Oil and Gas Pipeline Design,

Maintenance and Repair

Dr. Abdel-Alim Hashem
Professor of Petroleum Engineering
Mining, Petroleum & Metallurgical Eng. Dept.
Faculty of Engineering – Cairo University
aelsayed@mail.eng.cu.edu.eg
ahshem2000@yahoo.com

Part 2: Steady-State Flow of Gas

through Pipes

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ١

 INTRODUCTION

• Pipes provide an economic means of

producing and transporting fluids in large
volumes over great distances
• The flow of gases through piping systems
involves flow in horizontal, inclined, and
vertical orientations, and through
constrictions such as chokes for flow
control

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٢

ENERGY OF FLOW OF A FLUID

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٣

 BERNOULLI'S EQUATION

PA V A2 PB V B2
ZA + + +Hp = ZB + + + hf
γ 2g γ 2g
• P = the pressure
• V = the velocity
• Z = the height
• Hp = the equivalent head added to the fluid by a
compressor at A
• hf = represents the total frictional pressure loss
between points A and B.

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٤

VELOCITY OF GAS IN A PIPELINE
Q =VA M 1 =q 1 ρ1 = M 2 = q 2 ρ2

V 1 ρ1 = V 1 ρ q1 = V 1 A1

⎛ρ ⎞
M 1 = q 1 ρ1 = q 2 ρ 2 = q b ρb q1 = q b ⎜ b ⎟
⎝ ρ1 ⎠
P1 P1
=Z1RT1 ρ1 =
ρ1 Z1RT1

Pb ⎛ Pb ⎞ ⎛ T1 ⎞ ⎛ Z1 ⎞
ρb = q1 = q b ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
Zb RTb ⎝ Tb ⎠ ⎝ P1 ⎠ ⎝ Zb ⎠

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٥

 VELOCITY OF GAS IN A PIPELINE
⎛ Pb ⎞⎛ T1 ⎞
q1 = qb ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ Z 1 since Zb = 1.0
⎝ Tb ⎠ ⎝ P1 ⎠
qb Z1 ⎛ Pb ⎞ ⎛ T1 ⎞ 4x 144qb Z1 ⎛ Pb ⎞ ⎛ T1 ⎞
V1 = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
A ⎝ Tb ⎠ ⎝ P1 ⎠ πd 2 ⎝ Tb ⎠ ⎝ P1 ⎠
qb ⎛ Pb ⎞⎛ Z1T1 ⎞
V 1 = 0.002122 2 ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ (USCS )
d ⎝ Tb ⎠ ⎝ P1 ⎠
• V1 = upstream gas velocity, ft/s
• qb = gas flow rate, measured at standard conditions, ft3/day (SCFD)
• d = pipe inside diameter, in.
• Pb = base pressure, psia
• Tb = base temperature, °R (460 + °F)
• P1 = upstream pressure, psia
• T1 = upstream gas temperature, °R(460 + °F)

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٦

 VELOCITY OF GAS IN A PIPELINE
• Gas velocity at section 2 is given by
qb ⎛ Pb ⎞⎛ Z2 T2 ⎞
V 2 = 0.002122 2 ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
d ⎝ Tb ⎠ ⎝ P2 ⎠

• Gas velocity at any point in a pipeline is given by

qb ⎛ Pb ⎞ ⎛ ZT ⎞
V = 0.002122 2 ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ (USCS )
d ⎝ Tb ⎠ ⎝ P ⎠

qb ⎛ Pb ⎞ ⎛ ZT ⎞
V = 14.739 2 ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ (SI )
d ⎝ Tb ⎠ ⎝ P ⎠

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٧

 EROSIONAL VELOCITY
100
V max =
ρ
• Vmax = maximum or erosional velocity, ft/s
• ρ = gas density at flowing temperature, lb/ft3
ZRT
V max = 100
29γ g P

• Z = compressibility factor of gas, dimensionless

• R = gas constant = 10.73 ft3 psia/lb-moleR
• T = gas temperature, oR
• γg = gas gravity (air = 1.00)
• P = gas pressure, psia
PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٨
 Example 1
• A gas pipeline, NPS 20 with 0.500 in. wall
thickness, transports natural gas (specific gravity
= 0.6) at a flow rate of 250 MMSCFD at an inlet
temperature of 60°F. Assuming isothermal flow,
calculate the velocity of gas at the inlet and
outlet of the pipe if the inlet pressure is 1000
psig and the outlet pressure is 850 psig. The
base pressure and base temperature are 14.7
psia and 60°F, respectively. Assume
compressibility factor Z = 1.00. What is the
erosional velocity for this pipeline based on the
above data and a compressibility factor Z = 0.90?

