SECTION 1 - FUNDAMENTALS OF GENERAL MATHEMATICS

UNIT 1
FRACTIONS OR RATIONAL NUMBERS

OBJECTIVE:
After studying this lesson the cadets should be able to:
Solve common fraction problems by applying the principles of common fractions.

1.1 DEFINITION
a
A rational number is a number that can be written in the form , where a is whole
b
number and b is a nonzero numbers.
Note: the numerator a can be zero, but the denominator b cannot be zero.
Three kinds of fraction:
1. Proper fraction
2. Improper fraction
3. Mixed numbers
Proper fraction - It is a fraction whose numerator is less than its denominator.
Improper fraction - It is a fraction whose numerator is greater than or equal to its
denominator
Mixed number - is the sum of a whole numbers and a fraction. We can usually write the
whole number and the fraction side by side without plus sign.

Changing Improper Fraction to a Mixed Number

1. Divide the numerator by the denominator.
2. Write the remainder over the denominator as a fraction part of the mixed number.

14
Examples: Change to a mixed number in a simple form.
3
14 2 2
Solution: = 14 ÷ 3 = 4 + = 4 ans.
3 3 3

2
U n it 1 - F ra c tio n o r R a tio n a l N u m b e rs 3

S h o r tc u t to C h a n g in g M ix e d N u m b e r s to F r a c tio n F o r m

1 . M u ltip ly th e d e n o m in a to r o f th e fra c tio n p a rt b y th e w h o le n u m b e r.

2 . A d d th e n u m e ra to r o f th e fra c tio n p a rt to th is p ro d u c t.
3 . W rite th is su m o v e r th e d e n o m in a to r o f th e fra c tio n .

2
E x a m p le : 3
5
S o lu tio n
(a ) M u ltip ly 5 . 3 = 1 5 a n d a d d 2 : 15 + 2 = 17
(b ) W rite 1 7 o v e r 5 :
2 17
3 = A ns.
5 5
1 .2 A D D I N G F R A C T I O N S

T o a d d tw o (o r m o r e ) fr a c tio n s w ith th e sa m e d e n o m in a to r .

1 . A d d th e n u m e ra to rs .
2 . K e e p th e c o m m o n d e n o m in a to r.

a c a+c
+ =
b b b

1 3 1+3 4
E x a m p le s: 1) + = = ans
5 5 5 5

2 3 1 2 + 3 + 1 6
2) + + = = ans
7 7 7 7 7

T o a d d fr a c tio n s w ith d iffe r e n t d e n o m in a to r s :

1. F in d th e L C D o f th e d e n o m in a to rs .
2. C h a n g e e a c h fra c tio n to a n e q u a l fra c tio n w ith th a t d e n o m in a to r.
3. A d d th e n e w fra c tio n .
4. R e d u c e if p o s s ib le .
U n it 1 - F ra c tio n o r R a tio n a l N u m b e rs 4
1 3
1 ) E x a m p le s: F in d th e su m +
2 5
S o lu tio n :
a) F in d th e L C D .
LC D = 2 . 5 = 10

b ) F in d eq u a l fra c tio n s w ith d en o m in ato r 1 0 .

1 1 5 5
= . =
2 2 5 10

3 3 . 2 6
= =
5 5 2 10
c) A dd
1 3 5 6 5 + 6 11
+ = + = = Ans
2 5 10 10 10 10

1 .3 S U B T R A C T IN G F R A C T IO N S

T o su b tr a c t fra ctio n s th a t h a v e th e sa m e d e n o m in a to r :

1 . S u b tra ct th e n u m e ra to rs.
2 . K ee p th e c o m m o n d e n o m in a to r.
a c a-c
- =
b b b

5 1 5 - 1 4 2 . 2 2
1 ) E x am p le: - = = = = ans
6 6 6 6 2 3 3

T o su b tr a c t fra c tio n s w ith d iffere n t d e n o m in a to rs

1. F in d th e L C D o f th e d e n o m in a to r
2. C h a n g e ea ch fra c tio n to a n e q u al fra c tio n w ith th at d e n o m in ato r.
3. S u b tra ct th e n ew frac tio n
4. R e d u c e if p o ssib le .
U n it 1 - F ra c tio n o r R a tio n a l N u m b ers 5
E x a m p le :
9 2
-
10 15
a ) F in d th e L C D .
10 = 2 . 5 L C D = 2 . 3 . 5 = 30
15 = 3 . 5
b ) F in d e q u a l fra c tio n s w ith d en o m in a to r 3 0 .
9 9 . 3 27
= =
10 10 3 30
2 2 . 2 4
= =
15 15 2 30
c ) S u b tra c t
9 2 27 4 27 - 4 23
- = - = = ans
10 15 30 30 30 30

1 .4 A D D IN G M IX E D N U M B E R S

S in ce a m ix e d n u m b e r itse lf re p re se n t a d d itio n , tw o o r m o re m ix e d n u m b e rs c an b e a d d e d
b y ad d in g th e w h o le n u m b e rs a n d th e fra c tio n p arts se p a ra te ly .

T o a d d m ix e d n u m b e r s
1 . A d d th e fra c tio n p a rts.
2 . A d d th e w h o le n u m b e rs
3 . W rite th e m ix e d n u m b e r so th a t th e fra c tio n p a rts is le ss th a n 1 .

E x a m p le : F in d e a c h s u m .
2 3
1) 4 + 6
7 7
S o lu tio n
2 3 2 3
4 + 6 = 4 + + 6 +
7 7 7 7

= (4 + 6 ) + ( 2
7
+
3
7 ) = 10 +
5
7
= 10
5
7
U n it 1 - F ra c tio n o r R a tio n a l N u m b e rs 6
1 .5 S U B T R A C T IN G M IX E D N U M B E R S

S u b tra c tio n w ith m ix e d n u m b e rs a lso in v o lv e s w o rk in g w ith th e w h o le n u m b e rs a n d

fra c tio n p a rts s e p a ra te ly .

T o s u b tr a c t m ix e d n u m b e r s
1 . S u b tra c t th e fra c tio n p a rts.
2 . S u b tra c t th e w h o le n u m b e rs

E x a m p le : F in d th e d iffe re n c e .
3 2
1) 4 - 1
5 5
S o lu tio n

4
3
5
- 1
2
5
= (4 - 1) + ( 3
5
- 2
5 )
1
= 3 -
5

1
= 3
5

If th e fr a c tio n p a r t b e in g su b tr a c te d is la r g e r th a n th e fir s t fr a c tio n :

1 . “ B o rro w “ a w h o le 1 fro m th e first w h o le n u m b e rs.

2 . A d d th is 1 to th e first fra c tio n . ( T h is w ill a lw a y s g iv e a n im p ro p e r fra c tio n th a t is
la rg e r th a n th e fra c tio n b e in g s u b tra c te d .)
3 . N o w su b tra c t.

