Index

1. Certificate
2. Acknowledgement
3. Objective4. Introduction
5. Line of the action
6 Apparatus Required
7. Experimental Arrangement
8. Procedure
9. Observation
10. Tabulation
11. Graph
12. Result
13. Discussion of the Result
14. Difficulties faced
15. Limitations
16. Scope for further improvement
17. Bibliography
18. Appendix
19. End page
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the present

bonafide project work had been carried out by
Master Swaraj Kumar Nayak for Class XII
CBSE Board Physics practical exam of academic
year 2017-2018 in the Physics Laboratory of
Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya, Pondicherry.

Sign of Student Sign of Guide

Sign of External Examiner Sign of Principal

ACKNOWLEDGEMET
At the outset I express my deep sense of gratitude and
heartful thanks to Mr. K. Sankar, PGT Physics,
JNV Pondicherry, for his valuable guidance and
undaunted service that he has rendered for bringing out
this project work.

I also express my devotional thanks to our Honorable

Principal Shri B. Venkateswaran, JNV
Pondicherry for providing essential support and
facilities.

I also extend my cardinal thanks to my teammates who

corresponded and cooperated in the completion of this
project work.

SIGN OF STUDENT
 OBJECTIVE

To construct the ‘half wave’ and ‘full

wave’ rectifiers and also investigate the
variation produced in the output voltage
with and without filter and hence to find
Ripple Factor.

INTRODUCTION
 One of the most familiar and most used devices in the present
day is semiconductor devices. The use of semiconductors changed the
world from electrical to electronics and technology improved a lot. The
materials in which the forbidden gap is very less, the electrons can
jump from the valence band to the conduction band. At high
temperatures, due to high thermal energy the jump may take place.
This type is called INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR.

When impurity is added to the pure semiconductor, the

conductivity of semiconductor is increased. Such materials are known
as EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR. The deliberate addition of a
desirable impurity is called doping. Doping the tetravalent Si or Ge:

(i)Pentavalent like Arsenic, Antimony, Phosphorous etc. produces

n-type (extra electrons).(ii)Trivalent like Indium,Boron,Aluminium

Etc. produces p- type semiconductors.

A p-n junction is the basic building block of semiconductor devices like

diodes, transistors etc.

Space-charge region on either side of

the junction is called depletion region as the

electrons and holes taking part in the initial

movement across the junction depleted the region of its free charges.
The thickness of the depletion region is of the order of one-tenth of a
micrometer.

A semiconductor diode is basically a p-n junction with metallic contacts

provided at the ends for the application of an external voltage. It is a
two terminal device. A p-n junction diode is symbolically represented as
 When an external voltage V is applied across a semiconductor such
that n-side is negative and p-side is positive, it is said to be forward
biased. An ideal diode will have zero resistance.

When an external voltage V is applied across the diode such that n-side
is positive and p-side is negative, it is said to be reverse biased. An ideal
diode under reverse bias will have infinite resistance. We will use this
special property for the construction of the rectifier.

A rectifier is a device made up of semiconductor diode which converts

the AC to DC. There are 3 types of rectifiers:-

i) Half wave rectifier

ii) Full wave rectifier
iii) Bridge wave rectifier
About which we will discuss in the forth coming pages.

LINE OF ACTION
 We planned to construct Half Wave Rectifier and Full wave
Rectifier by using:
 6-0-6 Transformers
 Junction diodes
 Capacitors
 Load Resistance
To study the ripple factor (Vac/Vdc) of the above
mentioned rectifiers. To compare the ripple factor with
and without filter. To compare the ripple factor theoretical
value and practical value.
 Apparatus Required
 6-0-6 v 500mA Transformers
 p-n junction diodes
 Capacitors(100µF)
 Resistors(1kΩ)
 Wires
 Soldering Gum
 Multimeter
 Cardboard
 Cutter.
 Experimental
Arrangements:-
 At first the step down transformer was taken.
 The diodes are arranged as per the circuit diagrams of
the respective rectifiers.
 The capacitors were connected parallelly as shown in
the circuit diagram.
 The output was taken across the load resistance of 1kΩ
which was connected parallelly.
 All the connections were made with wires and with
proper soldering.
 The soldering was not done to the transformer output
and a switch like arrangement was made to the
capacitor so as to get the desired readings.
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

THEORETICAL FORMULAE AND CALCULATIONS

 FOR HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

 WITHOUT FILTER:-

FORMULAE:- VALUES:-
Vrms=Vm/√2 Vacinput(Vrms)=11.1
Vm=2Vrms Vm=22.2
Vdc=Vm/ π Vdc=7.07
Ripple Factor
(r)= √[(Vrms/Vdc)2-1] r=1.94