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٩

 Solution
• For compressibility factor Z = 1.00, the velocity of gas at
the inlet pressure of 1000 psig is
⎛ 250x 105 ⎞ ⎛ 14.7 ⎞⎛ 60+460 ⎞
V 1 = 0.002122 ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = 21.29 ft/s
⎝ 19.0 ⎠ ⎝ 60+460 ⎠⎝ 1014.7 ⎠
2

• Gas velocity at the outlet is

⎛ 1014.7 ⎞
V 2 = 21.29 ⎜ ⎟ = 24.89 ft/s
⎝ 864.7 ⎠

• The erosional velocity is found for Z = 0.90,

0.9x 1014.7 x 250
V max = 100 = 53.33 ft/s
29x 0.6x 1014.7

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ١٠

 REYNOLD’S NUMBER OF FLOW

ρV d
Re = (USCS )
µ

• Re = Reynolds number, dimensionless

• V = average velocity of gas in pipe, ft/s
• d = inside diameter of pipe, ft
• ρ = gas density, lb/ft3
• µ = gas viscosity, lb/ft-s

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ١١

 REYNOLD’S NUMBER OF FLOW

ρV d
Re = (USCS )
µ
• USCS or SI
• Re = Reynolds number, dimensionless
• V = average velocity of gas in pipe, ft/s or m/s
• d = inside diameter of pipe, ft or m
• ρ = gas density, lb/ft3 or kg/m3
• µ = gas viscosity, lb/ft.s or kg/m.s

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ١٢

 REYNOLD’S NUMBER OF FLOW IN
CUSTOMARY UNITS
⎛ Pb ⎞⎛ γ gq ⎞
R e = 0.0004778 ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ (USCS )
⎝ Tb ⎠ ⎝ µd ⎠

• Pb = base pressure, psia

• Tb = base temperature, °R (460 + °F)
• γg = specific gravity of gas (air = 1.0)
• q = gas flow rate, standard ft3/day (SCFD)
• d = pipe inside diameter, in.
• µ = gas viscosity, lb/ft.s

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ١٣

 REYNOLD’S NUMBER OF FLOW IN
CUSTOMARY UNITS
⎛ Pb ⎞⎛ γ gq ⎞
R e = 0.5134 ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ (SI )
⎝ Tb ⎠ ⎝ µd ⎠

• Pb = base pressure, kPa

• Tb = base temperature, °K (273 + °C)
• γg = specific gravity of gas (air = 1.0)
• q = gas flow rate, standard m3/day (SCFD)
• d = pipe inside diameter, mm
• µ = gas viscosity, Poise

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ١٤

 Flow Regime

• Re ≤ 2000 Laminar flow,

• 2000 > Re ≤ 4000 Critical flow
• Re > 4000 Turbulent flow

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ١٥

 Example
• A natural gas pipeline, NPS 20 with 0.500
in. wall thickness, transports 100
MMSCFD. The specific gravity of gas is
0.6 and viscosity is 0.000008 lb/ft.s.
Calculate the value of the Reynolds
number of flow. Assume the base
temperature and base pressure are 60°F
and 14.7 psia, respectively.

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ١٦

 Solution
• Pipe inside diameter = 20 - 2 x 0.5 = 19.0 in.
• The base temperature = 60 + 460 = 520 °R
• Using Equation we get

⎛ 14.7 ⎞ ⎛ 0.6x 100x 10 ⎞

6
R e = 0.0004778 ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = 5,331, 726
⎝ 520 ⎠ ⎝ 0.000008x 19 ⎠

• Since Re is greater than 4000, the flow is in the turbulent

region.

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ١٧

 FRICTION FACTOR
fd
ff =
4
• ff = Fanning friction factor
• fd = Darcy friction factor
• For laminar flow
64
f =
Re

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ١٨

FRICTION FACTOR FOR TURBULENT
FLOW

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ١٩

 INTERNAL ROUGHNESS
Type of pipe e, in e,mm
Drawn tubing (brass, lead, glass) 0.00006 0.001524
Aluminum pipe 0.0002 0.000508
Plastic-lined or sand blasted 0.0002-0.0003 0.00508-0.00762
Commercial steel or wrought iron 0.0018 0.04572
Asphalted cast iron 0.0048 0.1292
Galvanized iron 0.006 0.01524
Cast iron 0.0102 0.25908
Cement-lined 0.012-0.12 0.3048-3.048
Riveted steel 0.036-0.36 0.9144-9.144
PVC, drawn tubing, glass 0.000059 0.0015
Concrete 0.0118-0.118 0.3-3.0
Wrought iron 0.0018 0.045
Commonly used well tubing and line pipe:
New pipe 0.0005-0.0007 0.0127-.01778
12-months old 0.00150 0.381
24-months old 0.00175 0.04445

