, Sport, Nationalism and Globalization; European and North American Perspectives (Albany, NY:
State University of New York Press, 2001), 164.
9 Pierre Bordieu, Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste (London: Routledge, 1984).
10 Paul James, Nation Formation:Toward a Theory of Abstract Community (London: Sage, 1996), 45.
11 Ibid.
12 Anderson, Reflections.
13 John Sugden and Alan Bairner, Sport, Sectarianism and Society (Leicester: Leicester University Press,
1993), 129.
14 Eric Hobsbawm, “Introduction / Mass-Producing Traditions: Europe 1870–1940,” in The Invention of
Tradition, ed. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983),
1–4, 263–307.
15 State Information Service, “History of the Egyptian Football Game,” 2009, www.sis.gov.eg/En/

Templates/Articles/tmpArticles.aspx?ArtID=1746.
16 Herodotus, “An Account of Egypt, trans. G. C. Macaulay,” Project Guttenberg, 2006, www.gutenberg.org/
files/2131/2131-h/2131-h.htm.
17 Alaa Al Aswany, “Egypt’s Enduring Passion for Soccer,” New York Times, April 16, 2014, www.nytimes.
com/2014/04/17/opinion/egypts-enduring-passion-for-soccer.html?_r=0.
18 Franklin Foer, How Soccer Explains the World (New York: HarperCollins, 2006), 217.
19 Bromberger, “Football as World-View,” 293–311.
20 Paul Connerton, How Societies Remember (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 4.
21 Eric Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism Since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1990), 143.
22 “International Cricket Match; United States vs. Canada,” New York Times, September 1, 1860, www.
nytimes.com/1860/09/01/news/international-cricket-match-united-states-vs-canada.html.
23 J. Astley Cooper, “1908 Olympic Games, What Has Been Done and What Remains to Be Done,” in
The History of Sport in Britain 1880–1914, ed. Martin Poley (London: Routledge, 2004), 147–57.
24 Theodore Herzl, The Complete Diaries of Theodor Herzl, Vol. 1 (New York: Herzl Press and Thomas
Yoseloff, 1990), 51.
25 R. D. Hick, ed., Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1925).
26 Georg Eisen, “Jewish History and the Ideology of Modern Sport: Approaches and Interpretations,”
Journal of Sport History 25, no. 3 (1998): 531.
27 Mohammed Taher Basha, Filastin, March 11, 1945.
28 “Jerusalem Sporting Club,” Palestine Weekly, April 12, 1921.
29 Issam Khalidi, “The Coverage of Sports News in Filastin 1911–1948,” Jerusalem Quarterly 44 (2010):
45–69.
30 Issam Khalidi, “Coverage of Sports News in Filastin, 1911–1948,” Soccer and Society 13, no. 5–6 (2012):
764–77; Filastin, January 18, 1933.
31 Filastin, March 28, 1931.
32 Filastin, November 28, 1947.
33 Andrea Liverani, Civil Society in Algeria: The Political Functions of Associational Life (London: Routledge,
2008), 16.
34 Ibid., 21.
35 Youssef Fates, Sport et Tiers Monde (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1994), 32.
 36 Ulf Hannerz, “Scenarios for Peripheral Cultures,” in Culture, Globalization and the World-System: Contem-
porary Conditions for the Representation of Identity, ed. Anthony D. King (Minneapolis, MN: University of
Minnesota Press, 1997), 107–28.
37 Ahmed Alawad Sikainga, City of Steel and Fire: A Social History of Atbara, Sudan’s Railway Town 1906–
1984 (Portsmouth, NH: Heineman, 2002), 82–84.
38 Paul Dietschy and David Claude Kemo-Keimbou, Le football et l’Afrique (Paris: EPA, 2008), 57.
39 Robert Merle, Ben Bella (London: Michael Joseph, 1967), 43–44.
40 Martin Evans, Algeria: France’s Undeclared War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 49–50.
41 Ibid., 63–64.
42 Peter Alegi, “Death of a Striker, Fighter, and Socialist,” Football Is Coming Home, April 12, 2012, www.
footballiscominghome.info/tag/ben-bella.
43 “Le MC Alger: un club, une histoire, un palmarès,” DjaZairess, August 29, 2012, www.djazairess.com/
fr/lnr/217061.
44 Carlotta Gall, “Born in Protest, a Soccer Team Hailed by the People and the Government,” New York
Times, November 12, 2013, www.nytimes.com/2013/11/13/world/africa/born-in-protest-a-soccer-
team-hailed-by-the-people-and-the-government.html.
45 Légifrance, official website of the French government for the publication of legislation, regulations, and
legal information, www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006069570.
46 Lahcène Belahoucine, La Saga du football algérien (Algiers: Éditions HIBR, 2010), 49.
47 Ibid.
48 Youcef Fates, Sport et politique en Algérie (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2009), 185.
49 Evans, Algeria, 63–64.
50 Peter Alegi, African Soccerscapes, How a Continent Changed the World’s Game (London: C. Hurst & Co. Ltd.,
2010), 36.
51 Jean Meynaud, Sport et politique (Paris: Payot, 1966), 135.
52 “M. Bourgibba reçoit les footballeurs algérien qui ont quitte la France,” Le Monde, April 22, 1958.
53 Françoise Escarpit, “1958, les ambassadeurs de la révolution algérienne,” L’Humanité, October 6, 2001,
www.humanite.fr/node/253384.
54 Charles-Henri Favrod, “La Suisse des négociations secretes,” in La guerre d’Algérie et les Francais, ed. Jean-
Pierre Rioux (Paris: Fuyard, 1990), 397.
55 “Le F.L.N. salue dans les footballeurs qui ont abandonne la metropole des ‘patriotes conséquents’,” Le
Monde, April 17, 1958.
56 Allen Guttman, Games and Empires: Modern Sports and Cultural Imperialism (New York: Columbia Uni-
versity Press, 1994), 69.
57 Alegi, African Soccerscapes, 36.
58 Yousef Fates, “Football in Algeria: Between Violence and Politics,” in Football in Africa, Conflict, Con-
ciliation and Community, ed. Gary Armstrong and Richard Giulianotti (New York: Palgrave Macmillan,
2004), 48.
59 Rabah Saadallah and Djamel Benfares, La glorieuse equpe de FLN (Algiers: ENAL, Brussels GAM,
1980), 136.
60 Time Magazine, The Disappearing Act, April 28, 1958.
61 Ibid.
62 “Neuf footballeurs algériens ont disparu,” L’Equipe, April 15, 1958.
63 Thomas F. Brady, “French Athletes Defect to Rebels; 5 Star Soccer Players Quit Teams and Go to Tuni-
sia in ’Algerians’ Cause,” New York Times, April 15, 1958.
64 Ibid.; Time Magazine.
65 Escarpit, “1958, les ambassadeurs.”
66 T. Abdelkrim, “Le légendaire équipe de football du FLN: Une fabuleuse épopée,” El Moudjahid, Octo-
ber 31, 2011, www.elmoudjahid.com/fr/mobile/detail-article/id/19048.
67 Anver Versi, “Striking Power: Arab Football Kicks Off,” Middle East, March 1998, 10.
68 James M. Dorsey, “Asian Football: A Cesspool of Government Interference, Struggles for Power, Cor-
ruption and Greed,” International Journal of the History of Sport 32, no. 8 (2014): 1001–15.
69 Le Monde, “Le F.L.N. salue dans les footballeurs.”
70 Thierry Oberlé, “Vingt-neuf ans âpres l’indépendance: Une rencontre charge de symbols,” Le Figaro,
October 6, 2001.
71 Markus Asam, “Ningun Partido,” El Pais Magazine, February 2, 1992, 38–43.
 72 Mahfoud Amara, “Football Sub-Culture and Youth Politics in Algeria,” Mediterranean Politics 17, no. 1
(2012): 41–58.
73 Mahfoud Amara, “Global Sport and Local Identity in Algeria: The Changing Roles of Football as a
Cultural, Political and Economic Vehicle,” in Transition and Development in Algeria: Economic, Social and
Cultural Challenges, ed. Margaret A. Majumdar and Mohammed Saad (London: Intellect Books, 2005),
152.
74 Fates, Sport et politique en Algérie, 221.
75 Ibid., 220.
76 Said Chikhi, “The Worker, the Prince and the Fact of Life: The Mirage of Modernity in Algeria,” in
Algeria, the Challenge of Modernity, ed. Ali El-Kenz (London: Codesria, 1991), 220.
77 Said Chikhi, Algeria, From Mass Rebellion in October 1988 to ’Workers’ Social Protest (Uppsala: Nordiska
Afrikainstitutet, 1991).
78 Barry Buzan, People, State and Fear, the National Security Problem in International Relations (Brighton:
Wheatsleaf Books, 1983), 57.
79 Joel S. Migdal, Strong Societies and Weak States, State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third
World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 206–37.
80 Azzedine Layachi, “Reinstating the State or Instating Civil Society: The Dilemma of ’Algeria’s Tran-
sition,” in Collapsed States: The Disintegration and Restoration of Legitimate Authority, ed. I. W. Zartman
(Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1995), 171–89; George Joffee, “The Role of Violence in the
Algerian Economy,” The Journal of North African Studies 7, no. 1 (2002): 29–52.
81 Mark Evans and John Phillips, Algeria: Anger of the Dispossessed (London: Yale University Press,
2007), 114.
82 The World Bank put youth unemployment in 2018 at 29.9%, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/
SL.UEM.1524.ZS?locations=DZ.
83 James M. Dorsey, The Turbulent World of Middle East Soccer (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016).
84 Josh Meyer, “To Locate the Next Arab Spring Revolution, Look to the Soccer Stands,” Quartz, May 22,
2013, http://qz.com/87105/to-locate-the-next-arab-spring-revolution-look-to-the-soccer-stands/.
1 Tony Mason, Passion of the People? Football in South America (London:Verso, 1995), 61.
2 Joseph L. Arbena, “Generals and Goles: Assessing the Connection Between the Military and Soccer in
Argentina,” International Journal of the History of Sport 7 (1990): 120–30.
3 Mason, “Passion,” 64.
4 Ibid., 65.
5 Ibid., 73.
6 Ibid., 67.
7 Joshua Nadel, Futbol! Why Soccer Matters in Latin America (Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida,
2014), 32.
8 Simoni Lahud Guedes, “On Criollos and Capoeiras: Notes on Soccer and National Identity in Argen-
tina and in Brazil,” Soccer and Society 15, no. 1 (2014): 147–61.
9 Kirk Bowman, “Futebol/Futbol, Identity, and Politics in Latin America,” Latin American Research Review
50, no. 3 (2015): 254–64.
1 0 Nadel, Futbol!, 13.
1 1 Ibid., 154–56.
1 2 Ibid., 46.
13 Joshua Nadel,interview with Kojo Nmandi,Kojo Nmandi Show,WAMU,May 28,214,accessed July 15,2019,
https://thekojonnamdishow.org/shows/2014-05-28/futbol-soccer-history-and-politics-latin-america.
14 Ian P. Henry, Mahfoud Amara, and Mansour Al-Tauqi, “Sport, Arab Nationalism and the Pan-Arab
Games,” International Review for the Sociology of Sport 38, no. 3 (2003): 295–310.
15 Thomas B. Stevenson and Abdul Karim Alaug, “Football in Newly United Yemen: Rituals of Equity,
Identity, and State Formation,” Journal of Anthropological Research 56, no. 4 (2000): 453–75.
16 Tamir Sorek, “Arab Football in Israel as an ‘Integrative Enclave’,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 26, no. 3
(2003): 422–50.
17 Danyel Reiche, “Investing in Sporting Success as a Domestic and Foreign Policy Tool: The Case of
Qatar,” International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics 7, no. 4 (2015): 489–504.
18 James M. Dorsey, The Turbulent World of Middle East Soccer (Oxford and New York: Oxford University
Press, 2016).
1 9 Ibid., 32.
2 0 Ibid., 283.
2 1 Ibid., 69, 78–85.
22 Dag Tuastad, “From Football Riot to Revolution: The Political Role of Football in the Arab World,”
Soccer and Society 15, no. 3 (2014): 383.
23 Ibid.
24 Dorsey, Turbulent World, 35.
25 Stefan Jonsson, Crowds and Democracy: The Idea and Image of the Masses from Revolution to Facism (New
York: Columbia University Press, 2013).
26 Ibid., 9.
27 Ibid., 15.
28 Ibid., 14.
29 Ibid., 248.
30 Ibid., 250.
31 Stefan Jonsson, A Brief History of the Masses: Three Revolutions (New York: Columbia University Press,
2008), 13.
32 Christian Borch, The Politics of Crowds: An Alternative History of Sociology (New York: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 2012), 16.
33 Fergus G. Neville and Stephen Reicher, “Crowds, Social Identities, and the Shaping of Everyday Social
Relations,” in Political Psychology: A Social Psychological Approach, ed. Christopher J. Hewer and Evanthia
Lyons (London: John Wiley & Sons, 2018), 233.
34 Borch, Politics of Crowds, 253–54, 261.
35 Ibid., 269.
36 Ibid., 270.
37 Ralph H. Turner and Lewis M. Killian, Collective Behavior, 3rd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,
1987).
38 John Drury, Chris Cocking, and Steve Reicher, “Everyone for Themselves? A Comparative Study of
Crowd Solidarity Among Emergency Survivors,” British Journal of Social Psychology 48 (2009): 488.
39 Mikaila M. L. Arthur, “Emergent Norm Theory,” in Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political
Movements, ed. David A. Snow, Donatella della Porta, Bert Klandermans, and Doug McAdam (London:
Blackwell, 2013), 1.
40 Neville and Reicher, “Crowds, Social Identities,” 243.
41 Ibid., 245.
42 Ibid., 246.
43 Ibid., 249.
44 Norman K. Denizen, Symbolic Interactionism and Cultural Studies: The Politics of Interpretation (Oxford:
Blackwell, 1992).
45 James Surowiecki, The Wisdom of Crowds (New York: Anchor Books, 2005), xviii–xx.
46 Ibid., 70.
47 Ibid., 271.
48 Ibid., 256.
49 Allen Guttmann, “Sports Crowds,” in Crowds, ed. Jeffrey T. Schnapp and Matthew Tiews (Stanford, CA:
Stanford University Press, 2006), 111–32.
50 Ibid.
51 Surowiecki, Wisdom, 272–78.
52 Ulrich Dolata and Jan-Felix Shrape, “Masses, Crowds, Communities, Movements: Collective Action in
the Internet Age,” Social Movement Studies 15, no. 1 (2016): 1–18.
53 Ibid., 13–14.
54 Ibid.
55 For instance, Andrea Khalil, Crowds and Politics in North Africa:Tunisia, Algeria, and Libya (London: Rout-
ledge, 2014).
56 Tova Benski, Lauren Langman, Ignacia Perrugoría, and Benjamín Tejerina, “From the Streets and
Squares to Social Movement Studies: What Have We Learned?” Current Sociology 61, no. 4 (2013):
541–61.
57 Christian Borch and Britta Timm, “Postmodern Crowds: Re-Inventing Crowd Thinking,” Distinktion:
Scandinavian Journal of Social Theory 14, no. 2 (2013): 109–13.
58 Reza M. Nejad, “Crowds, Protests and Processions: Revisiting Urban Experiences,” Distinktion: Scandi-
navian Journal of Social Theory 17, no. 3 (2016): 251–53.
 59 William Little, Introduction to Sociology: 2nd Canadian Edition (2016), accessed August 12, 2019, https://
opentextbc.ca/introductionto.
60 Charles Tilly, “Contentious Repertoires in Great Britain,” Social Science History 17, no. 2 (1993): 253–80.
61 Nazih A. Ayubi, “Withered Socialism or Whether Socialism? The Radical Arab States as Populist-
Corporatist Regimes,” Third World Quarterly 13, no. 1 (1992): 89–105.
62 Ibid., 98–99.
63 Alejandro Portes and Margarita Mooney, “Social Capital and Community Development,” in The New
Economic Sociology: Developments in an Emerging Field, ed. M. F. Guillen, R. Collins, P. England, and M.
Meyer (New York: Russel Sage Foundation, 2002), 303–29; Robert Putnam, “Bowling Alone: Ameri-
ca’s Declining Social Capital,” Journal of Democracy 6, no. 1 (1995): 65–76.
64 Robert N. Putnam, “Social Capital and Public Affairs,” Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sci-
ences 47, no. 8 (May 1998): 6–7.
65 Anthony Giddens, The Third Way and Its Critics (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2000), 57–58.
66 Robert W. Hefner, Civil Islam: Muslims and Democratization in Indonesia (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Uni-
versity Press, 2000), 25.
67 Robert Inglehart, “Trust, Well-Being and Democracy,” in Democracy and Trust, ed. Mark E. Warren
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 88–120.
68 Charles Tilly, “Trust and Rule,” Theory and Society 33 (2004): 4.
69 Ibid., 5.
70 Ibid., 8.
71 Ibid., 25.
72 Mahmood Al-Dawsaqi, “Safahaat min Tarikh Kurat al-Qadam fi Misr ‘‘Umruha 100’ Aam” [100 Year-
Old Pages from Egypt’’s Football History], Al-Ahram, June 21, 2018, accessed September 21, 2019,
http://gate.ahram.org.eg/News/1970990.aspx.
73 Shaun Lopez, “Football as National Allegory: Al-Ahram and the Olympics in 1920s Egypt,” History
Compass 7, no. 1 (2009): 286.
74 Ann Zacharias, “Only a Game? Not in Egypt,” The National, June 24, 2014, accessed September 21,
2019, www.thenational.ae/world/only-a-game-not-in-egypt-1.310197.
75 Ibid.
76 Ibid.
77 Islam Abdultawwab,“Fi Dhikra Miladi: Gamal AbdelNasser al-’Ra’is al-Ahlawi” [On His Birthday: Gamal
Abdelnasser theAhlawi President],Elmwatin,January 15,2019,accessed September 21,2019,www.elmwatin.
com/583340/%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%B0%D9%83%D8%B1%D9%8A-%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%
84%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%87%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84-%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%A
F%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B5%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A6%
D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%87%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%
A3%D9%86%D9%82%D8%B0-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83-
%D9%85%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B6%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B
9-%D9%88%D8%BA%D9%8A%D8%B1-%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE-
%D9%83%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%85-%D9%81%D9%8A-
%D9%85%D8%B5. Such celebratory accounts have mushroomed under the rule of Abdel Fattah
el-Sissi, seeking to revive Nasser’s legacy – opening, for instance, the Gamal Abdel Nasser Museum in
2016 – and perhaps fashioning himself after the late leader. See, for instance, Martin Chulov, “Egypt
Wonders if Army Chief Is Another Nasser,” The Guardian, August 7, 2013, accessed September 21, 2019,
www.theguardian.com/world/2013/aug/07/egypt-morsi-nationalist-general-sisi.
78 Alaa Al Aswany, “Egypt’’s Enduring Passion for Soccer,” New York Times, April 16, 2014, accessed Sep-
tember 21, 2019, www.nytimes.com/2014/04/17/opinion/egypts-enduring-passion-for-soccer.html.
79 “Gamal Abdel Nasser Opens Cairo Stadium 1960,” March 29, 2014, accessed September 21, 2019,
www.youtube.com/watch?v=UUHhGvbU9gQ.
80 “President Gamal Abdel ’Nasser’s Speech on the Occasion of the Opening of the New Cairo Sta-
dium on the Anniversary of the Revolution,” accessed September 21, 2019, www.youtube.com/
watch?v=HhWdDqM4s40&t=3s.
81 Steve Bloomfield, Africa United: How Football Explains Africa (Edinburgh: Canongate Books, 2010), 22.
82 Islam A. Ahmad, “Jama’at al-Altras wa Ishkaliyyat al-’Alaqah bain al-dawlah wal mujtama’ ” [Ultras and
the Problematic of State-Society Relations, Part Three], Egyptian Institute for Political and Strategic Studies,
November 13, 2016, accessed July 20, 2019, https://eipss-eg.org/%d8%ac%d9%85%d8%a7%d8%b9%d
8%a7%d8%aa-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%a3%d9%84%d8%aa%d8%b1%d8%a7%d8%b3-%d9%88%d8%a5
 %d8%b4%d9%83%d8%a7%d9%84%d9%8a%d8%a9-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%b9%d9%84%d8%a7%d9%
82%d8%a9-%d8%a8%d9%8a%d9%86-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%af%d9%88%d9%84%d8%a9-%d9%88%d
8%a7%d9%84%d9%85%d8%ac%d8%aa%d9%85%d8%b9-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%ac%d8%b2%d8%a1-
%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%ab%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%ab/.
83 Carl Rommel, “A Veritable Game of the Nation: On the Changing Status of Football Within the
Egyptian National Formation in the Wake of the 2009 World Cup Qualifiers Against Algeria,” Critical
African Studies 2, no. 2–3 (2014): 164.
84 Mohammed al-Juoueli, “Tarikh al-Firaq al-Riyadhiyah fi Tunis ’Juz’ min Tarikh al-Nidaal Did
al-Isti’maar,” Al Arab, May 2, 2016, accessed September 23, 2019, https://alarab.co.uk/%D8%
AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%82-
%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B6%D9%8A%D
8%A9-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B3-%D8%AC%D8%B2%D8%A1-
%D9%85%D9%86-%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE-
%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%B6%D8%A7%D9%84-%D8%B6%D8%AF-
%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1.
85 Esperance de Tunis, “Histoire,” accessed September 21, 2019, www.esperance-de-tunis.net/club/
histoire/.
86 Abou Cisse, “Club Africain, exister dans l’ombre de l’Esperance Tunis,” Afrik Foot, September 26,
2012, accessed September 20, 2019, www.afrik-foot.com/club-africain-exister-dans-l-ombre-de-l-
esperance-tunis.
87 Mohammad Bel Tayyeb, “An Al-dawr al-kabir allathi tal’abuhu kurat al-qadam fi al-siyasah al-
tunisiyyah” [On Football’s Big Role in Tunisian Politics], Raseef 22, April 4, 2016, accessed Sep-
tember 23, 2019, https://raseef22.net/article/53584-%D8%B9%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%
AF%D9%88%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1-
%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B0%D9%8A-%D8%AA%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A8%D9%87-
%D9%83%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%85-%D9%81%D9%8A.
88 Olfa Belhassine, “Rewriting Tunisia’s History to Preserve Dissident Memories,” JusticeInfo, January 10,
2017, accessed September 20, 2019, www.justiceinfo.net/en/truth-commissions/31647-rewriting-
tunisia-s-history-to-preserve-dissident-memories.html.
89 Douglas E. Ashford, “Neo-Destour Leadership and the ‘Confiscated Revolution’,” World Politics 17, no.
2 (1965): 230.
90 Derek Hopwood and Sue Mi Terry, Habib Bourguiba of Tunisia: The Tragedy of Longevity (New York:
Martin’’s Press, 1992), 87.
91 Ashford, “Neo-Destour.”
92 Ibid., 227–30.
93 Ibid., 222–25.
94 Maha Zaoui and Emmanuel Bayle, “The Central Role of the State in the Governance of Sport and
the Olympic Movement in Tunisia, from 1956 to the Present Day,” International Journal of the History of
Sport 34, no. 13 (2018): 1389.
95 Ibid., 1340.
96 Ibid., 1343.
97 Ibid., 1344.
98 Ibid., 1347.
99 “Al-Zaim Bourguiba wa ka’s Tunis 1980,” accessed September 20, 2019, www.youtube.com/watch?v
=F4Oz8PHCRaY&feature=youtu.be.
100 Bel Tayyeb, “Al-dawr al-kabir.”
101 Larbi Sadiki, “Popular Uprisings and Arab Democratization,” International Journal of Middle East Studies
32, no. 1 (2000): 80–83.
102 Zaoui and Bayle, “Central Role,” 1342.
103 Tariq el-Essadi, “Siraa’ ‘Dawlat’ al-Tarajji wa ‘Sha’b’ al-Ifriqi munthu Zaman Bourgiba,” Jomhouria,
September 23, 2014, accessed September 23, 2019, www.jomhouria.com/art22057_%D8%B5%
D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B9%20%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A9%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8
%AA%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%8A%20%D9%88%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%A8%20%D8%A7%D9%8
4%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%82%D9%8A%20%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B0%20
%D8%B2%D9%85%D9%86%20%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A
8%D8%A9%20:%20%D9%85%D9%86%20%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%85
%20%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A
 A%D9%8A%D8%AC%20%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B2%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A9%
20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE%D9%8A%D8%A9%D8%9F.
104 Larbi Sadiki, “The Search for Citizenship in Bin Ali’s Tunisia: Democracy Versus Unity,” Political Studies
50, no. 3 (2002): 498.
1 05 Ibid., 499.
1 06 Ibid., 503.
1 07 Ibid., 504.
108 Laryssa Chomiak and John P. Entelis, “Contesting Order in Tunisia: Crafting Political Identity,” in Civil
Society Activism Under Authoritarian Rule: A Comparative Perspective, ed. Francesco Cavatorta (London:
Routledge, 2013), 83–84.
109 Haitham Slimani, “Akthar min Mujarrad ‘Mustatil Akhdar’,” SasaPost, December 4, 2018, accessed
September 20, 2019, www.sasapost.com/the-roots-of-the-racism-of-football-in-tunisia/.
1 10 Ibid.
111 Ahmad, “Jama’at al-Altras,” 8.
1 12 Ibid., 7.
113 Haikel Hazgui, “Kurat al-Qadam al-Tunisiyyah: Al-Shuhnah al-Siyasiyyah wanhiyaar ‘al-shaqaf ’,”
Nawaat, June 29, 2018, accessed September 23, 2019, https://nawaat.org/portail/2018/06/29/%D
9%83%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%85-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8
%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9%D8%8C-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8-
%AD%D9%86%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A%D
8%A9-%D9%88/.
1 14 Ibid.
1 15 Ibid.
116 BBC News Arabic, “How Did Ultras Emerge in Egypt and Where Are They Going?” May 5, 2017,
accessed July 30, 2019, www.youtube.com/watch?v=0CzMw8pLN-8.
117 Abdelslam Hirshi, “Al-Ultras fi Tunis: ‘Unf wa thawrah wa difaa’ ‘an Qadaya’ aadilah,” Vice, Sep-
tember 4, 2019, accessed September 26, 2019, www.vice.com/ar/article/43kxv9/%D8%A7%D
9%84%D8%A3%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B3-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D
8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B3-%D8%B9%D9%86%D9%81-%D9%88%D8%
AB%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B9-%D
8%B9%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%B6%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7-%D8%A7%D9
%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%84%D8%A9.
118 “A’daa’ ultras min Tunis fi Hiwar Talfasi, Part 1,” Face to Face, December 15, 2017, accessed July 19,
2019, www.youtube.com/watch?v=vmwA8QatY_4.
119 Middle East Eye, “Egypt Allows Football Fans – But Not Ultras–Back into Stadiums,” Middle East
Eye, September 2, 2018, accessed September 22, 2019, www.middleeasteye.net/news/egypt-allows-
football-fans-not-ultras-back-stadiums.
120 Majdi Al-Saidi, “Ma Bain al-Riyadah walsiyasah: Nujoom Tunisiyoon fi Mu’’tarak al-Ahzaab,” Alja-
zeera, May 9, 2019, accessed September 23, 2019, www.aljazeera.net/news/politics/2019/5/9/%D8
%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B6%D9%8A%D9%88-%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B3-%D8%
B7%D9%85%D9%88%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%
8A%D8%A9-%D8%A3%D9%85-%D9%85%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B9-
%D8%B4%D8%AE%D8%B5%D9%8A%D8%A9.
121 Souhail Khmira and Mark Lomas, “Tunisia: A Seasoned Marred by Violence,” BBC Sport, April 19,
2018, accessed September 26, 2019, www.bbc.com/sport/football/43795136.
1 22 Pierre Bourdieu, The Logic of Practice, trans. Richard Nice (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990),
94–95.
1 Milton W. Meyer, Asia: A Concise History (New York: Portman & Littlefield, 1997), 1–2; Times Atlases,
Reference Atlas of the World (London: Dorling Kindersley, 2003).
2 Jan Romein, The Asian Century: A History of Modern Nationalism in Asia (London: George Allen &
Unwin, 1965); Colin Mason, A Short History of Asia (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000); P. W. Preston,
Pacific Asia in the Global System (Oxford: Blackwell, 1998); Donald G. McCloud, Southeast Asia:Tradition
and Modernity in the Contemporary World (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995); Milton Osborne, South-
east Asia: An Introductory History (St. Leonards: George Allen & Unwin, 1995); Albert Kolb, East Asia:
China, Japan, Korea,Vietnam: Geography of a Cultural Region (London: Methuen, 1971).
3 See the special issue of Hong Fan, “Sport, Nationalism, and Orientalism: The Asian Games,” Sport in
Society 8, no. 3 (2005).
 4 Anonymous, “New Delhi 1951, 1st Asian Games,” The Olympic Council of Asia, Septem-
ber 11, 2018, www.ocasia.org/Game/GameDetailsByGameID?q=BrMykyrnI530p/
vsnX+Z8vJNguoh97VGtnRABxESGMU=.
5 Anonymous, “18th AG Jakarta-Palembang 2018,” The Olympic Council of Asia, www.ocasia.org/Game/
GameDetailsByGameID?q=BrMykyrnI530p/vsnX+Z8vJNguoh97VGtnRABxESGMU=.
6 Anonymous, “Asian Games: Thousands Pour in the World’s Second-Biggest Multi-Sports Event,” The
New Indian Express, August 14, 2018, www.newindianexpress.com/sport/asian-games/news/2018/
aug/14/asian-games-thousands-pour-in-for-worlds-second-biggest-multi-sports-event-1857657.html.
7 Mingxin Tang, Woguo caojia Aoyun changshangshi [The History of China’s Participation in the Olympic
Games] (Taipei: Chinese Taipei Olympic Committee, 1999), 113; see also Wu Chih-kang, “The Influ-
ence of YMCA on the Development of Physical Education in China” (Unpublished PhD diss., Uni-
versity of Michigan, 1956); Chinese Society for History of Sport, ed., Zhongguo jindai tiyushi [Modern
Chinese Sports History] (Beijing: Beijing tiyu xueyuan chubanshe, 1990).
8 Stefan Hübner, “Images of the Sporting ‘Civilizing Mission’: The Far Eastern Championship Game
(1913–1934) and Visions of Modernization in English-Language Philippine Newspaper,” Journal of
World History 27, no. 3 (September 2016): 497–533.
9 Anonymous, “The New Olympian,” Philippines Free Press 7, no. 5 (February 1, 1913), cited in Andrew
D. Morris, Marrow of the Nation: A History of Sport and Physical Culture in Republican China (Berkeley, CA:
University of California, 2004), 22.
10 Zhengting Wang, “Guan dierci yuandong yundonghui zhi ganyan” [My Views on the Second Far
Easter Championship Games], Jinbu 8, no. 3 (July 1915), 13–14.
11 J. Wong-Quincey, “The Far Eastern Championship Games,” China’s Young Men 15, no. 10 (1915): 427;
cited in Morris, Marrow of the Nation, 28.
12 Jonathan D. Spence, The Search for Modern China (London: Hutchinson, 1990), 391–92; Richard T. Phil-
lips, China Since 1911 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1996), 119–20.
13 The Association would have its first sport meeting in Japan in 1938 and the second sport meeting in
the Philippines in 1940. Due to the approach of World War II, the meetings never took place.
14 Zhengting Wang, “Yuandong tiyu xuehui feifa jieshan zi jinguo” [The Facts of How the Far Eastern
Games Federation was Dissolved], Qinfeng 1, no. 9 (1935): 71–75; Yu Ri, “Zhong Ri Yuanyun jiaozu
shi” [The Conflicts Between China and Japan at the Far Eastern Championship Games], Tiyu wenshi
no. 2 (1990): 48–49;Tang, Woguo caojia Aoyun changshangshi [The History of China’s Participation in the
Olympic Games], 263–69; Morris, Marrow of the Nation, 164–66.
15 Mithlesh K. Singh Sisodia, “India and the Asian Games: From Infancy to Maturity,” Sport in Society 8,
no. 3 (2005): 405.
16 Richard Robison, Kevin Hewison, and Garry Rodan, “Political Power in Industrialising Capitalist
Societies:Theoretical Approaches,” in Southeast Asia in the 1990s, ed. Richard Robison, Kevin Hewison,
and Garry Rodan (St. Leonards: George Allen & Unwin, 1993), 9–15; McCloud, Southeast Asia; Pas-
sin. H. Wriggins, “The Asian State System in the 1970s,” in Asia and the International System, ed. Wayne
Wilcox, Leo E. Rose, and Gavin Boyd (Cambridge, MA: Winthrop Publishers, 1972), 367–69.
17 Mithlesh K. Singh Sisodia, “India and the Asian Games,”; Chinese Society for the History of Sport, ed.,
Zhongguo jindai tiyushi [Modern Chinese Sports History] (Beijing: Beijing tiyu xueyuan chubanshe,
1990), 23–24; Xueqian Wu, “jiyi youxing de wangshi” [My Memory of the Asian Games], in Bumie de
Yayun zhihuo [The Flame of the Asian Games], ed. China Central TV Station (Bejing: Chinese Broad-
cast and TV Press, 1990), 4;Tang, Woguo canjia Aoyun changshangshi [The History of China’s Participation
in the Olympics], 56.
18 Derek Davies, “Traveller’s Tales,” Far Eastern Economic Review (December 18, 1969): 593–94; George
Modelski, “Indonesia and the Malaysia Issue,” The Yearbook of World Affairs, 1964 (London: Sweet and
Maxwell Steven Journals, for the London Institute of World Affairs, 1965), 130.
19 Ajmer Singh et al., Essentials of Physical Education (Ludhiana: Kalyani Publishers, 2003), 593.
20 Cited in Mellow de Melville, ed., The IX Asian Games Delhi 1982, Official Report, Vol. 1 (New Delhi:
Thomson Press, 1982), 202.
21 Cited in Sombat Karnjanakit and Supitr Samahit, “Thailand and the Asian Games: Coping with Crisis,”
Sport in Society 8, no. 3 (2005): 447.
22 Ibid.
23 ASEAN: Association of Southeast Asian Nations; SEATO: Southeast Asia Treaty Organisation; APEC:
Asia and South Pacific Area Council.
 24 Cited in Hong Fan and Xiaozheng Xiong, “Communist China: Sport, Politics and Diplomacy,” in Sport
in Asian Society: Past and Present, ed. J. A. Mangan and Fan Hong (London: Cass, 2003), 327.
25 “Diyijie xinxing liliang yundonghui gexiang gongzuo zhongjie baogao” [The Working Report of the
1st GANEFO], Guojia tiyu zhongju danganguan [National Sports Bureau Archives], 135 (1963).
26 Spence, The Search for Modern China, 633.
27 Phillips, China Since 1911, 289.
28 Interview with an OCA official in Beijing in April 2006.
29 Interview with an official of the EAGA in Shanghai in March 2006.
30 Liang Lijuan, He Zhengliang and Olympics (Beijing: Shijie zhishi chubanshe, 2005), 193.
31 Anonymous, “Asian Games: A Brief History,” India Today, August 14, 2018, www.indiatoday.in/sports/
asian-games-2018/story/asian-games-a-brief-history-1314241-2018-08-14.
32 “Constitutions and Rules of the OCA,” http:www.ocasia.org/constitution/CHAPTER%20II.asp.
1 Andrew D. Morris, Marrow of the Nation: A History of Sport and Physical Culture in Republican China
(Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2004), 97; G. Hoh, Physical Education in China (Shanghai:
Shangwu yinshuguan [Commercial Press], 1926), 97; Mark Dyreson, Making the American Team: Sport,
Culture, and the Olympic Experience (Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1998), 176; Huijie
Zhang, Fan Hong, and Fuhua Huang, Christianity and the Transformation of Physical Education and Sport in
Modern China (1840–1937) (London: Routledge, 2016), 53–55.
2 Pierre de Coubertin, Olympic Memoirs: Pierre de Coubertin (Chinese Version) (Beijing: Beijing Sport Uni-
versity Press, 2016), 152.
3 Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (Beijing: Qiushi Publishing House, 1988), 245.
4 Jianlang Wang and Jinghe Luan, Modern China, East Asia and the World, Vol. 1 (Beijing: Social Sciences
Academic Press, 2008), 192.
5 Jonathan Kolatch, Sports, Politics and Ideology in China (New York: Jonathan David Publishers, 1972), 55;
Ligang Peng, “Far Eastern Championship Games and the Early Olympic Movements in China–A His-
tory Being Forgotten,” Journal of Shandong Physical Education Institute no. 6 (2005): 62.
6 Gengsheng Hao, The Far Eastern Championship Games. Archives of the YMCA, 1914.
7 Qi Li, “Far Eastern Championship Games and Modern China” (PhD diss., Central China Normal
University, 2008), 19–20.
8 Zuen Chen, Japanese:The Japanese Residents in Modern Shanghai (1868–1945) (Shanghai: Shanghai Acad-
emy of Social Sciences Press, 2007), 113–14.
9 Franklin H. Brown, “Growth of Athletics in Japan,” Official Bulletin of the International Olympic Committee
(Olympic Review), no. 3 (July 1926): 19.
10 Interview with Amante Del Mundo, Assistant Professor of Philippine Arts and Popular Culture, Uni-
versity of the Philippines Manila, February 20, 2009.
1 Permanent Secretariat of the GANEFO Federation, GANEFO (Games of the New Emerging Forces): Its
Principles, Purposes, and Organization (Jakarta: Permanent Secretariat of the GANEFO Federation, 1965),
31. Original formatting.
2 Russell Field, “Splitting the World of International Sport: The 1963 Games of the New Emerging
Forces and the Politics of Challenging the Global Sport Order,” in Sport, Protest and Globalisation: Stop-
ping Play, ed. Jon Dart and Stephen Wagg (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), 79.
3 Naoko Shimazu, “Diplomacy as Theatre: Staging the Bandung Conference of 1955,” Modern Asian
Studies 48, no. 1 (2013): 230.
4 Michal Marcin Kobierecki, “Sport as a Tool of Building Political Alliances: The Case of the Games of
the New Emerging Forces (GANEFO),” The Polish Quarterly of International Affairs 25, no. 4 (2016): 108.
5 Rusli Lutan and Fan Hong, “The Politicization of Sport: GANEFO – A Case Study,” in Sport, National-
ism and Orientalism:The Asian Games, ed. Fan Hong (London and New York: Routledge, 2007), 27.
6 Stefan Hübner, Pan-Asian Sports and the Emergence of Modern Asia, 1913–74 (Singapore: NUS Press,
2016), 182–83.
7 Ibid., 185.
8 Ibid., 193.
9 Amin Rahayu, Asian Games IV 1962: Motivasi, Capaian, serta Revolusi Mental, dan Keolahragaan di Indo-
nesia (Jakarta: Nuril Hapress, 2015), 327.
10 Hübner, Pan-Asian Sports, 183.
11 Stefan Hübner, “The Fourth Asian Games (Jakarta 1962) in a Transnational Perspective: Japanese and
Indian Reactions to Indonesia’s Political Instrumentalisation of the Games,” International Journal of the
History of Sport 29, no. 9 (2012): 1305.
 12 David Webster, “Sports as Third World Nationalism:The Games of the New Emerging Forces and Indo-
nesia’s Systemic Challenge Under Sukarno,” Journal of American-East Asian Relations 23, no. 4 (2016): 3.
1 3 Hübner, Pan-Asian Sports, 193.
14 Ewa T. Pauker, “Ganefo I: Sports and Politics in Djakarta,” Asian Survey 5, no. 4 (1965): 173.
15 Ibid., 171–72.
16 Field, “Splitting the World of International Sport,” 77.
17 Pauker speaks of 51 countries. Pauker, ‘Ganefo I,’ 171.
18 Chris A. Connolly, “The Politics of the Games of the New Emerging Forces (GANEFO),” International
Journal of the History of Sport 29, no. 9 (2012): 1317.
