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Chemical composition and functional properties of gum exudates from the trunk of the almond tree (
Prunus dulcis)
N Mahfoudhi, M Chouaibi, F Donsì, G Ferrari and S Hamdi
Food Science and Technology International 2012 18: 241
DOI: 10.1177/1082013211415173

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Article

Chemical composition and functional properties of gum

exudates from the trunk of the almond tree
(Prunus dulcis)

N Mahfoudhi1, M Chouaibi1, F Donsı̀2, G Ferrari2 and S Hamdi1

Abstract
The physicochemical components and functional properties of the gum exudates from the trunk of the
almond tree (Prunus dulcis) have been investigated, along with the emulsification and foaming properties.
The gum exudates are composed on dry weight basis by 2.45% of proteins, 0.85% of fats and 92.36% of
carbohydrates. The latter consist of arabinose, xylitol, galactose and uronic acid (46.8 : 10.9 : 35.5 : 6.0 mass
ratio) with traces of rhamnose, mannose and glucose. Moreover, gum exudates are rich in minerals, such as
sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium and iron. The emulsifying capacity was studied for a 20% w/w olive
oil in water emulsion as a function of gum concentration (from 3% to 12% w/w in the aqueous phase) as well
as pH levels (from 3.0 to 10.0). The most stable and homogeneous emulsion was prepared with an 8% w/w
aqueous almond gum solution at a pH between 5.0 and 8.0. In particular, for the same formulation, the
emulsion processed by high pressure homogenization (5 passes at 200 MPa) resulted to be extremely
stable under accelerated ageing, exhibiting no significant change in droplet size distribution for 14 days at
55  C. All the tested systems exhibited an extremely low foaming capacity.

Keywords
Prunus dulcis, gum exudates, functional properties, emulsion stability, foaming capacity, minerals
Date received: 23 November 2010; revised: 12 May 2011

pectin) or proteins (i.e. gelatin). Polysaccharides

INTRODUCTION
A large number of systems incorporated in cosmetic
and food products are in the form of oil in water emul-
sions (Tan, 1998). Stabilizing an emulsion requires not
only a source of energy to homogenize the immiscible
phases but also includes an emulsifier with surface
active properties, such as hydrocolloids gums. They
are hydrophilic polymers, which have a high molecular
weight as well as the ability to increase the viscosity of
the solutions in which they are suspended. They are
used in food emulsions not only as emulsifiers and sta-
bilizers but also as foaming and gelling agents, due to
their functional properties.
Food hydrocolloids are either polysaccharides (i.e.
xanthan gum, carrageenan gum, gum arabic, starch,
Food Science and Technology International 18(3) 241–250
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DOI: 10.1177/1082013211415173
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secreted by plants or synthesized by microorganisms
are known as gums (Sciarini et al., 2009). They are
used to modify the texture and the appearance of
food products, as well as improve the preservation
of foodstuffs due to their ability to absorb water
(Rosell et al., 2001).
Gum arabic from Acacia senegal is the most well-
known natural gum, and is widely used as an emulsifier
in the food industry. It was accepted as a healthy and
non-toxic food additive in 1982 (FAO, 1982). It is a
complex branched polysaccharide mainly composed
1
UR Valorisation et conservation des produits alimentaires, Ecole
Supérieure des Industries Alimentaires de Tunis, 58 Rue Alain
SAVARY, Cité Elkhadra, Tunis, Tunisie
2
Department of Chemical and Food Engineering, University of
Salerno, via Ponte Don Melillo, Fisciano (SA), Italy
Corresponding author:
N Mahfoudhi, UR Valorisation et conservation des produits alimen-
taires, Ecole Supérieure des Industries Alimentaires de Tunis, 58
Rue Alain SAVARY, Cité Elkhadra, Tunis 1003, Tunisie
Email: nesrinemahfoudhi@yahoo.fr