 With Filter:-
Ripple Factor, r= 1/ (2 √3fCRL), Where,
 f=50Hz
 C=100 μF
 RL=1KΩ
 r=0.56

 FOR FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

 Without Filter:-
 FORMULAE:- VALUES:-
Vrms=Vm/√2 Vrms=6
Vm=Vrms√2 Vm=8.48

Vdc=2Vm/ π Vdc=5.40
Ripple Factor r=0.84
(r)= √[(Vrms/Vdc)2-1]

 With Filter:-
Ripple Factor, r=1/(4 √3fCRL), Where,
 f=50 Hz
 C=100µF
 RL=1KΩ
 r=0.834

OBSERVATION
 FOR HALF WAVE RECTIFIER:-

Vac input = 230V Vac output = 11.1

Without Filter:-
Vac(v) Vdc(v) r= Vac/ Vdc
USING DMM
11.1 4.75 2.33

With Filter:-

Vac(v) Vdc(v) r= Vac/ Vdc

USING DMM
11.1 12.9 0.86

 FOR FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

Vac input = 239V Vac output = 6.0V

 Without Filter:-

Vac(v) Vdc(v) r= Vac/ Vdc

USING DMM
6.0 5.19 1.156

With Filter:-

Vac(v) Vdc(v) r= Vac/ Vdc

USING DMM 6.0 7.58 0.791

GRAPHS
 HALF WAVE RECTIFIER:
 FULL WAVE RECTIFIER:
 Without Filter:

 WITH FILTER
 RESULTS
 HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

 WITHOUT FILTER

The practical value of ripple factor=2.33

The calculated theoretical value of ripple factor=1.94

 WITH FILTER

The practical value of ripple factor=0.86

The calculated theoretical value of ripple factor=0.56

  FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

 WITHOUT FILTER

The practical value of ripple factor=1.156

The calculated theoretical value of ripple factor=0.84

 WITH FILTER

The practical value of ripple factor=0.791

The calculated theoretical value of ripple factor=0.48

 DISSCUSSION OF THE RESULT
1. Discussion of the result:-
 For half wave rectifier:-
i. Without filter, ripple factor, r=2.33
ii. With filter ripple factor, r=0.86
 For Full Wave Rectifier:-
i. Without filter ripple factor r=1.156
ii. With filter ripple factor r=0.791

From the above results we can conclude that the ripple

factor without filter is more than with the filter. Thus it
implies that the output without filter contains more AC
current.

By connecting the capacitor in the circuit parallelly, the ac

ripple can be reduced.
 2.The difference in the practical and
theoretical values:-
1.In Half wave and Full Wave rectifiers we saw
a difference of 0.3 approx. This can be due to
the following reasons :-
 Capacitive effect
 Inductive effect
 Resistive effect, etc. produced by the
connecting wires in the circuit

2.Output voltage:-
Among Bridge and full wave rectifiers we
saw that the output voltage as well as
the input one was more in bridge one.

From this we can say that for a given

transformer if we want more output
voltage, bridge rectifier is useful.
 DIFFICULTIES FACED
1) The construction of the rectifier according to the given
circuit diagram was a bit difficult.
2) It is difficult to fix the transformer to the cardboard.
3) It is the cumbersome to make switch like arrangement for
the capacitor for taking the reading with and without filter
separately.
4) Sometimes the mistake in the soldering or the loose
connections somewhere troubled us a lot in getting desired
results.
 LIMITATIONS
a) This project is not done for
different input voltages.
b) This project is done by using
only one type of diode of same
capacity.
c) The filter used is of only one kind.
The reading is not taken by
varying the value of capacitor.
d) The multimeter reading may be
wavering due to the varying AC
input.
SCOPE FOR FURTHER
IMPROVEMENT:-
1) This project can be done for the different input
voltages.
2) This project can be done by using different
diodes of different capacities.
3) The reading with filter can be taken by varying
the value of capacitor.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
 TITLE Class XII PHYSICS TEXTBOOK
PUBLICATION NCERT
TITLE Investigatory Projects in Physics
AUTHOR V.K. Sharma, S.C. Bhatnagar
PUBLICATION TATA McGraw Hill Publications
TITLE Modern’s ABC of Physics for class XII
AUTHOR Satish K. Gupta
PUBLICATION ABC Publications

The images and some information are collected from Internet

under the following links:
1) http://labmanual.blogspot.in/2011/10/half-wave-
rectifier.html
2) http://labmanual.blogspot.in/2011/10/full-wave-
rectifier.html
THE END