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٢٠

 TRANSMISSION FACTOR

• The transmission factor F is related to the

friction factor f as follows
2
F=
f
4
f = 2
F

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٢١

 Relative Roughness

e
Relative roughness =
d

• e = absolute or internal roughness of pipe, in.

• d = pipe inside diameter, in.

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٢٢

 FLOW EQUATIONS FOR HIGH
PRESSURE SYSTEM
• General Flow equation
• Colebrook-White equation
• Modified Colebrook-White equation
• AGA equation
• Weymouth equation
• Panhandle A equation
• Panhandle B equation
• IGT equation
• Spitzglass equation
• Mueller equation
• Fritzsche equation

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٢٣

 GENERAL FLOW EQUATION (USCS)
( )
0.5
⎛ Tb ⎞ ⎛ P1 − P d ⎞
2 2 5

q sc = 77.54 ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
2
(USCS )
⎝ Pb ⎠ ⎜⎝ γ g Z avT av fL ⎟
⎠
• qsc = gas flow rate, measured at standard conditions, ft3/day (SCFD)
• f = friction factor, dimensionless
• Pb = base pressure, psia
• Tb = base temperature, °R( 460 + °F)
• P1 = upstream pressure, psia
• P2 = downstream pressure, psia
• γg = gas gravity (air = 1.00)
• Tav = average gas flowing temperature, °R (460 + °F)
• L = pipe segment length, mi
• Zav = gas compressibility factor at the flowing temperature, dimensionless
• d = pipe inside diameter, in.

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٢٤

Steady flow in a gas pipeline

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٢٥

 GENERAL FLOW EQUATION (SI)
( )
0.5
⎛ T ⎞ ⎛ P1 2 − P22 d 5 ⎞
q sc = 1.1494 x 10 − 3 ⎜ b ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ (S I )
⎝ Pb ⎠ ⎜⎝ γ g Z av T av f L ⎟
⎠
• qsc = gas flow rate, measured at standard conditions, m3/day
• f = friction factor, dimensionless
• Pb = base pressure, kPa
• Tb = base temperature, °K (273 + °C)
• P1 = upstream pressure, kPa
• P2 = downstream pressure, kPa
• γg = gas gravity (air = 1.00)
• Tav = average gas flowing temperature, °K (273 + °C)
• L = pipe segment length, km
• Zav = gas compressibility factor at the flowing temperature, dimensionless
• d = pipe inside diameter, mm

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٢٦

 General flow equation in terms of the
transmission factor F
( )
0.5
⎛ Tb ⎞ ⎛ P1 − P d ⎞
2 2 5

q sc = 38.77 F ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
2
(USCS )
⎝ Pb ⎠ ⎜⎝ γ g Z avT av L ⎟
⎠
2
F=
f

( )
0.5
⎛ Tb ⎞ ⎛ P1 − P d ⎞
2 2 5

⎟⎜ ⎟
−4
q sc = 5.747 x 10 F ⎜
2
(SI )
⎝ Pb ⎠ ⎜⎝ γ g Z av T av L ⎟
⎠
• F = transmission factor

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٢٧

EFFECT OF PIPE ELEVATIONS
( )
0.5
⎞ ⎛ P1 − e P d ⎞
⎛T
2 s 2 5

⎟⎜
q sc = 38.77 F ⎜ b ⎟
2
(USCS )
⎠ ⎜⎝ γ g Z avT av Le ⎟⎠
⎝ Pb
⎛ T b ⎞ ( P1 − e P2 ) d
0.5
⎛ 2 s 2 5
⎞
q sc = 5.747 x 10 F ⎜ ⎟ ⎜
−4
⎟ (SI )
⎝ Pb ⎠ ⎜⎝ γ g Z av T av Le ⎟⎠
s
(e - 1)
Le = L
s
s = (0.0375)γ g ( ∆z)/(Zav Tav ) (USCS)
s = (0.0684)γ g (∆z)/(Zav Tav ) (SI)
• s = elevation adjustment parameter, dimensionless
• ∆Z = elevation difference
• e = base of natural logarithms (e = 2.718...)