Downloaded from fst.sagepub.com at Scientific library of Moscow State University on January 15, 2014
Food Science and Technology International 18(3)
of 39–42% galactose, 24–27% arabinose, 12–16%
rhamnose and 15–16% glucuronic acid (Idris et al.,
1998). It is also rich in calcium, potassium, magnesium
and sodium (Anderson and Stoddart, 1996; Islam et al.,
1997; Verbeken et al., 2003).
The cost and availability fluctuations of gum arabic
are strong driving forces in seeking novel natural hydro-
colloid gums with good functional properties. Several
fruit-bearing trees belonging to the Rosaceae family,
such as Peach (Prunus persica), Damson (Prunus insitia),
Egg Plum (Prunus domestica), Cherry (Prunus cerasus
and Prunus virginiana) and Almond (Prunus dulcis),
can produce abundant amounts of gum exudates from
the trunk (Simas et al., 2008), as a consequence of a
disease (gummosis) and/or a mechanical injury followed
by a microbial attack. In particular, the gum exudates
from the trunk of the almond trees (P. dulcis) represent
a potential natural resource of hydrocolloid gums,
which are widely available in Tunisia as well as through-
out the Mediterranean Africa.
Therefore, the aim of this work was to study the
chemical composition and the functional properties
(such as emulsifying and foaming capabilities) of the
gum collected from the trunk of almond trees (P. dulcis).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Raw materials
The gum samples were collected from different almond
trees (P. dulcis), in the region of Sidi Bouzid, southern
Tunisia, during July 2008, and stored under dry condi-
tions. They were then crushed with a mortar in order to
obtain a fine powder, which could be easily dissolved in
water. The powder of the almond gum was purified by
first dissolving it in water, then filtering it through a
Whatman filter paper, and finally dialyzing it for 2
days against tap water.
Subsequently, samples for chemical analysis were
further freeze-dried.
Samples for the characterization of the functional
properties were prepared from gum suspensions, at dif-
ferent gum concentrations, which were homogenized
overnight with a magnetic stirrer and used in the prep-
aration of oil-in-water emulsions.
The commercial olive oil utilized for the preparation
of the emulsions (Riviera d’Or) was purchased from a
local supermarket in Tunisia.
Methods
Gum exudates composition
Chemical analysis. The fat content of the gum
exudates was determined using a Soxhlet apparatus
according to the official methods (AOAC), while the
242
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dry matter was determined, after dehydration at
105  C for 24 h in an oven, using a MB45 Moisture
Analyzer (Ohaus, Switzerland). The protein content
was calculated from the nitrogen content and analyzed
by means of a Kjeldahl apparatus. The ash content of
the almond gum exudates was determined according to
the official methods (AACC, 2000), with the carbohy-
drate content being evaluated by difference.
In order to indentify the neutral sugars, the gum
samples were hydrolyzed with a solution of 1 M
H2SO4 at 100  C for 3 h and converted into alditol acet-
ate according to the Blakeney method (Blakeney et al.,
1983). Alditol acetate derivatives were separated and
quantified by gas chromatography using a high per-
formance capillary column, BP1-methylsiloxane
(30 m  0.32 mm ID, 0.25 mm film thickness, Scientific
Glass Engineering, S.G.E. Pty. Ltd., Melbourne,
Australia) mounted on a Hewlett–Packard HP-6890
series GC system (Hewlett–Packard Co., Palo Alto,
CA, USA). 2-desoxy-D-glucose (purity >99.5%,
Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO, USA) was used
as an internal standard. The total neutral sugars were
calculated as the sum of the individual neutral sugars.
Uronic acid was determined using the carbazole
method (Bitter and Muir, 1962).
Mineral analysis. In order to determine the mineral
content of the gum, the ash from the almond exudate
solutions was dissolved in concentrated sulfuric acid.
The solutions obtained were then filtered into a 50 mL
flask, which, in turn, was filled up to the mark with
ultrapure water. Sodium, potassium, magnesium, cal-
cium, zinc, iron and copper were determined using an
atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Analytic Jena,
ZEEnit 700, Germany).
Functional properties of the almond gum
exudates. In general, the functional properties of
gums are related to their physicochemical composition
with regard to the protein and carbohydrate contents.
These polymers are best known for their ability to
increase the viscosity of the solutions in which they
are suspended.
Viscosity measurements. The intrinsic viscosity of the
almond gum was evaluated by measuring the specific
viscosities at different concentrations (4%, 5%, 6% and
8% w/w) of the gum in the aqueous phase, with the
addition of 0.5 M KCl. The specific viscosity sp of
the gum aqueous solutions was measured using an
AVS 400 capillary viscometer (Schott Gerate,
Hofhein, Germany) at 20  C, equipped with an
Oswald capillary tube (flow water time 75.15 s). The
sp was related to the gum concentration C in order
to obtain reduced viscosity red ¼ sp/C (mL/g)