E x a m p le : F in d th e d iffe re n ce .
2 3 2
7 - 4 S o lu tio n 7
5 5 5 3 Is la rg e r th a n 2 , so “ b o rro w ” 1 fro m 7
3 5 5
4
5
2 2 2
7 = 6 + 1 + = 6 + 1 = 6 7
5 5 5 5
U n it 1 - F ra c tio n o r R a tio n a l N u m b e rs 7

2
7
2 = 6 + 1 = 6 7
5 5 5
3 3
4 4
5 5
4
2
5
1 .6 M U L T IP L Y I N G F R A C T IO N S

T o m u ltip ly fr a c tio n s

1 . M u ltip ly th e n u m e ra to rs. a
. c a . c
=
2 . M u ltip ly th e d e n o m in a to rs b d b . d

3 5 3 . 5 15
E x a m p le s: . = =
4 7 4 7 28 .
C h a n g in g a fr a c tio n to lo w e r te rm s is th e s a m e a s re d u c in g th e fra c tio n . A fra c tio n is re d u c e d
if th e n u m e ra to r a n d d e n o m in a to r h a v e n o c o m m o n fa c to r o th e r th a n 1 .

T o R e d u c e a F r a c tio n to L o w e st T e r m

1 . F a c to r th e n u m e ra to r a n d d e n o m in a to r in to th re e p rim e fra c tio n .

2 . U se th e fa c t th a t k
= 1 a n d “ c a n c e l” o r “ d iv id e o u t” c o m m o n fa c to rs .
k

21
E x a m p le s: R e d u c e to lo w e st te rm .
35
S o lu tio n :

21 3. 7 3 7 3 3
= = . = . 1 = ans
35 5. 7 5 7 5 5

21 3. 7 3 H e re w e “ c a n c e l” o r “ d iv id e o u t” th e 7 ’s
or = = ans
35 5. 7 5 7 = 1
W ith th e u n d e rsta n d in g th a t
7
U n it 1 - F rac tio n o r R a tio n a l N u m b e rs 8
1 .8 M U L T IP L Y IN G M IX E D N U M B E R S

T o m u ltip ly m ix e d n u m b e r s:

F irst M e th o d
1 . C h a n g e e a ch n u m b e r to frac tio n fo rm .
2 . M u ltip ly a n d re d u c e th e se fra c tio n .
3 . C h a n g e th e a n sw er to a m ix e d n u m b e r o r le a v e it in fra c tio n fo rm .

S e c o n d m e th o d :
M a k e u se o f d is trib u tiv e p ro p e rty . T h is m e th o d is c o n v e n ie n t fo r d o in g sim p le p ro d u c t
m e n ta lly .

1 6 37 37 1
E x a m p le : 6 x 3 = . = = 18
12 1 12 2 2
1 .9 D IV ID IN G F R A C T IO N S

If th e p ro d u ct o f tw o fra c tio n s is 1 , th e n th e fra ctio n s are c a lle d re c ip ro c als o f e a c h o th e r.

2 3 2 3 6
E x a m p le : and a re re c ip ro c a l b e c a u se . = = 1
3 2 3 2 6

5 6 5 6 30
and a re rec ip ro c a l b ec a u s e . = = 1
6 5 6 5 30
a b a b
T h e r e c ip r o c a l o f a fra c tio n , w h e re a  0 an d b  0 , is b e c a u se . =1
b a b a

a c a d
In g e n e ra l, ÷ = . w h e re b , c , d ,  0
b d b c

T o d iv id e fra c tio n b y a n y n u m b e r (e x c e p t 0 ), m u ltip ly b y its re c ip ro c a l.

E x a m p le : F in d e a c h o f th e fo llo w in g q u o tie n ts. R e d u ce to lo w e st te rm s w h e n e v e r p o s sib le .

3 8 3 . 5 15 8, 5 .
1) ÷ = = T h e d iv iso r is a n d w e m u ltip ly b y its re c ip ro c a l ,
4 5 4 8 32 5 8
 U n it 1 - F ra c tio n o r R a tio n a l N u m b e rs 9
1 .1 0 D I V I D I N G M IX E D N U M B E R S

T o d iv id e m ix e d n u m b e r s:
1 . C h a n g e e a c h n u m b e r to fra c tio n fo rm .
2 . W rite th e re c ip ro c a l o f th e d iv is o r.
3 . M u ltip ly .

2 2 8 32
E x a m p le : 2 ÷ 10 = ÷
3 3 3 3
8 3 32 ,
= . N o te th a t th e d iv is o r is and
3 3
32
1 1 3
= . W e m u ltip ly b y its re c ip ro c a l,
1 4 32

1
=
4
R U L E S F O R O R D E R O F O P E R A T IO N
1 . F irs t, s im p lify w ith in g ro u p in g s y m b o ls , s u c h a s p a re n th e s e s ( ), b ra c k e ts [ ], o r
b ra c e s { } . S ta rt w ith th e in n e rm o s t g ro u p in g .
2 . S e c o n d , fin d a n y p o w e rs in d ic a te d b y e x p o n e n ts .
3 . T h ird , m o v in g fro m le ft to rig h t, p e rfo rm a n y m u ltip lic a tio n o r d iv is io n in th e o rd e r th e y
a p p e a r.
4 . T h ird , m o v in g fro m le ft to rig h t, p e rfo rm a n y a d d itio n s o r s u b tra c tio n s in th e o rd e r th e y
a p p e a r.

E x a m p le : U s e th e ru le s fo r o rd e r o f o p e ra tio n s to s im p lify th e e x p re s s io n .
1 . 1 3
2 1 + 7 ÷ =
2 6 4
1 . 1 3 5 . 7 7 . 4 M u ltip ly a n d d iv id e fro m le ft to rig h t
2 1 + 7 ÷ = +
2 2 4 2 6 1 3
35
28 N ow add
= +
12 3
35 28 . 4
= +
12 3 4
35 112 147 3 1
= + = = 12 = 12
12 3 12 12 4
U n it 1 - F ra ctio n o r R a tio n al N u m b ers 10

T o sim p lify a co m p le x fra ctio n :

1 . S im p lify th e n u m e rato r to a sin g le fo rm .
2 . S im p lify th e d e n o m in ato r to a sin g le fo rm .
3 . D iv id e th e n u m e ra to r b y the d en o m in ato r.

3 1
+
E x a m p le : S im p lify th e co m p lex frac tio n 4 2

1 - 1
3
S o lu tio n
S im p lify th e n u m e rato r a n d d e n o m in a to r sep a rately , th en d iv id e .
3 1 3 2 5 n u m era to r
+ = + =
4 2 4 4 4

1 3 1 2
1 - = - = d e n o m in a to r
3 3 3 3

3 1 5
+
4 2 4 5 2 5 3 15 7
= = ÷ = . = = 1 ans
1 2 4 3 4 2 8 8
1 -
3 3

E n d o f U n it 1 - F ra c tio n o r R atio n a l N u m b ers

U n it 1 - F ra ctio n o r R a tio n al N u m b ers 10

T o sim p lify a co m p le x fra ctio n :

1 . S im p lify th e n u m e rato r to a sin g le fo rm .
2 . S im p lify th e d e n o m in ato r to a sin g le fo rm .
3 . D iv id e th e n u m e ra to r b y the d en o m in ato r.