19 Pauker, ‘Ganefo I,’ 175.
20 Hübner, Pan-Asian Sports, 117–18.
21 Simon Creak, “Representing True Laos in Post-Colonial Southeast Asia: Regional Dynamics in the
Globalization of Sport,” in Sport Across Asia: Politics, Cultures, and Identities, ed. Katrin Bromber, Birgit
Krawietz, and Joseph Maguire (New York: Routledge, 2013), 97.
22 Lutan and Hong, “The Politicization of Sport,” 29.
23 Terry Vaios Gitersos, “The Sporting Scramble for Africa: GANEFO, the IOC and the 1965 African
Games,” Sport in Society 14, no. 5 (2011): 648.
24 Webster, ‘Sports as Third World Nationalism,’ 2.
25 Field, ‘Splitting the World of International Sport,’ 82–83.
26 Russell Field, The Olympic Movement’s Response to the Challenge of Emerging Nationalism in Sport:An Histor-
ical Reconsideration of GANEFO (Lausanne: IOC Library, 2011), 10, http://doc.rero.ch/record/24926/
files/Russell_Field_-_report.pdf.
27 Ibid., 13–15.
28 Adrian Vickers, A History of Modern Indonesia (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press,
2005), 115.
29 Pauker, ‘Ganefo I,’ 179.
30 Ibid.
31 Ide Anak Agung Gde Agung, Twenty Years Indonesian Foreign Policy 1945–1965 (1973; repr., Berlin and
Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, 2018), 409.
32 Gitersos, “The Sporting Scramble for Africa,” 645.
33 Russell Field, “Re-Entering the Sporting World: China’s Sponsorship of the 1963 Games of the New
Emerging Forces (GANEFO),” International Journal of the History of Sport 31, no. 15 (2014): 1853.
34 Amanda Shuman, “Elite Competitive Sport in the People’s Republic of China 1958–1966: The Games
of the New Emerging Forces,” Journal of Sport History 40, no. 2 (2013): 263.
35 Ibid., 260.
36 Fan Hong and Lu Zhouxiang, The Politicisation of Sport in Modern China: Communists and Champions
(London: Routledge, 2013), 43–44.
37 The Second GANEFO was first scheduled for Cairo in 1967, later re-scheduled for Beijing and finally
cancelled. An Asian GANEFO took place in Cambodia in 1966.
38 Connolly, “The Politics of the Games,” 1316.
39 Ibid., 1321.
40 Shuman, “Elite Competitive Sport,” 260.
41 Webster, “Sports as Third World Nationalism,” 12.
1 John Horne and Garry Whannel, Understanding the Olympics (New York: Routledge, 2012), 126–45;
John J. MacAloon, “The Theory of Spectacle: Reviewing Olympic Ethnography,” in National Identity
and Global Sports Events (SUNY Series on Sport, Culture, and Social Relations), ed. Alan Tominson
(Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2006), 31; Barbara Keys, Globalizing Sport: National
Rivalry and International Community in the 1930s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), 92.
2 Pierre Arnaud and James Riordan, eds., Sport and International Politics (New York: E & FN Spon, 1998);
Fan Hong and Lu Zhouxiang, “The Politicisation of the Beijing Olympics,” International Journal of the
History of Sport 29, no. 1 (January 2012): 157–83; Barrie Houlihan, Sport and International Politics (New
York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1994); Keys, Globalizing Sport; Alfred Erich Senn, Power, Politics, and the
Olympic Games: A History of the Power Brokers, Events, and Controversies That Shaped the Games (Cham-
paign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1999).
3 Jessamyn R. Abel, The International Minimum: Creativity and Contradiction in Japan’s Global Engagement,
1933–1964 (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2015), 108–71, 254–59; Sandra S. Collins, The
 1940 Tokyo Games:The Missing Olympics: Japan, the Asian Olympics and the Olympic Movement (New York:
Routledge, 2007).
4 “Dai jūni kai Orimupikku Tokyo kaisai ni kan suru kansō oyobi kakuhōmen e no kibō to chūmon,”
Kaizō 18, no. 9 (September 1936): 297, 299; Suzuki Bunshirō, “Orinpikku to Bankokuhaku: Senden
to kokuminteki kanshin,” Kaizō 20, no. 6 (June 1938): 183–84; Tōru Jin, “Orinpikku to Tokyo no
gesuidō,” Shin toshi 15, no. 2 (February 1961): 39–40; Shintani Yasuyuki, “ ‘2020-nen Tokyo Orinpikku/
Pararinpikku’ kaisai ni mukete,” Gekkan gesuidō 37, no. 1 (January 2014): 20–23.
5 Nakano Shigeharu, “Orinpikku to Nihon,” Nakano Shigeharu zenshū,Vol. 10 (Tokyo: Chikuma Shobō,
1979), 554.
6 Ibid., 555.
7 Ibid., 556–59.
8 International Olympic Committee, The Olympic Games: Fundamental Principles, Rules and Regulations,
General Information (Lausanne, 1962), 47, www.olympic.org/olympic-studies-centre/collections/
official-publications/olympic-charters.
9 Aaron Skabelund, “Public Service/Public Relations: The Mobilization of the Self-Defense Force for
the Tokyo Olympic Games,” in The East Asian Olympiads, 1934–2008: Building Bodies and Nations in
Japan, Korea, and China, ed. William Tsutsui and Michael Baskett (Folkestone: Global Oriental, 2011),
63–76; Christian Tagsold, “The Tōkyō Olympics as a Token of Renationalization,” in Olympic Japan:
Ideals and Realities of (Inter)Nationalism, ed. Andreas Niehaus and Max Seinsch (Würzburg, Germany:
Ergon Verlag, 2007), 111–29.
10 Kitani Yatsushi, “Tokyo Orinpikku o heiwa to yūkō no saiten ni,” Zen’ei 213 (August 1963): 139.
1 1 Ibid.
12 Kitani Yatsushi, “Oten o nokoshita Tokyo Orinpikku,” Zen’ei 229 (December 1964): 150.
1 3 “Kenpō 70-nen: 9-jō kaikenron no ayausa,” Asahi shinbun, May 9, 2017, morning ed., 14.
1 4 “Gorin shōchi, hatajirushi wa ‘fukkō’ 2020-nen,Tokyo-to ga ikō hyōmei,” Asahi shinbun, June 28, 2011,
23.
15 See, for instance, Koide Hiroaki, “Fukushima jiko to Tokyo Orinpikku,” introduced and translated by
Norma Field as “The Fukushima Disaster and the Tokyo Olympics,” The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus
17, no. 3 (March 1, 2019), issue 5, available at https://apjjf.org/2019/05/Koide-Field-Translation.html.
1 6 Shūgiin Honkaigi, “Kokkai kaigiroku kensaku shisutemu,” October 16, 2013, http://kokkai.ndl.go.jp.
1 Simon Creak, “New Regional Order: Sport, Cold War Culture and the Making of Southeast Asia,”
in Spanning and Spinning the Globe: History of Sport in the Cold War, ed. Robert Edelman and Christo-
pher Young (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2020). The Asian Games were also limited to non-
communist countries around this time. See Stefan Huebner, Pan-Asian Sports and the Emergence of
Modern Asia, 1913–1974 (Singapore: NUS Press, 2016).
2 Simon Creak, “Eternal Friends and Erstwhile Enemies: The Sporting Community of the Southeast
Asian Games, 1959–Present,” TRaNS:Trans-Regional and -National Studies of Southeast Asia 5 (1): 147–72.
3 Simon Creak, “Friendship and Mutual Understanding: Sport and Regional Relations in Southeast
Asia,” in The Ideals of Global Sport: From Peace to Human Rights, ed. Barbara Keys (Philadelphia, PA:
University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019), 21–46.
4 Though I do not consider it here, one of the most important aspects of the games are the political-
economic dimensions of organizing such vast events in countries as poor as Laos and Myanmar.
5 Besides sport selection, countries invest more in coaching and preparation when hosting, home crowds
inspire local athletes and rumours abound of biased judging in subjective sport (especially combat
sport) favouring the home athletes.
6 Creak, “Eternal Friends and Erstwhile Enemies.”
7 For the structural characteristics of modern sport, see Allen Guttmann, From Ritual to Record:The Nature
of Modern Sports, Updated ed. (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004).
8 Creak, “Friendship and Mutual Understanding.”
9 Ibid.
10 Simon Creak, “Sport as Politics and History:The 25th SEA Games in Laos,” Anthropology Today 27, no. 1
(2011): 14–19; Simon Creak, Embodied Nation: Sport, Masculinity, and the Making of Modern Laos (Hono-
lulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2015), chapter 8; Simon Creak, “National Restoration, Regional
Prestige: Myanmar’s Southeast Asian Games of 2013,” Journal of Asian Studies 73, no. 4 (2014): 1–21.
11 For examples from the 29th SEA Games in Malaysia, see AFP,“Malaysia Fined $30,000 Over ‘Dog’ Chants
During SEA Games,” Jakarta Post, October 31, 2017, accessed December 10, 2019, www.thejakartapost.
com/news/2017/10/31/malaysia-fined-30000-over-dog-chants-during-sea-games.html; AFP, “SEA
 Games:Myanmar Fans Beaten Up at Football Stadium,”August 22,2017,accessed December 10,2019,www.
channelnewsasia.com/news/sport/sea-games-myanmar-fans-beaten-up-at-football-stadium-9147524.
12 As Frederick Barthes wrote, identity is strongest near the boundary. Fredrik Barth, “Introduction,”
Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Cultural Difference (Bergen-Oslo and London:
Universitets Forlaget and George Allen & Unwin, 1969). For elaboration with respect to the SEA
Games, see Creak, “Sport as Politics and History.”
13 Creak,“National Restoration”; For the emergence of “Southeast Asia”, see Donald Emmerson,“South-
east Asia: What’s in a Name?” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 15, no. 1 (1984): 10.
14 Cf. Huebner, Pan Asian Sports, who suggests state nationalism and nation branding took precedence
over Pan-Asian sentiments in the early Asian Games.
1 “4th Asian Indoor Games, Doha Withdrawn,” Olympic Council of Asia, June 30, 2008, accessed July 20,
2019, www.ocasia.org/News/GetNewsbyNewsID?q=b3jYDnEtuw7x/GwZGnrF/XR2PF55l+aCL
gRsXW964p0=.
2 Michael Pavitt, “Thailand to Launch Bid for 2021 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games,” Insidethe-
games.biz, October 26, 2015, accessed July 23, 2019, www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1031168/
thailand-to-launch-bid-for-2021-asian-indoor-and-marital-arts-games.
3 Siyu Cao et al., “Research on Asian Indoor Games,” Sport Culture Guide 10 (2013): 67–70.
4 “OCA President Hails ‘Best Ever’ AIMAG at Ashgabat 2017 Closing Ceremony,” Olympic Council of
Asia, September 27, 2017, accessed July 23, 2019, www.ocasia.org/News/GetNewsbyNewsID?q=TV
Qj6i+m8PkKsB9I05HSZsT2fOIYLBsIbIJOQS8WrQc=.
5 “E-Sports Will Be a Sport Event at 2007 Asian Indoor Games,” Sina.com, accessed July 23, 2019, http://
games.sina.com.cn/e/n/2006-06-08/1702154457.shtml.
6 “Results of Macau, 2nd Asian Indoor Games,” Sina.com, accessed July 23, 2019, http://maigoc2007.
sports.sina.com.cn/php/item_result.php?lan=en&s=20.
7 Yawei Lai, “Study on Function and Impact on the Development of Macau Society by Holding Large-
Scale Sport Events” (PhD diss., Beijing Sport University, 2013).
8 Youli Huang, “A Study of the Development Strategy of Macau Sports in the Framework of One
Country Two Systems” (PhD diss., Beijing Sports University, 2009).
9 “About IESF,” IESF, accessed July 20, 2019, www.ie-sf.org/iesf/.
1 0 “OCA Games,” Olympic Council of Asia, accessed July 20, 2019, www.ocasia.org/Game/Games.
1 Paul B. Brannagan and Robert Giulianotti, “Soft Power and Soft Disempowerment: Qatar, Global
Sport and Football’s 2022 World Cup Finals,” Leisure Studies 34, no. 6 (2015): 703–19.
2 Ben Weinberg, “The Future Is Asia? The Role of the Asian Football Confederation in the Governance
and Development of Football in Asia,” The International Journal of the History of Sport 29, no. 4 (2012):
535–52.
3 Following the 2004 Asian Cup in China, the AFC decided to move the competition to a year without
Summer Olympic Games and European Football Championships. It was next held in 2007, co-hosted
by Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam.
4 Torbjörn Andersson, “The 1958 World Cup in Sweden. Between Modernity and Idyll,” in The FIFA
World Cup 1930–2010, ed. Stefan Rinke and Kay Schiller (Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag, 2012), 142–61.
5 Kevin Moore, “A Second ‘Maracanazo’? The 2014 FIFA World Cup in Historical Perspective,” Sport in
Society 20, no. 5–6 (2017): 555–71.
6 An official video history of the competition released by the AFC in January 2015 omitted any mention
of the 1964 tournament. Michael Safi, “Israel Omission from Asian Cup Video Embarrasses Asian Foot-
ball Confederation,” The Guardian, January 22, 2015, www.theguardian.com/football/2015/jan/22/
israel-omission-from-asian-cup-video-embarrasses-asian-football-confederation.
7 Ben Weinberg, Asia and the Future of Football:The Role of the Asian Football Confederation (London: Rout-
ledge, 2015), 63.
8 See the chapter on the Olympic Council of Asia in this Handbook.
9 Huochang E. Chehabi, “The Politics of Football in Iran,” Soccer & Society 7, no. 2 (2006): 233–61.
10 Israel qualified for the 1972 Asian Cup in Thailand but later withdrew.
11 Weinberg, “The Future Is Asia?”
12 Yair Galily and Tal Samuel-Azran, “Israel,” in The Palgrave International Handbook of Football and Politics,
ed. Jean-Michel De Waele, Suzan Gibril, Ekaterina Gloriozova, and Ramon Spaaij (Champaign: Pal-
grave Macmillan, 2017), 269–84.
13 China had actually been invited to participate at the 1952 Helsinki Olympic Games. However, the Chi-
nese football team only arrived after the competition had already been held. Taiwan was disappointed
 by the IOC resolution and withdrew from the 1952 Helsinki Olympics in protest. Alan Bairner and
Dong-Jhy Hwang, “Representing Taiwan: International Sport, Ethnicity and National Identity in the
Republic of China,” International Review for the Sociology of Sport 46, no. 3 (2010): 231–48.
1 4 Weinberg, Asia and the Future of Football, 87.
15 “Political Tensions Lead to Cancellation of Football Matches,” Insidethegames, September 29, 2017,
www.insidethegames.biz/articles/search?q=%22Asian+Cup%22&sort=date.
16 Tariq Panja, “Top Qatari Soccer Official Barred From Tournament in U.A.E.,” New York Times, Janu-
ary 3, 2019, www.nytimes.com/2019/01/03/sports/qatar-soccer-asian-cup.html.
17 AP, “With Shoes and Insults Flying, Qatar Beats U.A.E. and Advances to Asian Cup Final,” New York
Times, January 29, 2019, www.nytimes.com/2019/01/29/sports/qatar-uae-boycott-asian-cup.html.
18 Diane Taylor, “British Man Detained in UAE After Wearing Qatar Football Shirt to Match,” The
Guardian, February 5, 2019, www.theguardian.com/world/2019/feb/05/british-man-detained-in-
uae-after-wearing-qatar-football-t-shirt-to-match.
19 David Rowe, “The AFC Asian Cup: Continental Competition, Global Disposition,” in Sport, Media and
Mega-Events, ed. Lawrence A. Wenner and Andrew C. Billings (London: Routledge, 2017), 185–98.
20 Anthony Bubalo, “Football diplomacy” (Paper of the Lowy Institute for International Policy, 2005).
21 N. David Pifer, “Asian Football Confederation,” in Routledge Handbook of Football Business and Man-
agement, ed. Simon Chadwick, Daniel Parnell, Paul Widdop, and Christos Anagnostopoulos (London:
Routledge, 2018), 473–84.
1 Official Website of BOC, accessed June 12, 2019, www.olympic.cn/games/summer/summer/2010/
0210/24918.html.
2 Official Website of the Olympic Games, accessed July 4, 2019, www.olympic.org/beijing-2008.
3 Official Website of BOC.
4 Beijing Organising Committee for the Games of the XXIX Olympiad (BOCOG), Preparation for the
Games: New Beijing Great Olympics -Official Report of the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games,Volume 3 (Beijing:
Beijing Sport University Press, 2010).
5 Official Website of BOC.
6 Ibid.
7 Ibid.
8 Official Website of the Olympic Games.
9 Official Website of BOC.
1 0 Ibid.
1 1 BOCOG, Beijing Olympics Report.
12 Official Website of BOC.
13 Official Website of the Olympic Games.
1 4 BOCOG, Beijing Olympics Report, vol. 3.
15 Ibid.
16 International Olympic Committee (IOC), The International Olympic Committee Marketing Report: Beijing
2008 (Lausanne: International Olympic Committee, 2009).
17 Ge Min, “The Olympic Economy in China: A Study of the Beijing Olympic Games” (PhD diss., Uni-
versity of Western Australia, 2016).
18 Harald Dolles and Sten Soderman, “Sponsoring as a Strategy to Enter, Develop, and Defend Markets:
Advertising Patterns of the Beijing Olympic Games’ Sponsoring Partners,” in Asian Inward and Outward
FDI: New Challenges in Global Economy, ed. Claes Alvstan, Harald Dolles, and Patrik Strom (London:
Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 36.
19 Min, “The Olympic Economy in China.”
20 John Davis, The Olympic Games Effect: How Sports Marketing Builds Strong Brands (Singapore: John
Wiley & Sons, 2012).
21 Ibid.
22 BOCOG, Beijing Olympics Report, vol. 3.
23 Ibid.
24 Min, “The Olympic economy in China.”
25 Ibid.
26 International Olympic Committee (IOC). The Olympic Marketing Fact File: 2012 Edition (Lausanne:
International Olympic Committee, 2012).
27 International Olympic Committee (IOC). The International Olympic Committee Marketing Report: Beijing
2008 (Lausanne: International Olympic Committee, 2009).
2 8 Min, “The Olympic Economy in China.”
29 IOC, Marketing Fact File: 2012.
30 International Olympic Committee (IOC). The Olympic Marketing Fact File: 2014 Edition (Lausanne:
International Olympic Committee, 2014).
31 Min, “The Olympic Economy in China.”
32 Curt Hamakawa and Elizabeth Elam, “Beijing Olympics: Games of Epic Proportion,” Journal of Business
Cases and Applications no. 3 (2011): 1–11.
33 IOC, Marketing Report.
34 BOCOG, Beijing Olympics Report, vol. 3.
35 Jinxia Dong and J. A. Mangan, “Beijing Olympic Legacies: Certain Intentions and Certain and Uncer-
tain Outcomes,” in Olympic Legacies: Intended and Unintended, ed. J. A. Mangan and Mark Dyreson
(London: Routledge, 2013), 136–57.
36 BOCOG, Beijing Olympics Report, vol. 3.
37 Min, “The Olympic Economy in China.”
38 Dong and Mangan, “Beijing Olympic Legacies,” 136–57.
39 Xin Tieliang, New Beijing, Great Olympics (Beijing: Beijing Publishing Press, 2006).
40 Beijing Organising Committee for the Games of the XXIX Olympiad (BOCOG), Ceremonies and
Competitions: Celebration of the Games-Official Report of the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games,Volume 2 (Beijing:
Beijing Sport University Press, 2010).
41 Min, “The Olympic Economy in China.”
42 Dong and Mangan, “Beijing Olympic Legacies,” 136–57.
43 Ibid.
44 Min, “The Olympic Economy in China.”
45 Hengming Qiu, “The Bill of the Olympic Games,” China Investment no. 8 (2008): 40–59.
46 National Bureau of Statistics of China, China Statistical Year Book 2007 (Beijing: China Statistics Press,
2007).
47 Ferran Brunet and Zuo Xinwen, The Economy of the Beijing Olympic Games: An Analysis of First Impacts
and Prospects (Barcelona: Centre d’Estudis Olímpics, UAB, 2009).
48 Qiu, “The Bill of the Olympics,” 40–59.
49 Ibid.
50 Davis, The Olympic Games Effect.
51 BOCOG, Beijing Olympics Report, vol. 2.
52 Ibid.
53 Ibid.
54 Wang and Masumoto, Olympic Education, 31–41.
55 Richard Holt and Dino Ruta, eds., Routledge Handbook of Sport and Legacy: Meeting the Challenge of Major
Sport Events (London: Routledge, 2015).
56 Beijing Organising Committee for the Games of the XXIX Olympiad (BOCOG), Preparation for the
Games: New Beijing Great Olympics -Official Report of the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games,Volume 3 (Beijing:
Beijing Sport University Press, 2010).
57 BOCOG, Beijing Olympics Report, vol. 2.
58 International Olympic Committee (IOC). Final Report of The IOC Coordination Commission: Games of
the XXIX Olympiad, Beijing 2008 (Lausanne: International Olympic Committee, 2010).
59 Holt and Ruta, Challenge of Major Sport Events.
60 Min, “The Olympic Economy in China.”
61 BOCOG, Beijing Olympics Report, vol. 1.
62 Ibid.
63 Huijuan Cao, Hidemichi Fujii, and Shunsuke Managi, “Environmental Impact of the 2008 Beijing
Olympic Games,” Economics Discussion Papers no. 30 (2013).
64 Min, “The Olympic Economy in China.”
65 Ibid.
1 Maurice Roche, Mega-Events Modernity: Olympics and Expos in the Growth of Global Culture (London and
New York: Routledge, 2000); Alan Bairner, Sport, Nationalism and Globalization (New York: State Univer-
sity of New York Press, 2001); Toby Miller et al., Globalization and Sport: Playing the World (London: Sage,
2001); John Horne and Wolfram Manzenreiter, eds., Japan, Korea and the 2002 World Cup (London: Rout-
ledge, 2002); Brian Bridges,“The Seoul Olympics: Economic Miracle Meets the World,” The International
Journal of the History of Sport 25, no. 14 (2008): 1939–52; Jung Woo Lee and Joseph Maguire, “Global
 Festivals Through a National Prism: The Global-National Nexus in South Korean Media Coverage of
the 2004 Athens Olympic Games,” International Review for the Sociology of Sport 44, no. 1 (2009): 5–24; J.
A. Mangan, Gwang Ok, and Kyoungho Park, “From the Destruction of Image to the Reconstruction
of Image: A Sports Mega-Event and the Resurgence of a Nation – the Politics of Sport Exemplified,”
International Journal of the History of Sport 28, no. 16 (2011): 2339–64; Jonathan Grix and Barrie Houlihan,
“Sports Mega-Events as Part of a Nation’s Soft Power Strategy: The Cases of Germany (2006) and the
UK (2012),” The British Journal of Politics and International Relations 16, no. 4 (2014): 572–96.
2 James F. Larson and Heung-Soo Park, Global Television and the Politics of the Seoul Olympics (Boulder, CO:
Westview Press, 1993); H.Y. Kim and T. S. Lim, “The Influences of Seoul Olympics on the Political and
Diplomatic Changes in Korea,” Journal of the Korean Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and
Dance 33, no. 2 (1994): 200–13; W.Y. Ha, “Korean Sports in the 1980s and the Seoul Olympic Games
of 1988” (PhD diss., Pennsylvania State University, 1997); Seon-Jong Kim, “Sport and Politics in the
Republic of Korea” (PhD diss., University of Surrey, 2000); Bridges, “The Seoul Olympics: Economic
Miracle,” 1939–52; Jihyun Cho and Alan Bairner, “The sociocultural legacy of the 1988 Seoul Olympic
Games,” Leisure Studies 31, no. 3 (2012): 271–89.
3 Korea Times, October 5, 2001, cited in John Horne and Wolfram Manzenreiter, “Accounting for
Mega- Events: Forecast and Actual Impacts of the 2002 Football World Cup Finals on the Host Coun-
ties Japan/Korea,” International Review for the Sociology of Sport 39, no. 2 (2004): 191.
4 John Horne and Wolfram Manzenreiter, “An Introduction to the Sociology of Sports Mega-Events,”
Sociological Review 54, no. 2 (2006): 1–24.
5 Horne and Manzenreiter, “Introduction to the Sociology of Sports Mega-Events.”
6 M. Malfas, B. Houlihan, and T. Eleni, “Impacts of the Olympic Games as Mega-Events,” Municipal Engi-
neer 157, no. 3 (2004): 209–220.
7 Myung Gon Kim, interviewed by Jihyun Cho, June 30 2008.
8 Horne and Manzenreiter, “Accounting for Mega- Events,” 193.
9 Newsweek, June 17, 2002, cited in Horne and Manzenreiter, “Accounting for Mega- Events,” 193.
10 Horne and Manzenreiter, “Accounting for Mega- Events.”
11 Peter Donnelly, “The Local and the Global: Globalization in the Sociology of Sport,” Journal of Sport
and Social Issues 20, no. 3 (1996): 239–57.
12 Joseph Maguire, “Sport Identity Politics, and Globalization: Diminishing Contrasts and Increasing Vari-
eties,” Sociology of Sport Journal 11, no. 4 (1994): 400.
1 3 Ibid., 401–2.
14 Gun-Man Park Interviewed by Jihyun Cho, July 17, 2008.
15 Myung-Woo Roh Interviewed by Jihyun Cho, July 24, 2007.
16 Yong-Soo Park Interviewed by Jihyun Cho, July 22, 2008.
17 Miller et al., Globalization and Sport.
18 Professor Roh Mung-Woo, interviewed by Jihyun Cho, July 24, 2007.
19 Myung-Gon Kim Interviewed by Jihyun Cho, June 30, 2008.
20 Burn-Jang Lim Interviewed by Jihyun Cho, July 9, 2008.
2 1 Roche, Mega-Events Modernity, 224.
22 Myung-Gon Kim Interviewed by Jihyun Cho, June 30, 2008.
2 3 Roche, Mega-Events Modernity, 225.
24 Jihyun Cho, “Life After Judo: An Examination of the Life Experience and Post-Retirement Career
Choices of South Korean Judo Olympic Medallists,” Asia Pacific Journal of Sport and Social Science 1, no.
2–3 (2012): 156–65.
1 Max Walden, “Indonesia Pins Great Economic Hopes on Asian Games,” Voice of America, updated
August 17, 2018, accessed October 8, 2019, www.voanews.com/east-asia-pacific/indonesia-pins-great-
economic-hopes-asian-games.
2 Liang Shen, Traditional Wushu and Health Self-Defense (Shanghai: Shanghai University Press, 2018), 20–21.
3 “Wushu Can’t Be Developed Without Chinese Support,” China Daily, updated February 8, 2010,
accessed November 1, 2019, www.chinadaily.com.cn/2010-02/08/content_9444802.htm.
4 “China’s Foreign Aid Coach Promote Wushu,” People Network, accessed December 12, 2019, http://
sports.sina.com.cn.
1 Yu Chen, “Liu Changchun, China’s First Olympic Man,” Lantai Shijie 7 (2010): 57–58.
2 Zou Jihao, “The History of China’s First Olympic Athlete,” Sina.com, April 29, 2008, accessed July 23,
2019, http://ent.sina.com.cn/m/2008-04-29/09502008028.shtml.
3 Guanghong Zhang, “Liu Changchun’s Olympic Life,” China Science Daily, July 3, 2019, 6.
 4 Sheng Li, “Liu Changchun, the first to represent China in Olympic competition,” Sport History 5, no. 1
(1984): 34–35.
5 Andrew Morris, “I Can Compete! China in the Olympic Games, 1932 and 1936,” Journal of Sport His-
tory 26, no. 3 (1999): 545–66, 547.
6 Shuzhen Fang, “Review of the Olympic Memory in Modern China,” Journal of Physical Education 18,
no. 1 (2011): 71–74, 72.
7 “The New Country Will Send Players to Participate in the World Games,” Taidong Daily, May 25, 1932.
8 “Manchukuo Will Send Liu Changchun to Participate in the World Games,” Taidong Daily, May 30,
1932.
9 Chen, “Liu Changchun, China’s First Olympic Man,” 57.
10 Xuehai Zhang, “A Study of Liu Changchun’s Sports Thought,” Guizhou Sports Science and Technology
130, no. 1 (2018): 11–14, 12.
11 Liu Changchun, “The Whole Story of My Representing China at the Tenth Olympic Games,” in
The Olympics and China, ed. Ji Hongmin and Yu Xingmao (Beijing: Literature and History Publishing
House, 1985), 64.
12 Zhang, “Liu Changchun’s Olympic Life.”
13 Morris, “I Can Compete!” 548.
14 Yin Wu, “Liu Changchun – the First Chinese to Participate in the Olympics,” Yanhuan Chunqiu no. 7
(2001): 58–61.
15 Min Pan, “The Report of China’s First Participate in the Olympics,” Journal of News Research 5, no. 5
(2014): 67.
16 Bo Zhang, The Olympic Memory of Modern China (Tianjing: Tianjing Ancient Books Press, 2008),
117–206.
1 Max Karundeng, Pasang Surut Supremasi Bulu Tangkis Indonesia (Jakarta: Penerbit Sinar Harapan,
1980), 3.
2 C. Brown, “Playing the Game: Ethnicity and Politics in Indonesia Badminton,” Indonesia 81 (2006):
71–94.
3 Sabaruddin Sa, “Tjoa Seng Tiang,” in Sabaruddin Sa, Apa & Siapa: Sejumlah Orang Bulutangkis Indonesia
(Jakarta: Jurnalindo Aksara Grafika, 1994), 343–44.
4 Peng Han Lim and Mohd Salleh Aman, “The History of Modern Organized Badminton and the Men’s
Team Thomas Cup Tournaments,” The International Journal of the History of Sport 34, no. 7–8 (2017):
678–96.
5 Brown, “Playing the Game.”
6 Sejarah Olahraga Indonesia (Jakarta: Direktorat Jendral Olahraga, 2003), 231.
7 “Sejarah di Balik Nama Piala Sudirman,” CNN Indonesia, May 18, 2019, accessed July, 2, 2019, www.
cnnindonesia.com/olahraga/20190518144911-170-395995/sejarah-di-balik-nama-piala-sudirman.
8 Ibid.
9 Malcolm Ganner, World Badminton Almanac,Vol. 1 (Hants: M. G. Books, 1985), 241.
10 Sejarah Olahraga Indonesia, 234.
11 Alois A. Nugroho, Rajawali dengan Jurus Padi (Jakarta: Gramedia, 1986), 7.
12 Ibid., 22.
13 Ibid., 10.
14 Ibid., 23.
15 Antara Pustaka Utama, 99 Tokoh Olahraga Indonesia Catatan Satu Abad (1908–2008) (Jakarta: Antara
Pustaka Utama, 2009), 83.
16 Interview with Oei Wijanarko Adi Mulya (Head of PBSI in East Java Province), May 9, 2019.
17 Nugroho, Rajawali dengan Jurus Padi, 62.
18 Ibid., 25.
19 Ibid., 63.
20 Ibid., 64.
21 Ibid., 68.
22 Editor, “Rudy Hartono Cs Hari ini Tiba Di Indonesia,” Suara Merdeka, March 28, 1968, 2.
23 Editor, “Rudy Gagal; Pri Juara,” Suara Merdeka, March 24, 1975, 4.
24 Editor, “Rudy Janji Ambil Revanche Tahun Depan,” Suara Merdeka, March 26, 1975, 4.
25 Editor, “Rekor, All England Pecah; Rudy Hartono 8 Kali Juara,” Suara Merdeka, March 29, 1976, 1.
26 Nugroho, Rajawali dengan Jurus Padi, 215–30.
27 Interview with Oei Wijanarko Adi Mulya (Head of PBSI in East Java Province), May, 9, 2019.
 28 Nugroho, Rajawali dengan Jurus Padi, 227.
29 Wisnu Subagyo, Ferry Sonneville Karya dan Pengabdian (Jakarta: Direktorat Sejarah dan Nilai Tradisional.
1984), 57.
30 Buku Pedoman PBSI, Pengurus Besar PBSI Pusat, 1978, pp. 10–24.
31 Subagyo, Ferry Sonneville Karya dan Pengabdian, 64.
32 Ibid., 115.
33 Ibid., 59.
34 Ibid., 65.
35 Ibid.
36 Editor, “Rudy Enam Kali Juara Berturut-turut,” Suara Karya, March 26, 1973.
37 Nugroho, Rajawali dengan Jurus Padi, 49.
38 “Indonesia Miliki 1128 Suku Bangsa,” JPNN.com, February 3, 2010, accessed June 29, 2019, www.jpnn.
com/news/indonesia-miliki-1128-suku-bangsa.
39 Yerry Wiryawan, Basis (Yogyakarta: Kanisius, 2019), 19.
40 Ibid.
41 Rusli Lutan, Tahir Djide Hidup dan Karyanya dalam Bulutangkis (Bandung: Remaja Rosdakarya,
2013), 20.
42 Ibid.
43 Ibid., 156.
44 Agus Muttaqin, “Visualisasi Perjuangan Ivana Lie Meraih Kewarganegaraan (1),” Jawa Pos, February 7,
2002.
45 Jason Tedjasukmana, “60 Years of Asian Heroes,” Time Magazine, November 13, 2006, accessed May 2,
2019, www.time.com/time/asia/2006/heroes/ae_hartono.html.
46 Editor, “Rudy A  Wonderful Boy,” Suara Merdeka, March 25, 1969, 1.
47 Antara Pustaka Utama, 99 Tokoh Olahraga Indonesia Catatan Satu Abad (1908–2008), 82.
48 Lutan, Tahir Djide Hidup dan Karyanya dalam Bulutangkis, 21.
49 James A. Sterba, “Badminton Champion Is Indonesia’s Hero,” New York Times, March 29, 1972, 50.
50 Tedjasukmana, “60 Years of Asian Heroes.”
51 Interview with Rudy Hartono by telephone, June 19, 2019.
52 Ibid.
53 Subagyo, Ferry Sonneville Karya dan Pengabdian, 52.
1 Jasvinder Sidhu, “Rio Olympics: Dipa Karmakar, Flat Feet to Top Flip of the World,” Hindustan Times,
August 8, 2016, accessed June 7, 2019, www.hindustantimes.com/other-sports/rio-olympics-dipa-
karmakar-flat-feet-to-top-flip-of-the-world/story-5uMQEapMbRUWxuCcUGiCbO.html.
2 Avantan Chowdary, “Dipa Karmakar and the Vault of Life,” New Indian Express, July 30, 2018, accessed
June 7, 2019, www.newindianexpress.com/sport/asian-games/news/2018/jul/30/dipa-karmakar-and-
the-vault-of-life-1850509.html.
3 PTI, “Rio Games: Dipa Karmakar Misses the Bronze by a Whisker,” Times of India, August 15,

2016, accessed June 7, 2019, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/rio-2016-olympics/india-
in-olympics-2016/gymnastics/Rio-Games-Dipa-Karmakar-misses-bronze-by-a-whisker/article
show/53702292.cms.
4 Nidhi Sethi, “Dipa Karmakar, Sakshi Malik Among 53 Indians on Forbes’ ‘Under 30’ Achievers

List,” NDTV, April 17, 2017, accessed June 6, 2019, www.ndtv.com/india-news/dipa-karmakar-
sakshi-malik-among-53-indians-on-forbes-under-30-achievers-list-1682275.
5 Nandi Bishweshwar, Deo Digvijay Singh, and Mohan Vimal, Dipa Karmakar: The Small Wonder (New
Delhi: Finger Print, 2018).
6 Rebello Maleeva, “Apart from Bringing Accolades to the Nation, Pv Sindhu,Tendulkar Dipa Karmakar
Have Postal Stamps to Their Credit Too,” Economic Times, May 11, 2018, accessed June 6, 2019, https://
economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/apart-from-bringing-accolades-to-the-nation-pv-
sindhu-tendulkar-dipa-karmakar-have-postal-stamps-to-their-credit- too/articleshow/64123339.cms.
1 Charles Russo, Striking Distance: Bruce Lee and the Dawn of Martial Arts in America (Nebraska: University
of Nebraska Press, 2016), 29.
2 Ibid.
3 Ibid., 32, 53–55.
4 Bruce Thomas, Bruce Lee: Fighting Spirit (North Atlantic Books, 1994), 33.
5 Russo, Striking Distance, 67.
6 Ibid., 78.
 7 Ibid., 104.
8 Ibid., 129.
9 Ibid., 145.
1 0 Thomas, Bruce Lee, 75, 77.
11 Pierre-François Peirano, “The Multiple Facets of Enter the Dragon (Robert Clouse, 1973),” InMedia,
the French Journal of Media Studies 3 (2013), https://journals.openedition.org/inmedia/613.
1 2 Bruce Lee, Tao of Jeet Kune Do (Ohara Publications, Black Belt Communications LLC, 1975), 5; “The
Libraries of Famous Men: Bruce Lee,” Art of Manliness (Blog), October 7, 2018, accessed September 14,
2019, www.artofmanliness.com/articles/the-libraries-of-famous-men-bruce-lee/.
1 3 Ibid
1 4 Ibid., 7.
1 5 Ibid., 12.
1 6 Russo, Striking Distance, 112.
1 7 Lee, Tao of Jeet Kune Do, 12, his emphasis.
1 8 Ibid., 24–25.
1 9 Russo, Striking Distance, 9.
2 0 Paul Bowman, Beyond Bruce Lee: Chasing the Dragon Through Film, Philosophy, and Popular Culture (New
York: Columbia University Press), 3.
2 1 Russo, Striking Distance, 145.
1 Brook Larmer, “The Center of the World,” Foreign Policy no. 150 (2005): 66–74.
2 Judy Polumbaum, “From Evangelism to Entertainment: The YMCA, the NBA, and the Evolution of
Chinese Basketball,” Modern Chinese Literature and Culture 14, no. 1(2002): 178–230.
3 Katherine L. Lavelle, “Yao Ming and Masculinity in Middle America: A Critical Discourse Analysis of
Racial Representations in NBA Game Commentary” (PhD diss., Wayne State University, 2006).
4 Ibid.
5 Lin Luo,Yongguan Dai, and Fuhua Huang, “Glocalization and the Rise of the Chinese Basketball Mar-
ket,” The International Journal of the History of Sport 32, no. 10 (2015): 1321–35.
6 Associated Press, “Rockets Retiring Yao Ming’s No. 11 Jersey,” USA Today, February 3, 2017, accessed
June 20, 2018, www.usatoday.com/story/sports/nba/2017/02/03/rockets-retiring-yao-mings-no-11-
jersey/97466476/.
7 Michael Wan, “Chinese Basketball Fans Will Always Thank Yao Ming,” ESPN, September 9, 2016,
accessed June 20, 2018, www.espn.com/nba/story//id/17503441/what-yao-ming-means-basketball-
fans-china-2016-nba-hall-fame.
8 Fuhua Huang and Fan Hong, “Globalization and the Governance of Chinese Sports: The Case of Pro-
fessional Basketball,” The International Journal of the History of Sport 32, no. 8 (2015): 1030–43.
1 Fan Hong and Tan Hua, “Sport in China: Conflict Between Tradition and Modernity, 1840s to 1930s,”
The International Journal of the History of Sport 19, no. 2–3 (2002): 189–212.
2 Shiming Luo, Olympics Came to China (Beijing: Tsinghua University Press, 2005), 1–10.
3 Ellen Caughey, Run to Glory:The Story of Eric Liddell (Uhrichsville: Barbour Books, 2017).
4 “Eric Liddell Departs for China,” Dundee Evening Telegraph, June 29, 1925, 1.
5 “Rugby Career,” Eric Liddell Centre, accessed September 9, 2018, www.ericliddell.org/about-us/
eric-liddell/rugby-career/.