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٢٨

Gas flow through different elevations

(e s1 − 1) e s1 (e s 2 − 1) e s1 +s 2 (e s 3 − 1) e∑ (e s n − 1)
s n −1

Le = L1 + L2 + L 3 + ....... + Ln si ≠ 0
s1 s2 s3 sn

(es - 1)
j=
s
Le = j 1L1 + j 2 L 2e s1 + j 3 L 3e s 3 + ....... + j n L n e s n −1 si ≠ 0

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٢٩

 AVERAGE PRESSURE IN PIPE
SEGMENT

2 ⎛ P1P2 ⎞
Pav = ⎜ P1 + P2 + ⎟
3 ⎝ P1 + P2 ⎠

• Or

2 ⎛ P13 − P23 ⎞
Pav = ⎜ 2 ⎟
3 ⎝ P1 − P22 ⎠

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٣٠

 COLEBROOK-WHITE EQUATION
• A relationship between the friction factor and the Reynolds
number, pipe roughness, and inside diameter of pipe.
• Generally 3 to 4 iterations are sufficient to converge on a
reasonably good value of the friction factor

⎡ ⎛ 2.51 ⎞⎤
1
f
= −2 log ⎢ e
⎢⎣
( +⎜
3.7d ⎜ R f
⎝ e
) ⎟⎟ ⎥ Turbulent flow
⎠ ⎥⎦
• f = friction factor, dimensionless
• d = pipe inside diameter, in.
• e = absolute pipe roughness, in.
• Re = Reynolds number of flow, dimensionless

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٣١

COLEBROOK-WHITE EQUATION

1 ⎛ 2.51 ⎞
= −2 log ⎜ ⎟⎟ Turbulent flow in smooth pipe
⎜R f
f ⎝ e ⎠

1
f
= −2 log e (
3.7d ) turbulent flow in fully rough pipes

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٣٢

 Example
• A natural gas pipeline, NPS 20 with 0.500
in. wall thickness, transports 200
MMSCFD. The specific gravity of gas is
0.6 and viscosity is 0.000008 lb/ft-s.
Calculate the friction factor using the
Colebrook equation. Assume absolute
pipe roughness = 600 µ in.

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٣٣

 Solution
• Pipe inside diameter = 20 - 2 x 0.5 = 19.0 in.
• Absolute pipe roughness = 600 ~ in. = 0.0006 in.
• First, we calculate the Reynolds number
• Re = 0.0004778(14.7/(60+460))x(( 0.6 x 200 x 106)
/(0.000008x 19)) = 10,663,452
• This equation will be solved by successive iteration.
• Assume f = 0.01 initially; substituting above, we get a
better approximation as f = 0.0101. Repeating the
iteration, we get the final value as f = 0.0101. Therefore,
the friction factor is 0.0101.

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٣٤

 MODIFIED COLEBROOK-WHITE
EQUATION
⎡ ⎛ 2.825 ⎞⎤
1
f
= −2 log ⎢(
⎢⎣
e
3.7d
+⎜)
⎜R f
⎝ e
⎟⎟ ⎥ turbulent flow
⎠ ⎥⎦

⎡ ⎛ 1.4125F ⎞⎤
(
F = −2 log ⎢
⎢⎣
e
3.7d
+⎜ )
⎝ Re
⎟⎥
⎠ ⎥⎦
with transmission factor

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٣٥

 AMERICAN GAS ASSOCIATION
(AGA) EQUATION
⎛ 3.7d ⎞
F = 4 log ⎜ ⎟ Von Karman, for rough pipe
⎝ e ⎠
⎛ Re ⎞
F = 4D f log ⎜ ⎟ Von Karman, smooth pipe
⎝ 1.412Ft ⎠

• Df known as the pipe drag factor depend on bend index,

Its value ranges from 0.90 to 0.99
• Ft = Von Karman smooth pipe transmission factor
⎛ Re ⎞
Ft = 4 log ⎜ ⎟ − 0.6
⎝ Ft ⎠
PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٣٦
 Bend Index
• Bend index is the sum of all the angles and bends in the pipe
segment, divided by the total length of the pipe section under
consideration
total degrees of all bends in pipe section
BI =
total length of pipe section
Material Bend Index
Extremely Low Average Extremely High
5° to 10° 60° to 80° 200° to 300°
Bare steel 0.975-0.973 0.960-0.956 0.930-0.900
Plastic lined 0.979-0.976 0.964-0.960 0.936-0.910
Pig burnished 0.982-0.980 0.968-0.965 0.944-0.920
Sand blasted 0.985-0.983 0.976-0.970 0.951-0.930