3 1
+
E x a m p le : S im p lify th e co m p lex frac tio n 4 2

1 - 1
3
S o lu tio n
S im p lify th e n u m e rato r a n d d e n o m in a to r sep a rately , th en d iv id e .
3 1 3 2 5 n u m era to r
+ = + =
4 2 4 4 4

1 3 1 2
1 - = - = d e n o m in a to r
3 3 3 3

3 1 5
+
4 2 4 5 2 5 3 15 7
= = ÷ = . = = 1 ans
1 2 4 3 4 2 8 8
1 -
3 3

E n d o f U n it 1 - F ra c tio n o r R atio n a l N u m b ers

U n it 1 - F ra c tio n o r R a tio n a l N u m b e rs 11

S O L V IN G P R O B L E M :
A d d in g a n d S u b tr a c tin g F r a c tio n s in P r a c tic a l A p p lica tio n s

1 . D e te rm in e d im e n s io n s A , B , C , D , a n d E o f th e m a c h in e d p a rt sh o w n in fig u re 1 -1 .

F ig u re 1 -1

M u ltip ly in g a n d D iv id in g F r a c tio n in P r a c tic a l A p p lic a tio n :

5
2 . A fu e l o il p ip e lin e w h ic h is six a n d th re e-fo rth in c h e s in d ia m ete r is 3 2 fe e t lo n g . If
16
11
o f fu e l o il p ip e lin e m u st b e in sta lle d a t se c o n d d e c k a n d o f th e fu e l o il p ip e lin e m u st
16
b e e x p o se d in th e first d e c k , h o w m u c h fu e l o il p ip e lin e is a t se c o n d d e c k ? H o w m u c h a t
firs t d e c k ?
3 . A la th e m a c h in e o p e ra to r is d ire c te d b y h is c h ie f e n g in e e r to im p ro v ise 1 3 5 lo c k p in fo r
fu tu re u se d in th e m a in p ro p u lsio n p la n t. T h is is th re e -fo rth o f th e o rig in a l lo c k p in b e in g
p ro d u c e d b y th e o th e r la th e m a c h in e o p e ra to r. W h a t w a s th e o rig in a l n u m b e r o f lo c k p in ?

1 and 1 9 a n d 3 , w h a t is th e su m ?
4 . If th e p ro d u c t o f 5 2 is a d d e d to th e q u o tie n t o f
2 2 10 4
1 1
5 . T h e p ro d u c t o f 2 w ith a n o th e r n u m b e r is 5 w h a t is th e o th e r n u m b e r?
3 6
 12
S E C T IO N 1 - F U N D A M E N T A L S O F G E N E R A L M A T H E M A T IC S
U N IT 2
D E C IM A L S A N D F R A C T IO N S

O B JE C T IV E :
S olve d ecim al nu m be rs prob le m s b y a pp lying the principles o f d ecim a l nu m bers.

2.1 R O U N D IN G O F F D E C IM A L N U M B E R S

M easuring devices m ad e by h um a ns giv e only ap proxim a te m easu rem en ts. (S ee figu re 2 .1)
T he units c an be la rge, such as m ile s an d kilo m eters, o r sm all, suc h as in ches and centi-
m eters. B u t there a re alw ays sm alle r un its, su ch as e ig hths of an in ch and m illim eters. If a
recipe ca lls fo r 1 .5 cup of flou r and y ou pu t in 1 .52 cup s of flou r o r 1.4 7 cup s o f flo ur, is th is
accep table? W ill the result be ta sty ?

M icro m eter
b) T he m icrom eter is m arke d to give approx im a te m ea sure
of circ u lar ob ject.

F ig ure 2.1

R ou n d in g O ff: R oun ding off a give n num b er m eans to find ano ther num be r clo se to
the given n um b er. T he desired pla ce of accuracy m u st b e state d.
U nit 2 - D ecim als and Fractions 13
R U L E S F O R R O U N D IN G O F F D E C IM A L N U M B E R S

1. L ook at the single digit just to the right of the place of desired accuracy.
2. If this digit is 5 or greater, m ake the digit in the desired place of accuracy one larger and
replace all digits to the right w ith zeros.
3. if this digit is less than 5, leave the digit in the desire place of accuracy as it is and
replace all digits to the right w ith zero

Exam ples: 1) R ound off 6.749 to the nearest tenth.

Solution

(a) 6 . 7 4 9

7 is in the tenth position. T he next digit is 4

(b) Since 4 is less than 5, leave the 7 and replace 4 and 9 w ith 0’s
( c) 6.749 rounds off to 6.700 or 6.7 to the nearest tenth
N ote: 6.700 and 6.7 are both correct. W e have a choice of dropping trailing 0’s to the right
of the decim al point. U sually the trailing 0’s w ill be dropped to indicate the position
of accuracy.
Exam ples: 2) R ound off 3.45196 to the nearest thousandth..
Solution
a) 3 . 4 5 1 9 6

1 is in the thousandths position. T he next digit is 9

b) Since 9 is greater than 5, change 1 to 2 and replace 9 and 6 w ith 0’s.

c) 3.45196 rounds off to 3.45200 or 3.452 to the nearest thousandth

A decim al n um ber can be w ritten in fraction form by w riting a fraction w ith :

1. N um erator: a w hole num ber w ith all the digits of the decim al num ber.
2. D enom inator: the pow er of ten that nam es the rightm ost digit.
U n it 2 - D ecim als and F rac tion s 14
F o r ex am p le:
25 25
0 .2 5 = an d 0 .0 2 5 =
1 00 1000

5 is in th e h un d red th s p osition 5 is in th e th o u sa nd th s p o sitio n .

T o ch a n ge a fra ctio n in to a d ecim a l n u m b er, d iv id e th e n u m erato r b y th e d en o m in a to r .

1 . If the rem ain d er is 0 , th e d ecim al is said to b e term in a tin g .

2 . If the rem ain d er is n o t 0 , th e d ecim al is said to b e n o n -term in a tin g .

E xam ple of term in ating decim al

3 .37 5 3 .75 4 .8
1) 2) 3)
8 8 3 .0 0 0 4 4 3 .0 0 5 5 4 .0
24 28 40
60 20 0
56 20
40 0
40
0

E xam ple of n o n term in atin g repeating d ecim als.

1 .3 3 3 T he 3 w ill rep eat w ith o u t en d .

3 3 1 .0 00
9
10
9
10
9
1 C o ntinu in g to d iv ide w ill giv e a rem ain d er of 1 each tim e.

E n d of U n it -2 D ecim a ls a nd F ra ctio n s
U n it 2 - D e c im a ls a n d F ra c tio n s 15

SO L V IN G P R O B L E M
A d d in g a n d S u b tr a c tin g D e c im a l F r a c tio n s :

1 ) T h re e p ie c e s a re c u t fro m th e le n g th o f a n g le iro n sh o w n in fig u re 2 -2 . W h a t d e c im a l

fra c tio n o f th e o rig in a l le n g th o f a n g le iro n (3 6 ” ) is th e le n g th o f a n g le iro n re m a in in g ?