6 Caughey, Run to Glory, 52.
7 “The Man Who Wouldn’t Run on a Sunday: Eric Liddell in the SOAS Archives,” SOAS University of
London, August 1, 2014, accessed September 10, 2018, https://blogs.soas.ac.uk/archives/2014/08/01/
the-man-who-wouldn%E2%80%99t-run-on-a-sunday-eric-liddell-in-the-soas-archives/.
8 “Eric Liddell, First ‘Chinese’ Olympic Champion,” AsiaNews, August 1, 2008, accessed September 10,
2018, www.asianews.it/news-en/Eric-Liddell,-first-Chinese-Olympic-champion-12909.html.
9 John W. Keddie, Running the Race: Eric Liddell–Olympic Champion and Missionary (Faverdale North:
Evangelical Press, 2007), 110–32.
1 0 Ibid., 112–13.
1 1 D. P. Thomson, Eric H. Liddell: Athlete and Missionary (Grieff: Research Unit, 1971), 55.
1 2 David McCasland, Pure Gold: The Olympic Champion Who Inspired Chariots of Fire (Grand Rapids, MI:
Discovery House, 2001), Foreword.
13 Tianjin Municipal Television, “Eric Liddell, Olympic Champion Born in Tianjin,” 2012, www.you
tube.com/watch?v=OvzFxqpTxMI.
1 4 Licheng Zhou, Foreigners in Old Tianjin (Tianjin: Tianjin People’s Press, 2007), 180.
 15 Culture and History Committee of Weifang People’s Political Consultative Conference, The Weihsien
Internment Camp (Beijing: China Culture and History Press, 2015), 321–23, 364.
16 Xinping Wan, Historical Figures in Modern Tianjin (Tianjin: Tianjin People’s Press, 2016), 118.
17 James H. Taylor, “Pure Gold–Foreword,” Weihsien-paintings.org (Blog), accessed August 28, 2018, www.
weihsien-paintings.org/NormanCliff/people/individuals/Eric01/PureGold/txt_foreword.htm.
18 Tianjin Municipal Television, “Eric Liddell.”
19 “Physical Education in Anglo-Chinese College,” 1929 Annual of Tianjin Anglo-Chinese College, Tianjin
Municipal Archives, archive no. 252-1-2-2550.
20 “Physical Education in Anglo-Chinese College,” 1937 Annual of Tianjin Anglo-Chinese College, Tianjin
Municipal Archives, archive no. 252-1-2-2554.
21 Wenji Yu, A Biography of Eric Liddell: The Olympic Champion and Educationist Born in China (Tianjin:
China Social Sciences Press, 2009), 57.
22 Kun Geng, “What Will the New Minyuan Stadium Look Like?” Tianjin Daily, July 5, 2012, 8.
23 Ibid.
24 Tianjin Municipal Television, “Eric Liddell.”
25 Huijie Zhang, Fan Hong, and Fuhua Huang, Christianity and the Transformation of Physical Education and
Sport in China (London: Routledge, 2017), 53–58.
26 The Culture and History Office of the Sport Committee of Tianjin, Chronicle of Sport in Modern Tianjin
(1840–1949) (Tianjin: Tianjin People’s Press, 1990), 61.
27 Tianjin Municipal Television, “Eric Liddell.”
28 Tieying Gong, “Eric Liddell: The China-UK Ambassador,” China Daily, January 6, 2012, 23; The Press
Office of Tianjin, “ ‘Seize the Moment to Get Close to the People: A Case Study of Li Airui and Tian-
jin,” Foreign Communication no. 2 (2013): 50–51.
29 Yu, A Biography of Eric Liddell, 158.
30 President of Tianjin No. 17 Middle School Zu Jianwang’s speech before the start of the Beijing Olym-
pics, quoted in Yu, A Biography of Eric Liddell, 160.
31 Gong, “Eric Liddell: The China-UK Ambassador,” 23.
32 AsiaNews, “Eric Liddell, First ‘Chinese’ Olympic Champion.”
33 Press Office of Tianjin, “Seize the Moment,” 50–51.
34 “The Memorial to Eric Liddell,” The Old Elthamians’ Magazine 2, no. 12 (1991): 13–14.
35 Chinese Embassy UK, “Eric Liddell and Tianjin Photo Exhibition Held in London,” November 5,
2011, accessed February 24, 2019, www.chinese-embassy.org.uk/eng/EmbassyNews/2011/t876930.
htm.
36 “Eric Liddell and Tianjin,” China Daily, accessed November 4, 2018, www.chinadaily.com.cn/m/
static/2011tianjin/tianjin_ericliddell.pdf.
1 “Segye 1wi Ko jin-young, Lee jung-eun 6, BMW Ladies Championship” [Ko Jin-young and Lee Jung-
eun, World No. 1 & 6, Participated in BMW Ladies Championship], Mail Daily, October 14, 2019.
2 They are the generation of female golfers who became golf players under the influence of Seri Pak.
3 “Golfga insaengui jeonbuyeotdeon Park Se-ri, geuleona geolgijlmothaetda” [Pak Se-ri,Whose Life Was
All About Golf: But I Didn’t Enjoy It], Hankuk Daily, August 9, 2019.
4 Ibid.
5 “Golf 93 Tomboy open daehoe yeogo1nyeonsaeng Park, Se-ri useung yeonjangjeon kkeut Kim, Sun-
mi mullichyeo” [Pak Se-ri, a High School Freshman, Beat Kim Sun-mi in Extra Time and Won the
Tomboy Open in 1993], Donga Daily, May 2, 1993.
6 Park Ho-yun, “Golf seonsu Park Se-ri” [Golfer Park Se-ri], Navercast, 2019, https://terms.naver.com/
entry.nhn?docId=3567468&cid=59118&categoryId=59118.
7 Kim Ok Hyun, “A Study on Globalization Process of Korean Women’s Golf: Focusing on Appadurai’s
Theory” (Unpublished PhD diss., Konkuk University, Seoul, 2017).
8 “Park Se-ri greenyeowang deunggeuk” [Pak Se-ri Becomes Queen of Green], Hangyeole Daily, May 19,
1998.
9 “Park Se-ri greenui sinhwaleul mandeulda” [Pak Se-ri to Make a Legend of Green], Donga Daily, July 8,
1998.
10 Park Ho-yun, “Golf seonsu Park Se-ri” [Golfer Park Se-ri], Navercast, 2009, https://terms.naver.com/
entry.nhn?docId=3567468&cid=59118&categoryId=59118.
11 “Yeoja golf renaissance gaecheokja Park Se-ri” [Pak Se-ri, the Pioneer of Women’s Golf Renaissance],
Ilgan-Sports Daily, October 2, 2019.
 12 “Maeumdo seongjanghan seri kids geuligo hansuiseontae” [The Mature Pak Se-ri Kids, and the Choice
of Jang Ha-na], Ajukyeongje Daily, May 30, 2017.
1 Nagaraddi B. Mallanna and Dr Shivasharanappa Prasannakumar, “Dhyan Chand: Field Hockey Player,”
International Journal of Physical Education, Sports and Health 3, no. 6 (2016): 327–31.
2 Seline Augustine, “Dhyan Chand: Wizard of Hockey,” The Hindu, January 5, 2019, www.thehindu.com/
children/wizard-of-hockey/article25919555.ece.
3 Bhushan Niket, Dhyan Chand:The Legend Lives On (New Delhi: Wiley Eastern, 1992).
4 Dhyan Chand, Goal: An Autobiography with Hockey Hints (Chennai: Sports Star THG, 2018).
5 Indranil Basu, “Dhyan Chand’s 1936 Berlin Olympics Magic Caught on Nazi Filmmaker’s Camera,”
Times of India, August 29, 2013, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/hockey/top-stories/Dhyan-
Chands-1936-Berlin-Olympics-magic-caught-on-Nazi-filmmakers-camera/articleshow/22127611.
cms.
1 Lijuan Liang, He Zhenliang and China’s Olympic Dream, trans. Susan Brownell (Beijing: Foreign Lan-
guages Press, 2007), 292.
2 Ibid., 297.
3 Fan Hong and Lu Zhouxiang, “Beijing’s Two Bids for the Olympics:The Political Games,” The Interna-
tional Journal of the History of Sport 29 (2012): 145–56.
4 Liang, He Zhenliang, 402.
5 Ibid., 407.
6 International Olympic Committee (IOC), 2001 Olympic Charter (Lausanne: International Olympic
Committee, 2001), 56, www.olympic.org/search?q=Charter.
7 Liang, He Zhenliang, 421.
8 Ibid., 409.
9 Ibid., 427.
1 0 Ibid., 411.
1 1 Ibid., 407.
1 2 Ibid., 337.
1 3 Ibid., 408–9.
14 Yao Song, “The Research on He Zhenliang’s Contribution to the Olympic Movement Development”
(Master’s thesis, Capital Institute of Physical Education, 2017), 25; see also He Zhenliang, He Zhenliang
Olympic Bidding Diary [in Chinese] (Beijing: China People’s Publishing House, 2008).
1 5 Liang, He Zhenliang, 435.
1 6 Ibid., 492–93.
1 7 Ibid., 407.
18 Song, “The Research,” 2.
1 9 Liang, He Zhenliang, 368.
2 0 Ibid., 384.
21 Keke Hou, “To Educate the Youth Through Olympic Culture [in Chinese],” Guang Ming Daily,
April 30, 2008; see also Haihong Jia, “He Zhenliang, Sports. Culture. Education [in Chinese],” People’s
Education 20 (2005): 40–41; Zhihua Wang and Yong Xiang, “The Origin of Ancient Olympic Games
from the Perspective of Competitive Culture [in Chinese],” Journal of Sports Adult Education 3 (2018):
55–58.
2 2 Liang, He Zhenliang, 382.
2 3 Ibid., 389.
24 Li Xiao, “Mr. Olympics Honored at Book Launch,” china.org.cn, April 28, 2007, accessed October 10,
2019.
25 Yuan Shan, Yuan Weimin and China’s Sports (Nanjing: Jiangsu People’s Publishing House, 2009), 85–87.
26 Yantao Chen, Pan E, and He Zhenliang, “Who Am I, What I Do and How I Live [in Chinese],” Xia-
okang 12 (2009): 40–41; see also Xiang Shen, “The Study on the Social Responsibility of the Olympic
Movement,” Journal of Sports Adult Education 1 (2018): 82.
Abbas, Ackbar. Hong Kong: Culture and the Politics of Disappearance. Minneapolis and London: University of
Minnesota Press, 1997.
Baudrillard, Jean. America. London:Verso, 1989, 1988.
Baudrillard, Jean. Simulacra and Simulation. Body, in Theory Series. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan
Press, 1994.
Baudrillard, Jean. Simulations. New York City, NY: Semiotext(e), Inc, 1983.
Bauman, Zygmunt. “Culture and Management.” Parallax 10 (2004): 63–72.
Berg, Esther, and Inken Prohl. “ ‘Become Your Best’: On the Construction of Martial Arts as Means of Self-
Actualization and Self-Improvement.” JOMEC Journal (2014): 1–19.
Bowman, Paul. Deconstructing Martial Arts. Cardiff: Cardiff University Press, 2019.
Bowman, Paul. “The Intimate Schoolmaster and the Ignorant Sifu: Poststructuralism, Bruce Lee, and the
Ignorance of Everyday Radical Pedagogy.” Philosophy and Rhetoric 49, no. 4 (2016): 549–70. https://doi.
org/10.5325/philrhet.49.4.0549.
Bowman, Paul. “Making Martial Arts History Matter.” The International Journal of the History of Sport (2016):
1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/09523367.2016.1212842.
Bowman, Paul. Martial Arts Studies: Disrupting Disciplinary Boundaries. London: Rowman and Littlefield
International, 2015.
Bowman, Paul. Mythologies of Martial Arts. London: Rowman & Littlefield International, 2017.
Chan, Stephen. “The Construction and Export of Culture as Artefact: The Case of Japanese Martial Arts.”
Body & Society 6, no. 1 (2000): 69–74.
Derrida, Jacques. Monolingualism of the Other, or, the Prosthesis of Origin. Stanford, CA: Stanford University
Press, 1998.
Eperjesi, John R. “Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: Kung Fu Diplomacy and the Dream of Cultural
China.” Asian Studies Review 28 (2004): 25–39.
Fabian, Johannes. Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object. New York and Guildford: Colum-
bia University Press, 1983.
Frank, Adam. Taijiquan and the Search for the Little Old Chinese Man: Understanding Identity Through Martial
Arts. Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
Funakoshi, Gichin. Karate-Do: My Way of Life. [S.l.]: Kodansha, 1975.
García, Raúl Sánchez. “An Introduction to the Historical Sociology of Japanese Martial Arts.” Martial Arts
Studies 6 (July 23, 2018). https://doi.org/10.18573/mas.64.
Gillis, Alex. A Killing Art:The Untold History of Tae Kwon Do. Toronto, ON: ECW Press, 2008.
Heath, Joseph, and Andrew Potter. The Rebel Sell: How the Counterculture Became Consumer Culture. Chich-
ester: Capstone, 2006.
Hobsbawm, E. J., and T. O. Ranger. The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1992, 1983.
Judkins, Benjamin N. “Inventing Kung Fu.” JOMEC Journal no. 5 (July 28, 2014). https://publications.
cardiffuniversitypress.org/index.php/JOMEC/article/view/328.
Judkins, Benjamin N., and Jon Nielson. The Creation of Wing Chun: A Social History of the Southern Chinese
Martial Arts. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2015.
Kennedy, Brian. Jingwu:The School That Saved Kung Fu. Berkeley, CA: Blue Snake Books, 2010.
Kennedy, Brian, and Elizabeth Guo. Jingwu:The School That Transformed Kung Fu. Blue Snake Books, 2010.
Krug, Gary J. “At the Feet of the Master: Three Stages in the Appropriation of Okinawan Karate into
Anglo-American Culture.” Cultural Studies: Critical Methodologies 1, no. 4 (2001): 395–410.
Law, Mark. The Pyjama Game: A Journey into Judo. London: Aurum Press, 2008.
Moenig, Udo. Taekwondo: From a Martial Art to a Martial Sport. London: Routledge, 2015.
Osman, Idil. Media, Diaspora and the Somali Conflict. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017.
Palmer, David A. Qigong Fever: Body, Science and Utopia in China. Kindle ed. London: Hurst & Co. in Associa-
tion with the Centre d’Etudes et de Recherches Internationales, Paris, 2007.
Rancière, Jacques. The Ignorant Schoolmaster: Five Lessons in Intellectual Emancipation. Stanford: Stanford Uni-
versity Press, 1991.
Ryan, Alexandra. “Globalisation and the ‘Internal Alchemy’ in Chinese Martial Arts: The Transmission of
Taijiquan to Britain.” East Asian Science, Technology and Society: An International Journal 2, no. 4 (2008):
525–43. https://doi.org/10.1215/s12280-009-9073-x.
Said, Edward W. Orientalism:Western Conceptions of the Orient. London: Penguin, 1978.
Singleton, Mark. Yoga Body:The Origins of Modern Posture Practice. Oxford University Press, 2010.
Tan, Kevin S.Y. “Constructing a Martial Tradition: Rethinking a Popular History of Karate-Dou.” Journal of
Sport & Social Issues 28, no. 2 (January 5, 2004): 169–92. https://doi.org/10.1177/0193723504264772.
Wile, Douglas. “Book Review of: The Creation of Wing Chun: A Social History of the Southern Chinese Martial
Arts. 2015. Benjamin Judkins and Jon Nielson. State University of New York Press.” Martial Arts Studies
1, no. 1 (November 6, 2015): 83–85. https://doi.org/10.18573/j.2015.10021.
Wile, Douglas. Lost T’ai Chi Classics of the Late Ch’ing Dynasty. New York: State University of New York,
1996.
Wile, Douglas. T’ai-Chi’s Ancestors:The Making of an Internal Martial Art. Sweet Ch’i Press, 1999.
Yabu, Kotaro.“Diffusion of Judo in the United States During the Russo-Japanese War:Aiming to Overcome
the ‘Match-Based Historical View‘.” Martial Arts Studies 6 (July 23, 2018). https://doi.org/10.18573/
mas.67.
Allen, Barry. Striking Beauty. A Philosophical Look at the Asian Martial Arts. New York: Columbia University
Press, 2015.
Allen, Barry. Vanishing into Things: Knowledge in Chinese Tradition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press,
2015.
Broy, Nikolas. “Martial Monks in Medieval Chinese Buddhism.” Journal of Chinese Religions 40 (2012):
45–89.
Cleary, Thomas, trans. The Art of War. Boston: Shambhala, 2003.
Di Cosmo, Nicola, ed. Military Culture in Imperial China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009.
Faure, Bernard. The Will to Orthodoxy: A Critical Genealogy of Northern Chan Buddhism. Translated by Phyllis
Brooks. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997.
Graham, Angus C. Chuang-Tzu:The Inner Chapters. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 2001.
Graham, Angus C. “The Origins of the Legend of Lao Tan.” In Studies in Chinese Philosophy and Philosophical
Literature. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1990.
Green, Thomas A., ed. Martial Arts of the World: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2001.
Ivanhoe, Philip J., trans. The Daodejing of Laozi. Indianapolis, IL: Hackett, 2003.
Johnston, Alastair Iain. Cultural Realism: Strategic Culture and Grand Strategy in Chinese History. Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1995.
Kennedy, Brian, and Elizabeth Guo. Chinese Martial Arts Training Manuals. Berkeley, CA: Blue Snake Books,
2005.
Lo, Benjamin Pang-Jeng, Martin Inn, Robert Amacher, and Susan Foe, ed. and trans. The Essence of T’ai Chi
Ch’uan:The Literary Tradition. Berkeley, CA: Blue Snake Books, 1979.
Lorge, Peter A. Chinese Martial Arts: From Antiquity to the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2011.
McRae, John R. The Northern School and the Formation of Early Ch’an Buddhism. Honolulu: University of
Hawai‘i Press, 1986.
Poceski, Mario. Ordinary Mind as the Way: The Hongzhou School and the Growth of Chan Buddhism. Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2007.
Sawyer, Ralph D., ed. and trans. The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China. New York: Basic Books, 1993.
Shahar, Meir. Shaolin Monastery: History, Religion, and the Chinese Martial Arts. Honolulu: University of
Hawai‘i Press, 2008.
Sivin, Nathan. “On the Word ‘Taoist’ as a Source of Perplexity.” Religious Studies 17 (1978): 303–30.
Slingerland, Edward. Effortless Action:Wu-Wei as Conceptual Metaphor and Spiritual Ideal in Early China. New
York: Oxford University Press, 2003.
Smith, Kidder. “Sima Tan and the Invention of Daoism.” Journal of Asian Studies 62, no. 1 (2003): 129–56.
Soho, Takuan. The Unfettered Mind. Translated by William Scott Wilson. Tokyo: Kodansha International,
1986.
Wells, Marnix. Scholar Boxer: Chang Naizhou’s Theory of Internal Martial Arts. Berkeley, CA: Blue Snake
Books, 2005.
Wile, Douglas. Lost T’ai-chi Classics from the Late Ch’ing Dynasty. Albany, NY: State University of New York
Press, 1996.
Wile, Douglas. Ta’i Chi’s Ancestors: The Making of an Internal Martial Art. New City, NY: Sweet Ch’i Press,
1999.
Wile, Douglas. “Taijiquan and Daoism.” Journal of Asian Martial Arts 16, no. 4 (2007): 8–21.
Xu, Chao, ed. The Book of Rites. Jinan: Shandong Friendship Press, 2000.
Chen, Xingtan, Wenlong Zhao, Jiyuan Li, and Yongfeng Xu. “Lingnan chuantong Hongquan de wenhua
yanjiu” [Study of the Hongquan, a Tradition of Lingnan]. Journal of Guangzhou Sport University 36, no.
4 (2016): 53–54.
Cheng, Dali. “Xia Shang Xizhou shiqi wushu” [Wushu in the Xia, Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties]. In
Zhognguo wushu baike quanshu [Encyclopaedia of Chinese Wushu], edited by Editorial Team of Zhogn-
guo wushu baike quanshu, 43–44. Beijing: Zhongguo dabaike quanshu chuban she, 1998.
Chung, Melody. “The Father of Modern Wushu–Wu Bin.” Kungfu Tai Chi, March–April 2007, p. 49.
Hu, Jinhuan, and Chongxiong Sun. Nanquan huizong [Southern Boxing]. Fuzhou: Fujian renmin chuban
she, 1985.
Liao, Beng. Song Yuan xiqu wenwu yu minsu [Song and Yuan Drama, Cultural Relics and Folk Customs].
Beijing: Wenhua yishu chuban she, 1989.
Lin, Boyuan. “Lun Yapian zhanzheng zhi Xinhai geming qian Zhongguo chuantong tiyu de fazhan bian-
hua” [On the Changes of the Development of Chinese Traditional Physical Culture from the Opium
War to the Revolution of 1911]. Tiyu kexue 12, no. 4 (1992): 12.
Lu, Shengli. Combat Techniques of Taiji, Xingyi, and Bagua: Principles and Practices of Internal Martial Arts. Trans-
lated by Zhang Yun. Berkeley, CA: Blue Snake Books, 2006.
Tian, Tonxu. Yuan zaju tonglun [Study of Yuan Poetic Drama]. Taiyuan: Shanxi jiaoyu chuban she, 2007.
Wang, Guangxi. Chinese Kung Fu. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
Wu, Zuhui, and Xuesong Guo. “Xinhai geming zhong de nan Shaolin wushu yanjiu” [Southern Shaolin
Martial Arts in the 1911 Revolution]. Journal of Shandong Institute of Physical Education and Sports 27, no.
9 (2011): 41.
Xi,Yuntai. Zhongguo wushu shi [A History of Chinese Wushu]. Beijing: Renmin tiyu chuban she, 1985.
Xu, Cai. Xucai wushu wenji [Collection of Xu Cai’s Essays on Wushu]. Beijing: Renmin tiyu chuban she,
1995.
Zhou, Weiliang. “Yetan Tiandi hui Shaolin gushi de xingcheng yuanyin ji dui chuantong wushu suo chan-
sheng de yingxiang” [Formation of the Legend of the Heaven and Earth Society and Shaolin Temple
and Its Influence on Traditional Wushu]. Journal of Beijing Institute of Physical Education no. 4 (1991):
81–84.
Amos, Daniel M. “Spirit Boxing in Hong Kong: Two Observers, Native and Foreign.” Journal of Asian Mar-
tial Arts 8, no. 4 (1999): 8–27.
Bingham, J. Elliott. Narratives of the Expedition to China, from the Commencement of the Present Period. Vol. 1.
London: Henry Colburn Publishers, 1842.
Bowman, Paul. Beyond Bruce Lee: Chasing the Dragon Through Film, Philosophy and Popular Culture. New York:
Wallflower, 2013.
Chu, Robert, Rene Ritchie, and Y.Wu. Complete Wing Chun:The Definitive Guide to Wing Chun’s History and
Traditions. North Clarendon,VT: Tuttle Publishing, 1998.
Clausnitzer, R., and Greco Wong. Wing Chun Kung Fu: Chinese Self-Defence Methods. London: Paul H.
Crompton Ltd, 1969.
DeLeonardis, Anthony. “Martial Arts in Red China Today.” Black Belt 6, no. 2 (1968): 18–29.
Hamm, John Christopher. Paper Swordsman: Jin Yong and the Modern Chinese Martial Arts Novel. Honolulu:
University of Hawai‘i Press, 2006.
He, Yimin. “Prosperity and Decline: A Comparison of the Fate of Jingdezhen, Zhuxianzhen, Foshan and
Hankou in Modern Times.” Frontiers of History in China 5, no. 1 (2010): 52–85. Translated by Weiwei
Zhou from Xueshu Yuekan [Academic Monthly] 12 (2008): 122–33.
Henning, Stanley. “Thoughts on the Origins and Transmission to Okinawa of Yongchun Boxing.” Classical
Fighting Arts 2, no. 15 (2009): 42–47.
Ip, Ching. “History of Wing Chun.” Ip Ching Ving Tsun Association, 1998. DVD.
Ip, Ching, and Ron Heimberger. Ip Man: Portrait of a Kung Fu Master. Springville, UT: King Dragon Press,
2003.
Ip, Chun, and Michael Tse. Wing Chun Kung Fu:Traditional Chinese Kung Fu for Self-Defense and Health. New
York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 1998.
Ip, Man. “The Origins of Ving Tsun: Written by the Late Grand Master Ip Man.” www.vingtsun.org.hk/
Judkins, Benjamin N., and Jon Nielson. The Creation of Wing Chun: A Social History of the Southern Chinese
Martial Arts. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2015.
Polly, Matthew. Bruce Lee: A Life. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2018.
Shahar, Meir. The Shaolin Monastery. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2008.
Tse, Michael. “Master Ip Ching.” Qi Magazine 24 (1996): 16–20.
Wakeman, Frederick, Jr. Strangers at the Gate: Social Disorder in South China, 1839–1861. Los Angeles, CA:
University of California Press, 1997.
Wile, Douglas. Lost T’ai-Chi Classics from the Late Ch’ing Dynasty. Albany, NY: State University of New
York Press, 1996.
Atkinson, Michael. “Entering Scapeland: Yoga, Fell and Post-Sport Physical Cultures.” Sport in Society 13,
no. 7–8 (2010): 1249–67.
Becker, Howard S. “Art as Collective Action.” American Sociological Review 39, no. 6 (1974): 767–76.
Bodelec, Caroline. “Etre Une Grande Nation Culturelle. Les Enjeux Du Patrimoine Culturel Immatériel
Pour La Chine.” Tsanta 19 (2014): 19–30.
Bolens, Guillemette. The Style of Gesture: Embodiment and Cognition in Literary Narrative. Baltimore: The
Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012.
Bowman, Paul. “Making Martial Arts History Matter.” The International Journal of the History of Sport 33, no.
9 (2016): 915–33.
Bugnon, Pascale. “L’art d’accomoder Les Ancêtres de La Nation: Analyse Du Patrimoine Culturel Musul-
man En Chine.” Tsanta 23 (2018): 99–103.
De Grave, Jean-Marc. “L’initiation Rituelle Javanaise et Ses Modes de Transmission: Opposition Entre
Javanisme et Islam.” Techniques & Culture [En Ligne] 48–49 (2007): 1–28.
Durand-Dastes, Vincent. “La Grande Muraille Des Contes.” Carreau de La BULAC (2014): 1–57. http://
bulac.hypotheses.org/1676.
Fine, Gary Alan. “Towards a Peopled Ethnography: Developing Theory from Group Life.” Ethnography 4,
no. 1 (2003): 41–60.
Fine, Gary Alan, and Ugo Corte. “Group Pleasures: Collaborative Commitments, Shared Narrative, and the
Sociology of Fun.” Sociological Theory 35, no. 1 (2017): 64–86.
Fiske, John. Understanding Popular Culture. New York: Routledge, 1994.
Graezer, Florence. “Le Festival de Miaofeng Shan: Culture Populaire et Politique Culturelle.” Etudes Chi-
noises 22 (2003): 283–95.
Graezer, Florence. “L’instrumentalisation de La Culture Populaire. Le Cas de La Danse Du Yangge En
Chine.” TSANTSA 13 (2008): 52–60.
Harrington, Brooke, and Gary Alan Fine. “Opening the ‘Black Box’: Small Groups and 21st Century Soci-
ology.” Social Psychology Quarterly 63, no. 4 (2000): 312–23, 321.
Lorge, Peter A. Chinese Martial Arts: From Antiquity to the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2012.
Lu, Shaojun, and Weikai Zhang. “The Social and Cultural Grounds of Martial Arts Communities.” Journal
of Beijing Sport University 36, no. 9 (2013): 8.
Lu, Zhouxiang, and Hong Fan. Sport and Nationalism in China. London: Routledge, 2014.
Maags, Christina, and Marina Svensson, eds. Chinese Cultural Heritage in the Making: Experiences, Negotiations
and Contestations. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2018.
McDougall, Bonnie S. Mao Zedong’s ‘Talks at the Yan’an Conference on Literature and Art’: A Translation of the
1943 Text with Commentary. Center for Chinese Studies, The University of Michigan, 1980.
Micollier, Evelyne. “Qigong et ‘nouvelles Religions’ En Chine et à Taiwan: Instrumentalisation Politique et
Processus de Légitimation Des Pratiques.” Autrepart 2 (2007): 129–46.
Munz, Hervé, and Philippe Gesin. “Le patrimoine culturel immatériel à l’épreuve des savoir-faire horlogers
dans l’Arc jurassien.” Museum.ch 5 (2010): 28–31.
Pinson, Joël. “Heritage Sporting Events: Theoretical Development and Configurations.” Journal of Sport &
Tourism 21, no. 2 (2017).
Song, Jie, and Hongli Yue. “Considerations on Wushu’s National Culture Characteristics.” Asia Pacific Journal
of Sport and Social Sciences 5, no. 1 (2016): 28–34.
Theeboom, Marc, Dong Zhu, and Jikkemien Vertonghen. “ ‘Wushu Belongs to the World’. But the Gold
Goes to China. . .: The International Development of the Chinese Martial Arts.” International Review for
the Sociology of Sport 52, no. 1 (2017): 3–23.
Wile, Douglas. “Fighting Words: Four New Document Finds Reignite Old Debates in Taijiquan Histori-
ography.” Martial Arts Studies 4 (2016): 17–35.
Wile, Douglas. Lost T’ai-Chi Classics from the Late Ch’ing Dynasty. Albany State: University of New York
Press, 1996.
Abel, Jessamyn R. “Japan’s Sporting Diplomacy: The 1964 Tokyo Olympiad.” The International History
Review 34, no. 2 (2012): 203–20.
Amdur, Ellis. Dueling with O-Sensei. Wheaton: Freelance Academy Press, 2015.
Amdur, Ellis. “The Role of Arms Bearing Women in Japanese History.” Journal of Asian Martial Arts 5, no.
2 (1996): 10–35.
Benesch, Oleg. Inventing the Way of the Samurai. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016.
Bennett, Alexander C. Kendo: Culture of the Sword. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2015.
Conlan, Thomas. State of War:The Violent Order of Fourteenth-Century Japan. University of Michigan, 2003.
De Lange, William. Famous Japanese Swordsmen of the Period of Unification. Floating World Editions, 2008.
Droubie, Paul. “Phoenix Arisen: Japan as Peaceful Internationalist at the 1964 Tokyo Summer Olympics.”
The International Journal of the History of Sport 28, no. 16 (2011): 2309–22.
Farris, William W.  Heavenly Warriors: The Evolution of Japan’s Military, 500–1300. Harvard University Press,
1995.
Friday, Karl F. Hired Swords:The Rise of Private Warrior Power in Early Japan. Stanford University Press, 1996.
Friday, Karl F. “Off the Warpath: Military Science & Budō in the Evolution of Ryūha Bugei.” In Budo Per-
spectives, edited by Alexander Bennett,Vol. 1, 249–68. Auckland: Kendo World Publications, 2005.
Friday, Karl F. Samurai,Warfare and the State in Early Medieval Japan. London: Routledge, 2004.
Guttmann, Allen, and Lee A. Thompson. Japanese Sports: A History. University of Hawai‘i Press, 2001.
Hall, David A. Encyclopedia of Japanese Martial Arts. Kodansha USA, 2012.
Hamaguchi, Yoshinobu. “Innovation in Martial Arts.” In Japan, Sport and Society: Tradition and Change in a
Globalizing World, edited by Joseph Maguire and Masayoshi Nakayama, 7–18. London: Routledge, 2006.
Hlinak, Matt. “Jūdō Comes to California: Jūdō vs Wrestling in the American West, 1900–1920.” Journal of
Asian Martial Arts 18, no. 2 (2009): 8–19.
Hurst, G. Cameron, III. Armed Martial Arts of Japan: Swordsmanship and Archery.Yale University Press, 1998.
Mol, Serge. Classical Fighting Arts of Japan: A Complete Guide to Koryū Jūjutsu. Kodansha International, 2001.
Motomura, Kiyoto. “The History of Budō in Schools.” In Nippon Budokan:The Martial Ways of Japan, 61–65.
Tokyo: Nippon Budokan Foundation, 2009.
Nakajima, Tetsuya, and Lee Thompson. “Jūdō and the Process of Nation-Building in Japan: Kanō Jigorō
and the Formation of Kōdōkan Jūdō.” Asia Pacific Journal of Sport and Social Science 1, no. 2–3 (2012):
97–110.
Sadami, Sasaki. “Twentieth Century Budō and Mystic Experience.” In Budo Perspectives, edited by Alexander
Bennett,Vol. 1, 15–44. Auckland: Kendo World Publications, 2005.
Sánchez García, Raúl. The Historical Sociology of Japanese Martial Arts. London: Routledge, 2019.
Siniawer, Eiko Maruko. Ruffians,Yakuza, Nationalists: The Violent Politics of Modern Japan, 1860–1960. Ithaca:
Cornell University Press, 2008.
Sugimoto, Yoshio. “Japanese Society: Inside Out and Outside in.” International Sociology 29, no. 3 (2014):
191–208.
Svinth, Joseph R. “The Spirit of Manliness: Boxing in Imperial Japan, 1868–1945.” In Martial Arts in the
Modern World, edited by Thomas A. Green and Joseph R. Svinth, 37–46. London: Praeger, 2003.
Tomoyuki, Yokose. “What Is Kobudō?” In Budo: The Martial Ways of Japan, edited by Alexander Bennett,
87–101. Tokyo: Nippon Budokan Foundation, 2009.
Bennet, Alexander C. Kendo: Culture of the Sword. Oakland: University of California Press, 2015.
Chamberlain, Basil H. The Invention of a New Religion. London: Rationalist Press, 1912.
Gainty, Denis. Martial Arts and the Body Politic in Meiji Japan. London: Routledge, 2013.
Hobsbawm, Eric, and Terrance Ranger, eds. The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1983.
Kanō Jigorō. “Kōdōkan Judo Gaisetu” [An Outline of the Kōdōkan Judō]. Judo 2 (1915): 25–26.
Kenji Tomiki. Taiiku to Budō [Physical Education and Japanese Martial Arts]. Tokyo: Waseda Daigaku Shup-
panbu, 1970.
Masaaki Takahashi. Bushi no Seiritsu Bushi-zō no Sōsyutsu [The Making of the Samurai, Inventing the Image
of Samurai]. Tokyo: Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 1999.
Masaaki Takahashi. Higasi Ajia Buzin Seiken no Hikakushi Kenkyu [A Comparative History of Military Gov-
ernment in East Asia]. Tokyo: Azekura Shobō, 2016.
Masaru Kōzu. “Budō.” In Gendai Kyōikushi Jiten [Dictionary of the History of Japanese Education], edited
by Yoshizo Kubo et al., 245. Tokyo: Tokyo Shoseki, 2001.
Matsunosuke Nishiyama. “Kinsei Geidou Shisō no Tokushitsu to sono Tenkai” [The Characteristic of the
Performing Arts and Its Development in Tokugawa Period]. In Kinsei Geido-ron [The Thought on the
Performing Arts in Tokugawa Period], edited by Matsunosuke Nishiyama et al., 599–601. Tokyo: Iwa-
nami Shotten.
Niehaus, Andreas. “ ‘Attaining Useful Abilities Is by Nature the Highest Goal of Education’: Kanō Jigorō’s
Concept of Seiryoku Zen’yō Jita Kyōei as Applied Moral Principles.” In Knowledge and Arts on the Move:
Transformation of the Self-Aware Image Through East-West Encounters, edited by Craig Christopher, Enrico
Fongaro, and Akihiro Ozaki, 59–76. Milan: Mimesis, 2018.
Oleg Benesch. Inventing the Way of the Samurai: Nationalism, Internationalism, and Bushidō in Modern Japan.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016.
Shoji Enomoto. “Edozidai Zenki niokeru Shigei toshiteno Kenjutsu no Seiritsu to Gekiken no Syutsugen
nituite” [A Historical Approach to ‘Kenjutsu’ and ‘Gekiken’ in the Early Edo Period: About the Rise of
‘Heiho Dojo’ and the Differentiation of ‘Heiho’ in the 17th Century]. Tokai Journal of Budo 12 (2017):
1–15.
Smith,Thomas C. Native Sources of Japanese Industrialization, 1750–1920. Berkeley, CA and Los Angeles, CA:
University of California Press, 1988.
Tadayoshi Otsuka. Nihon Kendō no Rekishi [The History of Japanese Kendō]. Tokyo: Madosha, 1995.
Takahide Koyama. “Shintai Gijittsu Densho no Kindaika: Kyu Hirosaki-han niokeru Kinsei Ryuha Ken-
juttsu kara Kin-gendai Kendō eno Henyo nituite” [A Modernisation of the Transmission of Physical
Technique: The Transformation of Kenjuttsu in the Hirosaki Domain, from the Tokugawa Period to
Modern Time]. Aomori-ken Minzoku no Kai 3 (2003): 57–59.
Tatsuo Nishio. Nihon Shokuminchika Chōsen ni okeru Gakkō Taiiku Seisaku [The Policy of School Physical
Education in Korea Under Japanese Occupation]. Tokyo: Akashi Shoten, 2003.
Tsuneo Sogawa. Nihon Budō to Toyō Shisō [Japanese Martial Arts and Oriental Thought]. Tokyo: Heibonsya,
2015.
Yasuhiro Sakaue. “Budōkai no Senji-taiseika: Budō Sōgō Dantai Dai Nippon Butokukai no Seiritsu” [The
Reorganisation of the World of Martial Arts for the War:The Establishment of the Dai Nippon Butoku-
kai in 1942]. In Maboroshi no Tokyo Orinpikku to Sono Jidai: Supōtsu, Toshi, Shintai [The Tokyo Olympics
of 1940 and Its Period: Sport, Body and Urban Areas in Wartime], edited by Yasuhiro Sakaue and
Hiroyuki Takaoka, 248–49. Tokyo: Seikyūsha, 2009.
Yasuhiro Sakaue. “Dai Nippon Butokukai no Seiritsukatei to Kōzō, 1895–1904” [The Organising Process
and Structure of the Dai Nippon Butokukai, 1895–1904]. Journal of Administrative and Social Sciences 1,
no. 3–4, Fukushima University (1989): 59–112.
Yasuhiro Sakaue. “GHQ Senryōka niokeru Kendō” [Kendo Under the GHQ Occupation in Japan: Ban,
Surviving, Transforming into Sport and Entertainment]. Hitotsbashi Annial of Sport Studies 35 (2016):
3–17.
Yasuhiro Sakaue. “The Historical Creation of Kendō’s Self-Image from 1895 to 1942: A Critical Analysis
of an Invented Tradition.” Martial Arts Studies 6 (2018): 13–14.
Yasuhiro Sakaue. “Judō Sisō to Orinpizumu no Kōsaku: Kanō Jigorō no Jita Kyōei Sisō” [The Idea of Judo
and Olympism: Jigorō Kanō’s Concept of Jita Kōei]. In Nippon no Orinpikku: Nihon ha Orinpizumu to
 ikani Mukiatte kitaka [Japan and the Olympics: How Did Japan See Olympism], edited by Yasunao Kojita
et al., 131–62. Tokyo: Seikyūsha, 2018.
Yasuhiro Sakaue. “The Nationalization of the Body in Martial Arts: A Case of Postwar Japan.” Journal of
Martial Arts Research 2, no. 2 (2019): 4.
Yasuhiro Sakaue. “Nichiro Sentyuu Sengo niokeru Dai Nippon Butokukai” [The Dai Nippon Butokukai
Under/After the Russo-Japanese War: Its Political and Military Function, the Change of Plan to Pro-
mote Martial Arts, and the Name Change to Kendo and Judo]. Hitotsubashi Annual of Sport Studies 37
(2018): 29–30.
Yasuhiro Sakaue. Supōtsu to Seiji [Sport and Politics]. Tokyo:Yamakawa Shuppan, 2001.
Yasuhiro Sakaue. “Taishō-ki niokeru Dai Nippon-Butokukai” [Dai Nippon Butokukai in the Taisho Era
(1912–26): An Analysis of its Political and Military Function]. Japanese Journal of the History of Physical
Education 7 (1990): 44–45.