according to Rao (1993). The intrinsic viscosity [] was
determined by the Huggins equation, shown in equa-
tion (1) (Huggins, 1942)
sp
¼ ½ þ KH ½2 C
C pensate the significant heating induced by friction
where sp is the specific viscosity, C is the polymer
concentration and KH is the Huggins constant. The
determination of the intrinsic viscosity is therefore,
the extrapolation of the reduced viscosity to the value
at zero solute concentration.
Emulsion preparation. Aqueous solutions of the
almond gum were prepared, at different gum concen-
trations, which ranged from 3% to 12% w/w, and pH
levels.
These solutions were homogenized overnight with a
magnetic stirrer and used to determine the foaming
capacity of the aqueous phase, as well as to prepare
and characterize the oil in water emulsions.
The gum suspensions of different concentrations
were mixed with commercial olive oil and homogenized
under high shear according to the following procedure:
in a beaker containing the aqueous suspension of hydro-
colloids gum at different concentration, 20% w/w of
olive oil was subsequently added to make a 50 g
biphasic system, which was subsequently treated in a
high-shear homogenizer (Ultra Turrax STL, Germany)
for 10 min at 9000 rpm in order to produce oil-in-water
emulsions. The emulsions were then centrifuged
at 10,000 g for 10 min (Beckman Coulter Avanti J25,
Brea, CA, US), as previously described (Huang et al.,
2001). The pH of the emulsions was regulated to
the desired value (between 3.0 and 10.0) by adjusting
the pH of the gum aqueous solutions, by adding either
0.1 M NaOH or 0.1 M HCl prior to emulsification.
The emulsions, which resulted to be more stable and
sufficiently fluid to be pumped, were further processed
by high pressure homogenization (HPH) in order to
produce fine emulsions with good physical stability
over time. In particular, the pumpability requirement
refers to the capability of any emulsion to be sucked by
the high pressure pump and be forced through the
disruption valve, which were both part of the high pres-
sure homogenizer. The emulsions prepared with the
almond gum aqueous solutions at 10% and 12% w/w
resulted to be excessively viscous and thick to be pro-
cessed by the HPH system.
Fine emulsions stabilized by almond gum were pre-
pared by HPH, according to a procedure previously
described (Donsı̀ et al., 2010, 2011). The primary
emulsions, produced by high-shear homogenization,
were subjected to five passes at 200 MPa through a
Nano DeBEE Electric Bench-top Laboratory
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Mahfoudhi et al.
homogenizer (BEE International, USA), equipped
with a 200 mm orifice. After each passage through
the homogenizer, the emulsions were cooled down to
5  C by a heat exchanger fitted immediately down-
stream of the homogenization valve in order to com-
ð1Þ
losses.
Screening of optimal formulations. The functional
properties of the almond gum exudates were initially
investigated by screening the formulations with better
emulsifying and foaming properties.
The emulsion stability (ES) was calculated as
reported in equation (2)
Ew
ESð%Þ ¼  100 ð2Þ
Tw
where Ew is the remaining emulsion weight after centri-
fugation and removal of the separated oil or water
layers, and Tw the total weight of the emulsion.
Physical stability of the emulsions under accelerated
aging. The droplet size distributions (DSD) of the
HPH-treated emulsions were monitored over time by
laser diffraction (Mastersizer 2000, Malvern
Instruments, Malvern, UK). In particular, the DSD
was characterized in terms of the d0.1, d0.5 and d0.9 diam-
eters, where d’ is defined as the diameter such that the
fraction ’ (in volume) of the population is smaller or
equal than d’, with ’ ¼ 0.1, 0.5 or 0.9. Another signifi-
cant parameter of the size distribution was considered
the diameter d4,3, defined according to equation (3)
P 4
x
d4,3 ¼ P i3 ð3Þ
xi
where xi is the diameter of the single droplet, with the
sum being extended to the whole population.
The d4,3 value can be considered a reliable indicator
of the mean droplet diameter in the case of emulsions
(spherical particles).
The emulsions were stored in glass tubes at 55  C and
periodically sampled to measure their DSD by laser dif-
fraction, in order to monitor incipient coalescence phe-
nomena (Walstra, 1996). In addition, the emulsion
samples were also visually examined in order to detect
any sign of destabilisation, such as creaming, which was
quantified in terms of the creaming index (CI), defined,
similarly to ES, according to equation (4)
Vsep
CIð%Þ ¼  100 ð4Þ
Vtot
where Vsep is the volume of the separated oil or water
layers, and Vtot the total volume of the emulsion.
243
Food Science and Technology International 18(3)