In c lu d e a ll 1 ” c u ts in th e c o m p u ta tio n s .
16

F ig u re 2 -2

2 ) A p a rt o f th e s tru c tu re o f a b u ild in g is s h o w n in fig u re 2 -3 . F in d th e th ic k n e s s o f th e

g ird e r in in c h e s .

F ig u re 2 -3
U nit 2 - D ecim als an d F ractio ns 16

S O L V IN G P R O B L E M
R o u n d in g D ecim a l N u m b ers:

3) A n insp ecto r ch eck a 6 00 g ro o ve w h ich h as b ee n m achined in th e fix ture sh ow n in

fig ure 2 -4 . T h e gro o v e is ch ecke d by p lacing a p in in th e g roo v e an d m easu rin g th e d istan ce
(H ) b etw een the top o f th e fix tu re an d th e top o f th e p in . F in d H to th e n earer th o u san d th
cen tim eters. U se this fo rm u la in find in g th e H . H = 1 .5 x D - 0 .86 6 x W

F ig u re 2 -4

4) A steel fabricating firm is con stru cted to co n stru ct th e fuel sto rag e tan k sho w n in
fig u re 2 -5 . T h e sp ec ifica tio n call for a tan k h eig ht o f 2 2 fe et. T h e tan k m u st h o ld 25 ,0 0 0
g allo n s (G ) of fu el. F in d th e d iam eter to th e nearer h un d red th foo t.

D iam eter (D ) = ?
4 x G
D =
3 .1 41 6 x H x 7.4 7 9

H eigh t
(H ) = 2 2 ft.

F ig u re 2 -5
 17
S E C T IO N 1 - F U N D A M E N T A L S O F G E N E R A L M A T H E M A T IC S

U N IT 3

PERCENT

O B J E C T IV E :
A fte r s tu d y in g th is le ss o n th e c a d e ts s h o u ld b e a b le to :
S o lv e p e rc e n ta g e p ro b le m s b y a p p ly in g th e p rin c ip le s o f p e rc e n ta g e .

3 .1 U N D E R S T A N D IN G P E R C E N T
T h e w o rd p e r c e n t c o m e s fro m th e L a tin p e r c e n tu m m e a n in g “ p e r h u n d re d ” . S o p e r c e n t
m e a n s h u n d r e d th s o r th e r a tio o f a n u m b e r to 1 0 0 . T h e s y m b o l % c a lle d th e p e r c e n t
sig n . Y o u c a n th in k o f it a s a re a rra n g e m e n t o f th e d ig its fo r 1 0 0 in th e fo rm 0 /0 .
F o r e x a m p le :

50 and 27
= 50% = 27%
100 100

E x a m p le s : E a c h fra c tio n is c h a n g e d to a p e rc e n t.
1
18
30 25 2 1
1) = 30% 2) = 25% 3) = 18 %
100 100 100 2

3 .2 D E C IM A L S A N D P E R C E N T S

W e k n o w th a t p e rc e n t m e a n s h u n d re d th s . S o , b y c h a n g in g a d e c im a l to a fra c tio n w ith

d e n o m in a to r 1 0 0 , w e e ffe c tiv e ly c h a n g e th e d e c im a l to a p e rc e n t.

F o r e x a m p le . 42 76
0 .4 2 = = 42% 0 .7 6 = = 76%
100 100
N o t a ll d e c im a ls a re h u n d re d th s. In th e se c a s e s , w e w o u ld p ro c e e d a s fo llo w s :

0 .2 5 3 x 1 0 0 2 5 .3
0 .2 5 3 = = = 2 5 .3 %
100 100
T h a t is , b y m u ltip ly in g a n d d iv id in g b y 1 0 0 , w e c a n c h a n g e th e fo rm o f th e d e c im a l
w ith o u t c h a n g in g its v a lu e . A g a in ,

0 .8 0 2 x 1 0 0 8 0 .2
0 .8 0 2 = = = 8 0 .2 %
100 100
U n it 3 P erce n t 18
B y n o tin g th e w ay th e d e cim al p o in t is m o v ed , th e c h an g e can b e d o n e d ire ctly u sin g th e
fo llo w in g ru le.

T o c h a n g e a d e cim a l to a p erc en t:

1 . M o v e th e d ecim al p o in t tw o p lace s to th e rig h t.

2 . W rite th e % sig n .

E x am p les: C h a n g e th e fo llo w in g d e cim a ls to p ercen ts.

1 ) 0 .6 7 = 6 7 % 2) 1 .5 = 1 .5 0 = 1 5 0 %

d ecim al p o in t % sig n a d d e d a n u m b e r larg e r is m o re th an 1 0 0 %

m o v e d tw o p lace s th an o n e
to th e rig h t

T o c h a n g e a p e rcen t to a d ecim a l:

1 . M o v e th e d ecim al p o in t tw o p lace s to th e le ft..

2 . D ro p th e % sig n .

E x am p le s: C h a n g e th e fo llo w in g p e rce n ts to d e cim a ls.

1 ) 5 6 % = 0 .5 6

U n d e rsto o d d ecim al d ec im al p o in t m o v ed % sig n d ro p p ed

p o in t tw o p la ce s left

3 .3 F R A C T IO N S A N D P E R C E N T S

If a frac tio n h as d e n o m in ato r 1 0 0 , w e can c h an g e it to a p erc en t b y w ritin g th e n u m e rato r

a n d ad d in g th e % sig n . If th e d en o m in a to r is a fa cto r o f 1 0 0 (2 , 4 , 5 , 1 0 , 2 0 , 2 5 , o r 5 0 ),
w e can w rite it in a n eq u iv ale n t fo rm w ith d e n o m in ato r 1 0 0 , a n d th e n ch a n g e it to a p e rce n t.
E x am p le:
3 3 . 25 75 1 1 . 50 50
1) = = = 75% 2) = = = 50%
4 4 25 100 2 2 50 100
H o w e v e r, m o st fra ctio n s d o n o t h av e d e n o m in a to rs th at are facto rs o f 1 0 0 . A m o re g en eral
a p p ro ach is to c h an g e th e fra ctio n to d ec im al fo rm , th en ch an g e th e d e cim a l to a p e rce n t.
U n it 3 P e rc en t 19

T o ch a n g e a fra c tio n to a p er cen t:

1 . C h a n g e th e frac tio n to a d ec im al (d iv id e th e d en o m in a to r in to th e n u m era to r).

2 . C h a n g e th e d ecim al to a p e rce n t.

E x a m p le: .7 5
3 S o lu tio n a ) D iv id e: 4 3 .0 0
1. C hange to a p e rcen t.
4 28
20
20
0
T o ch a n g e a p er ce n t to a fra ctio n o r m ix ed n u m b er :

1 . W rite th e p erce n t a s a fractio n w ith d en o m in ato r 1 0 0 an d d ro p th e % sig n .

2 . R ed u ce th e frac tio n .