Yasuhiro Sakaue. “Teikoku Gikai Shugiin niokeru Taiiku nikansuru Kengian no Shingi Katei” [The Delib-
erations of the 1905 Proposal to Include Kendo and Judo in the School Regular Curriculum in the
Imperial Diet]. Hitotsbashi Annual of Sport Studies 32 (2013): 26–43.
Yoshikazu Nakada. “Kindai Bushidō ga Umareru Toki” [The Birth of Modern Bushidō]. In Nihon Kindai
niokeru Kokkaishiki Keisei no Syomondai to Ajia: Seiji Siso to Taisyu Bunka [The Problems of the Making
of National Consciousness and Asia in Modern Japan: Political Thought and Popular Culture], edited
by Kaoru Endo, 41–62. Tokyo: Keiso Shobō, 2019.
Yoshio Imamura. 19 seiki ni okeru Nihon Taiiku no Kenkyu [A Study of Physical Education in the Nineteenth
Century]. Tokyo: Fumaido, 1967.
Ysuhiro Sakaue. “Kendō no Kinshi to Saishuppatsu” [The Knedō Ban and Its Restart]. Kendō Nippon 511
(2019): 72.
Zennihon Kendō Renmei (AJKF), ed. Zennihon Kendō Renmei Gojunenshi [50 Years History of the AJKF].
Tokyo: Zennihon Kendō Renmei, 2003.
Barnett, Barbara, and Marie C. Hardin. “Advocacy from the Liberal Feminist Playbook: The Framing of
Title IX and Women’s Sports in News Releases from the Women’s Sports Foundation.” International
Journal of Sport Communication 4, no. 2 (2011): 178–97.
Bennett, Alex. Jigoro Kano and the Kodokan: An Innovative Response to Modernisation. 1st ed. Tokyo: Kōdōkan
Judo Institute, 2009.
Bowen, Richard. 100 Years of Judo in Great Britain. Brighton: IndePenPress, 2011.
Bowen, Richard. “Origins of the British Judo Association, the European Judo Union, and the International
Judo Federation.” In Martial Arts in the Modern World, edited by Joseph Svinth, 173–83. Santa Barbara:
Praeger, 2003.
Bradić, Slaviša, and Mike Callan. “Kata Training for Judo:Value and Application of Judo Kata to Judo Train-
ing.” In The Science of Judo, edited by Mike Callan, 37–46. London: Routledge, 2018.
Bradic, Slaviša, Mike Callan, and Isamu Nakamura. “Value of Nage-No-Kata: Analysis of Motoric Move-
ment and Principles with the Goal of Teaching Applicability of Throwing Techniques in Simulated
Combat Situations.” In Proceedings of the 4th European Science of Judo Research Symposium & 3rd Scientific
and Professional Conference on Judo:‘Applicable Research in Judo’, edited by H. Sertić, S. Čorak, and I. Segedi.
Porec: Croatian Judo Federation, 2017.
Brooks, Van Wyck. “Ernest Fenollosa and Japan.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 106, no. 2
(1962): 106–10.
Brousse, Michel. Judo for the World. Paris: International Judo Federation. 2015.
Brousse, Michel, and David Matsumoto. Judo in the U.S.: A Century of Dedication. Berkeley, CA: North
Atlantic, 2005.
Callan, Mike. Elite Sport and Education Support Systems: A Case Study of the Team Bath Judo Programme at the
University of Bath. Bath: University of Bath, 2008.
Callan, Mike. “History of the Budokwai, London:The Adoption of Kōdōkan judo in the Early Years.” Paper
presented at the 4th European Science of Judo Research Symposium & 3rd Scientific and Professional
Conference on Judo: ‘Applicable Research in Judo’, Porec, Croatia, 2017.
Callan, Mike. “Judo as a Physical, Intellectual and Moral Education.” In The Science of Judo, edited by M.
Callan, 32–36. London: Routledge, 2018.
Callan, Mike, and Slaviša Bradić. “Historical Development of Judo.” In The Science of Judo, edited by M.
Callan, 25–31. London: Routledge, 2018.
Callan, Mike, Conor Heffernan, and Amanda Spenn. “Women’s Jūjutsu and Judo in the Early Twentieth
Century: The Cases of Phoebe Roberts, Edith Garrud, and Sarah Mayer.” The International Journal of the
History of Sport (2019): 1–24.
Claes, Geert. “Analysis of Winning and Losing the Bronze Medal in International Women’s Judo Competi-
tions 2012–2016 and the Consistency with the IJF Ranking List.” Research Journal of Budo 50 (2017):
S_125.
Dijkstra, Peter D., and Paul T. Y. Preenen. “No Effect of Blue on Winning Contests in Judo.” Proceedings:
Biological Sciences 275, no. 1639 (2008): 1157–62.
Feldenkrais, Moshé. “Research Work at the Budokwai.” Judo Quarterly Bulletin 5, no. 4 (1950).
Franchini, Emerson, and Ursula Ferreira Julio. “The Judo World Ranking List and the Performances in the
2012 London Olympics.” Asian Journal of Sports Medicine 6, no. 3 (2015).
Hoare, Syd. A History of Judo. London:Yamagi, 2009.
Hoare, Syd. Judo. Sevenoaks: Teach Yourself Books, 1980.
IJF Statutes, Swiss Association. Translated from the French Original, 2017.
Julio, Ursula F., Bianca Miarka, João P. P. Rosa, Giscard H. O. Lima, Monica Y. Takito, and Emerson Fran-
chini. “Blue Judogi May Bias Competitive Performance When Seeding System Is Not Used: Sex, Age,
and Level of Competition Effects.” Perceptual and Motor Skills 120, no. 1 (2015): 28–37. doi:10.2466/30.
PMS.120v15x2.
Kanō Jigoro. “The Contribution of Judo to Education.” Journal of Health and Physical Education 3, no. 9
(1932): 37–58.
Kawaishi, Mikonosuke. My Method of Judo. London: W. Foulsham & Co. Ltd, 1955.
Kido, S. “New Look at Judo.” Black Belt Magazine 1, no. 4 (1962).
Kotani, Sumuyuki. Kata of Kodokan Judo Revised. Kobe, Japan: Koyano Bussan Kaisha Ltd, 1970.
Lascau, F. D., and Rosu, D. “Study Regarding the Prediction of Medal Winning in Olympic Games Judo
Competitions.” Journal of Physical Education and Sport 13, no. 3 (2013): 386–90.
Leggett, Trevor. The Spirit of Budo: Old Traditions for Present-Day Life. London: Kegan Paul International,
1998.
Matsumoto, David, Jun Konno, Stephanie Hata, and Masayuki Takeuchi. “Blue Judogis May Bias Competi-
tion Outcomes.” Research Journal of Budo 39, no. 3 (2007): 1–7.
Mayer, Sarah. “Seven Letters from Sarah Mayer Addressed to G. Koizumi re Her Training Visit to Japan,
February 1934–January 1935.” The Richard Bowen Collection Database (C64), University of Bath,
1934.
Nitobe, Inazo. Bushido: The Soul of Japan. An Exposition of Japanese Thought. Eastford: Martino Fine Books,
2013.
Smojver-Ažić, Sanja, Matija Jug-Dujaković, Slaviša Bradić, Vladimir Takšić, and Veno Đonlić. “Relation
Between Motoric and Psychological Characteristics of Young Judokas.” Applicable Research in Judo no.
59 (2016): 59–64.
Soames, Nicolas, and Roy Inman. Olympic Judo: History and Techniques. Swindon: Ippon/Crowood, 1990.
Spencer, Herbert. Education: Intellectual, Moral and Physical. [S.l.]: Williams and Norgate, 1861.
Stevens, John. The Way of Judo: A Portrait of Jigoro Kano and His Students. Boulder, CO: Shambhala Publica-
tions Inc., 2013.
Svinth, Joseph R. “The Evolution of Women’s Judo 1900–1945.” Yo: Journal of Alternative Perspectives no. 2
(2001).
Svinth, Joseph R. “Professor Yamashita Goes to Washington.” Journal of Combative Sport (October 2000).
https://ejmas.com/jcs/jcsart_svinth1_1000.htm.
Waterhouse, David. “Kano Jigoro and the Beginnings of the Judo Movement.” Paper presented at the 5th
Canadian Symposium on the History of Sport and Physical Education, Toronto School of Physical and
Health Education, 1982.
Wilson, Sandra. “Exhibiting a New Japan: The Tokyo Olympics of 1964 and Expo ‘70 in Osaka.” Historical
Research 85, no. 227 (2012): 159–78.
Benesch, Oleg. Inventing the Way of the Samurai. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
Bennett, Alexander C. Kend: Culture of the Sword. Oakland: University of California Press, 2015.
Bittmann, Heiko. Karatedô: Der Weg der leeren Hand [Karatedô: The Way of the Empty Hand]. Ludwigsburg:
Verlag Heiko Bittmann, 1999. [In German, but available in English.]
Bowman, Paul. “Making Martial Arts History Matter.” The International Journal of the History of Sport 33, no.
9 (2016): 915–33.
Capener, Steven D. “The Making of a Modern Myth: Inventing a Tradition for Taekwondo.” Korea Journal
56, no. 1 (2016): 61–92.
Capener, Steven D. “Problems in the Identity and Philosophy of t’aegwŏndo and Their Historical Causes.”
Korea Journal 35, no. 4 (1995): 80–94.
Cho, Sungkyun, Udo Moenig, and Dohee Nam. “The Available Evidence Regarding t’aekkyŏn and Its
Portrayal as a ‘Traditional Korean Martial Art‘.” Acta Koreana 15, no. 2 (2012): 341–68.
Choi, Hong Hi. Taekwondo:The Art of Self-Defence. Seoul: Daeha Publication Company, 1965.
Friday, Karl E., and Seki Humitake. Legacies of the Sword: The Kashima-Shinryū and Samurai Martial Culture.
Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1997.
Gainty, Denis. Martial Arts and the Body Politic of Meiji Japan. London: Routledge, 2013.
Gillis, Alex. A Killing Art:The Utold History of Tae Kwon Do. Toronto: ECW Press, 2008.
Han, Pyŏng-ch’ŏl. Kosu [In Search for the Master]. Seoul:Yŏngwŏn Munhwasa, 2003. [In Korean.]
Han,Yong-Sup. “The May Sixteenth Military Coup.” In The Park Chung Hee Era:The Transformation of South
Korea, edited by Byung-Kook Kim and Ezra F.Vogel, 35–57. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press,
2011.
Henning, Stanley E. “Traditional Korean Martial Arts.” Journal of Asian Martial Arts 9, no. 1 (2000): 8–15.
Hŏ, In-uk. Taekwondo’s Formation History. Kyŏngki-Do: Han’guk Haksul Ch’ŏngbo, 2008. [In Korean.]
Hobsbawm, Eric, and Terence Ranger, eds. The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1983.
Hurst, G. Cameron, III. Armed Martial Arts of Japan. New Haven:Yale University Press, 1998.
Im, Hyug Baeg. “The Origins of the Yushin Regime: Machiavelli Unveiled.” In The Park Chung Hee Era:
The Transformation of South Korea, edited by Byung-Kook Kim and Ezra F. Vogel, 233–64. Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press, 2011.
Jennings, Andrew. The New Lords of the Rings. London: Simon & Schuster, 1996.
Jennings, Andrew, and Vyv Simson. The Lord of the Rings. London: Simon & Schuster, 1992.
Kang, Won Shik, and Kyong Myong Lee. A Modern History of Taekwondo. Seoul: Pokyŏng Munhwasa, 1999.
[In Korean, but parts available in English online.]
Kim, Yong-ok. Principles Governing the Construction of the Philosophy of Taekwondo. Seoul: T’ongnamu, 1990.
[In Korean.]
Madis, Eric.“The Evolution of Taekwondo from Japanese Karate.” In Martial Arts in the Modern World, edited
by Thomas A. Green and Joseph R. Svinth, 185–209. Westport: Praeger Publishers, 2003.
Moenig, Udo. Taekwondo: From a Martial Art to a Martial Sport. London: Routledge, 2015.
Moenig, Udo, and Minho Kim. “The Invention of Taekwondo Tradition, 1945–1972: When Mythology
Becomes History.” Acta Koreana 19, no. 2 (2016): 131–64.
Moenig, Udo, Sungkyun Cho, and Taek Yong Kwak. “Evidence of Taekwondo’s Roots in Karate: An Analy-
sis of the Technical Content of Early ‘Taekwondo’ Literature.” Korea Journal 54, no. 2 (2014): 150–78.
Park, Sang Mi. “The Paradox of Postcolonial Korean Nationalism: State-Sponsored Cultural Policy in
South Korea, 1965-Present.” The Journal of Korean Studies 15, no. 1 (2010): 67–94.
Report of the Subcommittee on International Organizations of the Committee on International Relations
U.S. House of Representatives. Investigation of Korean-American Relations.Washington, DC: U.S. Govern-
ment Printing Office, October 31, 1978. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=pur1.3275407706461
0;view=1up;seq=9.
Rutt, Richard. “The Flower Boys of Silla (Hwarang).” Royal Asiatic Society 38 (October 1961): 1–66.
Sintionean, Codruta. “Heritage Practices During the Park Chung Hee era.” In Key Papers on Korea, edited
by Andrew David Jackson, 253–74. Kent: Global Oriental, 2013.
Song, Tŏk-ki, and Chong-gwan Pak, T’aekkyŏn. Seoul: Sŏrim Munhwasa, 1983. [In Korean.]
Yook, Sung-Chul. [Interview with Chong Woo Lee]. “Kukkiwon Vice President Chong Woo Lee’s Shock-
ing Confession of Olympic Competition Result Manipulation!” Shin Dong-A, April 2002.Translated by
Soo Han Lee. http://tkdreform.com/yook_article.pdf.
Guttmann, Allen. Games & Empires: Modern Sports and Cultural Imperialism. New York: Columbia University
Press, 1995.
Guttmann, Allen. Sports:The First Five Millennia. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2004.
Ko, Pekin Pyan Win. Facts About Myanmar Traditional Chinlone Game and Correct Methods of Chinlone Playing.
Yangon: DuWun Publishing, 2013.
Reid, Anthony. Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce 1450‑1680: The Lands Below the Winds. New Haven:
Yale University Press, 1988.
Sangermano,Vincenzo. A Description of the Burmese Empire. Rome: Joseph Salviucci and Son, 1833.
Scott, James George. The Burman, His Life and Notions. London: Macmillan, 1910, 1896.
Winichakul, Thongchai. “The Quest for ‘Siwilai’: A Geographical Discourse of Civilizational Thinking in
the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth-Century Siam.” The Journal of Asian Studies 59, no. 3 (2000):
528–49.
Amara, Mahfoud. “Qatar Asian Games: A ‘Modernization’ Project from Above?” Sport in Society 8, no. 3
(2005): 493–514.
Cha, Victor D. Beyond the Final Score: The Politics of Sport in Asia. New York: Columbia University Press,
2009.
Choi, Cheongrak, Myungsoo Shin, and Chang-Gyun Kim. “Globalization, Regionalism and Reconcili-
ation in South Korea’s Asian Games.” The International Journal of the History of Sport 32, no. 10 (2015):
1308–20.
Dorsey, James M. “Gulf Autocrats and Sports Corruption: A Marriage Made in Heaven.” The International
Journal of the History of Sport 33, no. 18 (2016): 2226–37.
Galily, Yair. “Sport, Politics and Society in Israel: The First Fifty-Five Years.” Israel Affairs 13, no. 3 (2007):
515–28.
Hong, Fan. “Communist China and the Asian Games 1951–1990: The Thirty-Nine Year Struggle to Vic-
tory.” Sport in Society 8, no. 3 (2005): 479–92.
Hong, Fan, ed. Sport, Nationalism and Orientalism:The Asian Games. London: Routledge, 2013.
Hong, Fan, and Lu Zhouxiang. “China, the Asian Games and Asian Politics.” The International Journal for the
History of Sport 29, no. 12 (2012): 74–97.
Hong, Fan, and Lu Zhouxiang. The Politicisation of Sport in Modern China: Communists and Champions.
London: Routledge, 2014.
Hunt, Thomas M. Drug Games: The International Olympic Committee and the Politics of Doping, 1960–2008.
Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2010.
Karnjanakit, Sombat, and Supitr Samahito. “Thailand and the Asian Games: Coping with Crisis.” Sport in
Society 8, no. 3 (2005): 440–48.
Kelly, William W., and Susan Brownell. The Olympics in East Asia: Nationalism, Regionalism, and Globalism on
the Center Stage of World Sports. CEAS Occasional Publication Series. Book 3. http://elischolar.library.
yale.edu/ceas_publication_series/3.
Koh, Eunha. “South Korea and the Asian Games: The First Step to the World.” Sport in Society 8, no. 3
(2005): 468–78.
Lee, Jung Woo. “The Olympics and Post Soviet Era:The Case of Two Koreas.” In The Politics of the Olympics,
edited by Alan Bairner and Gyozo Molnar, 117–28. London: Routledge, 2010.
Lijuan, Liang. He Zhengliang and China’s Olympic Dream. London: Foreign Language Press, 2007.
Lutan, Rusli, and Fan Hong. “The Politicization of Sport: GANEFO: A Case Study.” Sport in Society 8, no.
3 (2005): 425–39.
Osmanczyk, Edmund Jan. Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements. 3rd ed. London:
Routledge, 2003.
Simons, Vyv, and Andrew Jennings. Dishonored Games: Corruption, Money & Creed at the Olympics. Toronto:
Stoddard, 1992.
Sisodia, Mithlesh K. Singh. “India and the Asian Games: From Infancy to Maturity.” Sport in Society 8, no.
3 (2005): 404–13.
Trotier, Friederike, and Alan Barnier, eds. Sport and Body Cultures in East and Southeast Asia. London:
Routledge, 2018.
“Correspondence from IOC Technical Director to IOC President.” File H-FC02-ASIAN/001, ‘Asian
Games and Asian Games Federation: Correspondence,’ Files on the Asian Games Federation, IOC
Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland, May 25, 1977.
“Fax: IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch to Sheikh Fahad Al-Sabah.” File D-RM01-AAOCA/013,
‘OCA: Correspondence,’ Files on the Olympic Council of Asia, IOC Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland,
November 1, 1993.
“Fax: Israel Olympic Committee to IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch.” File D-RM01-AAOCA/002,
‘OCA: Correspondence,’ Files on the Olympic Council of Asia, IOC Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland,
November 18, 1982.
“Letter: Awad Khleifat to IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch.” File D-RM01-AAOCA/013, ‘OCA:
Correspondence,’ Files on the Olympic Council of Asia, IOC Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland, June 29,
1995.
“Letter: Datuk Seri Haji Hamzah Bin Haji Abu Samah to IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch.” File
D-RM01-AAOCA/002, ‘OCA: Correspondence,’ Files on the Olympic Council of Asia, IOC Archive,
Lausanne, Switzerland, December 10, 1982.
“Letter: Francois Carrad to Sheikh Fahad Al-Sabah.” File D-RM01-AAOCA/013, ‘OCA: Correspond-
ence,’ Files on the Olympic Council of Asia, IOC Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland, June 28, 1995.
“Letter: Francois Carrad to Sheikh Fahad Al-Sabah.” File D-RM01-AAOCA/014, ‘OCA: Correspond-
ence,’ Files on the Olympic Council of Asia, IOC Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland, November 17, 1997.
“Letter from IAAF President Adriaan Paulen to IAAF Members in Asia.” File H-FC02-ASIAN/001, ‘Asian
Games and Asian Games Federation: Correspondence,’ Files on the Asian Games Federation, IOC
Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland, November 22, 1978.
“Letter: Iraqi National Olympic Committee to Centennial Olympic Congress.” File D-RM01-
AAOCA/013, ‘OCA: Correspondence,’ Files on the Olympic Council of Asia, IOC Archive, Lausanne,
Switzerland, August 23, 1994.
“Letter: Richard Pound to IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch.” File CIO MBR-ALSAB-CORR,
‘Biography, Cuttings and Correspondence of Cheik Fahad Al-Ahmad AL-SABAH,’ Files on Al-Sabah
Sr and Al-Sabah Jr., IOC Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland, June 25, 1982.
“Letter: Sheikh Fahad Al-Sabah to SLOOC President Park She Jik.” File D-RM01-AAOCA/004, ‘OCA:
Correspondence,’ Files on the Olympic Council of Asia, IOC Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland, Septem-
ber 19, 1988.
“Letter: Uday Saddam Hussein to IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch.” File D-RM01-AAOCA/013,
‘OCA: Correspondence,’ Files on the Olympic Council of Asia, IOC Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland,
August 22, 1994.
“Minutes, 99th IOC Session in Barcelona.” IOC Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland, July 21–23, 1992.
“Minutes, 101st IOC Session in Monaco.” IOC Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland, September 21–24, 1993.
“Report: Basic Information on the Olympic Council of Asia.” File D-RM01-AAOCA/007, ‘OCA Publi-
cations,’ Files on the Olympic Council of Asia, IOC Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland.
“Report: Sport Inside.” File D-RM01-AAOCA/002, ‘OCA: Correspondence,’ Files on the Olympic
Council of Asia, IOC Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland, March 31, 1982.
“Various Letters.” ‘OCA: Correspondence,’ Files on the Olympic Council of Asia, IOC Archive, Lausanne,
Switzerland.
“Welcome Address: Sheikh Fahad Al-Sabah to 13th Olympic Council of Asia General Assembly.” File
D-RM01-AAOCA/018, ‘OCA: 15th General Assembly in Bangkok from 7 to 9 December 1996: Pro-
gramme and Report,’ Files on the Olympic Council of Asia, IOC Archive, Lausanne, Switzerland,
October 5–6, 1995.
Zammit, Marie Therese, and Ian Henry. “Evaluating Olympic Solidarity 1982–2012.” In Routledge Hand-
book of Sport Policy, edited by Ian Henry and Ling-Mei Ko, 93–105. London: Routledge, 2014.
Barmé, G. R. “To Screw Foreigners Is Patriotic: China’s Avant-Garde Nationalist.” In Chinese Nationalism,
edited by Jonathan Unger. New York and London: M. E. Sharpe, 1996.
Chinese Society for History of Physical Education and Sport (CSHPES), ed. Modern Chinese Sports History.
Beijing: Beijing Sport University Press, 1990.
Hong, Fan, Ping Wu, and Huan Xiong. “Beijing Ambitions: An Analysis of the Chinese Elite Sports System
and Its Olympic Strategy for the 2008 Olympic Games.” The International Journal of the History of Sport
22, no. 4 (2005): 510–29.
International Olympic Committee. The Olympic Movement. Lausanne, Switzerland: International Olympic
Committee, 1984.
Miller, David. From Athens to Athens: The Official History of the Olympic Games and the IOC, 1894–2004.
Edinburgh: Mainstream Publishing Company, 2004.
Pan, Lynn. New Chinese Revolution. London: Sphere Books, 1988.
Pound, Richard. Inside the Olympics. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2004.
Segrave, Jeffrey O., and Donald Chu, eds. The Olympic Games in Transition. Champaign: Human Kinetics,
1988.
Alter, Joseph S. The Wrestler’s Body: Identity and Ideology in North India. Berkeley, CA: University of California
Press, 1992.
Bandyopadhyay, Kausik. Mahatma on the Pitch: Gandhi & Cricket in India. New Delhi: Rupa, 2017.
Bandyopadhyay, Kausik. Scoring Off the Field: Football Culture in Bengal, 1911–1980. New Delhi: Routledge,
2011.
Cashman, Richard. Patrons, Players and the Crowd: The Phenomenon of Indian Cricket. Hyderabad: Orient
Longman, 1979.
Dimeo, Paul. “The Social History of the Royal Calcutta Golf Club, 1829–2003.” In Subaltern Sports: Politics
and Sport in South Asia, edited by James Mills, 123–38. London: Anthem, 2005.
Dimeo, Paul. “Sporting and the ‘Civilising Mission’ in India.” In Colonialism and Civilising Mission: Cultural
Ideology in British India, edited by Harald Fischer-Tiné and Michael Mann, 165–78. London: Anthem,
2004.
Fischer-Tiné, Harald. “Fitness for Modernity? The YMCA and Physical-Education Schemes in Late-
Colonial South Asia (circa 1900–40).” Modern Asian Studies 53, no. 2 (2019): 512–59.
Guha, Ramachandra. A Corner of a Foreign Field:The Indian History of a British Sport. London: Picador, 2002.
Guttmann, Allen. Games and Empires: Modern Sports and Cultural Imperialism. New York: Columbia Univer-
sity Press, 1994.
Headlam, Cecil. Ten Thousand Miles Through India and Burma: An Account of the Oxford University Authentics
Cricket Tour with Mr KJ Key in the Year of the Coronation Durbar. London: J. M. Dent, 1903.
Kidambi, Prashant. Cricket Country: An Indian Odyssey in the Age of Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2019.
Majumdar, Boria. “Forward and Backward: Women’s Soccer in Twentieth-Century India.” Comparative
Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 25, no. 1 (2005): 204–13.
Majumdar, Boria. Twenty-Two Yards to Freedom: A Social History of Indian Cricket. New Delhi: Penguin, 2004.
Majumdar, Boria, and Nalin Mehta. Olympics:The India Story. New Delhi: Harper Collins, 2008.
Mangan, J. A. The Games Ethic and Imperialism: Aspects of the Diffusion of an Ideal. Harmondsworth: Penguin,
1985.
Mason, Tony. “Football on the Maidan.” International Journal of the History of Sport 7, no. 1 (1990): 85–96.
Mills, James. “A Historiography of South Asian Sport.” Contemporary South Asia 10, no. 2 (2001): 207–21.
Mukharji, Projit B. “The Early Cricketing Tours: Imperial Provenance and Radical Potential.” International
Journal of the History of Sport 21, no. 3–4 (2012): 351–62.
Naha, Souvik. “Adams and Eves at the Eden Gardens: Women Cricket Spectators and the Conflict of
Feminine Subjectivity in Calcutta, 1920–70.” International Journal of the History of Sport 29, no. 5 (2012):
711–29.
Naha, Souvik. “Producing the First Indian Cricketing Superhero: Nationalism, Body Culture, Consump-
tion and the C.K. Nayudu Phenomenon.” International Journal of the History of Sport 29, no. 4 (2012):
562–82.
Nandy, Ashis. The Tao of Cricket: On Games of Destiny and the Destiny of Games. New Delhi:Viking, 1989.
Rosselli, John. “The Self-Image of Effeteness: Physical Education and Nationalism in Nineteenth-Century
Bengal.” Past & Present 86 (1980): 121–48.
Sarbadhikary, Berry. Presenting Indian Cricket. Calcutta: A. Mukherjee & Co., 1946.
Sen, Ronojoy. Nation at Play: A History of Sport in India. New York: Columbia University Press, 2015.
Sen, Satadru. Migrant Races: Empire, Identity and K.S. Ranjitsinhji. Manchester: Manchester University Press,
2004.
Abe, Ikuo. “Historical Significance of the Far Eastern Championship Games: An International Political
Arena.” In Olympic Japan: Ideals and Realities of (Inter) Nationalism, edited by Andreas Niehaus and Max
Seinsch, 67–87. Würzburg: Ergon Verlag, 2007.
Blackwood, Thomas. “Bushidō Baseball? Three ‘Fathers’ and the Invention of a Tradition.” Social Science
Japan Journal 11, no. 2 (2008): 223–40.
Collins, Sandra. The 1940 Tokyo Games: The Missing Olympics: Japan, the Asian Olympics and the Olympic
Movement. London: Routledge, 2007.
Donnelly, Peter, and Kevin M. Young. “Reproduction and Transformation of Cultural Forms in Sport:
A Contextual Analysis of Rugby.” International Review for the Sociology of Sport 20, no. 1–2 (1985): 19.
Guttmann, Allen. Games and Empires: Modern Sports and Cultural Imperialism. New York: Columbia Univer-
sity Press, 1994.
Guttmann, Allen, and Lee Thompson. Japanese Sports: A History. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press,
2001.
Hamada, Sachie. Nihon ni okeru media Orimpikku no tanjō: Los Angeles, Berlin,Tokyo [The Birth of the Medi-
ated Olympics in Japan: Los Angeles, Berlin and Tokyo]. Kyoto: Mineruva shobō, 2016.
Huebner, Stefan. Pan-Asian Sports and the Emergence of Modern Asia, 1913–1974. Singapore: National Uni-
versity of Singapore Press, 2016.
Irie, Katsumi. Meijijingū kyōgitaikai to kokumin seishin sōdōin undō [The Meiji Shrine Games and Full Mobi-
lisation]. Tokyo: Fumaidō Shuppan, 1991.
Ishizaka, Yūji. “Senzen no supōtsukai no sokuseki: Orimpikku hatsusanka kara maboroshi ni itaru made”
[Sport in Prewar Japan: From First Olympic Participation to the Cancellation of the 1940 Games]. In
Nippon no Orimpikku: Nihon wa Orimpizumu to ikani mukiatte kitaka [Japan and the Olympics: How Japan
Has Viewed Olympism], edited by Yasunao Kojita et al. Tokyo: Seikyūsha, 2018.
Kawamoto, Nobumasa, ed. Orimpikku no jiten [Dictionary of the Olympics]. Tokyo: Sanseidō, 1984.
Keiō Gijuku Taiikukai. Keiō gijuku taiikukai nempyō. Tokyo: Keiō gijuku taiikukai, 1977.
Kinoshita, Hideaki. Heishiki taisō kara mita gun to kyōiku [Military Drills in the Military and in Education].
Tokyo: Kyōrin Shoin, 1982.
Kishino,Yūzō, and Kyūzō Takenoshita. Kindai nihon gakkō taiikushi [The History of School Physical Educa-
tion in Modern Japan]. Tokyo: Tōyōkan Shuppan, 1959.
Kōzu, Masaru. Nihon kindai supōtsu shi no teiryū [Undercurrents of Sport History in Modern Japan]. Tokyo:
Sōbun Kikaku, 1994.
Kyōkai, Nihon Taiiku. Nihon Taiiku Kyōkai 75 nenshi [75-Year History of Japan Amateur Sports Associa-
tion]. Tokyo: Nippon taiiku kyokai, 1986.
Nakamura,Tetsuo. “IOC Kaichō Baillet-Latour karamita Tokyo Orimpikku” [How IOC President Baillet-
Latour Perceived the 1940 Tokyo Olympic Games]. In Maboroshi no Tokyo Orimpikku to sono jidai:
Supōtsu, toshi, shintai [The 1940 Tokyo Olympics and Its Period: Sport, Body and Urban Areas in War-
time], edited by Yasuhiro Sakaue and Hiroyuki Takaoka, 26–28. Tokyo: Seikyūsha, 2009.
Nihon Hōsō Kyōkai Hōsō Yoron Chōsasho. Tokyo Orimpikku [Tokyo Olympics]. Tokyo: Nihon Hōsō
Kyōkai Hōsō Yoron Chōsasho, 1967.
Roden, Donald. “Baseball and the Quest for National Dignity in Meiji Japan.” American Historical Review
85 (1980): 513.
Sakaue,Yasuhiro. Kenryoku sochi toshite no supōtsu:Teikoku Nihon no kokka senryaku [State and Sport in Inter-
War Japan]. Tokyo: Kōdansha, 1998.
Sakaue,Yasuhiro. Nippon yakyū no keifugaku [A Genealogy of Japanese Baseball]. Tokyo: Seikyūsha, 2001.
Sakaue,Yasuhiro. Shōwa Tennō to supōtsu: Gyokutai no kindaishi [The Showa Emperor and Sport: A Modern
History of the Imperial Presence]. Tokyo:Yoshikawa Kōbunkan, 2016.
Sakaue,Yasuhiro. “Taiheiyō sensō ka no supōtsu shōrei: 1943 nen no Kōseishō no seisaku hōshin, undōyōgu
oyobi kyōgitaikai no tōsei” [Sport Promotion During the Pacific War:The Policy and Control Over the
Production of Sporting Goods and the Holding of Athletic Meetings by the Welfare Ministry in 1943].
Hitotsubashi Annual of Sport Studies 29 (2010): 11–18.
Suzuki, Fūta. “Senjiki no supōtsu to jendā: Monbushō no ‘jūten seisaku’ wo chūshin ni” [Sport and Gender
in Japan During the Asia-Pacific War: Focusing on the ‘Priority System’ Policy of the Ministry of Edu-
cation]. Hitotsubashi Annual of Sport Studies 31 (2012): 48.
Suzuki, Fūta. “Taiiku supōtsu no senji hensei to jendā” [Sport and Gender in Japan During Wartime]. PhD
diss., Hitotsubashi University, 2014.
Tahara, Junko. “Dai 12 kai Orimpikku Tokyo taikai no kaisai chūshi wo meguru shogaikoku no hannō ni
tuite: Gaimushō gaikō shiryōkan bunsho no bunseki wo toshite” [A Study of the Responses of Foreign
Countries to the Cancellation of the Games of the 12th Olympiad, Tokyo: Through an Analysis of the
Documents in the Possession of the Diplomatic Record Office, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan].
Japanese Journal of Physical Education 38, no. 2 (1993): 87–98.
Takashima, Kō. Guntai to supōtsu [The Military and Sport in Modern Japan]. Tokyo: Seikyūsha, 2015.
Takashima, Kō. “Kyokutō senshuken kyōgi taikai to YMCA” [Far Eastern Championship Games and
YMCA]. In Chūgoku Higashi-Ajia gaikō kōryū shi no kenkyū [The History of Diplomacy in China and
East Asia], edited by Susumu Fuma. Kyoto: Kyōto Daigaku gakujutsu shuppankai, 2007.
Takashima, Kō. “Manshukoku no tanjō to Kyokutō supōtsukai no saihen” [The Birth of Manchuria and
Its Impact on Sports in the Far East]. Memoirs of the Faculty of Letters, Kyoto University 47 (2008): 131–81.
Takashima, Kō. Teikoku Nihon to Supōtsu [The Japanese Empire and Sport]. Hanawa Shobō, 2012.
Tasaki, Nobuyoshi. “Senkanki to atarashii seikatsu bunka” [The New Life Culture in the Inter-War Period].
In Kindai Nihon no toshi to nōson: Gekido no 1920–50 nendai [Cities and Villages in Modern Japan: The
Turbulent 1920s–50s], edited by Nobuyoshi Tasaki. Tokyo: Seikyūsha, 2012.
Tsukahara, Fumio. “1912 nen – 2008 nen kaki Orimpikku Nihon daihyō senshudan ni kansuru shiryō:
shozoku soshiki to saishū gakureki wo chūshin ni” [The Japanese National Team at the Summer Olym-
pic Games, 1912–2008: Affiliation and Educational Background]. Supōtsu kagaku kenkyū [Sport Science
Research, Waseda University] 10 (2013): 241–316.
Watanabe, Tōru. “Meijiki chūgakkō ni okeru supōtsu katsudō” [Sport Activities in Middle School in the
Meiji Era]. The Proceedings of the Department of Sports Sciences College of Arts and Sciences, the University of
Tokyo 12 (1978): 1–22.
Bridges, Brian. The Two Koreas and the Politics of Global Sport. Leiden: Global Oriental, 2012.
Caprio, Mark E. “Janus-Faced Colonial Policy: Making Sense of the Contradictions in Japanese Adminis-
trative Rhetoric and Practice in Korea.” Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies 17, no. 2 (2017): 125–47.
Cha,Victor D. Beyond the Final Score. New York: Columbia University Press, 2009.
Cheon, Jung Hwan.“Bend It Like a Man of Chosun: Sports Nationalism and Colonial Modernity of 1936.”
In The Korean Popular Culture Reader, edited by Kyung Hyun Kim and Youngmin Choe, 199–227. Dur-
ham: Duke University Press, 2014.
Collins, Sandra S. The Missing Olympics: The 1940 Tokyo Games, Japan, Asia and the Olympic Movement.
London: Routledge, 2007.
De Ceuster, Koen. “Wholesome Education and Sound Leisure:The YMCA Sports Programme in Colonial
Korea.” European Journal of East Asian Studies 2, no. 1 (2003): 39–62.
Dickinson, Frederick R. World War I and the Triumph of a New Japan, 1919–1930. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2013.
Farquharson, Karen, and Timothy Marjoribanks. “Transforming the Springboks: Re-Imagining the South
African Nation Through Sport.” Social Dynamics 29, no. 1 (2003): 27–48.
Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish:The Birth of the Prison. Translated by Alan Sheridan. New York:Vin-
tage Books, 1975.
Hangnae,Yi. Han’guk ch’eyuksa yŏn’gu. Seoul: Kukhak Charyowŏn, 2003.
Irie, Katsumi. Shōwa supōtsu shiron: Meiji Jingū Kyōgi Taikai to kokumin seishin sōdōin undō. Tokyo: Fumaidō
shuppan, 1991.
James, C. L. R. Beyond a Boundary. New York: Pantheon, 1983.
Lee, Jung Woo. “Examining Korean Nationalisms, Identities, and Politics Through Sport.” Asia Pacific Journal
of Sport and Social Science 4, no. 3 (2015): 179–85.
Lee, Seok. “Colonial Korea and the Olympic Games, 1910–1945.” PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania,
2016.
Lee, Seok. “Colonial Korea’s First Participation in the Olympic Games (1932).” Seoul Journal of Korean Stud-
ies 29, no. 2 (December 2016): 267–303.
Mangan, J. A., and Nam-gil Ha. “Confucianism, Imperialism, Nationalism: Modern Sport, Ideology and
Korean Culture.” In Europe, Sport,World: Shaping Global Societies, edited by J. A. Mangan, 49–76. Portland:
Frank Cass, 2001.
Mangan, J. A., Kyongho Park, and Gwang Ok. “Japanese Imperial Sport as Failed Cultural Condition-
ing: Korean ‘Recalcitrance’.” In Japanese Imperialism: Politics and Sport in East Asia: Rejection, Resentment,
Revanchism, edited by J. A. Mangan, Peter Horton, Tianwei Ren, and Gwang Ok, 43–70. Singapore:
Springer Singapore, 2018.
Miyoung, Oh. “ ‘Eternal Other’ Japan: South Koreans’ Postcolonial Identity.” International Journal of the His-
tory of Sport 26, no. 3 (2009): 371–89.
Morris, Andrew D. Marrow of the Nation: A History of Sport and Physical Culture in Republican China. Berkeley,
CA: University of California Press, 2004.
Noja, Pak. Ssissikhan namja mandŭlgi: Han’guk ŭi isangjŏk namsŏngsŏng ŭi yŏksa rŭl p’ahech’ida. Seoul: P’urŭn
yŏksa, 2009.
Ok, Gwang. The Transformation of Modern Korean Sport: Imperialism, Nationalism, Globalization. Elizabeth:
Hollym, 2007.
Reaves, Joseph A. Taking in a Game: A History of Baseball in Asia. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002.
Robinson, Michael E. Cultural Nationalism in Colonial Korea, 1920–1925. Seattle: University of Washington
Press, 2015.
Schmid, Andre. “Colonialism and the ‘Korea Problem’ in the Historiography of Modern Japan: A Review
Article.” Journal of Asian Studies 59, no. 4 (2000): 951–76.
Schmid, Andre. Korea Between Empires, 1895–1919. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002.
Shin, Gi-Wook, and Michael Robinson, eds. Colonial Modernity in Korea. Cambridge: East Asia Council
Publications, 1999.
Uchida, Jun. Brokers of Empire: Japanese Settler Colonialism in Korea, 1876–1945. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 2014.
Yi, Han-Sŏp. Ilbonŏ esŏ on uri mal sajŏn. Seoul: Koryŏ Taehakkyo Ch’ulp’anbu, 2014.
Yi, T’aejin. Kojong sidae ŭi chaejomyŏng [Refocusing on the Kojong Period]. Seoul: T’aehaksa, 2000.