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٣٧

 WEYMOUTH EQUATION
( )
0.5
⎛ Tb ⎞ ⎛ P1 − e P d ⎞
2 s 2 16 / 3

q sc = 38.77 E ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
2
(USCS )
⎝ Pb ⎠ ⎜⎝ γ g Z avT av Le ⎟
⎠
• qsc = gas flow rate, measured at standard conditions, ft3/day (SCFD)
• f = friction factor, dimensionless F = 11.18d 1/ 6 (USCS )
• Pb = base pressure, psia
• Tb = base temperature, °R(460 + °F)
• P1 = upstream pressure, psia
• P2 = downstream pressure, psia
• γg = gas gravity (air = 1.00)
• Tav = average gas flowing temperature, °R (460 + °F)
• Le = equivalent pipe segment length, mi
• Zav = gas compressibility factor at the flowing temperature, dimensionless
• d = pipe inside diameter, in.

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٣٨

 WEYMOUTH EQUATION

( )
0.5
⎛ Tb ⎞ ⎛ P1 − e P d ⎞
2 s 2 16 / 3

⎟⎜ ⎟
−3
q sc = 3.7435x 10 xE ⎜
2
(SI )
⎝ Pb ⎠ ⎜⎝ γ g Z avT av Le ⎟
⎠
• qsc = gas flow rate, measured at standard conditions,m3/day
• f = friction factor, dimensionless
• Pb = base pressure, kPa F = 6.521d 1/ 6
(SI )
• Tb = base temperature, °K(273 + °C)
• P1 = upstream pressure, kPa
• P2 = downstream pressure, kPa
• γg = gas gravity (air = 1.00)
• Tav = average gas flowing temperature, °K (272 + °C)
• Le = equivalent pipe segment length, km
• Zav = gas compressibility factor at the flowing temperature, dimensionless
• d = pipe inside diameter, mm

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٣٩

 PANHANDLE A EQUATION

( )
0.5394
⎛ Tb ⎞
1.0788
⎛ P1 − e P
2 s 2
⎞
q sc = 435.87 E ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 0.8539 ⎟
2
d 2.6182 (USCS )
⎝ Pb ⎠ ⎜ γ g xT av xLe xZ ⎟
⎝ ⎠

( )
0.5394
⎛ Tb ⎞
1.0788
⎛ P1 − e P
2 s 2
⎞
−3
q sc = 4.5965x 10 E ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 0.8539 ⎟
2
d 2.6182 (SI )
⎝ Pb ⎠ ⎜ γ g xT av xLe xZ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
• E = pipeline efficiency, a decimal value less than 1.0

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٤٠

 PANHANDLE A EQUATION
Transmission Factor

⎛ qγ g ⎞
0.07305

F = 7.2111E ⎜ ⎟ (USCS )
⎝ d ⎠

⎛ qγ g ⎞
0.07305

F = 11.85E ⎜ ⎟ (SI )
⎝ d ⎠

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٤١

 PANHANDLE B EQUATION

( )
0.51
⎛ Tb ⎞
1.02
⎛ P1 − e P
2 s 2
⎞
q sc = 737 E ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 0.961 ⎟
2
d 2.53 (USCS )
⎝ Pb ⎠ ⎜ γ g xT av xLe xZ ⎟
⎝ ⎠

( )
0.51
⎛ Tb ⎞
1.02
⎛ P1 − e P 2 s 2
⎞
−2
q sc = 1.002x 10 E ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 0.961 ⎟
2
d 2.53 (SI )
⎝ Pb ⎠ ⎜ γ g xT av xLe xZ ⎟
⎝ ⎠

• E = pipeline efficiency, a decimal value less than 1.0

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٤٢

 PANHANDLE A EQUATION
Transmission Factor

⎛ qγ g ⎞
0.01961

F = 16.7 E ⎜ ⎟ (USCS )
⎝ d ⎠

⎛ qγ g ⎞
0.01961

F = 19.08E ⎜ ⎟ (SI )
⎝ d ⎠

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٤٣

 INSTITUTE OF GAS TECHNOLOGY
(IGT) EQUATION

( )
0.555
⎛ Tb ⎞⎛ P1 − e P ⎞
2 s 2

q sc = 136.9E ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 0.8 ⎟
2
d 2.667 (USCS )
⎠ ⎜⎝ γ g xT av xLe xZx µ ⎟⎠
0.2
⎝ Pb