E x a m p les:

1 ) C h an g e 7 1 % to a frac tio n . 2 ) C h a n g e 6 0 % to a fra ctio n .

4
60 3 . 20 3
29 60% = = . =
1 100 5 20 5
7 1 29
1 4 4 29 . =
7 % = = =
4 100 100 4 100 400

3 .4 T Y P E S O F P E R C E N T P R O B L E M S

C o n sid e r th e se n te n ce
3 5 % o f 8 0 is 2 8 .
W e w a n t to tra n sla te th e se n ten ce in to an eq u atio n as fo llo w s:

35% of 80 is 28

R a te tim e s B a se = A m ount
or or
p erce n t p e rc en tag e
U n it 3 P e rc e n t 20
T h is b a sic re la tio n sh ip h o ld s fo r th e th re e ty p e s o f p ro b le m re la te d to p e rc e n t.

R = R a te o r P e rc e n t (a s a d e c im a l o r fra c tio n )
B = B a se (n u m b e r w e a re fin d in g a p e rc e n t o f)
A = A m o u n t o r P e rc e n ta g e (a p a rt o f th e B a s e )
“ o f” m e a n s tim e s (m u ltip ly )
“ is ” m e a n s =
T h e re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n A , B , a n d R is

R x B = A

T h e e q u a tio n : R x B = A
H a s th re e q u a n titie s in it. F in d in g th e v a lu e o f o n e q u a n tity w h e n th e o th e r tw o a re k n o w n
c o rre sp o n d s to o n e o f th e th re e ty p e s o f p e r c e n t p r o b le m .

T h e r e a r e th r e e b a sic ty p e s o f p r o b le m u s in g p e r c e n t.

T ype 1 F in d in g a p e rc e n t o f a n u m b e r:

W h a t is 45% of 70?

A = 0 .4 5 x 70
A = R x B
T ype 2 F in d in g a n u m b e r k n o w in g th a t a p e rc e n t o f th a t n u m b e r is a c e rta in a m o u n t:
3 0 % o f w h a t n u m b e r is 18?

0 .3 0 x B = 18
R x B = A

T ype 3 F in d in g th e p e rc e n t o f a n u m b e r re p re se n te d b y a c e rta in a m o u n t:
W h a t p e rc e n t o f 8 4 is 1 6 .8 ?

R x 8 4 = 1 6 .8
R x B = A
U n it 3 P e rc e n t 21
R e m e m b e r:
a) “ o f” m e a n s to m u ltip ly .
b) “ is” m e a n s = ; a n d
c) T h e p e rc e n t is c h a n g e d to d e c im a l o r fra c tio n fo rm .
E x a m p le s: P ro b le m T y p e 1
1) W h a t is 4 5 % o f 7 0 ? G iv e n : F o rm u la :
R = 0 .4 5 A= R x B
A = 0 .4 5 x 7 0 B = 70
F in d : A A = 0 .4 5 x 7 0
A = 3 1 .5 = 3 1 .5
S o , 3 1 .5 is 4 5 % o f 7 0 .

E x a m p le : P ro b le m T y p e 2
1 ) 3 0 % o f w h a t n u m b e r is 1 8 ?

.3 0 x B = 18

H e re th e c o e ffic ie n t o f B is .3 0 a n d b o th sid e s o f th e e q u a tio n a re to b e d iv id e d b y .3 0 .

.3 0 x B = 1 8 A= R x B R = .3 0
18 A = 18
.3 0 x B = A
.3 0 B =
.3 0 R
B = 60 S o , 3 0 % o f 6 0 is 1 8 .

E x a m p le : P ro b le m T y p e 3
1 ) W h a t p e rc e n t o f 8 4 is 1 6 .8 ? A= R x B B = 84
A = 1 6 .8
A
R x 8 4 = 1 6 .8 R =
B
R x 8 4 = 1 6 .8
R x 84 1 6 .8
=
84 84 S o , 2 0 % o f 8 4 is1 6 .8 .
R = .2 = 2 0 %
E n d o f U n it 3 - P e rc e n t
Unit 3 Percent 22

SOLVING PROBLEM
Percentage in Practical Application

1. A machine produces 76 pieces when when operating at 80% of its capacity. How many
pieces can be produced when the machine is operating at full capacity.

2. A welder orders 180 square meters of steel plate. If 85 square meters are delivered, what
percent of the order is received?

3 A carpenter estimates that a job requires 550 board feet of lumber. An additional 15% is
allowed for waste. How many board feet are allowed for waste?

4. A baker prepares a 130-pound batch of bread dough and uses 120 pounds of dough.
What percent of the batch is used?

5. A mason lays 72 feet of sidewalk which represent 40% of the total job. What is the total
length, in feet, of the completed sidewalk?

Determine percentage, percent (rate), or base.

6. 37 1 % of what number is 300?

2

7. % of 80 is 9.6.

1
8. 24 is 33 % of
3

9. 9 is 15% of what number

10. 15% of is 13.5

 23

SECTION 1 - FUNDAMENTALS OF GENERAL MATHEMATICS

UNIT 4

MEASUREMENT

OBJECTIVE:
After studying this lesson the cadets should be able to:
Solve measure problems by applying the principles of measure.

4.1 LENGTH AND PERIMETER METRIC SYSTEM

About 90% of the people in the world use metric system of measurement. The United State
is the only major industrialized country still committed to the U.S. Customary System
(formerly called English System). Even in the United State, the metric system has been used
for years in such fields as medicine, science, and military activities.
The meter is the basic unit of length in metric system. Smaller and larger units are named
by putting a prefix in front of the basic unit, for example, centimeter and kilometer. The
prefixes we will use are, from larger to smallest size.

Kilo
hecto
deka
deci
centi
milli

Table 4.1 Metric Prefixes and Their Values

PREFIX VALUE

Milli 0.001 - thousandths

centi 0.01 - hundredths
deci 0.1 - tenths
basic unit 1 - ones
deka 10 - tens
hecto 100 - hundreds
kilo 1000 - thousands
U nit 4 - M easurem ent 24

T ab le 4.2 M easu res of L en gth

1 m illim eter (m m ) = 0.001 m eter

1 centim eter (cm ) = 0.01 m eter
1 decim eter (dm ) = 0.1 m eter
1 m eter (m ) = 1.0 m eter
1 dekam eter (dam ) = 10 m eters
1 hectom eter (hm ) = 100 m eters
1 kilom eter (km ) = 1000 m eters

C H A N G IN G M E T R IC M E A S U R E S
1. T o change to a m easure to:
O ne unit sm aller, m ultiply by 10. 3 cm = 30 m m
T w o units sm aller, m ultiply by 100. 5 m = 500 cm
T hree units sm aller, m ultiply by 1000. 14 m = 14 000 m m
on so on.