Yoo, Sung-Yeon. “Ilche kangjŏmgi kyŏnggi ssirŭm e taehan yŏn’gu.” Taehan mudo hakhoe chi 19, no. 1
(2017): 67–79.
Yun, Deug Heon. Sŭp’och’ŭ wa midio. Seoul: Reinbou Puksu, 2008.
Back, U-Young, and Ka-Ram Lee. “Seo Jae-Pil’s Contribution to the Evolution of Korea’s Modern Physi-
cal Education and Sports Culture.” Asian Journal of Physical Education and Sport Science 7, no. 2 (2019):
51–64.
Cheon, Jung-Hwan. Never-Ending Syndrome. Seoul: Pureun Yeoksa, 2005.
Cheon, Taek-Bu. The History of Korean YMCA Sports. Seoul: Beomwosa, 1994.
Collins, Sandra. “Asian Soft-Power: Globalization and Regionalism in the East Asia Olympic Games.” In
Rethinking Matters Olympic: Investigation into the Socio-Cultural Study of the Modern Olympic Movement,
edited by R. Barney. Tenth International Symposium for Olympic Research. London: The University
of Western Ontario, 2010.
Guttman, Allen, and Lee Thompson. Japanese Sports: A History. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2001.
Ha, Jung-Hee. “Historical Review of Sports Hero Shon Kee Chung’s Sport Activities.” PhD diss., Chung-
Ang University, 2012.
Ha, Nam-Gil. New Theory on Sports History. Jinju: Gyeongsang University, 2010.
Jeong, Hui-Jun. Sports Korea Fantasy. Seoul: Gaemagowon, 2009.
Kim Jae-Woo. “A Study on the Physical Education of the Korean YMCA in the Period of Gu-Han-Mal.”
Journal of Sport Information & Technology 1 (2006): 75–86.
Kim Jae-Woo. The 100-Year Sports History of the Seoul YMCA. Seoul: Sangrok Munwha, 2009.
Kim, Seong-Gon, and Jeong Hyeong-Ho, trans. Culture and Imperialism. Seoul: Chang, 1997.
Korean Society for History of Physical Education, Sport and Dance. Korea Sports History. Seoul: Daehan-
midieo, 2015.
Lee, Hak-Rae. A Study on the History of Modern Sports. Seoul: Jishik Sanupsa, 1990.
Lee, Jong-Seong. Sports Culture History. Seoul: Keomyunikeisyeonbugseu, 2014.
Lee, Ka-Ram. “The Influence of Philip L. Gillett on the Development of Korea’s Modern Sports.” Korean
Journal of History for Physical Education, Sport, and Dance 19, no. 2 (2014): 101–14.
Lee, Ka-Ram. “A Study on Sports Articles Published in the Independent.” Korean Journal of Physical Education
55, no. 3 (2016): 1–14.
Lee, Ka-Ram, and Jae-Pil Ha. “A Study on the Introduction Process of Korean Volleyball.” Korean Journal of
History for Physical Education, Sport, and Dance 21, no. 1 (2016): 10.
Lee,Yeong-Seok. Modern Scenery. Seoul: Pureun-yeogsa, 2003.
Mangan, James A. The Games Ethic and Imperialism. London:Viking Penguin, 1986.
Ok, Gwang. “Coercion for Asian Conquest: Japanese Militarism and Korean Sport, 1938–45.” International
Journal of the History of Sport 24, no. 3 (2007): 338–56.
Ok, Gwang. The Transformation of Modern Korean Sport: Imperialism, Nationalism, Globalization. Elizabeth:
Hollym, 2007.
Paik, Lak-Geoon G. The History of Protestant Missions in Korea 1832–1910. Seoul: Yonsei University Press,
1970.
Park, Jung-Sim. The History of Korean Modern Thought. Seoul: Cheonnyeon-ui Sangsang, 2016.
Sohn, Kee-Chung. My Homeland, My Marathon. Seoul: Hankook Ilbo Press Publishing Department, 1983.
Son, Hwan. “A Study on Establishment and Activity of Joseon Sports Associations.” Korean Journal of Physi-
cal Education 47, no. 3 (2008): 1–13.
Son, Hwan. “A Study on Olympic Movement in Korea After Independence.” Korean Journal of History for
Physical Education, Sport, and Dance 15, no. 2 (2010): 17–26.
Barber, Andrew. The Making of a Nation 1510–1957. Kuala Lumpur: AB&A, 2008.
Braddell, Roland St. J. “A Short History of the Colony.” In One Hundred Years of Singapore, edited by Walter
Makepeace, G. E. Brooke, and Ronald St. John Braddell, 17–22. London: John Murray, 1921.
Carrington, C. E. Singapore and Malaya. London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1956.
Cheah, Boon Kheng. “The Unfederated Malay States.” In Encyclopaedia of Malaysia: Early Modern History,
1800–1940, edited by Boon Kheng Cheah, 92–93. Singapore: Archipelago Press, 2001.
Drabble, John H. An Economic History of Malaysia, c. 1800–1990: The Transition to Modern Economic Growth.
London: Macmillan, 2000.
Dunlop, S. Report on the Census of Singapore, 1881. Singapore: Government Printing Office, 1881.
Foenander, Mark. “J. R. Crawford: A Veteran of Perak.” British Malaya 10, no. 9 (1936): 226.
Gullick, J. M. Glimpses of Selangor 1860–1898. Kuala Lumpur: Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Soci-
ety, 1993.
Harrison, Brian. Southeast Asia: A Short History. London: Macmillan, 1966.
Hone, H. R. British Military Administration, Malaya: Advisory Council, Singapore: Report of Proceedings. Kuala
Lumpur: Malayan Union Government Press, 1946.
Hubback, Theodore R. “Sport.” In Twentieth Century Impression of British Malaya, edited by Arnold Wright
and H. A. Cartwright, 559–86. London: Lloyd’s Greater Britain Publishing Company, 1908.
Jackson, J. C. “Population Changes in Selangor, 1850–1891.” Journal of Tropical Geography 19 (1964): 42–57.
Khoo, Kay Kim. “The Formation of the Federated Malay States.” In Encyclopaedia of Malaysia: Early Modern
History, 1800–1940, edited by Boon Kheng Cheah, 80–81. Singapore: Archipelago Press, 2001.
Lim, Peng Han. “The Diffusion and Transmission of Cricket Among European, Indigenous and Migrant
Communities in the British Straits Settlements and the Federated Malay States During the Late Eight-
eenth and Nineteenth Century, 1786–1899.” International Journal of the History of Sport 30, no. 3 (2013):
210–31. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09523367.2012.755346.
Lim, Peng Han, and Mohd Salleh Aman. “The History of the South East Asian Peninsular Games.” Inter-
national Journal of the History of Sport 33, no. 5 (2016): 545–68. https://doi.org/10.1080/09523367.201
5.1062371.
Lim, Peng Han, and Mohd Salleh Aman. “The HMS Malaya Cup Football League, 1921–1941:Towards the
Institutionalization of Football in British Malaya.” International Journal of the History of Sport 34, no. 17/18
(2017): 1981–2007. https://doi.org/10.1080/09523367.2018.1495194.
MacNair, John F. A., C. B. Walker, and A. Knight. Report of the Census Officers, for the Settlement of Singapore,
1871. Singapore: Government Printing Office, 1871.
Mardjadi, Aba. Dari SEAP Games Ke SEA Games [From SEAP Games to SEA Games]. Jakarta: Media
Gema Olahraga, 1997.
Merewether, E. M. Report of the Census of the Straits Settlements Taken on 5th April 1891. Singapore: Govern-
ment Printing Office, 1892.
Ministry of Culture. Singapore Year Book 1964. Singapore: Ministry of Culture, 1965.
Moreira, Allan E. The Malaya Sports Record. Kuala Lumpur: Huxley, Palmer & Co., 1923.
Organising Committee. III SEAP Games: Kuala Lumpur 1965. Kuala Lumpur: South East Asia Peninsular
Games Federation, 1966.
Organising Committee. The Official Report of the 1st SEA Peninsular Games, Bangkok 1959. Bangkok:
Organising Committee, 1959.
Organising Committee. Official Report of III Asian Games,Tokyo 1958. Tokyo: Organising Committee, 1958.
Organising Committee. The Second South East Asia Peninsular Games Rangoon 1961. Rangoon: Organizing
Committee, 1962, 119.
Tate, D. J. M. The Lake Club 1890–1990. Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1990.
Vaughan, J. D. The Manners and Customs of the Chinese of the Straits Settlements. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 1974.
Winstedt, Richard. Malaya and Its History. 7th ed. London: Hutchinson University Library, 1966.
Wright, Arnold, and H. A. Cartwright. Twentieth Century Impressions of British Malaya: Its History, People,
Commerce, Industries and Resources. London: Lloyd’s Greater Britain Publishing, 1908.
Amos Alonzo Stagg Papers, University of Chicago, Special Collections, Box 27, folder 2.
Antolihao, Lou. Playing with the Big Boys: Basketball, American Imperialism, and Subaltern Discourse in the Philip-
pines. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2015.
Bishop Charles H. Brent Papers, Library of Congress, Box 47, Philippine Islands folder.
Bocobo-Olivar, Celia. History of Physical Education in the Philippines. Quezon City, Philippines: University
of the Philippines Press, 1972.
Bradley, James. The Imperial Crusade: Secret History of Empire and War. New York: Little, Brown & Co., 2009.
Brown, Elwood S. Annual Report, October 1, 1914–October 1, 1915, n.p.
Brown, Elwood S. Annual Reports, 1911–1914, in YMCA Archives, Box Philippines.
Brownell, Susan, ed. The 1904 Anthropology Days and Olympic Games: Sport, Race, and American Imperialism.
Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2008.
Bulosan, Carlos. America Is in the Heart: A Personal History. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1946.
Espana-Maram, Linda. Creating Masculinity in Los Angeles in Little Manila:Working-Class Filipinos and Popular
Culture, 1920s–1950s. New York: Columbia University Press, 2006.
Frederic, S. Marquardt Papers, University of Michigan, Bentley Library.
Gems, Gerald R. The Athletic Crusade: Sport and American Cultural Imperialism. Lincoln: University of
Nebraska Press, 2006.
Gems, Gerald R. Boxing: A Concise History of the Sweet Science. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2014.
Gems, Gerald R. Sport and the American Occupation of the Philippines: Bats, Balls, and Bayonets. Lanham, MD:
Lexington Books, 2016.
Karnow, Stanley. In Our Image: America’s Empire in the Philippines. New York: Random House, 1989.
Kramer, Paul A. The Blood of Government: Race, Empire, the United States & the Philippines. Chapel Hill: Uni-
versity of North Carolina Press, 2006.
May, Glenn. Social Engineering in the Philippine: The Aims, Execution, and Impact of American Colonial Policy,
1900–1913. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1980.
NP, Correspondence Reports, 1911–1968, administrative reports file.
Prentice, Claire. The Lost Tribe of Coney Island: Headhunters, Luna Park, and the Man Who Pulled Off the Spec-
tacle of the Century. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2014.
Reid, Robert A. The Greatest of Exhibitions: Completely Illustrated, Official Publication. St. Louis: Samuel F.
Myerson, 1904.
Runstedtler, Theresa. “The New Negro’s Brown Brother: Black American and Filipino Boxers and the
‘Rising Tide of Color’.” In Escape from New York: The New Negro Renaissance Beyond Harlem, edited by
Davarian L. Baldwin and Minkah Makalani, 105–26. Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press,
2013.
Stanley, Peter W. A Nation in the Making:The Philippines and the United States, 1899–1921. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 1974.
Torres, Christina Evangelista. The Americanization of Manila, 1898–1921. Quezon City, Philippines: Dili-
man, 2010.
Tuason, Julie A. “The Ideology of Empire in National Geographic Magazine’s Coverage of the Philippines,
1898–1908.” Geographical Review 89, no. 1 (1999): 34–53.
Weston, Stanley. “Pancho Villa: The Gigantic Runt.” Clipping in the Villa File, International Boxing Hall
of Fame.
Worcester, Dean C. “Field Sports Among the Wild Men of Luzon.” National Geographic 22, no. 3 (1911):
215–67.
Worcester, Dean C. “Head-Hunters of Northern Luzon.” National Geographic 23, no. 9 (1912): 833–930.
Worcester, Dean C. “The Non-Christian Peoples of the Philippine Islands: With an Account of What Has
Been Done for Them Under American Rule.” National Geographic 24, no. 11 (1913): 1157–256.
Worcester, Dean C. The Philippines: Past and Present. New York: Macmillan, 1913.
Worcester, Dean C. The Philippines Past and Present. New York: Macmillan, 1914.
Zabriskie, Alexander C. Bishop Brent: Crusader for Christian Unity. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1948.
Zimmerman, Warren. The First Great Triumph: How Five Americans Made Their Country a World Power. New
York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2002.
Aplin, Nick. “British Imperialism and Sport in Asia.” In Sports Around the World: History, Culture and Practice,
edited by John Nauright and Charles Parrish, 206–7. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2012.
Aplin, Nick. “The Slow Contagion of Scottish Example: Association Football in Nineteenth-Century
Colonial Singapore.” Soccer & Society 14, no. 5 (2014): 588–602.
Aplin, Nick. “Sports and Games in Colonial Singapore: 1819–1867.” Sport in Society: Cultures, Commerce,
Media, Politics 15, no. 10 (2012): 1329–40.
Aplin, Nick, and Quek Jin Jong. “Celestials in Touch: Sport and the Chinese in Colonial Singapore.” The
International Journal of the History of Sport 19, no. 2–3 (2002): 67–98.
Birch, E. W. “British Malaya.” Malayan Sport in the Earlier Days 1, no. 1 (1926): 23–26.
Kolatch, Jonathan. Sports Politics and Ideology in China. Middle Village, NY: Jonathan David, 1972.
Makepeace, Walter, Gilbert E. Brooke, and Roland St. J. Braddell, eds. One Hundred Years of Singapore. Lon-
don: John Murray, 1921.
Mangan, J. A. “Imperial Singapore–Culture Imperialism and Imperial Control: Athleticism as Ideological
Intent.” The International Journal of the History of Sport 30, no. 11 (2013): 1193–220.
Moreira, Alan E. The Malaya Sports Record. Kuala Lumpur: Huxley, Palmer and Co., 1923.
Tregonning, K. G. “Tan Cheng Lock: A Malayan Nationalist.” Journal of Southeast Asian History 10, no. 1
(1979): 25–76.
Anholt, Simon. Competitive Identity: The New Brand Management for Nations, Cities and Regions. Houndmills:
Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.
Anholt, Simon. “Place Branding: Is It Marketing or Isn’t It?” Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 4, no. 1
(2008): 1–6.
Butler, Oliver. “Getting the Games: Japan, Korea and the Co-hosted World Cup.” In Japan, Korea and the
2002 World Cup, edited by John Horne and Wolfram Manzenreiter, 43–55. London: Routledge, 2002.
Cha, Victor. Beyond the Final Score: The Politics of Sport in Asia. 59. New York: Columbia University Press,
2009.
Cho, E. J. R. “North Korea’s ‘Grand Theatre’ for Survival: Nation Branding or Nation Building?” Geopolitics
22, no. 3 (2017): 603, 606.
Cho, Ji-hyun, and Alan Bairner. “The Socio-Cultural Legacy of the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games.” Leisure
Studies 31, no. 3 (2012): 285.
Cumings, Bruce. Korea’s Place in the Sun: A Modern History. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2005
Cumings, Bruce. North Korea. New York: The New Press, 2004
Cumings, Bruce. North Korea: Another Country. New York and London: The New Press, 2004.
Devismes, Louisa. “Regional Events and Festivals in Europe: Revitalizing Traditions and Modernizing
Identities.” In Identity Discourses and Communities in International Events, Festivals and Events, edited by
Udo Merkel, 33–52. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.
Eunah Hong. “Elite Sport and Nation-building in South Korea: South Korea as the Dark Horse in Global
Elite Sport.” The International Journal of the History of Sport 28, no. 7 (2011): 977–89.
Eunah Hong. “Women’s Football in the Two Koreas: A Comparative Sociological Analysis.” Journal of Sport
and Social Issues 36, no. 2 (2012): 115–34.
Fan, Ying. “Branding the Nation: Towards a Better Understanding.” Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 6,
no. 2 (2010): 98.
Foley, Malcolm, David McGillivray, and Gayle McPherson. Event Policy: From Theory to Strategy. London:
Routledge, 2012.
Gold, John R., and Steven Ward, eds. Place Promotion: The Use of Publicity and Marketing to Sell Towns and
Regions. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 1994.
Grzelczyk,Virginie. “Hard, Soft, Smart? North Korea and Power: It’s All Relative.” Asian International Studies
Review 18, no. 1 (2017): 137.
Jones, Adam. “London 2012: Urban Imagery and City Branding.” In Identity Discourses and Communities in
International Events, Festivals and Events, edited by Udo Merkel, 96–115. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmil-
lan, 2015.
Joo,Yu-min,Yooil Bae, and Eva Kassens-Noor. Mega-Events and Mega-Ambitions: South Korea’s Rise and the
Strategic Use of the Big Four Events. Houndsmill: Palgrave, 2016, 75.
Kim, Jong-il. On Popularizing Physical Training and Sport and Developing Sporting Skills Rapidly. Pyongyang:
Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1989.
Lee, Hyun-jung, and Cho Young-han. “Performing Nation-Ness in South Korea During the 2002 Korea-
Japan World Cup.” Korea Journal 49, no. 3 (2009): 93–120.
Lee, Jung-woo, and Alan Bairner. “The Difficult Dialogue: Communism, Nationalism and Political Propa-
ganda in North Korean Sport.” Journal of Sport and Social Issues 33, no. 4 (2009): 390–410.
Manzenreiter, Wolfram, and John Horne. “Global Governance in World Sport and the 2002 World Cup
Korea/Japan.” In Japan, Korea and the 2002 World Cup, edited by John Horne and Wolfram Manzenreiter.
London: Routledge, 2002.
Martin, Bradley K. Under the Loving Care of the Fatherly Leader: North Korea and the Kim Dynasty. New York:
Thomas Dunne Books, 2006.
Merkel, Udo. “The Critical Social-Scientific Study of International Events: Power, Politics and Conflicts.”
In Power, Politics and International Events: Socio-cultural Analyses of Festivals and Spectacles, edited by Udo
Merkel, 3–30. London: Routledge, 2014.
Merkel, Udo. “ ‘The Grand Mass Gymnastics and Artistic Performance Arirang’ (2002–2012): North
Korea’s Socialist-Realist Response to Global Sports Spectacles.” In The New Geopolitics of Sport in East
Asia, edited by William Kelly and Tony Mangan. Special Issue. The International Journal of the History of
Sport 30, no. 11 (2013): 1247–59.
Merkel, Udo. “Pyongyang Proudly Presents: Mass Displays and Displays of the Masses in North Korea.” In
Leisure Identities and Authenticity, edited by Louise Mansfield and Dikaia Chatziefstathiou. Eastbourne:
Leisure Studies Association, 2010, 1–28.
Merkel, Udo. “Sport and Physical Culture in North Korea: Resisting, Recognizing and Relishing Globali-
zation.” In Glocalization of Sports in Asia, edited by Young-han Cho, Charles Leary, and Steve Jackson.
Special Issue. Sociology of Sport Journal 29, no. 4 (2012): 506–25.
Merkel, Udo. “Sports Events as a Foreign Policy and Diplomatic Tool.” In Routledge Handbook of Sport and
Politics, edited by John Kelly, Alan Bairner, and Lee Jong-woo, 28–38. London: Routledge, 2016.
Merkel, Udo, and Kim Misuk. “Third Time Lucky!? PyeongChang’s Bid to Host the 2018 Winter Olym-
pics: Politics, Policy and Practice.” The International Journal of the History of Sport 28, no. 16 (2011):
2365–83.
Min, Doosik, and Yujeong Choi. “Sport Cooperation in Divided Korea: An Overstated Role of Sport
Diplomacy in South Korea.” Sport in Society 22, no. 8 (2018): 1383.
Myers, Brian Reynolds. The Cleanest Race: How North Koreans See Themselves—And Why It Matters. Brook-
lyn, NY: Melville House Publishing, 2010.
Nye, Joseph. Bound to Lead:The Changing Nature of American Power. New York: Basic Books, 1990.
Nye, Joseph. “Public Diplomacy and Soft Power.” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social
Science 616, no. 1 (2008): 97.
Nye, Joseph. Soft Power:The Means to Success in World Politics. New York: Public Affairs, 2004.
Podoler, Guy. “Running in the Sun: The Pyongyang Marathon and Is Evolution into Sports Tourism
Event.” The International Journal of the History of Sport 33, no. 18 (2017): 2207–25.
Polley, Martin. “The Diplomatic Background to the 1966 Football World Cup.” The Sports Historian 18, no.
2. (2009): 1–18.
Portal, Jane. Art Under Control in North Korea. London: Reaktion Books, 2005, 135.
Sugden, John. “Running Havana: Observations on the Political Economy of Sport Tourism in Cuba.” Lei-
sure Studies 26, no. 2 (2007): 248–49.
Vandenberghe, Penelope. “PyeongChang 2018 and South Korea’s Strategic Use of Soft Power.” In Korea’s
Soft Power and Public Diplomacy, edited by Kadir Ayhan. Seoul: Hangang Network, 2017, 130.
Volcic, Zala, and Mark Andrejevic. “Nation Branding in the Era of Commercial Nationalism.” International
Journal of Communication 5 (2011): 598–618.
Won, Hyung-jong, and Eunah Hong. “The Development of Sport Policy and Management in South
Korea.” International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics 7, no. 1 (2015): 142.
Yim, Hak-soon. “Cultural Identity and Cultural Policy in South Korea.” The International Journal of Cultural
Policy 8, no. 1 (2002): 37–48.
Armstrong, Charles. “South Korea’s ‘Northern Policy’.” Pacific Review 3, no. 1 (1990): 35–45.
Bridges, Brian. “The Seoul Olympics: Economic Miracle Meet the World.” The International Journal of the
History of Sport 25, no. 14 (2008): 1939–52.
Bridges, Brian. The Two Koreas and the Politics of Global Sport. Boston: Global Oriental, 2012.
Brown, Oliver. “Nakedly Brazen Show Gets Message Across in Blizt of Symbolism.” The Daily Telegraph,
February 10, 2018, pp. 10–12.
DPRK Ministry of Sport. Masikryong Ski Resort. Pyongyang: DPRK Ministry of Sport, 2013.
Grix, Jonathan. Sport Politics: An Introduction. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016.
Joo, Rachael Miyung. Transnational Sport: Gender, Media, and Global Korea. Durham: Duke University Press,
2012.
Kim Soyoung. “Bukhan, 150yeo Dongpo Danche ae Arirang Chukjeon Chochungjang Balsong” [North
Korea Sent an Invitation to the Arirang Festival to More Than 150 Korean Diaspora Groups]. LA Joon-
gang, June 6, 2002, p. 27.
Ku,Yangmo, In yeop Lee, and Jongseok Woo. Politics in North and South Korea: Political Development, Economy,
and Foreign Relations. London: Routledge, 2018.
Larson, James F., and Heung S. Park. Global Television and the Politics of the Seoul Olympic Games. Oxford:
Westview Press, 1993.
Lee, Jung Woo. “Do the Scale and Scope of the Event Matter? The Asian Games and the Relations Between
North and South Korea.” Sport in Society 20, no. 3 (2017): 369–83.
Lee, Jung Woo. “A Game for the Global North: The 2018 Winter Olympic Games in Pyeongchang and
South Korean Cultural Politics.” The International Journal of the History of Sport 33, no. 12 (2016):
1411–26.
Lee, Jung Woo. “North and South Korean Relations and Sport: Displaying Unified Korean Nationalism
at the 2002 Busan Asian Games.” In Sport in Korea: History, Development and Management, edited by Dae
Hee Kwak,Yong Jae Ko, Inkyu Kang, and Mark Rosentraub, 105–18. London: Routledge, 2018.
Lee, Jung Woo. “North Korea Got What It Wanted from the Winter Olympics.” BBC, February 9, 2018.
www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-42983425.
Lee, Jung Woo. “The Olympics in the Post-Soviet Era: The Case of the Two Koreas.” In The Politics of the
Olympics: A Survey, edited by Alan Bairner and Gyozo Molnar, 117–28. London: Routledge, 2010.
Lee, Jung Woo. “The Politics of Female Football in North Korea: Socialism, Nationalism, and Propaganda.”
In Women and Sport in the Asia-Pacific Region, edited by Gyozo Molnar,Yoko Kanemasy, and Sara Amin.
London: Routledge, 2019.
Lee, Jung Woo. “The Politics of Sports Mega Events in South Korea: A Diachronic Approach.” In Routledge
Handbook of Sport and Politics, edited by Alan Bairner, John Kelly, and Jung Woo Lee, 471–82. London:
Routledge, 2017.
Lee, Jung Woo, and Alan Bairner. “The Difficult Dialogue: Communism, Nationalism, and Political Propa-
ganda in North Korean Sport.” Journal of Sport and Social Issues 33, no. 4 (2009): 390–410.
Lee, Jung Woo, and Alan Bairner. “Sport and Communism: The Examples of North Korea and Cuba.” In
Routledge Handbook of Sport and Politics, edited by Alan Bairner, John Kelly, and Jung Woo Lee, 66–78.
London: Routledge, 2017.
Merkel, Udo. “The Grand Mass Gymnastics and Artistic Performance Arirang (2002–2012): North Korea’s
Socialist–Realist Response to Global Sports Spectacles.” The International Journal of the History of Sport
30, no. 11 (2013): 1247–58.
Merkel, Udo. “The Politics of Sport Diplomacy and Reunification in Divided Korea: One Nation, Two
Countries and Three Flags.” International Review for the Sociology of Sport 43, no. 3 (2008): 289–311.
Merkel, Udo, and Misuk Kim. “Third Time Lucky!? PyeongChang’s Bid to Host the 2018 Winter Olym-
pics: Politics, Policy and Practice.” The International Journal of the History of Sport 28, no. 16 (2011):
2365–83.
Murray, Stuart. Sports Diplomacy: Origins,Theory and Practice. London: Routledge, 2018.
Ouellette, Dean J. “The Tourism of North Korea in the Kim Jong-un Era: Propaganda, Profitmaking, and
Possibilities for Engagement.” Pacific Focus 31, no. 3 (2017): 421–51.
Pigman, Geoffrey Allen. “International Sport and Diplomacy’s Public Dimension: Governments, Sporting
Federations and the Global Audience.” Diplomacy & Statecraft 25, no. 1 (2014): 94–114.
Pound, Richard W. Five Rings Over Korea: The Secret Negotiations Behind the 1988 Olympic Games in Seoul.
New York: Little, Brown & Company, 1994.
Rofe, Simon J. “Sport and Diplomacy: A Global Diplomacy Framework.” Diplomacy & Statecraft 27, no. 2
(2016): 212–30.
Rowe, David. “The Worlds That Are Watching: Media, Politics, Diplomacy, and the 2018 PyeongChang
Winter Olympics.” Communication & Sport 7, no. 1 (2019): 3–22.
Amara, Mahfoud et al.“The Governance of Professional Soccer: Five Case Studies–Algeria, China, England,
France and Japan.” European Journal of Sport Science 5, no. 4 (2005): 189–206.
Gill, Bates. “China’s Future Under Xi Jinping: Challenges Ahead.” Political Science 69, no. 1 (2017): 1–15.
Hong, Fan, and Zhouxiang Lu. “The Professionalisation and Commercialisation of Football in China
(1993–2013).” The International Journal of the History of Sport 30, no. 14 (2013): 1637–54.
Kurscheidt, Markus, and Angela Deitersen-Wieber. “Sport Governance in Germany.” In Sports Governance
in the World: A Socio-Historic Approach, edited by Claude Sobry, 259–306. Paris: Editions Le Manuscrit,
2011.
Leite, Emanuel Jr., and Carlos Rodrigues. “The Chinese Plan for Football Development: A Perspective
from Innovation Theory.” In Football and Its Shifting Global Powerbase, edited by Paul Widdop, Simon
Chadwick, and Dan Parnell. Special Issue. Sport, Business and Management: An International Journal 9, no.
1 (2019): 63–77.
Li, Jianxin, and Hansheng Liu. “An Interpretation and Reflection on the Characteristics of Chinese Profes-
sional Football-Based on the Case Study of Chinese Soccer Super League.” Journal of Sports and Science
37, no. 2 (2016): 30–36.
Liu, Dongfeng, James J. Zhang, and Michel Desbordes. “Sport Business in China: Current State and Pros-
pect.” International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship 18, no. 1 (2017): 2–10.
Ma,Yang, and Markus Kurscheidt. “Governance of the Chinese Super League: A Struggle Between Gov-
ernmental Control and Market Orientation.” In Football and Its Shifting Global Powerbase, edited by Paul
Widdop, Simon Chadwick, and Dan Parnell. Special Issue. Sport, Business and Management: An Interna-
tional Journal 9, no. 1 (2019): 4–25.
Ma,Yang, and Markus Kurscheidt. “The National Games of China as a Governance Instrument in Chinese
Elite Sport: An Institutional and Agency Analysis.” International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics (2019):
1–21.
Manzenreiter, Wolfram, and John Horne. “Playing the Post-Fordist Game in/to the Far East: The Footbal-
lisation of China, Japan and South Korea.” Soccer & Society 8, no. 4 (2007): 561–77.
Martin, Paul. “Football, Community and Cooperation: A Critical Analysis of Supporter Trusts in England.”
Soccer & Society 8, no. 4 (2007): 636–53.
Merkel, Udo. “Milestones in the Development of Football Fandom in Germany: Global Impacts on Local
Contests.” Soccer & Society 8, no. 2–3 (2007): 221–39.
Mueller, Dennis C. Public Choice III. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Ostrov, Benjamin. “Corruption in Chinese Sport Culture.” In Corruption in International Business:The Chal-
lenge of Cultural and Legal Diversity, edited by Sharon Eicher, 91–98. New York: Routledge, 2009.
Peng, Qi, James Skinner, and Barrie Houlihan. “An Analysis of the Chinese Football Reform of 2015:Why
then and Not Earlier?” International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics 11, no. 1 (2019): 1–18.
Tan,Tien-Chin, and Barrie Houlihan. “Chinese Olympic Sport Policy: Managing the Impact of Globalisa-
tion.” International Review for the Sociology of Sport 48, no. 2 (2012): 131–52.
Tan, Tien-Chin et al. “Xi Jin-Ping’s World Cup Dreams: From a Major Sports Country to a World Sports
Power.” The International Journal of the History of Sport 33, no. 12 (2016): 1449–65.
Wu, Fulong. “China’s Great Transformation: Neoliberalization as Establishing a Market Society.” Geoforum
39, no. 3 (2008): 1093–96.
Yu, Lin et al. “The Transition Game: Toward a Cultural Economy of Football in Post-Socialist China.”
International Review for the Sociology of Sport 54, no. 6 (2019): 711–37.
Zhang, Zhu, Doyeon Won, and Donna L. Pastore. “The Effects of Attitudes Toward Commercialization
on College Students: Purchasing Intentions of Sponsors’ Products.” Sport Marketing Quarterly 14, no. 3
(2005): 177–87.
Zheng, Jinming, and Borja García. “Conclusions: The Rising Importance of Supporter Activism in Euro-
pean Football.” In Football and Supporter Activism in Europe:Whose Game Is It? edited by Borja García and
Jinming Zheng, 277–85. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017.
Zheng, Jinming et al. Sport Policy in China. London: Routledge, 2019.
Chen, Qi. “Research on the Status and Counter-Measures of China’s Professional Soccer Club Manage-
ment.” Sport Science 17, no. 3 (1997): 23–27.
Chen, Yajun. Philosophy Reform: From Pragmatism to New Pragmatism. Beijing: China Social Sciences Press,
1982.
Hao, Juming. “Economic System: Evolution Track and Basic Experience.” Modern Economic Research no. 8
(2009): 29–34.
Hao, Qin. “A Discussion of the Concept, Characteristics and Function of the Juguo Tizhi in Chinese
Sports.” Journal of Chengdu Sport University 30, no. 1 (2004): 51–59.
Hong, Fan, and Lu Zhouxiang. “The Professionalisation and Commercialisation of Football in China
(1993–2013).” International Journal of the History of Sport 30, no. 14 (2013): 1637–54.
James, William. “Pragmatism’s Conception of Truth.” Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods
4, no. 6 (1907): 141–55, 141.
Lan, Tong. “Exploration into the Chinese Table Tennis Management System.” PhD diss., Beijing Sport
University, 2007.
Liang, Shaoxia. “Review of Soccer Occupation in China.” Journal of Guangzhou Sport University 28, no. 2
(2008): 55–59.
Ling, Ping, Hongling Ma, Bo Jiang, and Hong Zhang. “Problems of Soccer in Zhejiang.” Zhejiang Sport
Science 18, no. 6 (1996): 21–28.
Liu, Chi. “Reform in Member Associations of Chinese Soccer Association.” Journal of Shandong Sport Uni-
versity 21, no. 5 (2005): 30–35.
Liu, Fengyi. “Sixty Years of China’s State-Owned Enterprise: Theoretical Exploration and Policy Evolu-
tion.” Economist no. 1 (2010): 21–28.
Liu, Jinsheng, and Yan Wang. “Policy Barriers of the Professionalisation of Soccer in China.” Journal of
Chengdu Sport University 36, no. 10 (2010): 9–12.
Shanghai Sports Commission. “Moral Education of Professional Sports Clubs.” Journal of Shanghai Sport
University 21, no. 4 (2017): 1–7.
Song, Shouxun, Renmin Zhang, Xieseng Wei, Guoying Ni, and Guozhi Ye. “Feasibility of the Implementa-
tion of Professional Soccer Club System in China.” China Sport Science and Technology 28, no. 9 (1992):
1–10.
Wu, Shaozhu. China Sport History. Beijing: China Book Press, 1999.
Xiao, Chunfei, Yongjun Cai, and Renwei Zhao. “State-Owned Enterprise Soccer, Lost Money and Lost
Face.” Outlook Weekly no. 10 (2006): 12–13.
Xiao, Donglian. “Evolution of the Thinking on China: Economic Restructuring from 1978 to 1984.” Con-
temporary China History Studies 11, no. 5 (2004): 59–70.
Yang, Bowen. “Research on the Development of Chinese Table Tennis Super League.” Master’s thesis,
Beijing Sport University, 2014.
Ye, Chusheng, and Lianfa Luo. “Private Enterprise and the Dual Structure.” Liangshan Tribune no. 9 (2008):
9–13.
Zhang, Lin, Zhi Ma, Xiang Duan, Zengqi Xu, and Yaling Liu. “Research on the Development of China’s
Elite Table Tennis Clubs.” Sport Science 18, no. 5 (2005): 31–34.
Bairner, Alan. “Sport and the Politics of National Identity in the Two Chinas.” In Sport and National Identi-
ties: Globalization and Conflict, edited by Paddy Dolan and John Connolly, 37–54. New York: Routledge,
2017.
Bairner, Alan, Tien-Chin Tan, and Jung Woo Lee. “Sport in the Asia-Pacific Region.” In Sport in Society:
A Student Introduction, edited by Barrie Houlihan and Dominic Malcolm, 490–513. London: Sage, 2016.
Brown, Melissa J. Is Taiwan Chinese? The Impact of Culture, Power, and Migration on Changing Identities. London:
University of California Press, 2004.
Bush, Richard C., and Ryan Hass. Taiwan’s Democracy and the China Challenge. Washington, DC: Brookings
Institution Press, 2019.
Cao, Liqun, Lanying Huang, and Ivan Sun. “From Authoritarian Policing to Democratic Policing: A Case
Study of Taiwan.”  Policing and Society 26, no. 6 (2016): 642–58.
Chen, Yu-jie, and Jerome A. Cohen. “China–Taiwan Relations Re-examined: The ‘1992 Consensus’ and
Cross-Strait Agreements.” University of Pennsylvania Asian Law Review no. 1 (2019): 2–40.
Chu,Yun-han, and Jih-wen Lin. “Political Development in 20th Century Taiwan: State-Building, Regime
Transformation and the Construction of National Identity.” The China Quarterly no. 165 (2001): 102–29.
Dai, Wei-qian. “National Ideology and Sports Policy.” In Sports Education and Humane Concerns: Policy and
Ideology, edited by Yi-hsiung Hsu, 159–86. Taipei: Shta Book, 1998.
Department of Physical Education, Taiwan. Physical Education Regulation. Taipei: Ministry of Education,
1984.
Department of Physical Education, Taiwan. Physical Education Regulation. Taipei: Ministry of Education,
1990.
Girginov,Vassil. “Sport, Society and Militarism: In Pursuit of the Democratic Soldier: J.A. Mangan’s Explo-
ration of Militarism.” The International Journal of the History of Sport 20, no. 4 (2003): 90–117.
Hsiau, A-chin. “Narrating Taiwan Out of the Chinese Empire: Rewriting Taiwan’s History from a Taiwan-
ese Perspective in the 1970s.” Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism 18, no. 2 (2018): 93–126.
Hsu,Yi-hsiung, and Yuan-ming Hsu. Chinese Physical Education in Modern Times:The Development of Ideology.
Taipei: Shta Book, 1999.
Huang, Ya-wen, and Tien-chin Tan. “Sport-for-All Policy in Taiwan: A Case of Ongoing Change?” Asia
Pacific Journal of Sport and Social Science no. 2 (2015): 85–98.
Hwang, Dong-jhy, Alan Bairner, Kathleen Heitzman, and Wei-cheng Chiu. “Sport, National Identity, and
Taiwan’s Olympic History.” In The Olympics in East Asia: Nationalism, Regionalism, and Globalism on the
Center Stage of World Sports, edited by William W. Kelly and Susan Brownell, 119–46. CEAS Occasional
Publications Series Book 3. New Haven, CT:Yale University, 2011.
Jacobs, Bruce J., and I-hao Ben Liu. “Lee Teng-hui and the Idea of ‘Taiwan’.” The China Quarterly no. 190
(2007): 375–93.
Jiang, R. S. “The Development of Basketball in Taiwan: From the Perspectives of Theories of Governance
and Strategic Relations.” PhD diss., Institute of Sport and Leisure Policy, Loughborough University,
2013.
Ko, Ling-mei, Meng-chi Ting, and Ping-chao Lee. “The Development of Chinese Martial Arts in Taiwan
Since 1949.” The International Journal of the History of Sport no. 34 (2017): 1603–16.
Lee, Ping-chao. “Understanding the Match-Fixing Scandals of Professional Baseball in Taiwan: An Explora-
tory Study of a Confucianism-Oriented Society.” European Sport Management Quarterly no. 17 (2017):
45–66.
Lee, Ping-chao, Ling-mei Ko, and Tien-chin Tan. “The Changes in Post-War Taiwanese State and Political
Structures with Legislative and Administrative Policy Toward Sport and Physical Education.” Journal of
Sport and Recreation Management no. 7 (2010): 1–18.
Lee, Ping-chao, and Bai-sheng Li. “Does China Matter? Taiwan’s Successful Bid to Host the 2017 Summer
Universiade.” The International Journal of the History of Sport no. 32 (2015): 1044–56.
Lin, Chien-yu. “Seeking a Separate National Identity: The Taiwanese State, Politics and the 2007 Baseball
World Cup.” The International Journal of the History of Sport no. 29 (2012): 2435–49.
Lin, Chien-yu, and Ping-chao Lee. “Sport as a Medium of National Resistance: Politics and Baseball in
Taiwan During Japanese Colonialism, 1895–1945.” The International Journal of the History of Sport no. 24
(2007): 319–37.
Lin,Yu-liang, and Chin-hsung Kao. “A Study on the Policy of Sport for All in Taiwan from the Perspective
of the New Public Service.” Asian Sports Management Review no. 10 (2016): 2–10.
Liu, Hung-yu. “A Study of the Political Intervention in Sports:The Case of the 2001 Taipei World Baseball
Cup.” Journal of Physical Education in Higher Education no. 8 (2006): 13–32.