• µ = gas viscosity, lb/ft.s

( )
0.555
⎛ Tb ⎞⎛ P1 − e P ⎞
2 s 2

⎟ ⎜ 0.8 ⎟
−3
q sc = 1.2822x 10 E ⎜
2
d 2.667 (SI )
⎝ Pb ⎜
⎠⎝ gγ xT xL xZx µ 0.2
⎟
av e
⎠

• µ = gas viscosity, Poise

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٤٤

 SPITZGLASS EQUATION
Low Pressure

( )
0.5
⎛ T ⎞ ⎛ P − e s
P ⎞
q sc = 3.839x 10 E ⎜ b ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ d 2.5
3 1 2
(USCS )
⎝ Pb ⎠ ⎝⎜ γ g xT av xLe xZ av (1 + 3.6 / d + 0.03d ) ⎟⎠

• Pressure less than or equal 1.0 psi

( )
0.5
⎛ T ⎞ ⎛ P − e s
P ⎞
q sc = 5.69x 10 E ⎜ b ⎟ ⎜
−2
⎟ d 2.5
1 2
(SI )
⎝ Pb ⎠ ⎜⎝ γ g xT av xLe xZ av (1 + 91.44 / d + 0.03d ) ⎟⎠

• Pressure less than or equal 6.9 kPa

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٤٥

 SPITZGLASS EQUATION
High Pressure

( )
0.5
⎛ Tb ⎞ ⎛ P1 − e s P2 ⎞
q sc = 729.608E ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ d 2.5 (USCS )
⎝ Pb ⎠ ⎝⎜ γ g xT av xLe xZ av (1 + 3.6 / d + 0.03d ) ⎟⎠

• Pressure more than 1.0 psi

( )
0.5
⎛ Tb ⎞ ⎛ P − e s
P2 ⎞
q sc = 1.0815x 10 E ⎜ ⎟ ⎜
−2
⎟ d 2.5
1
(SI )
⎝ Pb ⎠ ⎜⎝ γ g xT av xLe xZ av (1 + 91.44 / d + 0.0012d ) ⎟⎠

• Pressure more than 6.9 kPa

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٤٦

 MUELLER EQUATION

( )
0.575
⎛ Tb ⎞⎛ P1 − e P ⎞
2 s 2

q sc = 85.7368E ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 0.7391 ⎟
2
d 2.725 (USCS )
⎠ ⎜⎝ γ g xT av xLe x µ ⎟
0.2609
⎝ Pb ⎠

• µ = gas viscosity, lb/ft.s

( )
0.575
⎛ T ⎞ ⎛ P 2
− e s
P 2
⎞
q sc = 3.0398x 10−2 xE ⎜ b ⎟ ⎜ 0.7391 ⎟
1 2
d 2.725 (SI )
⎝ Pb ⎠ ⎜⎝ γ g xT av xLe x µ ⎟
0.2609
⎠

• µ = gas viscosity, cP

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٤٧

 FRITZSCHE EQUATION

( )
0.538
⎛ Tb ⎞ ⎛ P1 − e P ⎞
2 s 2

q sc = 410.1688E ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 0.8587 ⎟
2
d 2.69 (USCS )
⎝ Pb ⎠ ⎜⎝ γ g xT av xLe ⎟
⎠

( )
0.538
⎛ Tb ⎞ ⎛ P1 − e P ⎞
2 s 2

q sc = 2.827 E ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 0.8587 ⎟
2
d 2.69 (SI )
⎝ Pb ⎠ ⎜⎝ γ g xT av xLe ⎟
⎠

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٤٨

EFFECT OF PIPE ROUGHNESS

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٤٩

COMPARISON OF FLOW
EQUATIONS

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٥٠

COMPARISON OF FLOW
EQUATIONS

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٥١

 Flow Characteristics of Low-
Pressure Services

0.54
⎡ total pressure drop in service, in H O ⎤
ft / hr = ⎢
3 2
⎥
⎢⎣ '
( )
( K p ) γ / γ ( L + Lef ) ⎥⎦

• Kp = pipe constant
• γ = sp gr of gas
• γ' = sp gr 0.60
• L = length of service, ft
• Lef = equivalent length of fittings given below