Stability tests were carried in duplicate on independ- magnesium (300 mg/100 g) and calcium (142.5 mg/
ent samples. 100 g). The significant amount of minerals in the gum
samples (Table 1) was probably due to the high
Foaming capacity and stability. One hundred mL of concentration of these elements in the soil where the
gum suspensions (3%, 5%, 7%, 8%, 10%, 12% w/w trees grew. The mineral content of the gums is
in aqueous phase) were whipped at a moderate speed not only related to the cultivation site but is also
for 5 min with a homogenizer (Philips ESSENCE HR strongly affected by the age and the species of the tree
1357/05). The pH of the gum solutions was adjusted to (Li et al., 2007).
the final pH (in a range from pH 3.0 to pH 10.0) by
adding either 0.1 M NaOH or 0.1 M HCl solutions. The
Functional properties
foam volumes generated by the whipping procedure
were recorded over time to evaluate the foaming Preliminary screening of the emulsifying
capacity. properties. The ability of a protein to form a stable
emulsion is related to its capacity to absorb at the
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION oil–water interface and stabilize the film (Pearce and
Kinsella, 1978). Thus, the protein level in the gum
Chemical composition
may be the most important factor responsible for the
The collected almond gum exudates were tasteless and high emulsion stability observed when using the
odourless, readily soluble in water, with a pale-white almond trunk gum exudates.
colour. The main constituents were carbohydrates and A preliminary screening of the emulsifying proper-
proteins as well as some minerals, with a relatively low ties of the almond gum was carried out, investigating
lipids content being detected (Table 1). the effect of gum concentration and pH level on
As shown in Table 1, the polysaccharide and protein primary emulsions, prepared through high-shear hom-
content of the almond gum samples were 92.36% and ogenization. The effect of gum concentration on the
2.45% w/w, respectively. Both biopolymers contribute emulsifying properties is directly related to the surface
to the functional properties of the gum (foaming and coverage at the water–oil interface, while pH level is
emulsifying capacity and gelling properties), as well as
to the regulation of the viscosity of the aqueous gum
solutions.
The natural pH of the almond gum, measured in an Table 1. Composition of almond gum exudates
8% w/w aqueous solutions, was slightly acidic, with an Composition
average value of 5.7, which was higher than the pH of
Gum arabic, with a reported value of 4.4 (Chikamai, Moisture % (w/w) 2.04
1997; Karamalla et al., 1998; Mhinzi, 2003). Ash % (w/w) 2.30
All these parameters obviously depend on the season Fat % (w/w) 0.85
as well as on the cultivation site. Protein % (w/w) 2.45
Carbohydrates of the almond gum are mainly con- Carbohydrates þ fiber % (w/w) 92.36
stituted of Arabinose (Ara), Xylitol (Xyl), Galactose Carbohydrate compound (% (w/w)
(Gal) and Uronic acid (46.8 : 10.9 : 35.5 : 6.0 mass Rha 0.83
ratio), with traces of Rhamnose (Rha), Mannose Ara 46.82
(Man) and Glucose (Glc) (0.83 : 0.75 : 0.24 mass ratio),
Xyl 10.90
thus suggesting an arabinogalactan structure of the
Glc 0.24
gum (Table 1). The monosaccharide components are
Man 0.75
similar to those of the Peach gum polysaccharide
PPNA (Simas et al., 2008), consisting of Ara, Xyl, Gal 35.49
Man and Gal in a 36 : 7 : 2 : 42 ratio, although PPNA Uronic acid 5.97
has a greater amount of Gal and Man as well as a lower Mineral compound (mg/100 g)
Ara and Xyl content. Potassium 1112.3
In addition, the mineral content of the almond exud- Magnesium 300
ates was determined, due to the importance of the min- Calcium 142.5
erals in many functions such as tissues formation, Sodium 12.5
muscular contraction and blood clotting as well as Iron 10.75
enzymatic activities. Almond trunk gum exudates Copper 3.31
presented large amounts of minerals, with the main
Zinc 1.5
constituents being potassium (1112.3 mg/100 g),