Ministry of Education, Taiwan. The 7th National Education Conference. Taipei: Ministry of Education, 1994.
Ministry of Education, Taiwan. Developing Sports for All and Excellent Sportsmen Training Programs, Education
Act. Taipei: Cheng-chung Publisher, 1968.
Ministry of Education, Taiwan. Ministry of Education Bulletin. Taipei: Ministry of Education, 1989.
Sarquis, David J., and Wei-chiao Ying. “Cross-Strait Relations: From the Sole China, Two Chinas and the
Greater China.” International Relations no. 7 (2019): 258–78.
Shih, Mei-chiang, Milan Tung-wen Sun, and Guang-xu Wang. “The Historical Institutionalism Analysis of
Taiwan’s Administrative Reform.” International Review of Administrative Sciences no. 78 (2012): 305–27.
Shilbury, David, Kalliopi Sotiriadou, and Christine B. Green. “Sport Development. Systems, Policies and
Pathways: An Introduction to the Special Issue.” Sport Management Review no. 11 (2008): 217–23.
Smith, Heather.“Taiwan’s Industrial Policy in the 1980s: An Appraisal.” Asian Economic Journal no. 11 (1997):
1–33.
Sports Administration, Taiwan. 2013 Annual Report. Taipei: Ministry of Education, 2014.
Sports Administration, Taiwan. 2013 Sports Policy White Paper. Taipei: Ministry of Education, 2013.
Sports Administration, Taiwan. 2016 Annual Report. Taipei: Ministry of Education, 2017.
Sports Administration, Taiwan. 2017 Sports Policy White Paper. Taipei: Ministry of Education, 2017.
Sports Administration, Taiwan. Women’s Sport Participation Advocacy White Paper. Taipei: Ministry of Educa-
tion, 2017.
Sports Affairs Council, Taiwan. The Active Scheme of Sport Development in the 21st Century. Taipei: Executive
Yuan, 2000.
Sports Affairs Council, Taiwan. National Physical Education Law. Taipei: Executive Yuan, 1998.
Tan, Tien-chin, and Chih-fu Cheng. “Sports Development and Young People in Taiwan.” In Routledge
Handbook of Sports Development, edited by Barrie Houlihan and Mick Green, 184–97. London: Rout-
ledge, 2010.
Tan, Tien-chin, Chih-fu Cheng, Ping-chao Lee, and Ling-mei Ko. “Sport Policy in Taiwan, 1949–2008:
A Brief History of Government Involvement in Sport.” International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics
no. 1 (2009): 99–111.
Wang, Qingxin Ken. “Taiwanese NGOs and the Prospect of National Reunification in the Taiwan Strait.”
Australian Journal of International Affairs no. 54 (2000): 111–24.
Yang, Kuisong, and Sheng Mao. “Unafraid of the Ghost:The Victim Mentality of Mao Zedong and the Two
Taiwan Strait Crises in the 1950s.” China Review no. 16 (2016): 1–34.
Yu, Hsing-nuan, and Chia-wen Hong. “A Discussion on Central Physical Education Budget Allocation and
Implementation.” Physical Education Journal no. 39 (2006): 121–34.
Yu, Junwei. Playing in Isolation: A History of Baseball in Taiwan. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2007.
Bridges, Brian. “Booing the National Anthem: Hong Kong’s Identities Through the Mirror of Sport.” Con-
temporary Chinese Political Economy and Strategic Relations 2, no. 2 (2016): 819–43.
Chu, Marcus P. Politics of Mega-events in China’s Hong Kong. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019.
Chu, Marcus P. “Post-handover Hong Kong’s International Sporting Bids: A Win-less-lose-more Journey.”
International Journal of the History of Sport 30, no. 10 (2016): 1193–208.
Kharas, Homi. “The Emerging Middle Class in Developing Countries.” OECD Development Centre
Working Papers No. 285, OECD Publishing, Paris, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1787/18151949.
Kilduff, Gavin J., Hillary Anger Elfenbein, and Barry M. Staw. “The Psychology of Rivalry: A Relationally
Dependent Analysis of Competition.” Academy of Management Journal 53, no. 5 (2010): 943–69.
Mukherjee, Arpita. “Sports Retailing in India: Opportunities, Constraints and Way Forward.” Working
Paper No. 250, Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations (ICRIER), 2010.
Ross, Alyson, and Sue Thomas. “The Health Benefits of Yoga and Exercise: A Review of Comparison Stud-
ies.” The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 16, no. 1 (2010): 3–12.
Srivastava, Amit Kumar, Gayatri Negi,Vipul Mishra, and Shraddha Pandey. “Corporate Social Responsibil-
ity: A Case Study of TATA Group.” IOSR Journal of Business and Management 3, no. 5 (2012): 17–27.
Adams, Iain Christopher. “Pancasila: Sport and the Building of Indonesia: Ambitions and Obstacles.” The
International Journal of the History of Sport 19, no. 2–3 (2002): 295–318.
Bale, John. “Sport and National Identity: A Geographical View.” The International Journal of the History of
Sport 3, no. 1 (1986): 18–41.
Beck, Peter J. “The British Government and the Olympic Movement: The 1948 London Olympics.” The
International Journal of the History of Sport 25, no. 5 (2008): 615–47.
Blackburn, Kevin. “War Memory and Nation-Building in South East Asia.” South East Asia Research 18, no.
1 (2010): 5–31.
Brown, Colin. “Sport, Modernity and Nation Building: The Indonesian National Games of 1951 and
1953.” Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia 164, no. 4 (2008): 431–49.
Connolly, Chris A. “The Politics of the Games of the New Emerging Forces (GANEFO).” International
Journal of the History of Sport 29, no. 9 (2012): 1311–24.
Elson, R. E. “Constructing the Nation: Ethnicity, Race, Modernity and Citizenship in Early Indonesian
Thought.” Asian Ethnicity 6, no. 3 (2005): 145–60.
Field, Russell. “Re-entering the Sporting World: China’s Sponsorship of the 1963 Games of the New
Emerging Forces (GANEFO).” International Journal of the History of Sport 31, no. 15 (2014): 1852–67.
Gulbin, Jason, Morag J. Croser, Elissa J. Morley, and Juanita R. Weissensteiner. “An Integrated Framework
for the Optimisation of Sport and Athlete Development: A Practitioner Approach.” Journal of Sports Sci-
ences 31, no. 12 (2013): 1319–31.
Gulbin, Jason, Juanita R. Weissensteiner, Karen Oldenziel, and Françoys Gagné. “Patterns of Performance
Development in Elite Athletes.” European Journal of Sport Science 13, no. 6 (2013): 605–14.
Harsuki, M. A. “Sport for All Movement in Indonesia.” Asian Journal of Physical Education 8, no. 3–4 (1986):
32–48.
Hong, Fan. “Communist China and the Asian Games 1951–1990: The Thirty-Nine Year Struggle to Vic-
tory.” Sport in Society 8, no. 3 (2005): 479–92.
Hübner, Stefan. “The Fourth Asian Games (Jakarta 1962) in a Transnational Perspective: Japanese and
Indian Reactions to Indonesia’s Political Instrumentalisation of the Games.” The International Journal of
the History of Sport 29, no. 9 (2012): 1295–310.
Hunter, John. “Flying the Flag: Identities, the Nation, and Sport.” Identities 10, no. 4 (2003): 409–25.
Liu, Li, and Fan Hong. “The National Games and National Identity in the Republic of China, 1910–1948.”
International Journal of the History of Sport 32, no. 3 (2015): 440–54.
Lloyd, Kathleen, and Christopher Auld. “Leisure, Public Space and Quality of Life in the Urban Environ-
ment.” Urban Policy and Research 21, no. 4 (2003): 339–56.
Lutan, Rusli. “Indonesia and the Asian Games: Sport, Nationalism and the ‘New Order’.” Sport in Society 8,
no. 3 (2005): 414–24.
Lutan, Rusli. Olahraga, Kebijakan dan Politik [Sport, Policy and Politics]. Jakarta: Directorate General of
Sport, Ministry of National Education, 2004.
Lutan, Rusli, and Fan Hong. “The Politicisation of Sport: GANEFO: A Case Study.” Sport in Society 8, no.
3 (2005): 425–39.
Maguire, Joseph A.“Globalisation, Sport and National Identities.” Sport in Society 14, no. 7–8 (2011): 978–93.
Ma’mun, Amung.“Governmental Roles in Indonesian Sport Policy: From Past to Present.” The International
Journal of the History of Sport 36, no. 4–5 (2019): 1–19.
McNeely, Simon. “Unesco Places Physical Education and Sport in Global Perspective.” Journal of Physical
Education and Recreation 51, no. 7 (1980): 21–25.
Merkel, Udo. “The Politics of Sport and Identity in North Korea.” International Journal of the History of Sport
31, no. 3 (2014): 376–90.
Pauker, EWA T. “Ganefo I: Sports and Politics in Djakarta.” Asian Survey 5, no. 4 (1965): 171–85.
Poulgrain, Greg. The Incubus of Intervention: Conflicting Indonesia Strategies of John F. Kennedy and Allen Dulles.
Petaling Jaya, Malaysia: SIRD, 2015.
UNESCO. “International Charter of Physical Education and Sport.” November 1978. www.unesco.org/
education/pdf/SPORT_E.PDF.
Warner, Denis. “Sukarno’s Grand Design.” Challenge 12, no. 2 (1963): 23–26.
Brackenridge, Celia H., Tess Kay, and Daniel J. A. Rhind. Sport, Children’s Rights and Violence Prevention:
A Source Book on Global Issues and Local Programmes. London: Brunel University Press, 2012.
Brackenridge, Celia H., Daniel J. A. Rhind, and Sarah Palmer-Felgate. “Locating and Mitigating Risks to
Children Associated with Major Sporting Events.” Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events
7, no. 3 (2015): 1–14.
Hong, Fan. “Innocence Lost: Child Athletes in China.” Sport in Society 7, no. 3 (2004): 338–54.
Kawai, Keiji. The Issue of Corporal Punishment and Abuse Concerning School Sports: From the Comparison Between
Japan and the United States. Tokyo: Tetsuro Sugawara & Koichiro Mochizuki, 2014.
Kawauchi, Shoko. “Corporal Punishment as a Disciplinary Punishment: Present Situations and Issue from
History of Institutionalisation and Judicial Precedents.” Study of School Compliance 3 (2015): 30.
Lin, Albert C., C.-M. Lin, T.-L. Wang, and J.-G. Leu. “Rhabdomyolysis in 119 Students After Repetitive
Exercise.” British Journal of Sports Medicine 39 (2005): 3–4.
Mori, Katsumi, Daniel Rhind, and Misia Gervis. “The Present State of Abuse or Corporal Punishment
Involving Children and Sports Authority Figures and the Necessity for a Child Protection System in
Sports in Japan.” Annals of Fitness and Sports Science 50 (2015): 1–8.
Mountjoy, Margo, Daniel J. A. Rhind, Anne Tiivas, and Michel Leglise. “Safeguarding the Child Athlete
in Sport: A Review, a Framework and Recommendations for the IOC Youth Athlete Development
Model.” British Journal of Sports Medicine 49 (2016): 883–86.
Raglin, John S., Sachi Sawamura, Serafin Alexiou, and Peter Hassmên. “Training Practices and Staleness in
13–18 Year-Old Swimmers: A Cross Cultural Study.” Paediatric Exercise Science 12 (2000): 61–70.
Rhind, Daniel J. A., and Frank Owusu-Sekyere. “Evaluating the Impacts of Working Towards the Interna-
tional Safeguards for Children in Sport.” Sport Management Review (2019).
Rhind, Daniel J. A., and Frank Owusu-Sekyere. International Safeguards for Children in Sport: Developing and
Embedding a Safeguarding Culture. London: Routledge, 2018.
Rhind, Daniel J. A.,Tess Kay, Laura Hills, and Frank Owusu-Sekyere. “Building a System to Safeguard Chil-
dren in Sport: The 8 Children Pillars.” Journal of Sport and Social Issues 41 (2017): 151–71.
Sakata, Aogu. “Vestiges of ‘Theory of Forgiven Corporal Punishment’: The Case of Suicide of Osaka City
Provided Sakuranomiya Senior High School.” Study of School Compliance 7 (2019).
Stoltenborgh, Marije, Marian J. Bakermans-Kranenberg, Lenneke R. A. Alink, and Marinus van Ijzenboorn.
“The Prevalence of Child Maltreatment Across the Globe.” Child Abuse Review 24 (2014): 37–50.
World Health Organisation. Preventing Child Maltreatment: A Guide to Taking Action and Generating Evidence.
Geneva: World Health Organisation, 2006.
Bairner, Alan, and Dong-Jhy Hwang. “Representing Taiwan: International Sport, Ethnicity and National
Identity in the Republic of China.” International Review for the Sociology of Sport 46, no. 3 (2011): 231–48.
Bandyopadhyay, Kausik. “Feel Good, Goodwill and India’s Friendship Tour of Pakistan, 2004: Cricket,
Politics and Diplomacy in Twenty-First-Century India.” The International Journal of the History of Sport
25, no. 12 (2008): 1654–70.
Brownfoot, Janice N. “Healthy Bodies, Healthy Minds: Sport and Society in Colonial Malaya.” The Interna-
tional Journal of the History of Sport 19, no. 2–3 (2002): 129–56.
Burdsey, Daniel, Stanley Thangaraj, and Rajinder Dudrah, eds. Playing Through Time and Space: Sport and
South Asian Diasporas. London: Routledge, 2013.
Burdsey, Daniel. “ ‘If I Ever Play Football, Dad, Can I Play for England or India?’ British Asians, Sport and
Diasporic National Identities.” Sage Journals 40, no. 1 (2006): 11–28.
Burdsey, Daniel. “ ‘One of the Lads’? Dual Ethnicity and Assimilated Ethnicities in the Careers of British
Asian Professional Footballers.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 27, no. 5 (2004): 757–79.
Carrington, Ben. “Assessing the Sociology of Sport: On Race and Diaspora.” International Review for the
Sociology of Sport 50, no. 4–5 (2015): 391–96.
Carrington, Ben. “Introduction: Sport Matters.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 35, no. 6 (2012): 961–70.
Clarke, Gerald. “From Ethnocide to Ethnodevelopment? Ethnic Minorities and Indigenous Peoples in
Southeast Asia.” Third World Quarterly 22, no. 3 (2001): 413–36.
Dimeo, Paul, and Joyce Kay. “Major Sports Events, Image Projection and the Problems of ‘Semi-Periphery’:
A Case Study of the 1996 South Asia Cricket World Cup.” Third World Quarterly 25, no. 7 (2004):
1263–76.
Dimeo, Paul. “The Social History of the Royal Calcutta Golf Club, 1829–2003.” In Subaltern Sports: Politics
and Sport in South Asia, edited by James Mills, 123–38. London: Anthem Press, 2005.
Fleming, Scott. “Sport and South Asian Youth: The Perils of ‘False Universalism’ and Stereotyping.” Leisure
Studies 13, no. 3 (1994): 159–77.
Gilmour, Callum, and David Rowe. “Sport in Malaysia: National Imperatives and Western Seductions.”
Sociology of Sport Journal 29, no. 4 (2012): 485–505.
Hargreaves, Jennifer. Heroines of Sport:The Politics of Difference and Identity. London: Routledge, 2000.
Henry, Ian P., Mahfoud Amara, and Mansour Al-Tauqi.“Sport, Arab Nationalism and the Pan-Arab Games.”
International Review for the Sociology of Sport 38, no. 3 (2003): 295–310.
Horne, John. “Understanding Sport and Body Culture in Japan.” Body & Society 62, no. 2 (2000): 73–86.
Johal, Sanjeiv. “Playing Their Own Game: A South Asian Football Experience.” In Race, Sport and British
Society, edited by Ben Carrington and Ian McDonald, 153–69. London: Routledge, 2001.
Jonsson, Hjorleifur. “Mien Through Sports and Culture: Mobilizing Minority Identity in Thailand.” Journal
of Anthropology Museum of Ethnography 68, no. 3 (2003): 317–40.
Kay, Tess. “Daughters of Islam: Family Influences on Muslim Young Women’s Participation in Sport.” Inter-
national Review for the Sociology of Sport 41, no. 3–4 (2006): 357–73.
Kelly, William W. “Japan’s Embrace of Soccer: Mutable Ethnic Players and Flexible Soccer Citizenship
in the New East Asian Sports Order.” The International Journal of the History of Sport 30, no. 11 (2013):
1235–46.
Kirk, David. “Physical Culture, Physical Education and Relational Analysis.” Sport, Education and Society 4,
no. 1 (1999): 63–73.
Long, Jonathan, Kevin Hylton, and Karl Spracklen. “Whiteness, Blackness and Settlement: Leisure and the
Integration of New Migrants.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 40, no. 11 (2014): 1779–97.
Lopez, Shaun. “Sport and Society in the Middle East: An Alternate Narrative of Middle Eastern History for
the American College Classroom.” Middle East Critique 18, no. 3 (2009): 251–60.
Man, Eva Kit Wah. “Bodies in China: Philosophy, Aesthetics, Gender and Politics.” Journal of Aesthetics and
Art Criticism 76, no. 2 (2018): 240–43.
Mangan, J. A., Sun-Yong Kwon, and Bang-Chool Kim.“From Honeymoon to Divorce: Fragmenting Rela-
tions Between China and South Korea in Politics, Economics: And Sport.” The International Journal of the
History of Sport 30, no. 10 (2013): 1113–29.
McKay, Alex. “Playing for the Tibetan People: Football and History in the High Himalayas.” In Sabaltern
Sports: Politics and Sport in South Asia, edited by James Mills, 191–204. London: Anthem Press, 2005.
Merkel, Udo. “The Politics of Sport and Identity in North Korea.” The International Journal of the History of
Sport 31, no. 3 (2014): 376–90.
Mills, James, ed. Subaltern Sports: Politics and Sports in South Asia. London: Anthem Press, 2005.
Mills, Megan M. “Community, Identity and Sport: Anglo-Indians in Colonial and Postcolonial India.” In
Sabaltern Sports: Politics and Sport in South Asia, edited by James Mills, 205–16. London: Anthem Press,
2005.
Mitra, Payoshni. “Challenging Stereotypes:The Case of Muslim Female Boxers in Bengal.” The International
Journal of the History of Sport 26, no. 12 (2009): 1840–51.
Mu, Guanglun Michael, and Bonnie Pang. Interpreting the Chinese Diaspora: Identity, Socialisation, and Resil-
ience According to Pierre Bourdieu. London: Routledge, 2019.
Nanayakkara, Samantha. “Crossing Boundaries and Changing Identities: Empowering South Asian Women
Through Sport and Physical Activities.” The International Journal of the History of Sport 29, no. 13 (2012):
1885–906.
Pang, Bonnie, and Hannah Soong. “ ‘Teachers’ Experiences in Teaching Chinese Australian Students in
Health and Physical Education.” Teaching and Teacher Education 56 (2016): 84–93.
Pang, Bonnie, and Joanne Hill. “Representations of Chinese Gendered and Racialised Bodies in Contem-
porary Media Sites.” Sport, Education and Society 23, no. 8 (2018): 773–85.
Pang, Bonnie, Doune Macdonald, and Peter Hay. “ ‘Do I Have a Choice?’ The Influences of Family Values
and Investments on Chinese Migrant Young People’s Lifestyles and Physical Activity Participation in
Australia.” Sport, Education and Society 20, no. 8 (2015): 1048–64.
Pang, Bonnie. “Conducting Research with Young Chinese-Australian Students in Health and Physical
Education and Physical Activity: Epistemology, Positionality and Methodologies.” Sport, Education and
Society 23, no. 6 (2018): 607–18.
Parkes, Peter. “Indigenous Polo in Northern Pakistan: Game and Power on the Periphery.” In Subaltern
Sports: Politics and Sport in South Asia, edited by James Mills, 123–38. London: Anthem Press, 2005.
Rashidvash, Vahid, and Fatemeh Moosavi Mirak. “Ethnic Groups in Aisa.” International Journal of Humani-
ties & Social Science Studies 3, no. 3 (2015): 181–86.
Reiche, Danyel. “Investing in Sporting Success as a Domestic and Foreign Policy Tool: The Case of Qatar.”
International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics 7, no. 4 (2015): 489–504.
Rowe, David, and Callum Gilmour. “Sport, Media, and Consumption in Asia: A Merchandised Milieu.”
American Behavioral Scientist 53, no. 10 (2010): 1530–48.
Rowe, David, Parry Keith, and Bonnie Pang. “The China Question in Football in Australia.” In Softpower,
Soccer, Supremacy: The Chinese Dream, edited by J. A. Mangan, P. Horton, and T. Ren. Bern, Switzerland:
Peter Lang, in press.
Said, Edward W. Orientalism:Western Conceptions of the Orient. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1995, 1978.
Scraton, Sheila, Jayne Caudwell, and Samantha Holland. “Bend It Like Patel: Centring ‘Race’, Ethnicity
and Gender in Feminist Analysis of Women’s Football in England.” International Review for the Sociology
of Sport 40, no. 1 (2005): 71–88.
Sperling, Elliot. The Tibet-China Conflict: History and Polemics’, Policy Studies. Washington, DC: East-West
Center Washington, 2004.
Stride, Annette. “Centralising Space: The Physical Education and Physical Activity Experiences of South
Asian, Muslim Girl.” Sport, Education and Society 21, no. 5 (2016): 677–97.
Stride, Annette. “Let Us Tell You! South Asian, Muslim Girls Tell Tales About Physical Education.” Physical
Education and Sport Pedagogy 19, no. 4 (2014): 398–417.
Thangaraj, Stanley. “Playing Through Differences: Black–White Racial Logic and Interrogating South
Asian American Identity.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 35, no. 6 (2012): 988–1006.
Tsurumi, E. Patricia. Japanese Colonial Education in Taiwan, 1895–1945. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1977.
Turner, Bryan S., and Yangwen Zheng, eds. The Body in Asia.Vol. 3. New York: Berghahn, 2009.
Yu, Junwei. Playing in Isolation: A History of Baseball in Taiwan. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska
Press, 2007.
Cho,Yonjoo, Gary N. McLean, Iratrachar Amornpipat, Wei-Wen Chang, Gertrude I. Hewapathirana, May-
uko Horimoto, Mimi Miyoung Lee, Jessica Li, Nisha N. Manikoth, Jamilah Othman, and Siti Raba’ah
Hamzah. “Asian Women in Top Management: Eight Country Cases.” Human Resource Development Inter-
national 18, no. 4 (2015): 414.
Choi, Cheong Rak, Chul Moo Heo, Myung Soo Shin, and Ah Rong Lee. “A Modern History of Women
Taekwondo in Korea Since the Second World War.” The International Journal of the History of Sport 30,
no. 3 (2013): 320.
Choi, Yeomi. “Seupocheu heoseutory: Hanguk yeoseong cheyuksa yeongu donghyang gwa gwaje, 2007–
2016.” Cheyukgwahakyeongu 29, no. 1 (2018): 179–85.
Coalter, Fred. “The Politics of Sport-for-Development: Limited Focus Programmes and Broad Gauge
Problems.” International Review for the Sociology of Sport 45, no. 3 (2010): 301.
Ha, Jae-Pil, Ka-Ram Lee, and Gwang Ok. “From Development of Sport to Development Through Sport:
A Paradigm Shift for Sport Development in South Korea.” The International Journal of the History of Sport
32, no. 10 (2015): 1267.
Hancock, M., A. Lyras, and JP Ha. “Sport for Development Programme for Girls and Women: A Global
Assessment.” Journal of Sport for Development 1, no. 1 (2013).
Hargreaves, Jennifer.“The ‘Women’s International Sports Movement’: Local-Global Strategies and Empow-
erment.” Women’s Studies International Forum 22, no. 5 (1999): 470.
Joo, Rachael Miyung. Transnational Sport: Gender, Media, and Global Korea. Durham and London: Duke
University Press, 2012.
Kay, Tess. “Development Through Sport? Sport in Support of Female Empowerment in Delhi, India.” In
Routledge Handbook of Sports Development, edited by Barrie Houlihan and Mick Green. London: Rout-
ledge, 2011.
Kim, Eunha, and Hansol Park. “Perceived Gender Discrimination, a Belief in a Just World, Self-Esteem, and
Depression in Korean Working Women: A Moderated Mediation Model.” Women’s Studies International
Forum 69 (2018): 143.
Kim, Kyoung-yim. “Producing Korean Women Golfers on the LPGA Tour: Representing Gender, Race,
Nation and Sport in Transnational Context.” PhD diss., University of Toronto, 2012.
Kim, Min-Chul, and Eunah Hong. “A Red Card for Women: Female Officials Ostracized in South Korean
Football.” Asian Journal of Women’s Studies 22, no. 2 (2106): 114–30.
Kim,Taeyon. “Neo-Confucian Body Techniques:Women’s Bodies in Korea’s Consumer Culture.” Body and
Society 9, no. 2 (2003): 99–102.
Kim, Yang-Rea. “The Study on the Trend and Discourse of Women’s Sports Participation in Korea.” The
Journal of Korean Society of Aerobic Exercise 11, no. 1 (2007): 133.
Kim, Yun Jung. “Restructuring the Male Dominant Sport: The Case of Korean Women Boxers.” Master’s
thesis, Seoul National University, 2014.
Koh, Eunha. “Chains, Challenges and Changes: The Making of Women’s Football in Korea.” Soccer and
Society 4, no. 2–3 (2004): 69–70.
Larkin, June, Sabrina Razack, and Fiona Moola. “Gender, Sport and Development.” In Literature Reviews
on Sport for Development and Peace. Toronto: Sport for Development and Peace International Working
Group, 2007.
Lyras, Alexis, and Jon Welty Peachey. “Integrating Sport-for-Development Theory and Praxis.” Sport Man-
agement Review 14 (2011): 311.
Meier, Marianne, and Martha Saavedra. “Esther Phiri and the Moutawakel Effect in Zambia: An Analysis
of the Use of Female Role Models in Sport-for-Development.” Sport in Society 12, no. 9 (2009): 1168.
Meier, Marianne. “The Value of Female Sporting Role Models.” Sport in Society 18, no. 8 (2015): 968.
Meier, Marianne. Gender Equity, Sport and Development. Working Paper. Biel/Bienne: Swiss Academy for
Development, 2005.
Moon, Seungsook. “Carving Out Space: Civil Society and the Women’s Movement in South Korea.” The
Journal of Asian Studies 61, no. 2 (2002): 492.
Moon, Seungsook. Militarized Modernity and Gendered Citizenship in South Korea. Durham and London:
Duke University Press, 2005.
Myers, Dean J., and Sung-Joo Park. “Sport as a Means of Empowerment for Korean Women.” Philosophy of
Movement: Journal of Korean Philosophic Society for Sport and Dance 24, no. 2 (2016): 1–22.
Oh, Chuyun. “Nationalizing the Balletic Body in Olympic Figure Skating.” In Sport in Korea: History,
Development, Management, edited by Dae Hee Kwak, Yong Jae Ko, Inkyu Kang, and Mark Rosentraub.
London: Routledge, 2018.
Ok, Gwang. “Coercion for Asian Conquest: Japanese Militarism and Korean Sport, 1938–45.” The Interna-
tional Journal of the History of Sport 24, no. 3 (2007): 338–56.
Ok, Gwang. “The Political Significance of Sport: An Asian Case Study—Sport, Japanese Colonial Policy
and Korean National Resistance.” The International Journal of the History of Sport 22, no. 4 (2005): 649–70.
Razavi, Shahrashoub, and Carol Miller. From WID to GAD: Conceptual Shift in the Women and Development
Discourse. Occasional Paper 1. Geneva: United Nations Research Institute for Social Development,
1995.
Samie, Sumaya F., Alicia J. Johnson, Ashleigh M. Huffman, and H. Sarah. “Voices of Empowerment: Women
from the Global South Re/Negotiating Empowerment and the Global Sports Mentoring Programme.”
Sport in Society 18, no. 8 (2015): 923–37.
Schulenkorf, Nico, Emma Sherry, and Katie Rowe. “Sport for Development: An Integrated Literature
Review.” Journal of Sport Management 30 (2016): 22–39.
Soh, Chung-hee Sarah. “Sexual Equality, Male Superiority, and Korean Women in Politics: Changing Gen-
der Relations in a ‘Patriarchal Democracy’.” Sex Roles 28, no. 1–2 (1993): 73–74.
Swidler, Ann. “Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies.” American Sociological Review 51, no. 2 (1986):
273–86.
Trolan, Eoin J. “The Impact of the Media on Gender Inequality Within Sport.” Procedia–Social and Behav-
ioral Sciences 91 (2013): 222–23.
Wells, Kenneth M. “The Price of Legitimacy: Women and the Kŭnuhoe Movement, 1927–1931.” In Colo-
nial Modernity in Korea, edited by Gi-Wook Shin and Michael E. Robinson. Cambridge, MA and Lon-
don: Harvard University Press, 1999.
Won, Hyung-Joong, and Eunah Hong. “The Development of Sport Policy and Management in South
Korea.” International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics 7, no. 1 (2015): 146.
World Economic Forum. The Global Gender Gap Report 2018. Geneva: World Economic Forum, 2018.
Yoo, Kyung Hwa. “Discrimination and Women in Sport Management in Pusan, Republic of Korea.” PhD
diss., United States Sports Academy, 1997.
Yoon, Sangmin. “Seupocheu seongpongnyeok ui siltae, gyuje wa daechaek.” Seupocheu wa beop 14, no. 1
(2011): 60.
Yoon. Soo-Yeon. “Is Gender Inequality a Barrier to Realizing Fertility Intentions? Fertility Aspirations and
Realizations in South Korea.” Asian Population Studies 12, no. 2 (2016): 206.
Abdul Wahab, Harlida, and Zainal Amin Ayub. “Employment Right of Persons with Disabilities in Malay-
sia.” In Social Interactions and Networking in Cyber Society, edited by Ford Lumban Gaol and Fonny
Dameaty Hutagalung, 217–32. Singapore: Springer, 2017.
Bantjes, Jason, and Leslie Swartz. “Social Inclusion Through Para Sport: A Critical Reflection on the
Current State of Play.” Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics of North America 29, no. 2 (2018):
409–16.
Brittain, Ian, and Aaron Beacom. “Leveraging the London 2012 Paralympic Games: What Legacy for Disa-
bled People?” Journal of Sport & Social Issues 40, no. 6 (2016): 499–521.
Castro, Oscar, Kwok Ng, Elizaveta Novoradovskaya, Gregoire Bosselut, and Mary Hassandra. “A Scoping
Review on Interventions to Promote Physical Activity Among Adults with Disabilities.” Disability and
Health Journal 11, no. 2 (2018): 174–83.
Cheong, Jadeera Phaik Geok, Selina Khoo, and Rizal Razman. “Spotlight on Athletes with a Disabil-
ity: Malaysian Newspaper Coverage of the 2012 London Paralympic Games.” Adapted Physical Activity
Quarterly 33, no. 1 (2018): 15–32.
Cheong, Jadeera, Selina Khoo, and Rizal Razman. “A Quantitative Analysis of Malaysian Newspaper Cov-
erage of the 2016 Rio Paralympic Games.” Paper presented at the15th Asian Society for Adapted Physi-
cal Education and Exercise Symposium Kuala Lumpur, July 11–13, 2018.
Fairchild, Sherry R. “Women with Disabilities: The Long Road to Equality.” Journal of Human Behavior in
the Social Environment 6, no. 2 (2002): 13–28.
Fumitaka, Furuoka, Khairul Hanim Pazim, Beatrice Lim, and Roslinah Mahmud. “Employment Situation
of Person with Disabilities: Case Studies of US, Japan and Malaysia.” Researchers World 2, no. 4 (2011):
1–10.
Government of Malaysia. Act 685 Persons with Disabilities Act, Kuala Lumpur, 2008.
Hussein, Hazreena, and Naziaty Mohd Yaacob. “Malaysian Perspective on the Development of Accessible
Design.” Asian Journal of Environment-Behaviour Studies 3, no. 8 (2018): 147–56.
Jaarsma, Eva A., Pieter U. Dijkstra, Jan H. Geertzen, and Rienk Dekker. “Barriers to and Facilitators of
Sports Participation for People with Physical Disabilities: A Systematic Review.” Scandinavian Journal of
Medicine & Science in Sports 24, no. 6 (2014): 871–81.
Khoo, Selina. “New Direction: Disability Sport in Malaysia.” Sport in Society 14, no. 9 (2011): 1285–90.
Khoo, Selina. “Disability Sport in Malaysia.” Journal of Paralympic Research Group 6 (2016): 17–29.
Martin, Jeffrey J. “Benefits and Barriers to Physical Activity for Individuals with Disabilities:
A Social-Relational Model of Disability Perspective.” Disability and Rehabilitation 35, no. 24
(2013): 2030–37.
Ministry of Education Malaysia. Higher Education Statistics 2018. Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of Education,
2018.
Ministry of Human Resources Malaysia. Statistik Pekerjaan dan Perburuhan [Employment and Labour Sta-
tistics]. Putrajaya: Ministry of Human Resources Malaysia, 2019.
Narayanan, Selvi. “A Study on Challenges Faced by Disabled People at Workplace in Malaysia.” International
Journal for Studies on Children,Women, Elderly and Disabled 5 (2018): 85–92.
Nasir, Muhamad Nadhir Abdul, and Alfa Nur Aini Erman Efendi. “Special Education for Children with
Disabilities in Malaysia: Progress and Obstacles.” Geografia-Malaysian Journal of Society and Space 12, no.
10 (2017): 78–87.
Norazit, Lynne K. “How Much Difference Can One ‘Word’ Make? Changing Perseptions of Disability in
Malaysia.” International Journal of Arts and Sciences 3, no. 15 (2010): 266–84.
Othman, Azmah, and Rohana Jani. “Employment Prospect of Persons with Disability:The Myth and Real-
ity.” Paper presented at Scholar Summit 2017: Scholar Summit on Shaping a Better World, Depok,
Indonesia, October 10–11, 2017.
Rimmer, James H., and Alexandre C. Marques. “Physical Activity for People with Disabilities.” Lancet 380,
no. 9838 (2012): 193–95.
Tan, Seok Hong. “Unmet Health Care Service Needs of Children with Disabilities in Penang, Malaysia.”
Asia Pacific Journal of Public Health 27, 8 Suppl. (2015): 41S–51S.
Tiun, Ling Ta, Lay Wah Lee, and Suet Leng Khoo. “Employability of People with Disabilities in the North-
ern States of Peninsular Malaysia: Employers’ Perspective.” Disability, CBR & Inclusive Development 22,
no. 2 (2011): 79–94.
United Nations. Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. New York: United Nations, 2006.
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) Malaysia. Childhood Disability in Malaysia: A Study of Knowl-
edge, Attitudes and Practices. Kuala Lumpur: UNICEF Malaysia, 2017.
Wilson, Noela C., and Selina Khoo. “Benefits and Barriers to Sports Participation for Athletes with Dis-
abilities: The Case of Malaysia.” Disability & Society 28, no. 8 (2013): 1132–45.
World Health Organization and World Bank. World Report on Disability. Geneva: World Health Organiza-
tion, 2011.
All-China Women’s Federation and China General Administration of Sport. “A Notice of Conducting
Programme of ‘A Hundred Million Women Participating in Fitness Activities’.” In Collection of Docu-
ments and Articles of NFP, edited by Mass Sport Department of CGAS, 20–25. Beijing: Beijing Sports
Press, 2000.
China State Council. “The No. 8 Document of the State Council – The Suggestion of Central Committee
of the CCP and the Government on How to Strengthen and Improve Sport in the New Era.” Internal
document, July 22, 2002. Accessed in CGAS, 2003.
Coakley, Jay. Sport in Society: Issues & Controversies. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001.
Dong, Jinxia. Women, Sport and Society in Modern China: Holding Up More Than Half the Sky. London: Frank
Cass, 2003.
Hargreaves, Jennifer. Sporting Females: Critical Issues in the History and Sociology of Women’s Sports. London:
Routledge, 1994.
Hong, Fan. Footbinding, Feminism and Freedom: The Liberation of Women’s Bodies in Modern China. London:
Frank Cass, 1997.
Hong, Fan. “Women’s Sport in the People’s Republic of China: Body, Politics and Unfinished Revolution.”
In Sport and Women: Social Issues in International Perspective, edited by IIse Hartmann-Tews and Gertrud
Pfister, 224–37. London: Routledge, 2003.
Hong, Fan, and Xiaozheng Xiong. “Communist China: Sport, Politics and Diplomacy.” The International
Journal of the History of Sport 2, no. 3 (2002): 319–42.
Huang,Yalin. Chinese Sports Associations. Beijing: Beijing Sports University Press, 2004.
Wang, Kaizhen, and Hai Ren. “Social Transformation in China and Reform of Urban Social Sports Man-
agement System.” Journal of Beijing University of Physical Education 27, no. 4 (2004): 433–39.
Wang, Liu, and Jie Li. “Community Grassroots Sports Organization: Living Conditions and Future Devel-
opment.” Journal of Wuhan Institute of Physical Education 45, no. 2 (2011): 17–21.
Xiong, Huan. “The Evolution of Urban Society and Social Changes in Sports Participation at the Grass-
roots in China.” International Review for the Sociology of Sport 42, no. 4 (2007): 441–71.
Xiong, Huan. “A Study on Sports Participation of Middle-Class Women in Urban China.” Journal of Beijing
Sport University 31, no. 8 (2008): 1042–44.
Xiong, Huan. “Urbanisation, Women’s Body Image, and Women’s Sport Under Chinese Socialism 1949–
1979: A Historical Review.” Sport History Review 39, no. 2 (2008): 127–51.
Xiong, Huan. Urbanisation and Transformation of Chinese Women’s Sport Since 1980s: Reconstruction, Stratification
and Emancipation. London:VDM Verlag, 2009.
Xiong, Huan. “Stratification of Women’s Sport in Contemporary China.” The International Journal of the
History of Sport 28, no. 7 (2011): 990–1015.
Xiong, Huan. “Free of Choices and Empowered Body–Resolution of Sport to the Dilemma of Women’s
Leisure.” China Sport Science 34, no. 4 (2014): 47–53.
Xiong, Huan. “Transformation of Women’s Mass Sport in the Process of Urbanisation in Contemporary
China.” International Journal of the History of Sport 31, no. 13 (2014): 1617–38.
Xiong, Huan. “Consideration on the Developing Goals of Chinese Women’s Mass Sport.” Journal of Physical
Education 23, no. 4 (2016): 68–72.
Xiong, Huan. “The Construction of Women’s Social Spaces Through Physical Exercise in Urban China.”
Sport in Society 22, no. 8 (2019): 1415–32.
Xiong, Xiaozheng, and Binshu Zhong. 60 Years of Sport in New China. Beijing: Beijing Sports University
Press, 2010.
You, Jianming. Beyond Gendered Body: Women’s Sports in Modern East China. Beijing: Beijing University
Press, 2012.
“2017 zhongguo ma la song da shuju fenxi baogao” [2017 China Marathon Big Data Analysis Report].
“2018–2024 nian zhongguo zao jiao shichang shendu fenxi ji touzi zhanlve yanjiu baogao” [In-Depth
Analysis and Investment Strategy Research Report of China’s Early Education Market in 2018–2024].
Cai, Hongmei. “20 shiji woguo you er yuan kecheng gaige de lishi huigu” [The Historic Retrospect of
Kindergarten Curriculum Reform in the 20th Century in China]. Journal of Nanjing Xiaozhuang College
21, no. 2 (2005): 71–74.
“Chen Baosheng xiang quanguo renda chang wei hui zuo guo weu yuan guanyu xue qian jiaoyu shiye
gaige he fazhan qingkuang baogao” [Chen Baosheng Made a Report to the Standing Committee of
the National People’s Congress on the Reform and Development of Preschool Education Under the
State Council]. China Education Daily, August 26, 2019.