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٥٢

 Values of Kp
Pipe size and type Kp
3/4-in CTS copper 1.622 x 10-6
1-in ID plastic 0.279 x 10-6
1-in CTS copper 0.383 x 10-6
1¼-in CTS copper 0.124 x 10-6
1¼-in NS steel 0.080 x 10-6
1½-in NS steel 0.037 x 10-6

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٥٣

Equivalent lengths of pipe fittings
Fitting Equivalent length, ft
• 1-in or 1¼-in Curb cock for copper service 3.5
• 1¼-in curb cock for 1¼-in steel service 13.5
• 1½-in curb cock for 1½-in steel service 12.0
• 1½-in street elbow for 1¼-in steel service 7.5
• 1½-in street elbow for 1½--in steel service 7.5
• 1¼-in street tee for 1¼-in steel service 10.5
• 1½-in street tee on sleeve or 1¼-in hole in main 15.0
• 1¼ x 1 x 1¼-in street tee 23.0
• 1½ x 1¼ x 1½-in street tee 19.0
• Combined outlet fittings
• ¾-in copper 2.0
• 1-in copper or plastic 6.0
• 1¼-in steel 8.0
• 1½-in steel 22.0

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٥٤

Equivalent lengths of pipe fittings

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٥٥

Flowing Temperature in (Horizontal])
Pipelines
⎡T s + C 4 / C 2 − (C 1C 5 ) / (C 2 (C 2 + C 3 ) ) ⎤ C 1C 2 /C 3 C + C L C (C + C L )
T Lx =⎣ ⎦ − 4 5 x
+ 5 1 3 x

(C 1 + C 2 L x )
C 2 /C 3
C2 C 2 (C 2 + C 3 )

C 1 = z v 1c p L + (1 − z v 1 ) c p
C2 = k / m
C 3 = ( z v 2 − z v 1 ) (c pL − c pv ) / L

P1 − P2 z −z v −v k πd 0
C4 = ⎡⎣ z v 1c pL µdL + (1 − z v 1 ) c pv µdv ⎤⎦ + v 2 v 1 Q + 2 1 v 1 + gh / L − T1
L L L m

C5 =
( z v 2 − z v 1 )( P1 − P2 )
⎡c µ + c µ ⎤ +
v 2 −v 1
L 2 ⎣ pL dL pv dv ⎦
L

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٥٦

Flowing Temperature in (Horizontal])
Pipelines
• zv = mole fraction of vapor (gas) in the gas-liquid flowstream
• P = pressure, lbf/ft2
• L = pipeline length, ft
• v = fluid velocity, ft/sec
• cp = fluid specific heat at constant pressure, Btu/lbm.ºF
• µd = Joule-Thomson coefficient, ft2.ºF/lbf
• m = mass flow rate, lbm/sec
• Q = phase-transition heat, Btu/lbm
• k = thermal conductivity, Btu/ft.sec.ºf
• g = gravitational acceleration, equal to 32.17 ft/sec2
• h = elevation difference between the inlet and outlet, ft
• do = outside pipe diameter, ft
• Ts = temperature of the soil or surroundings, of

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٥٧

 SUMMARY OF PRESSURE DROP
EQUATIONS
Equation Application
General Flow Fundamental flow equation using friction or
transmission factor; used with Colebrook-White
friction factor or AGA transmission factor
Colebrook- Friction factor calculated for pipe roughness and
White Reynolds number;
most popular equation for general gas transmission
pipelines
Modified Modified equation based on U.S. Bureau of Mines
Colebrook- experiments; gives higher pressure drop compared to
White original Colebrook equation
AGA Transmission factor calculated for partially turbulent
and fully turbulent flow considering roughness, bend
index, and Reynolds number

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٥٨

 SUMMARY OF PRESSURE DROP
EQUATIONS
Equation Application
Panhandle A Panhandle equations do not consider pipe roughness;
Panhandle B instead. an efficiency factor is used; less
conservative than Colebrook or AGA
Weymouth Does not consider pipe roughness; uses an efficiency
factor used for high-pressure gas gathering systems;
most conservative equation that gives highest
pressure drop for given flow rate
IGT Does not consider pipe roughness; uses an efficiency
factor used on gas distribution piping

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٥٩

 PIPELINE WITH INTERMEDIATE
INJECTIONS AND DELIVERIES
• A pipeline in which gas enters at the beginning
of the pipeline and the same volume exits at the
end of the pipeline is a pipeline with no
intermediate injection or deliveries
• When portions of the inlet volume are delivered
at various points along the pipeline and the
remaining volume is delivered at the end of the
pipeline, we call this system a pipeline with
intermediate delivery points.