2. T o change to a m easure to:

O ne unit larger, divide by 10. 50 cm = 5 dm
T w o units larger, divide by 100. 50 cm = 0.5 m
T hree units larger, divide by 1000. 13 m m = 0.013 m

EX A M PLE: S M A L L E R U N IT S L A R G E R U N IT S

1) 42 m = 420 dm = 4200 cm = 42 000 m m

2) 17.3 m = 173 dm = 1730 cm = 17 000 m m

L A R G E R U N IT S S M A L L E R U N IT S

3) 6 m = 0.6 dam = 0.06 hm = 0.006 km

4) 112 m = 11.2 dam = 1.12 hm = 0.112 km
U n it 4 - M e a su re m e n t 25
G e o m e tric fig u re s a n d th e re la te d fo rm u la s fo r p e rim e te r p ro v id e u s e fu l a p p lic a tio n s o f
m e a s u re m e n ts o f le n g th .

P e r im e te r : T o ta l d ista n c e a ro u n d a p la n e g e o m e tric fig u re .

C ir c u m fe r e n ce : P e rim e te r o f a c irc le .
R a d iu s : T h e d ista n c e fro m th e ce n te r o f a c irc le to a p o in t o n th e c irc le .
D ia m e te r : D ista n c e fro m o n e p o in t o n a c irc le to a n o th e r p o in t o n th e c irc le m e a su re d
th ro u g h th e c e n te r.
c
S ix g e o m etric fig u re s a n d th e fo rm u la s fo r fin d in g th e ir p e rim e te rs a re s h o w n h e re .

s w a

s l b
S q u a re R e c ta n g le P a ra lle lo g ra m
P = 4s P = 2l + 2w P = 2b + 2a

r
a c a d
d

b C irc le b
T ria n g le C = 2r T ra p e z o id
P=a+b+c C = d P=a+b+c+d
N o te :  is th e sy m b o l u s e d fo r th e c o n sta n t n u m b e r 3 .1 4 1 5 9 2 6 5 3 5 . . . . . T h is c o n s ta n t
is a n in fin ite d e c im a l w ith n o p a tte rn its d ig its. F o r o u r p u rp o se s, w e w ill u se   3 .1 4
is o n ly a n a p p ro x im a tio n to  .
E x a m p le s:
1 ) F in d th e p e rim e te r o f a re c ta n g le w ith le n g th 2 0 c m a n d w id th 1 5 c m .
S o lu tio n
S k e tc h th e fig u re first
P = 2l + 2w w = 15 cm

P = 2 . 20+ 2 .15

P = 40 + 30 = 70 cm l = 20 cm
U n it 4 - M easu rem en t 26

2) F in d th e circum feren ce of a circle w ith d iam eter 3 m .

S olution
S ketch th e fig ure first
C = d 3m
C = 3 .14 (3 ) = 9.4 2 m

3 ) F in d th e perim eter of a trian gle w ith sid es o f 4 cm , 0 .7 d m , an d 8 0 m m . W rite y o ur

answ er in m illim eters.
S olu tio n
S ketch th e fig u re and ch an g e all the u n its to m illim eters.

P=a+b+c 4 cm = 40 m m 0.7 d m = 7 0 m m

P = 40 + 70 + 80
80 m m
P = 1 90 m m

4 .2 A R E A M E T R IC S Y S T E M

A rea is a m easu red of the interior, o r enclo su re, o f a su rface. F o r ex am p le, th e tw o rectan g les
in fig u re 4 .1 hav e d ifferent areas because th ey h ave different am ou n ts o f in terio r sp ace, o r
d ifferen t am o un ts of space are en closed b y the sid es of th e fig ures.

T h ese tw o rectang les h ave differen t areas

F igu re 4 .1

A rea is m easu red in squ are un its. A sq uare th at is 1 centim ete rs lo ng o n each side is said to
hav e an area of 1 squ are cen tim eters, o r th e area is 1 cm 2 . A rectang le th at is 7 cm o n on e
sid e an d 4 cm on th e o th er sid e enclo ses 2 8 sq uares th at h ave area 1 cm 2 . S o th e rectan gle
is said to hav e an area o f 28 sq uare cen tim eters or 2 8 cm 2 . (fig ure 4 .2 )
U n it 4 - M e a s u re m e n t 27
U n it 4 - M ea su rem en t 28
c

r
h . h

b b
T ria n g le C ircle
T rap ezo id
A = ½ bh A =  r2
A = ½ h (b + c)
E x a m p les:
1 ) F in d th e a rea o f the fig u re sh o w n h ere w ith th e in d ica te d d im e n sio n s.

2 cm

2 cm

1 cm
3 cm
S o lu tio n
T h ere are tw o trian g les a n d o n e rectan g le .
R e cta n g le L arg e r T ria n g le S m a ller T rian g le
A= lw A = ½ bh A = ½ bh

A= 2 . 3 = 6 cm 2 A= ½ . 3.2 = 3 cm 2 A= ½ . 2. 1 = 1 cm 2

T o ta l a rea = 6 cm 2 + 3 c m 2 + 1 c m 2 = 1 0 c m 2

2 ) F in d th e a rea o f the w ash e r (sh a d e d p o rtio n ) w ith d im en sio n s as sh o w n (   3 .1 4 ).

2 mm
5 mm
C ircle
A =  r2
S o lu tio n
S u b tra ct th e area o f th e in sid e (sm a ller) circle fro m th e a rea o f th e o u tsid e (larg e r) c ircle .
U n it 4 - M e asu re m e n t 29

L a rg e r C irc le S m a lle r C irc le A re a o f w a sh e r

A =  r2
A =  r2 A = 7 8 .5 0 m m 2 .
A = 3 .1 4 (2 2 ) A = 1 2 .5 6 m m 2 .
A = 3 .1 4 (5 2 )
A = 3 .1 4 (4 )
A = 3 .1 4 (2 5 ) 6 5 .9 4 m m 2 .
A = 1 2 .5 6 m m 2 .
A = 7 8 .5 0 m m 2 .

4 .3 V O L U M E M E T R IC S Y S T E M

V o lu m e is a m e a su re o f th e sp a c e e n c lo se d b y a th re e -d im e n sio n a l fig u re . T h e v o lu m e o r
sp a c e c o n ta in e d w ith in a c u b e th a t is 1 c m o n e a c h e d g e is o n e c u b ic c e n tim e te r , o r 1 c m 3 .
A s sh o w n in fig u re 4 .6 . A c u b ic c e n tim e te r is a b o u t th e siz e o f a su g a r c u b e .

F ig u re 4 .6
A re c ta n g u la r so lid th a t h as e d g e o f c m a n d 2 c m a n d 5 c m h a s a v o lu m e o f 3 c m x 2 c m
x 5 c m = 3 0 c m 3 . W e c a n th in k o f th e re c ta n g u la r so lid a s b e in g th re e lay e rs o f te n c u b ic
c e n tim e te rs, a s sh o w n in fig u re 4 .7 .