Gang, Leng Xiao. “1994 nian shanghai shi qu you er yuan tiyu huodong xianzhuang diaocha baogao”
[Investigation Report on the Current Situation of Kindergarten Sports Activities in Shanghai in 1994].
Early Childhood Education no. 1 (1996): 47–48.
Huntington, Samuel P. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. New York: Simon &
Schuster, 1996.
“Gaojun Mao Ze Dong sixiang de qizhi, jin yi bu fadong funv wei shixian 1960 nian jixu yuejin er
fendou – cai chang zhuxi zai quanguo fulian di san jie di er ci zhixing weiyuan hui de baogao” [Rais-
ing the Banner of Mao Zedong Thought and Further Mobilising Women to Continue to Struggle to
Realise the Continuing Great Leap Forward in 1960 – Chairman Cai Chang’s Report on the Second
Executive Committee of the Third Women’s Federation]. Women’s Work no. 5 (1960).
“Jin yi bu tuidong funv jiji touru dao zengchang jieneng de yundong de gaochao – quangguo sheng shi
zizhiqu fulan zhuren kuoda huiyi tongbao” [Further Mobilise Women of the Country to Enthusiasti-
cally Participate in the Surging Campaign of Increasing Production and Saving Energy – Bulletin of the
Enlarged Meeting of the Directors of the Women’s Federations at Provincial, Municipal and Autono-
mous Levels]. China’s Women no. 17 (1959).
Zai, Qing. “Jiti hua xia de tong nian: ‘da yue jin’ shiqi nongcun you er yuan yanjiu” [Childhood Under
Collectivisation: Research on Rural Kindergarten in the Period of the ‘Great Leap Forward’]. Journal of
Chinese Women’s Studies 140, no. 2 (2017): 36–49.
Cheng, Chuanyin, and Wenhui Li. “Successful Experience and Enlightenment of Jiangsu Province Disabled
Competitive Sports Development.” Journal of Beijing Sports University 7, no. 7 (2004): 34–37.
CPDF. Results of 3rd Far East and South Pacific Games for the Disabled. Beijing: CPDF, 1982.
CPDF. Results of 4th Far East and South Pacific Games for the Disabled. Beijing: CPDF, 1986.
CPDF. Results of 5th Far East and South Pacific Games for the Disabled. Beijing: CPDF, 1989.
CPDF. Results of 6th Far East and South Pacific Games for the Disabled. Beijing: CPDF, 1994.
CPDF. Working Report 1987–1993. Beijing: CPDF, 1994.
CPDF. Results of 7th Far East and South Pacific Games for the Disabled. Beijing: CPDF, 1998.
CPDF. Results of 8th Far East and South Pacific Games for the Disabled. Beijing: CPDF, 2002.
CPDF. Result of 9th Far East and South Pacific Games for the Disabled. Beijing: CPDF. 2006.
CPDF. Results of 1st Asian Paralympic Games. Beijing: CPDF, 2010.
CPDF. Results of 2nd Asian Paralympic Games. Beijing: CPDF, 2014.
CPDF. Results of 3rd Asian Paralympic Games. Beijing: CPDF, 2018.
Hao, Xiaocen. “The Vicissitudes of the Research into the Sports Policy for Disabled People in China: From
Right Protection to Right Remedy.” Chinese Journal of Special Education 9, no. 9 (2010): 45–51.
He, Minxue. “Characteristics of Scholastic Physical Education in Special Education.” Journal of Physical
Education 14, no. 5 (2007): 96–99.
Hong, Fan, Ping Wu, and Huan Xiong. “Beijing Ambitions: An Analysis of the Chinese Elite Sports System
and Its Olympic Strategy for the 2008 Olympic Games.” The International Journal of the History of Sport
22, no. 4 (2005): 510–29.
Liang, Luyao. “The Study on Paralympic Games Report on People’s Daily, 1880–1900: A Study in Social
Mobility.” Master’s thesis, Soochow University.
Qin,Yan. Deng Pufang de lu [The Deng Pufang Road]. Taiyuan: Shuhai Chubanshe, 1992.
Shuhan, Sun,Yan Rui, Mao Ailin, Chao Liu, and Jing Tang. “China and the Development of Sport for Per-
sons with a Disability, 1978–2008: A Review.” Sport in Society 14, no. 9 (2011): 1192–210.
Sun, Peiping. “FESPIC Introduction.” China Disabled 5, no. 5 (1994): 10–15.
Zhang, Long. “Comparison Between the Disabled Sports Organization and Management System.” Journal
of Physical Education 16, no. 4 (2009): 34–36.
Zhang, Ming. “Optimization of Management Mode of Competitive Sports for Disabled in China.” Journal
of Wuhan Institute of Physical Education 46, no. 5 (2012): 19–23.
Zhixun, Guan, and Fan Hong. “The Development of Elite Disability Sport in China: A Critical Review.”
The International Journal of the History of Sport 33, no. 5 (2016): 485–510.
Zhixun, Guan, and Fan Hong. Body and Politics: Elite Disability Sport in China. New York: Nova, 2018.
Allison, Anne. Precarious Japan. Durham: Duke University Press, 2013.
Bairner, Alan. “Back to Basics: Class, Social Theory, and Sport.” Sociology of Sport Journal 24, no. 1 (2007):
20–36.
Carrington, Ben, and Ian McDonald, eds. Marxism, Cultural Studies and Sport. London: Routledge, 2009.
Ebishima, Hitoshi. “Supōtsu Ni Yoru Chiiki No ‘Sairyōikika’ No Kanōsei: Genjō to Sono Kadai” [Can
Communities Be Revitalized by the Re-Territorialization Through Sport?]. Biwako Seikei Sport Univer-
sity Kenkyū Kiyō 4 (2007): 39–50.
Giulianotti, Richard. Sport: A Critical Sociology. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2005.
Horne, John, and Wolfram Manzenreiter. “Football, Komyuniti and the Japanese Ideological Soccer Appa-
ratus.” Soccer & Society 9, no. 3 (2008): 359–76.
Kiku, Koichi. “The Japanese Baseball Spirit and Professional Ideology.” In Japan, Sport and Society: Tradition
and Change in a Globalizing World, edited by Joseph Maguire and Masayoshi Nakayama, 35–54. London:
Routledge, 2006.
Kusaka, Yuko. “The Emergence and Development of Japanese School Sport.” In Japan, Sport and Society:
Tradition and Change in a Globalizing World, edited by Joseph Maguire and Masayoshi Nakayama, 19–34.
London: Routledge, 2006.
Lenartowicz, Michał. “Family Leisure Consumption and Youth Sport Socialization in Post-Communist
Poland: A Perspective Based on Bourdieu’s Class Theory.” International Review for the Sociology of Sport
51, no. 2 (2016): 219–37.
Osawa, M. “Government Approaches to Gender Equality in the Mid-1990s.” Social Science Japan Journal 3,
no. 1 (April 1, 2000): 3–19.
Peck, Jamie, and Adam Tickell. “Neoliberalizing Space.” Antipode 34, no. 3 (2002): 380–404.
Saeki, Toshio. Gendai Kigyō Supōtsuron. Tokyo: Fumaidō Shuppan, 2004.
Takahashi, Hidesato. “Supōtsu Yokkyū Kara Kōkyōsei e” [Establishing ‘Publicness’ and the Self-Interest of
Sport]. Japan Journal of Sport Sociology 19, no. 2 (2011): 33–48, 35.
Tapper, James, and Koji Kobayashi. “ ‘It’s a Harsh Fact of Life with the RMA’: Neo-Liberalism and the
Realities of Community Sports Facility Development by the Private Sector in New Zealand.” Leisure
Studies 37, no. 3 (2018): 282–94.
Uchiumi, Kazuo. “Supōtsu No Kenri Kōkyōsei to Shinjiyūshugi Kojinteki Shōhishugi Tono Taikō (1):
70nendai No Supōtsu Dōkō to Seisaku.” Hitotsubashi Daigaku Kenkyū Nenpō: Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyū 38
(2001): 3–90.
Uchiumi, Kazuo. “Supōtsu No Kenri Kōkyōsei to Shinjiyūshugi Kojinteki Shōhishugi Tono Taikō (2):
80nendai No Supōtsu Dōkō to Seisaku.” Hitotsubashi Daigaku Kenkyū Nenpō: Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyū 39
(2002): 3–97.
Uchiumi, Kazuo. “Supōtsu No Kenri Kōkyōsei to Shinjiyūshugi Kojinteki Shōhishugi Tono Taikō (3):
90nendai No Supōtsu Dōkō to Seisaku.” Hitotsubashi Daigaku Kenkyū Nenpō: Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyū 40
(2003): 3–102, 48.
Yamashita, Takayuki. “Kigyōsupōtsu to Nihon No Supōtsu Rejiimu: Sono Tokusei Wo Ukibori Ni Suru”
[Company-Organized Sport and Japanese Sport Regime]. Japan Journal of Sport Sociology 17, no. 2
(2009): 17–31.
Kudo,Yasuko. “Doing Sports and Women.” In De-ta de miru supo-tu to jenda- [Understanding Sport and Gender
with Data], Japan Society for Sport and Gender Studies, 42–43. Tokyo:Yachiyo Shuppan K. K., 2016.
Okatsu, Shizuho. “Supporting Sports and Women.” In De-ta de miru supo-tu to jenda- [Understanding Sport
and Gender with Data], Japan Society for Sport and Gender Studies, 59–60. Tokyo: Yachiyo Shuppan K. K.,
2016.
Takamine, Osamu. “Women’s Sports in Japan: Enters a Period of Change.” In Women, Sport and Exercise in
the Asia-Pacific Region, edited by Gyozo Molnar, Sara N. Amin, and Yoko Kanemasu, 173–87. Oxford:
Routledge, 2018.
Adams, I. Sport in Asian Society: Past and Present. London: Frank Cass, 2005.
Adhe, K. R. “Penanaman Karakter Anak Usia 4–5 Tahun pada Masyarakat Samin.” J. Pendidik. Usia Dini 8,
no. 2 (2014): 275–90.
Aeni, A. N. “Pendidikan Karakter untuk Siswa SD dalam Perspektif Islam.” Mimb. Sekol. Dasar 1, no. 1
(2014): 50–58.
Amirudin, A., and Z. Mukarom. “Pendidikan Karakter dalam Kaulinan Budak Baheula: Studi Nilai Pen-
didikan Karakter Melalui Permainan Anak Tradisional Sorodot Gaplok Dari Jawa Barat.” Al-Bidayah J.
Pendidik. Dasar Islam 10, no. 2 (2018).
Andriani, T. “Permainan Tradisional Dalam Membentuk Karakter Anak Usia Dini.” Sos. Budaya 9, no. 1
(2012): 121–36.
Ardha, M. A. Al, C. B.Yang, K. R. Adhe, F. D. Khory, S. Hartoto, and K. P. Putra. “Multiple Intelligences and
Physical Education Curriculum: Application and Reflection of Every Education Level in Indonesia.”
Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Education Innovation, 2018.
Ardila, R. M., N. Nurhasanah, and M. Salimi. “Pendidikan Karakter Tanggung Jawab Dan Pembelajarannya
di Sekolah.” Pros. Semin. Nas. Inov. Pendidik (2017): 79–85.
Asriati, N. “Mengembangkan Karakter Peserta Didik Berbasis Kearifan Lokal Melalui Pembelajaran di
Sekolah.” J. Pendidik. Sosiol. dan Hum 3, no. 2 (2013).
Babuta,Y.,Y.Y. I. Babuta, and O. D.Wahyurini. “Perancangan Buku Pendidikan Karakter Toleransi dan Cinta
Damai untuk Anak Usia 3–5 Tahun.” J. Sains dan Seni ITS 3, no. 1 (2014): F28–F32.
Campbell, D. Mengembangkan Kreativitas.Yogyakarta: Kanisius, 1986.
Casram, C. “Membangun Sikap Toleransi Beragama dalam Masyarakat Plural.” Wawasan J. Ilm. Agama dan
Sos. Budaya 1, no. 2 (2016): 187–98.
Dick, H., and P. J. Rimmer. Cities,Transport and Communications. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
Ernawati, N. “Pembentukan Karakter Tanggung Jawab dan Kreativitas Melalui Ekstrakurikuler Marching
Band (Studi Kasus di MIN Bawu Jepara) Tahun 2017.” Universitas Islam Negeri Walisongo, 2018.
Fad, A. Kumpulan Permainan Anak Tradisional Indonesia–Aisyah Fad. Jakarta: Cerdas Interaktif, 2014.
Fajarini, U. “Peranan Kearifan Lokal dalam Pendidikan Karakter.” Sosio-Didaktika Soc. Sci. Educ. J 1, no. 2
(2014): 123–30.
Hanan, D. “Regions and Regional Societies and Cultures in the Indonesian Cinema.” In Cultural Specificity
in Indonesian Film, edited by David Hanan, 91–157. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017.
Helmi, A. F. “Disiplin Kerja.” Bul. Psikol 4, no. 2 (2016): 32–41.
Hidayah, Z. Ensiklopedi Suku Bangsa di Indonesia. Jakarta:Yayasan Pustaka Obor Indonesia, 2015.
Hidayat, D. “Permainan Tradisional dan Kearifan Lokal Kampung Dukuh Garut Selatan Jawa Barat.” Acad.
Maj. Ilmu Sos. dan Ilmu Polit 5, no. 2 (2013).
Hugo, G. Demography of Race and Ethnicity in Indonesia. Berlin: Springer, 2015.
Islam, S. “Karakteristik Pendidikan Karakter; Menjawab Tantangan Multidimensional Melalui Implemen-
tasi Kurikulum 2013.” J. Edureligia 1, no. 2 (2017): 89–100.
Judiani, S. “Implementasi Pendidikan Karakter di Sekolah Dasar Melalui Penguatan Pelaksanaan Kuriku-
lum.” J. Pendidik. dan Kebud 16, no. 9 (2010): 280.
Kaur, A. Demography of Race and Ethnicity in Southeast Asia. Berlin: Springer, 2015.
Khasanah, I., A. Prasetyo, and E. Rakhmawati. “Permainan Tradisional Sebagai Media Stimulasi Aspek
Perkembangan Anak Usia Dini.” Paudia J. Penelit. Dalam Bid. Pendidik. Anak Usia Dini 1, no. 1 (2011).
Kosim, M. “Urgensi Pendidikan Karakter.” Karsa J. Soc. Islam. Cult 19, no. 1 (2012): 84–92.
Lertari, G. “Bhineka Tunggal Ika: Khasanah Multikultural Indonesia di Tengah Kehidupan SARA.” J. Pen-
didik. Pancasila dan Kewarganegaraan 28, no. 1 (2016).
Manullang, B. “Grand Desain Pendidikan Karakter Generasi Emas 2045.” J. Pendidik. Karakter no. 1 (2013).
Maunah, B. “Implementasi Pendidikan Karakter dalam Pembentukan Kepribadian Holistik Siswa.” J. Pen-
didik. Karakter no. 1 (2016).
Nur, H. “Membangun Karakter Anak Melalui Permainan Anak Tradisional.” J. Pendidik. Karakter no. 1
(2013).
Poerwanto, H. “Suku Bangsa dan Ekspres Kesukubangsaan.” J. Hum no. 9 (2013): 112–22.
Purwaningsih, E. “Permainan Tradisional Anak: Salah Satu Khasanah Budaya yang Perlu Dilestarikan.” Sej.
dan Budaya Jawa 1, no. 1 (2006): 40.
Ramdhani, M. A. “Lingkungan Pendidikan dalam Implementasi Pendidikan Karakter.” J. Pendidik. Uniga 8,
no. 1 (2017): 11.
Ranciu, J. C., H. D.Waluyanto, and A. Zacky. “Perancangan Buku Ilustrasi Permainan Tradisional dan Pena-
naman Nilai Etika Dasar.” J. DKV Adiwarna 1, no. 2 (2013): 11.
Rianti, A., A. E. Novenia, A. Christopher, D. Lestari, and E. K. Parassih. “Ketupat as Traditional Food of
Indonesian Culture.” Journal of Ethnic Foods 5, no. 1 (2018): 4–9.
Riyanti, A., and P. Rini. “Kemandirian Remaja Berdasarkan Urutan Kelahiran.” J. Pelopor Pendidik 3, no. 1
(2012).
Saputra, S.Y. “Permainan Tradisional VS Permainan Modern Dalam Penanaman Nilai Karakter di Sekolah
Dasar | Saputra | ELSE (Elementary School Education Journal): Jurnal Pendidikan dan Pembelajaran
Sekolah Dasar.” J. Pendidik. dan Pembelajaran di Sekol. Dasar 1, no. 1 (2017).
Sudrajat, A. “Mengapa Pendidikan Karakter?” J. Pendidik. Karakter 1, no. 1 (2011).
Sutini,A.“Meningkatkan Keterampilan Motorik Anak Usia Dini Melalui Permainan Tradisional.” Cakrawala
Dini J. Pendidik. Anak Usia Dini 4, no. 2 (2018).
Syarbini, A. Model Pendidikan Karakter Dalam Keluarga–Amirulloh Syarbini. Jakarta: Gramedia, 2014.
Tanshzil, S. W. “Model Pembinaan Pendidikan Karakter Pada Lingkungan Pondok Pesantren Dalam Mem-
bangun Kemandirian Dan Disiplin Santri (Sebuah kajian pengembangan Pendidikan Kewarganega-
raan).” Penelit. Pendidik 12, no. 2 (2012).
Widodo, P., and R. Lumintuarso. “Pengembangan model permainan tradisional untuk membangun karak-
ter pada siswa SD kelas atas.” J. Keolahragaan 5, no. 2 (2017): 183.
Widyanti, A., L. Susanti, I. Z. Sutalaksana, and K. Muslim. “Ethnic Differences in Indonesian Anthropom-
etry Data: Evidence from Three Different Largest Ethnics.” International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics
47 (2015): 72–78.
Wulandari, Y., and M. Kristiawan. “Strategi Sekolah dalam Penguatan Pendidikan Karakter Bagi Siswa
dengan Memaksimalkan Peran Orang Tua.” Jurnal Manajemen, Kepemimpinan, dan Supervisi Pendidikan
2, no. 2 (2017).
Wuryandani, W., F. Fathurrohman, and U. Ambarwati. “Implementasi Pendidikan Karakter Kemandirian di
Muhammadiyah Boarding School.” J. Cakrawala Pendidik 15, no. 2 (2016).
Yudiwinata, H. P. “Permainan Tradisional Dalam Budaya dan Perkembangan Anak.” Paradigma 2, no. 3
(2014).
Yulianti, S. D., E. T. Djatmika, and A. Santoso. “Pendidikan karakter kerja sama dalam pembelajaran siswa
Sekolah Dasar pada kurikulum 2013.” J.Teor. dan Praksis Pembelajaran IPS 1, no. 1 (2017): 33–38.
Banerjee, Anirban. “Youth Participation in Indian Elections.” Society Today 2, no. 2 (2013): 58–67.
Bond, Alison R., Heather F. Mason, Chelsey M. Lemaster, Stephanie E. Shaw, Caroline S. Mullin, Emily
A. Holick, and Robert B. Saper. “Embodied Health: The Effects of a Mind–Body Course for Medical
Students.” Medical Education Online 18, no. 1 (2013): 1–8.
Bryan, Stephanie, Genevieve Pinto Zipp, and Raju Parasher. “The Effects of Yoga on Psychosocial Variables
and Exercise Adherence: A Randomized, Controlled Pilot Study.” Alternative Therapies in Health and
Medicine 18, no. 5 (2012): 50–59.
Canino, Glorisa, Guilherme Polanczyk, J. J. Bauermeister, Luis A. Rohde, and Paul J. Frick. “Does the
Prevalence of CD and ODD Vary Across Cultures?” Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 45, no.
7 (2010): 695–704.
Carver Karen, Kara Joyner, and Richard J. Udry. “National Estimates of Adolescent Romantic Relation-
ships.” In Adolescent Romantic Relationships and Sexual Behavior: Theory, Research, and Practical Implications,
edited by Paul Florsheim, 20–60. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum and Associates, 2003.
Davis, Keith M., and James M. Benshoff. “A Proactive Approach to Couples Counseling with Adolescents.”
Professional School Counseling 2 (1999): 391–94.
Elibero, Andrea, Kate Janse Van Rensburg, and David J. Drobes. “Acute Effects of Aerobic Exercise and
Hatha Yoga on Craving to Smoke.” Nicotine and Tobacco Research 13, no. 11 (2011): 1140–48.
Feuerstein, Georg. “East Comes West: An Historical Perspective.” In Feuerstein, Sacred Paths. Burdett, NY:
Larson Publications, 1991.
Glicken, Morley D. Evidence-Based Practice with Emotionally Troubled Children and Adolescents, Burlington:
Elsevier, 2009. www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780123745231/evidence-based-practice-with-emo
tionally-troubled-children-and-adolescents, accessed November 13, 2018.
Grieger, Lloyd, Yasamin Kusunoki, and David J. Harding. “The Social Contexts of Adolescent Romantic
Relationships.” Focus 31, no. 1 (2014): 15–17.
Jung, C. G. The Psychology of Kundalini Yoga. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012.
Kanner, Leo. “Do Behavior Symptoms Always Indicate Psychopathology?” Journal of Child Psychology and
Psychiatry 1, no. 1 (2006): 17–25.
Kuntsevich, Viktoria, William C. Bushell, and Neil D. Theise. “Mechanisms of Yogic Practices in Health,
Aging, and Disease.” Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine 77 (2010): 559–69.
Maughan, Barbara, Richard Rowe, Julie Messer, Robert Goodman, and Howard Meltzer. “Conduct Disor-
der and Oppositional Defiant Disorder in a National Sample: Developmental Epidemiology.” Journal of
Child Psychology and Psychiatry 45, no. 3 (2004): 609–21.
Moore, Susan, Cynthia Leung, Wally Karnilowicz, and Ching-Leung Lung. “Characteristics and Predictors
of Romantic Relationships in Late Adolescence and Young Adulthood in Hong Kong and Australia.”
Australian Psychologist 47, no. 22 (2012): 108–17.
Nock, Matthew K., Alan E. Kazdin, Eva Hiripi, and Ronald C. Kessler. “Lifetime Prevalence, Correlates,
and Persistence of Oppositional Defiant Disorder: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey
Replication.” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 48, no. 7 (2007): 703–13.
O’Laughlin, Elizabeth M., Jessica L. Hackenberg, and Maria M. Riccardi. “Clinical Usefulness of the
Oppositional Defiant Disorder Rating Scale (ODDRS).” Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
18, no. 4 (2010): 247–55.
“Youth in India.” Statistics Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of
India (Social Statistics Division), 2017.
Amara, Mahfoud.“Sport and Political Leaders in the Arab World.” Histoire Politique 2, no. 23 (2014): 142–53.
Amara, Mahfoud. “The Olympic Movement and the Middle East and North African Region: History,
Culture, and Geopolitics–An Introduction.” International Journal of the History of Sport 34, no. 13 (2017):
1343–46.
Amara, Mahfoud. “Sport and Politics in the Arab World.” In Routledge Handbook of Sport and Politics, edited
by Alan Bairner, John Kelly, and Jung Woo Lee, 129–36. New York: Routledge, 2017.
Billah, Mohd Ma’Sum. “Role of the OIC and Other International Organizations in the Sustainable Devel-
opment of Islamic Finance.” In Islamic Financial Products: Principles, Instruments, and Structures, 13–31.
Palgrave Macmillan, 2019.
“Constitution of the Republic of Turkey,” November 7, 1982. www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b5be0.html.
Erfani, Azadeh. “Kicking Away Responsibility: FIFA’s Role in Response to Migrant Worker Abuses in
Qatar’s 2022 World Cup.” Jeffrey S Moorad Sports Law Journal 22, no. 2 (2015): 623–62.
Fahy, John. “International Relations and Faith-based Diplomacy: The Case of Qatar.” The Review of Faith
and International Affairs 16, no. 3 (2018): 76–88.
Galily, Yair, Ilan Tamir, and Moshe Levy. “The Games Must Go on? The Influence of Terror Attacks on
Hosting Sporting Events in Israel.” Israel Affairs 8, no. 4 (October 2012): 629–44.
Grix, Jonathan. “The Mixed Record of Sports Diplomacy.” Interview by Eleanor Albert, Council on For-
eign Relations, February 6, 2018. www.cfr.org/interview/mixed-record-sports-diplomacy.
Ismayilov, Murad Ismayilov. Post-Soviet Modernity and the Changing Contours of Islamic Azerbaijan. London:
Rowman & Littlefield, 2018.
“Kuwait Constitution of 1962.” English translation by the International Constitutional Law (ICL) Project.
www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/ku00000_.html.
Lababidi, Lesley Kitchen, and Nadia El-Arabi. Silent No More: Special Needs People in Egypt. Cairo and New
York: American University in Cairo Press, 2002.
Lysa, Charlotte. “Football Femininities: Lessons from the Gulf.” International Journal of Middle East Studies
51, no. 3 (August 2019): 479–81.
Merkel, Udo. “Sport as a Foreign Policy and Diplomatic Tool.” In Routledge Handbook of Sport and Politics,
edited by Alan Bairner, John Kelly, and Jung Woo Lee, 28–38. New York: Routledge, 2017.
Murray, Stuart, and Geoffrey Allen Pigman. “Mapping the Relationship Between International Sport and
Diplomacy.” Sport in Society 17, no. 9 (2014): 1098–118.
Nassif, Nadim, and Mahfoud Amara. “Sport, Policy, and Politics in Lebanon.” International Journal of Sports
Policy and Politics 7, no. 3 (2015): 443–55.
Raab, Alon. “Sport in the Middle East.” In The Oxford Handbook of Sports History, edited by Robert Edel-
man and Wayne Wilson, 287–300. New York: Oxford University Press, 2017.
Reiche, Danyel. “Investing in Sporting Success as a Domestic and Foreign Policy Tool: The Case of Qatar.”
International Journal of Sports Policy and Politics 7, no. 4 (2015): 489–504.
Reiche, Danyel. “Not Allowed to Win: Lebanon’s Sporting Boycott of Israel.” Middle East Journal 71, no. 1
(Winter 2018): 28–47.
Rosner, Scott, and Deborah Low. “The Efficacy of Olympic Bans and Boycotts on Effectuating Inter-
national Political and Economic Change.” Texas Review of Entertainment and Sports Law 11, no. 1 (Fall
2009): 27–80.
Silva, Luis Henrique Rolim, and Hans-Dieter Gerber. “Our Games! The Pan-Arab Games (1953–1965).”
International Journal of the History of Sport 29, no. 15 (2012): 2099–114.
Silverstein, Paul A. “Sports, Bodily Habitus, and the Subject(s) of the Middle East.” International Journal of
Middle East Studies 51, no. 3 (August 2019): 482–85.
Smith, Ginger, Andrea Cahn, and Sybil Ford. “Sports Commerce and Peace:The Special Case of the Special
Olympics.” Journal of Business Ethics 89 (2010): 587–602.
Sorek,Tamir. “Introduction: Is There a Middle Eastern Sport?” International Journal of Middle East Studies 51,
no. 3 (August 2019): 465–67.
Stanton, Andrea L. “ ‘Pioneer of Olympism in the Middle East’: Gabriel Gemayel and Lebanese Sport.”
International Journal of the History of Sport 15, Special Issue on Middle East Sport (Fall 2013): 2115–30.
Stanton, Andrea L. “Syria and the Olympics: National Identity on an International Stage.” International
Journal of the History of Sport 31, no. 3 (2014): 290–305.
Steinberg, Gerald M. “The Limits of Peacebuilding Theory.” In The Routledge Handbook of Peacebuilding,
edited by Roger MacGinty, 36–53. New York: Routledge, 2013.
“Syrian Constitution of 1973.” English translation by the International Constitutional Law (ICL) Project.
www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/sy00000_.html.
Yildiz, Murat. “Strengthening Male Bodies and Building Robust Communities: Physical Culture in the
Late Ottoman Empire.” Diss., University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 2015.
Yildiz, Zafer, and Sinem Cekic. “Sport Tourism and Its History and Contribution of Olympic Games to
Touristic Promotion.” International Journal of Science Culture and Sport, Special Issue on the Proceedings
of the 4th ISCS Conference (August 2015): 326–37.
Allison, Lincoln. “The Changing Context of Sporting Life.” In The Changing Politics of Sport, edited by
Lincoln Allison, 1–23. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993.
Amara, Mahfoud, and Youcef Bouandel. “Algeria.” In The Palgrave International Handbook of Football and
Politics, edited by Jean-Michel De Waele et al., 329–45. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.
Black, David. “Dreaming Big: The Pursuit of ‘Second Order’ Games as a Strategic Response to Globaliza-
tion.” In Sport and Foreign Policy in a Globalizing World, edited by Steven Jackson and Stephen Haigh,
119–32. London: Routledge, 2009.
Houlihan, Barrie. Sport and International Politics. New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1994.
Jackson, Steven, and Stephen Haigh. “Introduction: Between and Beyond Politics: Sport and Foreign Policy
in a Globalizing World.” In Sport and Foreign Policy in a Globalizing World, edited by Steven J. Jackson and
Steven Haigh, 1–10. London: Routledge, 2009.
Keohane, Robert. International Institutions and State Power. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989.
Mingst, Karen A. Essentials of International Relations. New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 1999.
Nye, Joseph. Soft Power:The Means to Success in World Politics. New York: Public Affairs, 2004.
Raspaud, Michael. “Cairo Football Derby: Al-Ahly-Zamalek.” In Sport Around the World: History, Culture and
Practice, edited by John Nauright and Charles Parrish, 283–84. ABC-Clio, 2012.
Riordan, James, and Arnd Krüger. The International Politics of Sport in the 20th Century. New York: E & FN
Spon, 1999.
Sadiki, Larbi, and Youcef Bouandel. “The Post-Arab Spring Reform: The Maghreb at a Cross Roads.”
DOMES – Digest of Middle East Studies 25, no. 1 (Spring 2016): 109–31.
Abbassi, Driss. “Sport et usages politiques du passé dans la Tunisie des débuts du XXIe siècle.” Politique et
sociétés 26, no. 2–3 (2007): 125–42.
Amara, Mahfoud.“Sport and Political Leaders in the Arab World.” Histoire Politique 2, no. 23 (2014): 142–53.
Cornelissen, Scarlett. “Sport Mega-Events in Africa: Processes, Impacts and Prospects.” Tourism and Hospital-
ity Planning & Development 1, no. 1 (2004): 39–55.
Crompton, John. “Beyond Economic Impact: An Alternative Rationale for the Public Subsidy of Major
League Sports Facilities.” Journal of Sport Management 18, no. 1 (2004): 40–58.
De Bosscher,Veerle. The Global Sporting Arms Race: An International Comparative Study on Sports Policy Factors
Leading to International Sporting Success. Meyer & Meyer Verlag, 2008.
Fredline, L. “Host Community Reactions to Motorsport Events: The Perception of Impact on Quality of
Life.” In Sport Tourism: Interrelationships, Impacts and Issues, edited by Brent W. Ritchie and Daryl Adair,
155–73. Clevedon: Channel View Publications, 2004.
Gramling, Robert, and William R. Freudenburg.“Opportunity–Threat, Development, and Adaptation:Toward
a Comprehensive Framework for Social Impact Assessment.” Rural Sociology 57, no. 2 (1992): 216–34.
Guthrie, Doug. China and Globalization: The Social, Economic and Political Transformation of Chinese Society.
New York: Routledge, 2012.
Henderson, J. C. “Tourism in Dubai: Overcoming Barriers to Destination Development.” International Jour-
nal of Tourism Research 8, no. 2 (2006): 87–99. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.557.
Horne, John D., and Wolfram Manzenreiter. “Accounting for Mega-Events: Forecast and Actual Impacts
of the 2002 Football World Cup Finals on the Host Countries Japan/Korea.” International Review for the
Sociology of Sport 39, no. 2 (2004): 187–203.
Houlihan, Barrie, and Dominic Malcolm, eds. Sport and Society: A Student Introduction. London: Sage, 2015.
Ignatiev, P., and P. Bovsunivskyi. “Egypt’s Foreign Policy Under Abdel Fattah el-Sisi.” Actual Problems of
International Relations 134 (2018): 4–15.
Ishac, Wadih. “Furthering National Development Through Sport, the Case of Qatar.” PhD diss., Université
Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 2018.
Lopez, Shaun T. “Football as National Allegory: Al-Ahram and the Olympics in 1920s Egypt.” History
Compass 7, no. 1 (2009): 282–305.
Lopez, Shaun T. “Race, Place and Soccer: Egypt, Morocco and ‘African’ Identity in the Competition to
Host the 2010 FIFA World Cup.” Soccer & Society 13, no. 5–6 (2012): 639–52.
Riordan, James. “Soviet Sport and Soviet Foreign Policy.” Soviet Studies 26, no. 3 (1974): 322–43.
Robertson, Roland. Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture.Vol. 16. London: Sage, 1992.
Schirm, Stefan A. “Leaders in Need of Followers: Emerging Powers in Global Governance.” European Jour-
nal of International Relations 16, no. 2 (2010): 197–221.
Sharpley, Richard. “Planning for Tourism: The Case of Dubai.” Tourism and Hospitality Planning & Develop-
ment 5, no. 1 (2008): 13–30.
Taylor, Ian. China’s New Role in Africa. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2009.
Van Der Westhuizen, Janis, and Kamilla Swart. “Bread or Circuses? The 2010 World Cup and South Africa’s
Quest for Marketing Power.” The International Journal of the History of Sport 28, no. 1 (2011): 168–80.
Wenner, Lawrence A., ed. MediaSport. Psychology Press, 1998.
Wilsey, Sean. “This Month 32 Nations Will Compete for the World Cup of Soccer, the ‘Beautiful Game’
That Unites and Divides Countries Around the Globe.” National Geographic 209, no. 6 (2006): 42.
Al Droushi,Abdul Rahim.“Discourses on the Modernization Agenda in Sport Policy in Oman; Between the
Global and Local and Modernity and Authenticity.” PhD diss., Loughborough University, 2017.
Amara, Mahfoud. “The Muslim World in the Global Sporting Arena.” Brown Journal of World Affairs 14, no.
2 (2008): 67–75.
Amara, Mahfoud. Sport, Politics, and Society in the Arab World. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.
Amara, Mahfoud, and Ian Henry, eds. Deconstructing the Debate Around Sport and the ‘Question’ of ‘Muslim
Minorities’ in the West. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.
Henry, Ian, Mahfoud Amara, and Mansoor Al-Tauqi. “Sport, Arab Nationalism and the Pan-Arab Games.”
International Review for the Sociology of Sport 38, no. 3 (2003): 295–310.
Levinson, Martin. “Mapping the Persian Gulf Naming Dispute.” ETC: A Review of General Semantics 68,
no. 3, (2011): 279–87.
Pfister, Gertrud. “Outsiders: Muslim Women and Olympic Games-Barriers and Opportunities.” Interna-
tional Journal of the History of Sport 27, no. 16–18 (2010): 2925–57.
Testa, Alberto, eds. Engaging in Sport:The Islamic Framework. London: Routledge, 2016.
Trotier, Friederike. “Changing an Image Through Sports Events: Palembang’s Success Story.” Asia Pacific
Journal of Sport and Social Science 6, no. 1 (2017): 3–18.
Anderson, Benedict. Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. Kindle ed. London:Verso, 2012.
Armstrong, Gary, and Malcolm Young. “Fanatical Football Chants: Creating and Controlling the Carnival.”
Culture, Sport, Society 2, no. 3 (1999):173–211. https://doi.org/10.1080/14610989908721852.
Bairner, Alan. Sport, Nationalism and Globalization; European and North American Perspectives. Albany, NY: State
University of New York Press, 2001.
Belahoucine, Lahcène. La Saga du football algérien. Algiers: Éditions HIBR, 2010.
Bordieu, Pierre. Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. London: Routledge, 1984.
Bromberger, Christian. “Football as World-View and as Ritual.” French Cultural Studies 6, (1995): 293–311.
https://doi.org/10.1177/095715589500601803.
Buytendijk, Frederick Jakobus Johannes. Le football: une étude psychologique. Paris: Brouwer, 1952.
Chehabi, Houchang E. “The Politics of Football in Iran.” In Fringe Nations in World Soccer, edited by Kausik
Bandyopadhyay and Sabyasachi Mallick, 77–105. London: Routledge, 2008.
Clark, Tom. “ ‘I’m Scunthorpe ‘til I die’: Constructing and (Re) Negotiating Identity Through the Terrace
Chant.” Soccer and Society 7, no. 4 (2006): 494–507. https://doi.org/10.1080/14660970600905786.
Connerton, Paul. How Societies Remember. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
Dietschy, Paul, and David Claude Kemo-Keimbou. Le football et l’Afrique. Paris: EPA, 2008.
Eisen, Georg. “Jewish History and the Ideology of Modern Sport: Approaches and Interpretations.” Journal
of Sport History 25, no. 3 (1998): 482–531.
Evans, Martin. Algeria: France’s Undeclared War. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
Fates,Youssef. Sport et Tiers Monde. Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1994.
Fates,Youcef. Sport et politique en Algérie. Paris: L’Harmattan, 2009.
Foer, Franklin. How Soccer Explains the World. New York: HarperCollins, 2006.
Hannerz, Ulf. “Scenarios for Peripheral Cultures.” In Culture, Globalization and the World-System: Contem-
porary Conditions for the Representation of Identity, edited by Anthony D. King, 107–28. Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota Press, 1997.
Herodotus. “An Account of Egypt, Translated by G. C. Macaulay.” Project Guttenberg, 2006. www.guten
berg.org/files/2131/2131-h/2131-h.htm.
Herzl, Theodore. The Complete Diaries of Theodor Herzl.Vol. 1. New York: Herzl Press and Thomas Yoseloff,
1990.
Hick, R. D., ed. Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press,
1925.
Hobsbawm, Eric. “Mass-Producing Traditions: Europe 1870–1940.” In The Invention of Tradition, edited by
Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Hobsbawm, Eric. Nations and Nationalism Since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1990.
Hobsbawm, Eric, and Terence Ranger, eds. The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1983.
James, Paul. Nation Formation:Toward a Theory of Abstract Community. London: Sage Publications, 1996.
Khalidi, Issam. “The Coverage of Sports News in Filastin 1911–1948.” Jerusalem Quarterly 44 (2010): 45–69.
Khalidi, Issam. “Coverage of Sports News in Filastin, 1911–1948.” Soccer and Society 13, no. 5–6 (2012):
764–77.
Lever, Janet. Soccer Madness: Brazil’s Passion for the World’s Most Popular Sport. Long Grove: Waveland Press,
1983.
Liverani, Andrea. Civil Society in Algeria:The Political Functions of Associational Life. London: Routledge, 2008.
Merle, Robert. Ben Bella. London: Michael Joseph, 1967.
Mylonas, Harry. The Politics of Nation-Building: Making Co-Nationals, Refugees, and Minorities. New York:
Cambridge University Press, 2012.
Patrick, G.T.W. “The Psychology of Football.” The American Journal of Psychology 14, no. 3–4 (1903): 104–17.
Saadallah, Rabah, and Djamel Benfares. La glorieuse equpe de FLN. Algiers: ENAL, Brussels GAM, 1980.
Sikainga, Ahmed Alawad. City of Steel and Fire: A Social History of Atbara, Sudan’s Railway Town 1906–1984.
Portsmouth, NH: Heineman, 2002.
Smith, Anthony D. The Nation in History: Historiographical Debates About Ethnicity and Nationalism. London:
Polity Press, 2000.
Sugden, John, and Alan Bairner. Sport, Sectarianism and Society. Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1993.
Time Magazine, The Disappearing Act, April 28, 1958.
Arbena, Joseph L. “Generals and Goles: Assessing the Connection Between the Military and Soccer in
Argentina.” International Journal of the History of Sport 7 (1990): 120–30.
Arthur, Mikaila M. “Emergent Norm Theory.” In Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Move-
ments, edited by David A. Snow, Donatella della Porta, Bert Klandermans, and Doug McAdam. London:
Blackwell, 2013.