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٦٠

PIPELINE WITH INTERMEDIATE
INJECTIONS AND DELIVERIES

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٦١

 PIPELINE WITH INTERMEDIATE
INJECTIONS AND DELIVERIES

• Pipe AB has a certain volume, Q1, flowing through it.

• At point B, another pipeline, CB, brings in additional volumes
resulting in a volume of (Q1 + Q2) flowing through section BD.
• At D, a branch pipe, DE, delivers a volume of Q3 to a customer
location, E.
• The remaining volume (Q1 + Q2 - Q3) flows from D to F through pipe
segment DF to a customer location at F.
PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٦٢
 SERIES PIPING

• Segment 1 - diameter d1 and length Le1

• Segment 2 - diameter d2 and length Le2
• Segment 3 - diameter d3 and length Le3
Le = Le 1 + Le 2 + Le 3
PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٦٣
 SERIES PIPING

CL
∆Psq = 5
d
• ∆Psq = difference in the square of pressures (P12 - P22) for
the pipe segment
• C = constant
• L = pipe length
• d = pipe inside diameter

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٦٤

 SERIES PIPING
5
CL1 CLe 2
= 5 ⎛ d1 ⎞
5 Le 2 = L2 ⎜ ⎟
d1 d2
⎝ d2 ⎠

5
⎛ d1 ⎞
Le 3 = L3 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ d3 ⎠
5 5
⎛ d1 ⎞ ⎛ d1 ⎞
Le = L1 + L 2 ⎜ ⎟ + L3 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ d2 ⎠ ⎝ d3 ⎠

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٦٥

 PARALLEL PIPING

Q = Q1 + Q2
where
Q = inlet flow at A
Q1 = flow through pipe branch BCE
Q2 = flow through pipe branch BDE

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٦٦

 PARALLEL PIPING
K 1L1Q12 K 2 L 2Q 22
(P B
2
−P
E
2
) =
d 15
(P B
2
−P E
2
) =
d2 5

0.5 2.5
Q1 ⎛ L 2 ⎞ ⎛ d 1 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
Q 2 ⎝ L1 ⎠ ⎝ d 2 ⎠
where
• K1, K2 = a parameter that depends on gas properties,
gas temperature, etc.
• L1 , L2 = length of pipe branch BCE, BDE
• d1, d2 = inside diameter of pipe branch BCE, BDE
• Q1 , Q2 = flow rate through pipe branch BCE, BDE

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٦٧

 PARALLEL PIPING
2

( PB2 − PE2 ) =
K e LeQ
d e5
K 1L1Q12 K 2 L 2Q 22 K e LeQ 2
d15
=
d2 5
=
d e5

2 1/ 5
L1Q 2
L 2Q LeQ 2 2
⎡⎛ 1 + const ⎞ ⎤
5
=1
5
= 2
d e = d 1 ⎢⎜ 1
⎟ ⎥
d1 d2 d e5 ⎢⎣⎝ const 1 ⎠ ⎥⎦
5
⎛ d 1 ⎞ ⎛ L1 ⎞
const 1 = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ Q1 = Q const1/(1 + const1 )
⎝ d 2 ⎠ ⎝ L2 ⎠

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٦٨

LOCATING PIPE LOOP

Different looping scenarios

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٦٩

 Summary
• This part introduced the various methods of calculating the
pressure drop in a pipeline transporting gas and gas mixtures.
• The more commonly used equations for pressure drop vs. flow
rate and pipe size
• The effect of elevation changes and the concepts of the
Reynolds number, friction factor, and transmission factor were
introduced.
• The importance of the Moody diagram and how to calculate the
friction factor for laminar and turbulent flow were explained.
• Comparison of the more commonly used pressure drop
equations, such as AGA, Colebrook-White, Weymouth, and
Panhandle equations.
• The use of a pipeline efficiency in comparing various equations
• The average velocity of gas flow and the limiting value of
erosional velocity was discussed.

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٧٠

 Summary
• Several piping configurations, such as pipes in series,
pipes in parallel, and gas pipelines with injections and
deliveries
• The concepts of equivalent length in series piping and
equivalent diameter in pipe loops were explained and
illustrated using example problems.
• The hydraulic pressure gradient and the need for
intermediate compressor stations to transport given
volumes of gas without exceeding allowable pipeline
pressures were also covered.
• The importance of temperature variation in gas pipelines
and how it is taken into account in calculating pipeline
pressures were introduced with reference to commercial
hydraulic simulation models..

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair ٧١