244
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important, as it affects the interactions between the
surface active molecules, such as the gum polysacchar-
ides and proteins.
Figure 1 shows the effects of the gum concentration
on the emulsion stability. The data refer to emulsions
made with 20% olive oil at a pH value of 5.7 of the
almond gum aqueous solutions the emulsions
were prepared with. The effect of the pH of the aqueous
phase on the emulsion stability is reported in Figure 2.
In this case, the data refer to emulsions made with an
8% gum aqueous solution and 20% olive oil.
Emulsion stability increased by increasing the
almond gum concentration. More specifically, gum con-
centrations <5% w/w induced creaming phenomena
after only 3 h from the preparation of the samples, sug-
gesting a high degree of instability. Higher gum concen-
trations caused the emulsions to become more
homogeneous and more stable, according to the visual
observations and emulsion stability measurements.
The results showed that for a 20% w/w olive oil, an
almond gum concentration of 7% w/w in the aqueous
phase was the minimum required to increase the ES
index to >80%, thus suggesting that this almond gum
concentration is sufficient to cover the oil–water inter-
face of the oil droplets, which are sufficiently fine to be
stable under the centrifugal field. Previously reported
results showed that an oil/Gum arabic ratio below 1
was required in order to cover the totality of the oil–
water interface and stabilize a sub-micrometer emulsion
(McNamee et al., 1998).
The increase of the emulsifying capacity and emul-
sion stability, observed when increasing the gum con-
centration, may also be ascribed to the increase of the
viscosity of the continuous phase, which contributes to
100
80
60
ES (%)
40
20
0
2 4 6 8 10
Gum concentration (% w/w)
Figure 1. Emulsion stability (ES) of emulsions prepared
with aqueous solutions of almond gum at different
concentrations (3–12% w/w) and 20% olive oil at pH 5.7
(natural pH).
Downloaded from fst.sagepub.com at Scientific library of Moscow State University on January 15, 2014
Mahfoudhi et al.
improving the kinetic stability of the emulsions
(Benichou et al., 2004), due to the reduction of the sep-
aration velocity of the emulsion droplets (Damodaran,
2005; McClements, 1999).
In particular, the intrinsic viscosity [] of the almond
gum was 1.73 dL/g in 0.5 M KCl at 20  C. The intrinsic
viscosity of the almond gum was lower when compared
to that of the arabinogalactans of other gum exudates,
such as that of peach gum, which had intrinsic viscos-
ities of 1.95 dL/g in 0.5 M KCl at 22  C.
Figure 2 reports the dependence of the emulsion sta-
bility as a function of the pH. It is worth noting that the
stable emulsions were obtained for pH values greater
than 3.0 and lower than 10.0, with a maximum ES
value around pH 8.0. The experimental measurements
were also corroborated by the visual observations of
creaming occurring in the pH 3.0 and pH 10.0 samples.
This behavior could be explained in terms of the
interaction between the proteins and the gum polysac-
charides for the emulsion stabilization (Jones and
McClements, 2010). For a pH value significantly
higher than the proteins isoelectric point (pH  pI),
both the proteins and polysaccharides are negatively
charged, with the electrostatic repulsion preventing
them from associating in a stable emulsifier. For a pH
value lower than the proteins isoelectric point and
higher than the acid dissociation constant of the
polysaccharides (pKa < pH < pI), stable protein–poly-
saccharide associations are formed, which, depending
on the residual charge, may enhance repulsive inter-
droplet forces and therefore promote emulsion stabil-
ity. For a pH value lower than the acid dissociation
constant of the polysaccharides (pH  pKa), both the
proteins and polysaccharides are positively charged,
100
80
60
ES (%)
40
20
12 0
3 5 7 8 10
pH
Figure 2. Emulsion stability (ES) of emulsions prepared
with an 8% w/w aqueous almond gum solution and 20%
olive oil, at different pH levels (pH 3 to pH 10).
245
Food Science and Technology International 18(3)