Ashford, Douglas E. “Neo-Destour Leadership and the ‘Confiscated Revolution’.” World Politics 17, no. 2
(1965): 215–31.
Ayubi, Nazih A. “Withered Socialism or Whether Socialism? The Radical Arab States as Populist-
Corporatist Regimes.” Third World Quarterly 13, no. 1 (1992): 89–105.
Benski, Tova, Lauren Langman, Ignacia Perrugorría, and Benjamín Tejerina. “From the Streets and Squares
to Social Movement Studies: What Have We Learned?” Current Sociology 61, no. 4 (2013): 541–61.
Bloomfield, Steve. Africa United: How Football Explains Africa. Edinburgh: Canongate Books, 2010.
Borch, Christian. The Politics of Crowds: An Alternative History of Sociology. New York: Cambridge University
Press, 2012.
Borch, Christian, and Britta Timm. “Postmodern Crowds: Re-Inventing Crowd Thinking.” Distinktion:
Scandinavian Journal of Social Theory 14, no. 2 (2013): 109–13.
Bourdieu, Pierre. The Logic of Practice.Translated by Richard Nice. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990.
Bowman, Kirk. “Futebol/Futbol, Identity, and Politics in Latin America.” Latin American Research Review
50, no. 3 (2015): 254–64.
Chomiak, Laryssa, and John P. Entelis. “Contesting Order in Tunisia: Crafting Political Identity.” In Civil
Society Activism Under Authoritarian Rule: A Comparative Perspective, edited by Francesco Cavatorta, 73–93.
London: Routledge, 2013.
Denizen, Norman K. Symbolic Interactionism and Cultural Studies:The Politics of Interpretation. Oxford: Black-
well, 1992.
Dolata, Ulrich, and Jan-Felix Schrape. “Masses, Crowds, Communities, Movements: Collective Action in
the Internet Age.” Social Movement Studies 15, no. 1 (2016): 1–18.
Dorsey, James M. The Turbulent World of Middle East Soccer. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press,
2016.
Drury, John, Chris Cocking, and Steve Reicher. “Everyone for Themselves? A Comparative Study of
Crowd Solidarity Among Emergency Survivors.” British Journal of Social Psychology 48 (2009): 487–506.
Giddens, Anthony. The Third Way and Its Critics. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2000.
Guedes, Simoni L. “On Criollos and Capoeiras: Notes on Soccer and National Identity in Argentina and
in Brazil.” Soccer and Society 15, no. 1 (2014): 147–61.
Guttmann, Allen. “Sports Crowds.” In Crowds, edited by Jeffrey T. Schnapp and Matthew Tiews, 111–32.
Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2006.
Hefner, Robert W. Civil Islam: Muslims and Democratization in Indonesia. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press, 2000.
Henry, Ian P., Mahfoud Amara, and Mansour Al-Tauqi.“Sport, Arab Nationalism and the Pan-Arab Games.”
International Review for the Sociology of Sport 38, no. 3 (2003): 295–310.
Hopwood, Derek, and Sue Mi Terry. Habib Bourguiba of Tunisia: The Tragedy of Longevity. New York: St.
Martin’s Press, 1992.
Inglehart, Robert. “Trust, Well-Being and Democracy.” In Democracy and Trust, edited by Mark E. Warren,
88–120. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
Jonsson, Stefan. A Brief History of the Masses:Three Revolutions. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008.
Jonsson, Stefan. Crowds and Democracy:The Idea and Image of the Masses from Revolution to Fascism. New York:
Columbia University Press, 2013.
Khalil, Andrea. Crowds and Politics in North Africa:Tunisia, Algeria, and Libya. London: Routledge, 2014.
Little, William. Introduction to Sociology: 2nd Canadian Edition, 2016. https://opentextbc.ca/introductionto.
Lopez, Shaun. “Football as National Allegory: Al-Ahram and the Olympics in 1920s Egypt.” History Com-
pass 7, no. 1 (2009): 282–305.
Mason, Tony. Passion of the People? Football in South America. London:Verso, 1995.
Nadel, Joshua. Futbol! Why Soccer Matters in Latin America. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2014.
Nadel, Joshua. Interview with Kojo Nmandi. Kojo Nmandi Show,WAMU, May 28, 2014. https://thekojon-
namdishow.org/shows/2014-05-28/futbol-soccer-history-and-politics-latin-america.
Nejad, Reza M. “Crowds, Protests and Processions: Revisiting Urban Experiences.” Distinktion: Scandina-
vian Journal of Social Theory 17, no. 3(2016): 251–53.
Neville, Fergus G., and Stephen Reicher. “Crowds, Social Identities, and the Shaping of Everyday Social
Relations.” In Political Psychology: A Social Psychological Approach, edited by Christopher J. Hewer and
Evanthia Lyons. London: John Wiley & Sons, 2018.
Portes, Alejandro, and Margarita Mooney. “Social Capital and Community Development.” In The New
Economic Sociology: Developments in an Emerging Field, edited by M. F. Guillen, R. Collins, P. England, and
M. Meyer, 303–29. New York: Russel Sage Foundation, 2002.
Putnam, Robert N. “Bowling Alone: America’s Declining Social Capital.” Journal of Democracy 6, no. 1
(1995): 65–76.
Putnam, Robert N. “Social Capital and Public Affairs.” Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
47, no. 8 (May 1998): 5–19.
Reiche, Danyel. “Investing in Sporting Success as a Domestic and Foreign Policy Tool: The Case of Qatar.”
International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics 7, no. 4 (2015): 489–504.
Rommel, Carl. “A Veritable Game of the Nation: On the Changing Status of Football Within the Egyp-
tion National Formation in the Wake of the 2009 World Cup Qualifiers Against Algeria.” Critical African
Studies 2, no. 2–3 (2014): 151–75.
Sadiki, Larbi. “Popular Uprisings and Arab Democratization.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 32,
no. 1 (2000): 71–95.
Sadiki, Larbi. “The Search for Citizenship in Bin Ali’s Tunisia: Democracy Versus Unity.” Political Studies 50,
no. 3 (2002): 497–513.
Sorek, Tamir. “Arab Football in Israel as an ‘Integrative Enclave’.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 26, no. 3 (2003):
422–450.
Stevenson,Thomas B., and Abdul Karim Alaug. “Football in Newly United Yemen: Rituals of Equity, Iden-
tity, and State Formation.” Journal of Anthropological Research 56, no. 4 (2000): 453–75.
Surowiecki, James. The Wisdom of Crowds. New York: Anchor Books, 2005.
Tilly, Charles. “Contentious Repertoires in Great Britain.” Social Science History 17, no. 2 (1993): 253–80.
Tilly, Charles. “Trust and Rule.” Theory and Society 33, no. 1 (2004): 1–30.
Tuastad, Dag. “From Football Riot to Revolution: The Political Role of Football in the Arab World.” Soccer
and Society 15, no. 3 (2014): 376–88.
Turner, Ralph H., and Lewis M. Killian. Collective Behavior. 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,
1987.
Zaoui, Maha, and Emmanuel Bayle. “The Central Role of the State in the Governance of Sport and the
Olympic Movement in Tunisia from 1956 to the Present Day.” International Journal of the History of Sport
34, no. 13 (2018): 1382–402.
Clunas, Craig. Superfluous Things: Material Culture and Social Status in Early Modern China. Honolulu: Uni-
versity of Hawai‘i Press, 2004.
Davies, Derek. “Traveller’s Tales.” Far Eastern Economic Review 143 (1989): 37.
Hewison, Kevin, Richard Robison, and Garry Rodan. Southeast Asia in the 1990s: Authoritarianism, Democ-
racy and Capitalism. St. Leonards, NSW: George Allen & Unwin, 1993.
Hong, Fan, and J. A. Mangan, eds. Sport in Asian Society: Past and Present. London: Cass, 2003.
Huebner, Stefan. “Images of the Sporting ‘Civilizing Mission’: The Far Eastern Championship Games
(1913–1934) and Visions of Modernization in English-Language Philippine Newspapers.” Journal of
World History 27, no. 3 (2016): 497–533.
Karnjanakit, Sombat, and Supitr Samahito. “Thailand and the Asian Games: Coping with Crisis.” Sport in
Society 8, no. 3 (2005): 440–48.
Kolb, Albert. East Asia: China, Japan, Korea,Vietnam: Geography of a Cultural Region. London: Methuen, 1971.
Mason, Colin. A Short History of Asia. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.
McCloud, Donald G. Southeast Asia: Tradition and Modernity in the Contemporary World. Boulder, CO: West-
view Press, 1995.
Meyer, Milton W. Asia: A Concise History. New York: Portman & Littlefield, 1997.
Modelski, George. “Indonesia and the Malaysia Issue.” Yearbook on World Affairs (1964): 5.
Morris, Andrew D. Marrow of the Nation: A History of Sport and Physical Culture in Republican China. Berkeley,
CA: University of California Press, 2004.
Osborne, Milton. Southeast Asia: An Introductory History. St. Leonards, NSW: George Allen & Unwin, 2010.
Phillips, Richard T. China Since 1911. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1996.
Preston, Peter. Pacific Asia in the Global System: An Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell, 1998.
Robison, Richard, Kevin Hewison, and Garry Rodan. Political Power in Industrialising Capitalist Societies:
Theoretical Perspectives. St Leonards, NSW: George Allen & Unwin, 1993.
Romein, Jan Marius. The Asian Century: A History of Modern Nationalism in Asia. London: George Allen &
Unwin, 1965.
Simon, Sheldon W. “Review of Wayne Wilcox, Leo E. Rose, and Gavin Boyd, eds., Asia and the Interna-
tional System. Cambridge, MA:Winthrop Publishers, 1972.” in Canadian Journal of Political Science/Revue
Canadienne De Science Politique 6, no. 2 (1973): 334–35.
Sisodia, Mithlesh K. Singh. “India and the Asian Games: From Infancy to Maturity.” Sport in Society 8, no.
3 (2005): 404–13.
Spence, Jonathan D. The Search for Modern China. London: Hutchinson, 1990.
Wong-Quincey, J. “The Far Eastern Championship Games.” China’s Young Men 15, no. 10 (1915): 429.
Brown, Franklin H. “Growth of Athletics in Japan.” Official Bulletin of the International Olympic Committee
(Olympic Review) no. 3 (July 1926): 19.
Chen, Zuen. Japanese:The Japanese Residents in Modern Shanghai (1868–1945). Shanghai: Shanghai Academy
of Social Sciences Press, 2007.
de Coubertin, Baron Pierre. Olympic Memoirs: Pierre de Coubertin (Chinese version). Beijing: Beijing Sport
University Press, 2016.
Dyreson, Mark. Making the American Team: Sport, Culture, and the Olympic Experience. Champaign, IL: Uni-
versity of Illinois Press, 1998.
Hao, Gengsheng. The Far Eastern Championship Games. Archives of the YMCA, 1914.
Hoh, G. Physical Education in China. Shanghai: Shangwu yinshuguan [Commercial Press], 1926.
Kennedy, Paul. The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers. Beijing: Qiushi Publishing House, 1988.
Kolatch, Jonathan. Sports, Politics and Ideology in China. New York: Jonathan David Publishers, 1972.
Li, Qi. “Far Eastern Championship Games and Modern China.” PhD diss., Central China Normal Uni-
versity, 2008.
Morris, Andrew D. Marrow of the Nation: A History of Sport and Physical Culture in Republican China. Berkeley,
CA: University of California Press, 2004.
Peng, Ligang. “Far Eastern Championship Games and the Early Olympic Movements in China–A History
Being Forgotten.” Journal of Shandong Physical Education Institute no. 6 (2005): 61–63.
Wang, Jianlang, and Jinghe Luan. Modern China, East Asia and the World. Vol. 1. Beijing: Social Sciences
Academic Press, 2008.
Zhang, Huijie, Fan Hong, and Fuhua Huang. Christianity and the Transformation of Physical Education and
Sport in Modern China (1840–1937). London and New York: Routledge, 2016.
Agung, Ide Anak Agung Gde. Twenty Years Indonesian Foreign Policy 1945–1965. Berlin and Boston: De
Gruyter Mouton, 2018.
Connolly, Chris A. “The Politics of the Games of the New Emerging Forces (GANEFO).” International
Journal of the History of Sport 29, no. 9 (2012): 1317.
Creak, Simon. “Representing True Laos in Post-Colonial Southeast Asia: Regional Dynamics in the Glo-
balization of Sport.” In Sport Across Asia: Politics, Cultures, and Identities, edited by Katrin Bromber, Birgit
Krawietz, and Joseph Maguire, 95–120. New York: Routledge, 2013.
Field, Russell. “Re-Entering the Sporting World: China’s Sponsorship of the 1963 Games of the New
Emerging Forces (GANEFO).” International Journal of the History of Sport 31, no. 15 (2014): 1853.
Field, Russell. “Splitting the World of International Sport: The 1963 Games of the New Emerging Forces
and the Politics of Challenging the Global Sport Order.” In Sport, Protest and Globalisation: Stopping Play,
edited by Jon Dart and Stephen Wagg, 79. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016.
Gitersos,Terry Vaios. “The Sporting Scramble for Africa: GANEFO, the IOC and the 1965 African Games.”
Sport in Society 14, no. 5 (2011): 648.
Hong, Fan, and Lu Zhouxiang. The Politicisation of Sport in Modern China: Communists and Champions.
London: Routledge, 2013.
Hübner, Stefan. “The Fourth Asian Games (Jakarta 1962) in a Transnational Perspective: Japanese and
Indian Reactions to Indonesia’s Political Instrumentalisation of the Games.” International Journal of the
History of Sport 29, no. 9 (2012): 1305.
Hübner, Stefan. Pan-Asian Sports and the Emergence of Modern Asia, 1913–74. Singapore: NUS Press, 2016.
Kobierecki, Michal Marcin. “Sport as a Tool of Building Political Alliances: The Case of the Games of the
New Emerging Forces (GANEFO).” The Polish Quarterly of International Affairs 25, no. 4 (2016): 108.
Lutan, Rusli, and Fan Hong. “The Politicization of Sport: GANEFO – A Case Study.” In Sport, Nationalism
and Orientalism:The Asian Games, edited by Fan Hong, 22–36. London and New York: Routledge, 2007.
Pauker, Ewa T. “Ganefo I: Sports and Politics in Djakarta.” Asian Survey 5, no. 4 (1965): 173.
Permanent Secretariat of the GANEFO Federation. GANEFO (Games of the New Emerging Forces): Its
Principles, Purposes, and Organization. Jakarta: Permanent Secretariat of the GANEFO Federation, 1965.
Rahayu, Amin. Asian Games IV 1962: Motivasi, Capaian, serta Revolusi Mental, dan Keolahragaan di Indonesia.
Jakarta: Nuril Hapress, 2015.
Shimazu, Naoko. “Diplomacy as Theatre: Staging the Bandung Conference of 1955.” Modern Asian Studies
48, no. 1 (2013): 230.
Shuman, Amanda. “Elite Competitive Sport in the People’s Republic of China 1958–1966: The Games of
the New Emerging Forces.” Journal of Sport History 40, no. 2 (2013): 263.
Vickers, Adrian. A History of Modern Indonesia. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press,
2005.
Webster, David. “Sports as Third World Nationalism: The Games of the New Emerging Forces and Indo-
nesia’s Systemic Challenge Under Sukarno.” Journal of American-East Asian Relations 23, no. 4 (2016): 3.
Abel, Jessamyn R. The International Minimum: Creativity and Contradiction in Japan’s Global Engagement, 1933–
1964. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2015.
Arnaud, Pierre, and James Riordan, eds. Sport and International Politics. New York: E & FN Spon, 1998.
Bunshirō, Suzuki. “Orinpikku to Bankokuhaku: Senden to kokuminteki kanshin.” Kaizō 20, no. 6
(June 1938): 183–84.
Collins, Sandra S. The 1940 Tokyo Games: The Missing Olympics: Japan, the Asian Olympics and the Olympic
Movement. New York: Routledge, 2007.
Narusawa Reisen, in “Dai jūni kai Orimupikku Tokyo kaisai ni kan suru kansō oyobi kakuhōmen e no
kibō to chūmon.” Kaizō 18, no. 9 (September 1936): 297, 299.
Hong, Fan, and Lu Zhouxiang. “The Politicisation of the Beijing Olympics.” International Journal of the His-
tory of Sport 29, no. 1 (January 2012): 157–83.
Horne, John, and Garry Whannel. Understanding the Olympics. New York: Routledge, 2012.
Houlihan, Barrie. Sport and International Politics. New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1994.
Jin, Tōru. “Orinpikku to Tokyo no gesuidō.” Shin toshi 15, no. 2 (February 1961): 39–40.
Keys, Barbara. Globalizing Sport: National Rivalry and International Community in the 1930s. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 2006.
MacAloon, John J. “The Theory of Spectacle: Reviewing Olympic Ethnography.” In National Identity and
Global Sports Events (SUNY Series on Sport, Culture, and Social Relations), edited by Alan Tominson,
15–39. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2006.
Senn, Alfred Erich. Power, Politics, and the Olympic Games: A History of the Power Brokers, Events, and Contro-
versies That Shaped the Games. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1999.
Shigeharu, Nakano. “Orinpikku to Nihon.” In Nakano Shigeharu zenshū. Vol. 10. Tokyo: Chikuma Shobō,
1979.
Skabelund, Aaron. “Public Service/Public Relations: The Mobilization of the Self-Defense Force for the
Tokyo Olympic Games.” In The East Asian Olympiads, 1934–2008: Building Bodies and Nations in Japan,
Korea, and China, edited by William Tsutsui and Michael Baskett, 63–76. Folkestone: Global Oriental,
2011.
Tagsold, Christian. “The Tōkyō Olympics as a Token of Renationalization.” In Olympic Japan: Ideals and
Realities of (Inter)Nationalism, edited by Andreas Niehaus and Max Seinsch, 111–29. Würzburg, Ger-
many: Ergon Verlag, 2007.
Yasuyuki, Shintani. “’2020-nen Tokyo Orinpikku/Pararinpikku’ kaisai ni mukete.” Gekkan gesuidō 37, no.
1 (January 2014): 20–23.
Barth, Fredrik. Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Cultural Difference. Bergen-Oslo and
London: Universitets Forlaget and George Allen & Unwin, 1969.
Creak, Simon. “Sport as Politics and History: The 25th SEA Games in Laos.” Anthropology Today 27, no. 1
(2011): 14–19.
Creak, Simon. “National Restoration, Regional Prestige: Myanmar’s Southeast Asian Games of 2013.”
Journal of Asian Studies 73, no. 4 (2014): 1–21.
Creak, Simon. Embodied Nation: Sport, Masculinity, and the Making of Modern Laos. Honolulu: University of
Hawai‘i Press, 2015.
Creak, Simon. “Eternal Friends and Erstwhile Enemies: The Sporting Community of the Southeast Asian
Games, 1959–Present.” TRaNS: Trans-Regional and -National Studies of Southeast Asia 5, no. 1 (2017):
147–72.
Creak, Simon. “Friendship and Mutual Understanding: Sport and Regional Relations in Southeast Asia.”
In The Ideals of Global Sport: From Peace to Human Rights, edited by Barbara Keys, 21–46. Philadelphia,
PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019.
Creak, Simon. “New Regional Order: Sport, Cold War Culture and the Making of Southeast Asia.” In
Spanning and Spinning the Globe: History of Sport in the Cold War, edited by Robert Edelman and Chris-
topher Young. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2020.
Emmerson, Donald. “Southeast Asia: What’s in a Name?” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 15, no. 1
(1984): 10.
Guttmann, Allen. From Ritual to Record: The Nature of Modern Sports. Updated ed. New York: Columbia
University Press, 2004.
Huebner, Stefan. Pan-Asian Sports and the Emergence of Modern Asia, 1913–1974. Singapore: NUS Press,
2016.
Cao, Siyu, Tingting Li, Qingjun Cao, and Zhang Maomao. “Research on Asian Indoor Games.” Sport Cul-
ture Guide 10 (2013): 67–70.
Huang,Youli. “A Study of the Development Strategy of Macau Sports in the Framework of One Country
Two Systems.” PhD diss., Beijing Sports University, 2009.
Lai,Yawei. “Study on Function and Impact on the Development of Macau Society by Holding Large-Scale
Sport Events.” PhD diss., Beijing Sport University, 2013.
Andersson,Torbjörn. “The 1958 World Cup in Sweden. Between Modernity and Idyll.” In The FIFA World
Cup 1930–2010, edited by Stefan Rinke and Kay Schiller. Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag, 2012.
Bairner, Alan, and Dong-Jhy Hwang. “Representing Taiwan: International Sport, Ethnicity and National
Identity in the Republic of China.” International Review for the Sociology of Sport 46, no. 3 (2010): 231–48.
Brannagan, Paul B., and Robert Giulianotti. “Soft Power and Soft Disempowerment: Qatar, Global Sport
and Football’s 2022 World Cup Finals.” Leisure Studies 34, no. 6 (2015): 703–19.
Bubalo, Anthony. “Football Diplomacy.” Paper of the Lowy Institute for International Policy, 2005. https://
archive.lowyinstitute.org/sites/default/files/pubfiles/Bubalo%2C_Football_diplomacy_stripe_1.pdf.
Chehabi, Huochang E. “The Politics of Football in Iran.” Soccer & Society 7, no. 2 (2006): 233–61.
Galily, Yair, and Tal Samuel-Azran. “Israel.” In The Palgrave International Handbook of Football and Politics,
edited by Jean-Michel De Waele, Suzan Gibril, Ekaterina Gloriozova, and Ramon Spaaij. Champaign:
Palgrave Macmillan, 2017.
Moore, Kevin. “A Second ‘Maracanazo’? The 2014 FIFA World Cup in Historical Perspective.” Sport in
Society 20, no. 5–6 (2017): 555–71.
Pifer, N. David. “Asian Football Confederation.” In Routledge Handbook of Football Business and Management,
edited by Simon Chadwick, Daniel Parnell, Paul Widdop, and Christos Anagnostopoulos. London:
Routledge, 2018.
Rowe, David. “The AFC Asian Cup: Continental Competition, Global Disposition.” In Sport, Media and
Mega-Events, edited by Lawrence A. Wenner and Andrew C. Billings. London: Routledge, 2017.
Weinberg, Ben. “The Future Is Asia? The Role of the Asian Football Confederation in the Governance and
Development of Football in Asia.” The International Journal of the History of Sport 29, no. 4 (2012): 535–52.
Weinberg, Ben. Asia and the Future of Football: The Role of the Asian Football Confederation. London: Rout-
ledge, 2015.
Beijing Organising Committee for the Games of the XXIX Olympiad (BOCOG). Bid Documents and
Analysis: Passion Behind the Bid-Official Report of the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games.Vol. 1. Beijing: Beijing
Sport University Press, 2010.
Beijing Organising Committee for the Games of the XXIX Olympiad (BOCOG). Ceremonies and Compe-
titions: Celebration of the Games-Official Report of the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games.Vol. 2. Beijing: Beijing
Sport University Press, 2010.
Beijing Organising Committee for the Games of the XXIX Olympiad (BOCOG). Preparation for the
Games: New Beijing Great Olympics -Official Report of the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games. Vol. 3. Beijing:
Beijing Sport University Press, 2010.
Brunet, Ferran, and Zuo Xinwen. The Economy of the Beijing Olympic Games: An Analysis of First Impacts and
Prospects. Barcelona: Centre d’Estudis Olímpics, UAB, 2009.
Cao, Huijuan, Hidemichi Fujii, and Shunsuke Managi. “Environmental Impact of the 2008 Beijing Olym-
pic Games.” Economics Discussion Papers no. 30 (2013). www.economics-ejournal.org/economics/
discussionpapers/2013-30.
Davis, John. The Olympic Games Effect: How Sports Marketing Builds Strong Brands. Singapore: John Wiley &
Sons, 2012.
Dolles, Harald, and Sten Soderman. “Sponsoring as a Strategy to Enter, Develop, and Defend Markets:
Advertising Patterns of the Beijing Olympic Games’ Sponsoring Partners.” In Asian Inward and Outward
FDI: New Challenges in Global Economy, edited by Claes Alvstan, Harald Dolles, and Patrik Strom, 36–64.
London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.
Dong, Jinxia, and J. A. Mangan. “Beijing Olympic Legacies: Certain Intentions and Certain and Uncertain
Outcomes.” In Olympic Legacies: Intended and Unintended, edited by J. A. Mangan and Mark Dyreson,
136–57. London: Routledge, 2013.
Hamakawa, Curt, and Elizabeth Elam. “Beijing Olympics: Games of Epic Proportion.” Journal of Business
Cases and Applications no. 3 (2011): 1–11.
Holt, Richard, and Dino Ruta, eds. Routledge Handbook of Sport and Legacy: Meeting the Challenge of Major
Sport Events. London: Routledge, 2015.
International Olympic Committee (IOC). The International Olympic Committee Marketing Report: Beijing
2008. Lausanne: International Olympic Committee, 2009.
International Olympic Committee (IOC). Final Report of The IOC Coordination Commission: Games of the
XXIX Olympiad, Beijing 2008. Lausanne: International Olympic Committee, 2010.
International Olympic Committee (IOC). The Olympic Marketing Fact File: 2012 Edition. Lausanne: Inter-
national Olympic Committee, 2012.
International Olympic Committee (IOC). The Olympic Marketing Fact File: 2014 Edition. Lausanne: Inter-
national Olympic Committee, 2014.
Min, Ge. “The Olympic Economy in China: A Study of the Beijing Olympic Games.” PhD diss., School
of Social Sciences, the University of Western Australia, 2016.
National Bureau of Statistics of China. China Statistical Year Book 2007. Beijing: China Statistics Press, 2007.
Qiu, Hengming. “The Bill of the Olympic Games.” China Investment no. 8 (2008): 40–59.
Tieliang, Xin. New Beijing, Great Olympics. Beijing: Beijing Publishing Press, 2006.
Wang,Yimin, and Naofumi Masumoto.“Olympic Education at Model Schools for the 2008 Beijing Olym-
pic Games.” International Journal of Sport and Health Science 7 (2009): 31–41.
Bairner, Alan. Sport, Nationalism and Globalization. New York: State University of New York Press, 2001.
Bridges, Brian. “The Seoul Olympics: Economic Miracle Meets the World.” The International Journal of the
History of Sport 25, no. 14 (2008): 1939–52.
Cho, Jihyun. “Elite Sport in South Korean Society: Consequences of the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games.” The
Korean Society for The Study of Physical Education 18, no. 2 (2013): 1–14.
Cho, Jihyun. “Life After Judo: An Examination of the Life Experience and Post-Retirement Career
Choices of South Korean Judo Olympic Medallists.” Asia Pacific Journal of Sport and Social Science 1, no.
2–3 (2012): 156–65.
Cho, Jihyun, and Alan Bairner. “The Sociocultural Legacy of the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games.” Leisure
Studies 31, no. 3 (2012): 271–89.
Donnelly, Peter. “The Local and the Global: Globalization in the Sociology of Sport.” Journal of Sport and
Social Issues 20, no. 3 (1996): 239–57.
Grix, Jonathan, and Barrie Houlihan. “Sports Mega-Events as Part of a Nation’s Soft Power Strategy: The
Cases of Germany (2006) and the UK (2012).” The British Journal of Politics and International Relations
16, no. 4 (2014): 572–96.
Ha, W. Y. “Korean Sports in the 1980s and the Seoul Olympic Games of 1988.” PhD diss., Pennsylvania
State University, 1997.
Horne, John, and Wolfram Manzenreiter, eds. Japan, Korea and the 2002 World Cup. London: Routledge,
2002.
Horne, John, and Wolfram Manzenreiter. “Accounting for Mega- Events: Forecast and Actual Impacts of
the 2002 Football World Cup Finals on the Host Counties Japan/Korea.” International Review for the
Sociology of Sport 39, no. 2 (2004): 187–203.
Horne, John, and Wolfram Manzenreiter. “An Introduction to the Sociology of Sports Mega-Events.” Socio-
logical Review 54, no. 2 (2006): 1–24.
Kim, H.Y., and T. S. Lim. “The Influences of Seoul Olympics on the Political and Diplomatic Changes in
Korea.” Journal of the Korean Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 33, no. 2 (1994):
200–13.
Kim, Seon-Jong. “Sport and Politics in the Republic of Korea.” PhD diss., School of Linguistic and Inter-
national Studies, University of Surrey, 2000.
Larson, James F., and Heung-Soo Park. Global Television and the Politics of the Seoul Olympics. Boulder, CO:
Westview Press, 1993.
Lee, Jung Woo, and Joseph Maguire. “Global Festivals Through a National Prism: The Global-National
Nexus in South Korean Media Coverage of the 2004 Athens Olympic Games.” International Review for
the Sociology of Sport 44, no. 1 (2009): 5–24.
Maguire, Joseph. “Sport Identity Politics, and Globalization: Diminishing Contrasts and Increasing Varie-
ties.” Sociology of Sport Journal 11, no. 4 (1994): 398–427.
Mangan, J. A., Gwang Ok, and Kyoungho Park. “From the Destruction of Image to the Reconstruction
of Image: A Sports Mega-Event and the Resurgence of a Nation – the Politics of Sport Exemplified.”
International Journal of the History of Sport 28, no. 16 (2011): 2339–64.
Miller, Toby, Geoffrey Lawrence, Jim McKay, and David Rowe. Globalization and Sport: Playing the World.
London: Sage, 2001.
Roche, Maurice. Mega-Events Modernity: Olympics and Expos in the Growth of Global Culture. London and
New York: Routledge, 2000.
Cheng, Dali. Chinese Wushu: History and Culture. Chengdu: Sichuan University Press, 1995.
Guo,Yucheng. Chinese Wushu and National Image. Beijing: Higher Education Press, 2014.
Hong, Fan. “Communist China and the Asian Games 1951–1990: Thirty-Nine Year Struggle to Victory.”
Sport in Society: Cultures, Commerce, Media, Politics 8, no. 3 (2005): 479–92.
Kuang, Wennan. Introduction to Chinese Wushu Culture. Chengdu: Sichuan Education Press, 1990.
Shen, Liang. Traditional Wushu and Health Self-Defense. Shanghai: Shanghai University Press, 2018.
Tan, Huang. History of Sport. Beijing: Higher Education Press, 2009.
Tang,Yong. “Influence of Evolution in Wushu Rules on the Development of Asian Wushu Taolu Routines.”
Chinese Wushu Research 1, no. 2 (2012): 65–67.
Wushu Research Institute of State Physical Culture and Sports Committee. History of Chinese Wushu. Bei-
jing: Peoples Sports Publishing House, 1997.
Changchun, Liu. “The Whole Story of My Representing China at the Tenth Olympic Games.” In The
Olympics and China, edited by Ji Hongmin and Yu Xingmao. Beijing: Literature and History Publishing
House, 1985.
Chen,Yu. “Liu Changchun, China’s First Olympic Man.” Lantai Shijie 7 (2010): 57–58.
Fang, Shuzhen. “Review of the Olympic Memory in Modern China.” Journal of Physical Education 18, no.
1 (2011): 71–74.
Li, Sheng. “Liu Changchun, the First to Represent China in Olympic Competition.” Sport History 5, no.
1 (1984): 34–35.
Morris, Andrew. “I Can Compete! China in the Olympic Games, 1932 and 1936.” Journal of Sport History
26, no. 3 (1999): 545–66.
Pan, Min. “The Report of China’s First Participate in the Olympics.” Journal of News Research 5, no. 5
(2014): 67.
Wu,Yin. “Liu Changchun-the First Chinese to Participate in the Olympics.” Yanhuan Chunqiu no. 7 (2001):
58–61.
Zhang, Bo. The Olympic Memory of Modern China. Tianjing: Tianjing Ancient Books Press, 2008.
Zhang, Xuehai. “A Study of Liu Changchun’s Sports Thought.” Guizhou Sports Science and Technology130,
no. 1 (2018): 11–14.
Antara Pustaka Utama. 99 Tokoh Olahraga Indonesia Catatan Satu Abad (1908–2008). Jakarta: Antara Pustaka
Utama, 2009.
Brown, C. “Playing the Game: Ethnicity and Politics in Indonesia Badminton.” Indonesia, 81 (2006): 71–94.
Ganner, Malcolm. World Badminton Almanac.Vol. 1. Hants: M. G. Books, 1985.
Karundeng, Max. Pasang Surut Supremasi Bulu Tangkis Indonesia. Jakarta: Penerbit Sinar Harapan, 1980.
Lim, Peng Han, and Mohd Salleh Aman. “The History of Modern Organized Badminton and the Men’s
Team Thomas Cup Tournaments.” The International Journal of the History of Sport 34, no. 7–8 (2017):
678–96.
Lutan, Rusli. Tahir Djide Hidup dan Karyanya dalam Bulutangkis. Bandung: Remaja Rosdakarya, 2013.
Nugroho, Alois A. Rajawali dengan Jurus Padi. Jakarta: Gramedia, 1986.
Sejarah Olahraga Indonesia. Jakarta: Direktorat Jendral Olahraga, 2003.
Subagyo, Wisnu. Ferry Sonneville Karya dan Pengabdian. Jakarta: Direktorat Sejarah dan Nilai Tradisional,
1984.
“Tjoa Seng Tiang.” In Sabaruddin Sa, Apa & Siapa: Sejumlah Orang Bulutangkis Indonesia. Jakarta: Jurnalindo
Aksara Grafika, 1994.
Wiryawan,Yerry. Basis.Yogyakarta: Kanisius, 2019.
Nandi Bishweshwar, Deo Digvijay Singh, and Mohan Vimal. Dipa Karmakar:The Small Wonder. New Delhi:
Finger Print, 2018.
Bowman, Paul. Beyond Bruce Lee: Chasing the Dragon Through Film, Philosophy, and Popular Culture. New York:
Columbia University Press, 2013.
Lee, Bruce. Tao of Jeet Kune Do. Ohara Publications, Black Belt Communications LLC, 1975.
Russo, Charles. Striking Distance: Bruce Lee and the Dawn of Martial Arts in America. University of Nebraska
Press, 2016.
Thomas, Bruce. Bruce Lee: Fighting Spirit. North Atlantic Books, 1994.
Huang, Fuhua, and Fan Hong. “Globalization and the Governance of Chinese Sports: The Case of Profes-
sional Basketball.” The International Journal of the History of Sport 32, no. 8 (2015): 1030–43.
Larmer, Brook. “The Center of the World.” Foreign Policy no. 150 (2005): 66–74.
Lavelle, Katherine L. “Yao Ming and Masculinity in Middle America: A Critical Discourse Analysis of
Racial Representations in NBA Game Commentary.” PhD diss., Wayne State University, 2006.
Luo, Lin,Yongguan Dai, and Fuhua Huang. “Glocalization and the Rise of the Chinese Basketball Market.”
The International Journal of the History of Sport 32, no. 10 (2015): 1321–35.
Polumbaum, Judy. “From Evangelism to Entertainment: The YMCA, the NBA, and the Evolution of Chi-
nese Basketball.” Modern Chinese Literature and Culture 14, no. 1 (2002): 178–230.
Caughey, Ellen. Run to Glory:The Story of Eric Liddell. Uhrichsville: Barbour Books, 2017.
Culture and History Committee of Weifang People’s Political Consultative Conference. The Weihsien
Internment Camp. Beijing: China Culture and History Press, 2015.
The Culture and History Office of Sport Committee of Tianjin. Chronicle of Sport in Modern Tianjin (1840–
1949). Tianjin: Tianjin People’s Press, 1990.
Hong, Fan, and Tan Hua.“Sport in China: Conflict Between Tradition and Modernity, 1840s to 1930s.” The
International Journal of the History of Sport 19, no. 2–3 (2002): 189–212.
Keddie, John W. Running the Race: Eric Liddell–Olympic Champion and Missionary. Faverdale North: Evangeli-
cal Press, 2007.
Luo, Shiming. Olympics Came to China. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press, 2005.
“The Memorial to Eric Liddell.” The Old Elthamians’ Magazine 2, no. 12 (1991): 13–14.
McCasland, David. Pure Gold: The Olympic Champion Who Inspired Chariots of Fire. Grand Rapids, MI: Dis-
covery House, 2001.
“Physical Education in Anglo-Chinese College.” In 1929 Annual of Tianjin Anglo-Chinese College, Tianjin
Municipal Archives, Archive no. 252-1-2-2550.
“Physical Education in Anglo-Chinese College.” In 1937 Annual of Tianjin Anglo-Chinese College, Tianjin
Municipal Archives, Archive no. 252-1-2-2554.
The Press Office of Tianjin. “Seize the Moment to Get Close to the People: A Case Study of Li Airui and
Tianjin.” Foreign Communication no. 2 (2013): 50–51.
Thomson, D. P. Eric H. Liddell: Athlete and Missionary. Grieff: Research Unit, 1971.
Tianjin Municipal Television. “Eric Liddell, Olympic Champion Born in Tianjin.” 2012.
Wan, Xinping. Historical Figures in Modern Tianjin. Tianjin: Tianjin People’s Press, 2016.
Yu, Wenji. A Biography of Eric Liddell: The Olympic Champion and Educationist Born in China. Tianjin: China
Social Sciences Press, 2009.
Zhang, Huijie, Fan Hong, and Fuhua Huang. Christianity and the Transformation of Physical Education and
Sport in China. London: Routledge, 2017.
Zhou, Licheng. Foreigners in Old Tianjin. Tianjin: Tianjin People’s Press, 2007.
Chand, Dhyan. Goal: An Autobiography with Hockey Hints. Chennai: Sports Star THG, 2018.
Mallanna, Nagaraddi B., and Dr. Shivasharanappa Prasannakumar. “Dhyan Chand: Field Hockey Player.”
International Journal of Physical Education, Sports and Health 3, no. 6 (2016): 327–31.
Niket, Bhushan. Dhyan Chand:The Legend Lives on. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern, 1992.
Chen,Yantao, Pan E., and He Zhenliang. “Who Am I, What I Do and How I Live [In Chinese].” Xiaokang
12 (2009): 40–41.
He, Zhenliang. He Zhenliang Olympic Bidding Diary [In Chinese]. Beijing: China People’s Publishing House,
2008.
Hong, Fan, and Lu Zhouxiang. “Beijing’s Two Bids for the Olympics: The Political Games.” The Interna-
tional Journal of the History of Sport 29 (2012): 145–56.
Jia, Haihong. “He Zhenliang, Sports. Culture. Education [In Chinese].” People’s Education 20 (2005): 40–41.
Liang, Lijuan. He Zhenliang and China’s Olympic Dream. Translated by Susan Brownell. Beijing: Foreign
Languages Press, 2007.
Luo, Gang, and He Zheng. “China’s Olympic Monument [In Chinese].” Times Figure 2 (2015): 80–81.
Shan,Yuan. Yuan Weimin and China’s Sports. Nanjing: Jiangsu People’s Publishing House, 2009.
Shen, Xiang. “The Study on the Social Responsibility of the Olympic Movement.” Journal of Sports Adult
Education 1 (2018): 82.
Song, Yao. “The Research on He Zhenliang Contribution to the Olympic Movement Development.”
Master’s thesis, Capital Institute of Physical Education, 2017.
Wang, Zhihua, and Yong Xiang. “The Origin of Ancient Olympic Games from the Perspective of Com-
petitive Culture [In Chinese].” Journal of Sports Adult Education 3 (2018): 55–58.
Zhang, Jie. “Reality and Dilemma:The Development of China’s Sports Industry Since the Implementation
of the Reform and Opening-Up Policy.” The International Journal of the History of Sport 32, no. 8 (2015):
1085–97.
Zhang, Yongheng. China’s Olympics: The Interpretation of Beijing Olympics from of Celebrities from Home and
Abroad [In Chinese]. Beijing: China People’s Publishing House, 2008.
Zhang, Tingquan. “He Zhenliang: An Outstanding Sport Diplomat [In Chinese].” Outlook Weekly 51
(1995): 32–34.