F ig u re 4 .-7
U n it 4 - M e asu rem en t 30

If a cu b e is 1 d ec im eter a lo n g each e d g e, th en th e v o lu m e o f th e cu b e is 1 cu b ic d e cim e ter

( o r 1 d m 2 .) In term s o f ce n tim e ters, th is sam e cu b e h as v o lu m e
1 0 cm x 1 0 c m x 1 0 cm = 1 0 0 0 c m 3 .
T h at is sh o w n in fig u re 4 8

1 0 cm
1 0 cm or 1 dm
or 1 dm

1 liter = 1 0 0 0 cm 3 = 1 d m 3 . 1 0 cm
or 1 dm

F ig u re 4 .8

L IQ U ID V O L U M E
L iq u id v o lu m e is m ea su red in liters ( ab b rev iated L ). Y o u a re p ro b a b ly fam iliar w ith 1 L
a n d 2 L b o ttle s o f so d a o n y o u r g ro ce r’s sh e lf. A lite r is a v o lu m e en clo se d in a cu b e th a t
is 1 0 c m o n ea ch ed g e. S o, 1 liter is eq u al to
1 0 c m x 1 0 cm x 1 0 cm = 1 0 0 0 cm 3 . o r 1 lite r = 1 0 0 0 cm 3

T h at is, th e c u b ic b o x sh o w n in fig u re 4 .9 w o u ld h o ld 1 liter o f liq u id .

T h e p re fix es k ilo -, h ecto -, d ek a -, c en ti-, an d m illi- all in d ic ate th e sam e p a rts o f a liter as th ey
d o o f th e m e ter.
T a b le 4 .5 M ea su re s o f L iq u id V o lu m e
1 m illim ete r (m l) = 0 .0 0 1 liter
1 liter (L ) = 1 .0 lite r
1 h e cto lite r (h L ) = 1 0 0 liters
1 k ilo liter (k L ) = 1 0 0 0 liters
U n it 4 - M e a su re m e n t 31

T a b le 4 .6 E q u iv a le n t M e a su r e s o f V o lu m e
1000 m L = 1 L 1 m L = 1 cm 3.
1000 m L = 1 kL 1 L = 1 dm 3.
10 hL = 1 kL 1 kL = 1 m 3.

T h e re is a n in te re stin g “ c ro sso v e r” re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n liq u id v o lu m e m e a s u re s a n d c u b ic

v o lu m e m e a su re s. S in c e
1 L = 1000 m L and 1 L = 1 0 0 0 c m 3.
W e have

1 m L = 1 c m 3.
A lso ,
1 kL = 1000 L = 1 000 000 cm 3 and 1 000 000 cm 3 = 1 m 3.
T h is g iv e s
1 k L = 1 0 0 0 L = 1 m 3.
E x a m p le s:
1) 6000 m L = 6 L 3 ) 3 .2 L = 3200 m L
2) 60 hL = 6 kL 4 ) 6 3 7 m L = 0 .6 3 7

F iv e g e o m e tric so lid s a n d th e fo rm u la s fo r th e ir v o lu m e s a re sh o w n h e re .

h h h
V = lw h

w r
w
l l
R e c ta n g u la r so lid R e c ta n g u la r p y ra m id R ig h t c irc u la r c y lin d e r
1 V = r2h
V= lw h
3
U n it 4 - M easu rem e n t 32

1 r
h V=  r 2h 4
3 V=  r 3h
3
r

R ig h t circu lar c o n e S p h e re

E x am p le: F in d th e v o lu m e o f th e so lid w ith d im en sio n s in d icated . (U se   3 .1 4 ).

S o lu tio n : O n to p o f th e cy lind er is a h em isp h ere (h alf a sp h e re). F in d th e v o lu m e o f th e
cy lin d e r an d th e h em isp h ere a n d a d d th e resu lts.

C y lin d er H em isp h ere

V =  r2h V =
1 . 4  r3
2 3
V = 3 .1 4 (5 2 ) )(3 )
1
V = 2 3 5 .5 cm 3 . V = (3 .1 4 )(5 3 )
2
= 2 6 1 .6 7 cm 3 .

T o tal V o lu m e = 2 3 5 .5 cm 3 + 2 6 1 .6 7 c m 3 .

= 4 9 7 .1 7 cm 3 (o r 4 9 7 .1 7 m L )

4 .4 M A S S (W E IG H T ) M E T R IC S Y S T E M

M a ss is th e a m o u n t o f m a terial in an o b jec t. R eg a rd less o f w h ere th e o b ject is in sp a ce, its

rem ain s th e sam e . (S ee fig u re 4 .9 )

W eig h t is th e fo rce o f th e E arth ’s g rav itatio n a l p u ll o n th e o b ject. T h e farth er a n o b ject is

fro m E a rth , th e le ss th e g rav itatio n al p u ll o f th e E arth . T h u s, an astro n au ts ex pe rie n c e
w e ig h tless in sp ac e, b u t th eir m ass is u n ch a ng ed .
U n it 4 - M e a su re m e n t 33

F ig u re 4 .9

B ec a u se m o st o f u s d o n o t stra y fa r fro m th e E a rth ’s su rfa c e , in th is te x t w e ig h t a n d m a s s

w ill b e u se d in te rc h a n g e a b ly . T h u s, a M a ss o f 2 0 k ilo g ra m s w ill b e sa id to w e ig h t 2 0 k g .
T h e b a sic u n it o f m a ss in th e m e tric s y ste m is th e k ilo g ra m , a b o u t 2 .2 p o u n d s. In so m e
fie ld s, su c h a s m e d ic in e , th e g ra m (a b o u t th e m a ss o f a p a p e r c lip ) is m o re c o n v e n ie n t a s a
b a sic u n it th a n th e k ilo g ra m .

L a rg e m a ss e s o f m a s s su c h a s lo a d e d tru c k s a n d ra ilro a d c a rs, a re m e a su re d b y th e m e tric

to n (1 0 0 0 k ilo g ra m s o r a b o u t 2 2 0 0 p o u n d s ). S e e ta b le 4 .7 a n d 4 .8 )

T a b le 4 .7 M e a su r e s o f M a ss T a b le 4 .8 E q u iv a le n t M e a su r e s o f M a ss

1 m illig ra m (m g ) = 0 .0 0 1 g ra m 1000 m g = 1g
1 c e n tig ra m (c g ) = 0 .0 1 g ra m 1000 g = 1 kg
1 d e c ig ra m (d g ) = 0 .1 g ra m 1000 kg = 1t
1 g ra m (g ) = 1 .0 g ra m 0 .0 0 1 g = 1 mg
1 d e k a g ra m (d a g ) = 1 0 g ram s 0 .0 0 1 k g = 1g
1 h e c to g ra m (h g ) = 1 0 0 g ra m s 0 .0 0 1 t = 1 kg
1 k ilo g ra m (k g ) = 1 0 0 0 g ram s 1 t = 1000 kg = 1 000 000 g = 1 000 000 000 m g
1 m e tric to n (t) = 1 0 0 0 k ilo g ra m s