with the electrostatic repulsion preventing them from
associating in a stable emulsifier.
Figure 2 is integrated by Figure 3, where the cumu-
lative distribution of the droplet sizes of the freshly
prepared emulsions at different pH are reported, as
calculated from microscopic image analysis (an exam-
ple image is reported in Figure 3(f)). Interestingly, the
droplet size distributions of the emulsions prepared at
pH 4, 5, 7, 8 and 9 differed from each other only mar-
ginally, and within the experimental error of the image
analysis technique applied. It is worth noting that the
emulsions at pH ¼ 3.0 and pH ¼ 10.0 were not analyzed
due to instability phenomena (phase separation), which
progressed relatively quickly, with a transparent serum
forming on the bottom of the emulsion already 24 h
after preparation. In contrast, the emulsions at all the
remaining pH levels were visually stable to creaming for
more than 24 h.
Physical stability of almond gum based
emulsions. On the basis of the preliminary screening
results, almond gum based emulsions were prepared by
high pressure homogenization at the natural pH of the
gum (pH ¼ 5.7) and three different gum concentrations:
namely 4%, 6% and 8% w/w of gum in the aqueous
solution.
Figure 4 shows the droplet size distribution (DSD)
of the three emulsions immediately after preparation.
Interestingly, the DSD slightly differed from each
other, with the 8% w/w emulsion exhibiting a
d4,3 ¼ 2.8 mm, which is measurably smaller than the
d4,3 of 6% and 4% w/w emulsions (3.0 and 3.4 mm
respectively).
The initial DSD data already suggest that 6% and
especially 4% w/w concentrations of almond gum in
the aqueous phase are not sufficient to fully cover and
thus stabilize an emulsion hosting a 20% w/w olive oil

(a) 100 (b) 100

80 80

60 60
F (%)

40 40

20 20

0 0
40 60 80 100 120 140 40 60 80 100 120 140
(c) 100 (d) 100

80 80

60 60
F (%)

40 40

20 20

0 0
40 60 80 100 120 140 40 60 80 100 120 140
(e) 100 (f)

80

60
F (%)

40

20

0
40 60 80 100 120 140
D (µm)

Figure 3. Cumulative droplet size distribution (F) of emulsions prepared with an 8% w/w aqueous almond gum solution
and 20% olive oil at different pH levels: (*) pH ¼ 4.0, (#) pH ¼ 5.0, (~) pH ¼ 7.0, (O) pH ¼ 8.0 and (#) pH ¼ 9.0.
(f) Example of emulsion micrograph (pH ¼ 5.0) used for the image analysis for the determination of the droplet size
distribution.

246
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 Mahfoudhi et al.

disperse phase. In particular, Figure 4 shows DSD data
after 7 days (middle panel of Figure 4) and 14 days
(lower panel of Figure 4), and the evolution over time
of the particle size distribution and the creaming index
are reported in Figures 5 and 6 respectively, occuring
under accelareted storage.
Remarkably, the DSD curves of Figure 4 clearly
show that the 8% emulsion was significantly more
stable than the 4% and 6% emulsions, without any
sign of physical instability after 7 or 14 days and with
a constant d4,3 value. In contrast, the 4% emulsion and,
at a more limited extent, the 6% emulsion, exhibited
the appearance of secondary peaks in the distribution
and the increase of the d4,3 values.
20
4%, d4,3 = 3.39
6%, d4,3 = 3.01
15 8%, d4,3 = 2.78
Volume (%)
The homogeneity and physical stability of the emul-
sions over time is more evident from the evolution of
d0.1, d0.5 and d0.9 (Figure 5) as well as of the creaming
index CI (Figure 6).
In particular, the d0.1, d0.5 and d0.9 values are signifi-
cantly closer for the 8% emulsion (they were between 2
and 4 mm) than for the 6% emulsion (they were between
2 and 5 mm) and for the 4% emulsion (they were
between 1.5 and 6 mm), suggesting that a higher gum
concentration is required in order to obtain a more
uniform surface coverage and thus a more homoge-
neous and narrowly distributed emulsion. In addition,
the 8% emulsion was also very stable, without any vari-
ation over time of the d0.1, d0.5 and d0.9 values. In con-
trast, the 6% emulsion exhibited a slight increase of the
d0.9 values over the 14 days of storage, while the 4%
emulsion exhibited the greatest variations, with all the
d0.1, d0.5 and d0.9 values increasing or fluctuating over
time (Figure 5).
The fluctuations of the 4% emulsion can be ascribed
to the occurrence of instability phenomena, which led

to evident phase separation after 5 days at 55  C, as

10
shown by the corresponding creaming index, which
reached values >50% (Figure 6), as a consequence of
5 the separation at the bottom of an aqueous serum. The
6% emulsion exhibited a more limited degree of phys-
0 days
20 ical instability, with a creaming index reaching an
4%, d4,3 = 3.53 asymptotic value of 20% after 7 days. In contrast, the
6%, d4,3 = 3.09
8% emulsion confirmed to be the most stable formula-
15 8%, d4,3 = 2.79
tion, with the separation of an aqueous serum only for
Volume (%)

about 5% of the total emulsion volume after 14 days

10 (Figure 6).
In particular, the reason for the optimal gum con-
5
centration being at 8% w/w (in the aqueous solution)
could be noted in the balance among the efficiency of
7 days the emulsification process, the rate of formation of an
20 emulsifier film at the oil–water interface and the rate of
4%, d4,3 = 3.53
6%, d4,3 = 3.09 coalescence and separation.
15 8%, d4,3 = 2.78 If the gum concentration is excessively high, the vis-
cosity of the continuous phase is significantly increased
Volume (%)

and, consequently, the mean diameter of the oil drop-

10
lets becomes larger. This may be related to the deform-
ation energy requirements during homogenization. In
5 fact, it appears that the higher the continuous phase
viscosity the lower the efficiency of the homogenization
14 days process (McClements, 1999; Walstra, 1996). On the
0
0.1 1 10 100 other hand, at low emulsifier concentrations the film
Size (µm) formation rate is slow (low driving force), therefore
increasing the extent of coalescence.
Figure 4. Droplet size distribution determined by laser
scattering of emulsions stored at 55  C after 0 days (upper Foaming capacity and stability: effect of pH and gum
panel), 7 days (middle panel) and 14 days (lower panel). concentration. The ability of gum exudates suspen-
Emulsions prepared by HPH at pH 5.7 (natural pH) with sions prepared under different conditions (various pH
20% olive oil and aqueous solutions of almond gum and gum concentrations) to produce a stable foam was
different concentrations. also studied. The results showed that these solutions

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Food Science and Technology International 18(3)

(a) 10 (b) 10

8 8

d (µm) 6 6

d (µm)
4 4

2 2

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

(c) 10

6
d (µm)

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
time (days)

Figure 5. Evolution of d0.1 (), d0.5 (n) and d0.9 («), determined by laser scattering, of emulsions stored at 55  C.
Emulsions prepared by HPH at pH 5.7 (natural pH) with 20% olive oil and aqueous solutions of different almond gum
concentrations: (a) 4% w/w, (b) 6% w/w and (c) 8% w/w.

compounds in the biopolymer composition. The

proteins present in this gum were unable to significantly
100
4% unfold at the interface when air was incorporated into
6%
8%
the aqueous phase.
80
Several hypotheses can be made to explain this
behavior. First of all, the observed phenomenon
60
could be due to the high molecular weight of the pro-
CI (%)

teins. Secondly, the proteins could contain a significant

40
amount of disulphide bonds that prevent their migra-
tion at the air–water interface (Dickinson, 1992).
20 Finally, it is also possible to assume that, due to the
significant amount of the carbohydrates fraction, the
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
migration of the protein at the air–water interface is
time (days) impeded. Carbohydrates are, in fact, characterized by
their water-holding ability and their gelling properties.
Therefore, they are able to prevent foaming formation
Figure 6. Evolution of creaming index (CI) of emulsions
stored at 55  C. Emulsions prepared by HPH at pH 5.7
(Dickinson, 1992). Similar results were previously
(natural pH) with 20% olive oil and aqueous solutions of reported in a study on the foaming capacity
different almond gum concentrations: () 4% w/w, (n) 6% of Australian wattle seed extracts of Acacia victoriae
w/w and («) 8% w/w. (Ee et al., 2009).

conferred a very low foaming capacity as well as foam

stability. In fact, the foam disappeared after just 2 min
of observation. This is related to the proteins content of
the gum, their molecular weight and nature (Agboola
et al., 2007), as well as to the presence of the other
CONCLUSIONS
The growing interest in the use of natural hydrocolloid
gums, as an alternative to gum arabic, in the formula-
tion of functional foods, is at the basis of this work.
In particular, the use of gum exudates collected from

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the trunk of almond trees (P. dulcis) in the formation of
food colloidal systems was discussed. The chemical
composition as well as the physicochemical character-
istics of the gum were determined, showing that high
amounts of carbohydrates and proteins as well as a low
fat level are present. The exudates are also relatively
rich in minerals, especially potassium, magnesium and
calcium.
Different gum concentrations were used in the prep-
aration of the emulsions, with the pH of the water
phase also being changed in order to understand the
effects of both parameters on the emulsion stability.
The smaller mean droplets size (2.8 mm) was obtained
for the emulsions produced through the high pressure
homogenization of 20% w/w olive oil with an 8% w/w
gum aqueous solution, in a pH range between 5.0 and
9.0. In particular, the 8% gum emulsion resulted to be
extremely stable under accelerated ageing at 55  C for
14 days, without any change in the mean droplet size.
In contrast, the almond tree gum exudates resulted
to be unsuitable for the formation of stable foams,
which was probably due to the high carbohydrates
level as well as the nature of their proteins.
The results obtained so far were able to increase the
understanding and knowledge of the possible uses of
the gum exudates of almond trees in the formation
and stabilization of emulsions, in substitution of
either Gum arabic or artificial emulsifiers and
stabilizers.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank Luigi Esposito for the laser dif-
fraction measurements.
FUNDING
This research received no specific grant from any funding
agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
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