E x a m p le s:
1 . 2 3 m g = 0 .0 2 3 g 4. 60 m g = 0 .0 6 g

2. 6 g = 6000 m g 5 . 1 3 5 m g = 0 .1 3 5 g

3. 49 kg = 49 000 g 6 . 5 7 0 0 k g = 5 .7 t
U n it 4 - M e a su re m e n t 34

4 .5 U .S . C U S T O M A R Y S Y S T E M

In the U .S. custo m ary system (form erly the E nglish system ), th e units are not
system atically related as are the units in the m etric system . H is torically som e o f the
units w ere associated w ith parts of th e body, w hich w ould v ary from person to p erson.
For exam ple, a foo t w as th e length of a person's foot, an d a yard w as the distance from
the tip of on e's no se to th e tip of one's fingers w ith arm ou tstretched. A king m ig ht
dictate h is ow n foot to be the official "fo ot," but, of cou rse, the next king m ight h ave a
differen t sized foot.
T here is consid erably m ore stability now because the official w eights and
m easures are m o nitored by the governm ent.
J In this section w e w ill discuss the com m on units for length: area, liquid volum e,
w eight, and tim e, and ho w to find equivalent m easures. The b asic relationships are
listed in T able 10.1. T h e m easures oftim e are univ ersal.
T o ch ang e units, you m u st either h av e a table of equivalent values w ith you or
m em orize the basic equiv alent values. M ost people know som e of these values bu t not
all.
T here are several m ethods used to change from o ne u nit to another. O ne is to use
proportions and solve these proportions; an other is to substi tute ratios (com m o nly
used in science courses); and another is to substitute equiv alent v alues fo r ju st one unit
and m ultiply. W e w ill illustrate the third technique because it is p robably the sim plest .

T a b le 4 .1 0 U .S . C u s to m a ry U n its o f M e a su re

L e n g th
1 fo o t (ft) = 1 2 in c h e s (in .) 1 y a rd (y d ) = 3 ft
1 m ile (m i) = 5 2 8 0 ft
W e ig h t
1 p o u n d (lb ) = 1 6 o u n c e s (o z )
1 to n (t) = 2 0 0 0 Ib

L iq u id V o lu m e
1 p in t (p t) = 1 6 flu id o u n c e s (fl o z ) 1 q u a rt (q t) = 2 p t = 3 2 fl o z
1 g a llo n (g a l) = 4 q t

T im e
1 m in u te (m in ) = 6 0 s e c o n d s (s e e )
1 h o u r (h r) = 6 0 m in
1 day = 24 hr
U n it 4 - M e a su re m e n t 35
E x a m p le s:
C o n v ert th e fo llo w in g m ea su res as in d ic ate d
1. 4 ft = in .

S o lu tio n
T h in k o f 4 ft a s 4 (1 ft) a n d re p la ce 1 ft w ith 1 2 in .
4 ft = 4 ( 1 ft) = 4 (1 2 in .) = 4 8 in .

2. 6 ft = in .
S o lu tio n
6 ft = 6 (1 ft) = 6 (1 2 in .) = 7 2 in .

3. 3 5 in . = in .
S o lu tio n
In th is c a se , c h a n g in g fro m sm a ller to a larg e r u n it, a fra ctio n is n ec e ssa ry . W e k n o w
1 ft = 1 2 in .

1 ft 1 2 in 1
So, = or ft = 1 in .
12 12 12

1
N ow , 3 6 in . = 3 6 (1 in .) = 3 6 ft = 3 ft
12
4. 1 2 ft = yd
S o lu tio n
1 yd.
S in ce 3 ft = 1 y d , w e h a v e 1 ft =
3

So, 1 2 (1 ft) = 1 2 1 y d . = 4 yd
3
5. 6 qt = pt
S o lu tio n

6 q t = 6 ( 1 q t) = 6 (2 p t) = 1 2 p t
U nit 4 - M easu rem ent 36
E xam ples:
C onv ert the fo llow ing m easures as in dicated
6. 2.5 lb = oz.

S olution

2.5 lb = 2 .5(1 lb) = 2 .5(16 o z) = 40 oz

7. 36 hr = d ays
S olution
6 ft = 6 (1 ft) = 6(12 in.) = 72 in.

8. 35 hr. = day s.
S olution
1 day
S ince 24 h r = 1 d ay, w e know 1 h r =
24
S ub stitu ting,
1 1
36 hr = 3 6(1 hr) = 3 6 d ay = 1 D ay s or 1.5 days
24 2

9. 3 hr = sec

S o lution

In th is case, tw o su bstitu tion are m ade. F irst, change hours to m in utes, then chan ge
m in utes to secon ds.

3 hr = 3( 1 hr) = 3(60 m in ) = 1 80 m in

1 80 m in = 180 (1 m in) = 1 80(60 sec) = 10,80 0 sec

S o, 3 hr = 1 0,800 sec
Unit 4 - Measurement 37

4.6 DENOM ONATE NUM BERS

Numbers with no units of measure attached are called abstract numbers. Numbers with
units of measure attached are called denominate numbers. The numbers discussed in this
section were all denominate numbers. In this section we will do more than just convert
from one unit to another. Here we will discuss:

a) Mixed denominate numbers (denominate numbers with two or more units)

b) Adding denominate numbers;
c) Subtracting denominate numbers.

Examples of mixed denominate numbers that we commonly use are 5 ft 8 in.; 3lb 4 oz
and 1 hr 45 min

W ith mixed numbers, we make sure that the fraction part is less than 1. Thus, we write
1 3
5 , not 4 . Similarly, in simplified mixed denominate numbers, the number of the
2 2
Smaller unit is less than 1 of the larger unit. The following examples illustrate the technique
for simplifying mixed denominate numbers.

EXAMPLES:
1. 3 ft 14 in 2. 5 lb 30 oz

Solution Solution
Since 14 in. Is more than 1 ft, we write Since 30 oz. Is more than 1 lb, we write

3 ft 14 in = 3 ft + 12 in + 2 in. 5 lb 30 oz = 5 lb + 16 oz + 14 oz.

= 3 ft + 1 ft + 2 in. = 5 lb + 1 lb + 14 oz.

= 4 ft + 2 in. = 6 lb + 14 oz.

= 4 ft 2 in = 6 lb 14 oz.
U n it 4 - M ea su re m en t 38
EX A M PLES:
3. 2 h r 70 m in
S o lu tion
S ince 7 0 m in . Is m o re th an 1 hr, w e w rite

2 h r 7 0 m in = 2 h r + 6 0 m in + 1 0 m in .

= 2 h r + 1 h r + 1 0 m in .

= 3 hr + 10 m in.

= 3 h r 10 in

U n derstan d ing ho w to sim p lify m ix ed nu m b ers h elp s in b oth add in g an d su btractin g su ch

n um b ers. L ik e d eno m in ate nu m b ers are den o m in ate nu m bers w ith th e sam e u n its. F or
ex am ple, 5 ft 1 0 in. an d 2 ft 3 in. are lik e d en o m inate nu m b ers. A lso, 3 h r 5 m in and
4 h r 15 m in are like d enom ina te nu m b ers.

T o a d d lik e d en om in ate n u m b ers:

1. W rite the n um b ers in colum n form so th at lik e u nits are alig ne d.

2. A d d the n u m bers in e ach co lu m n.
3. S im plified the resultin g sum if n ec essa ry.

E X A M P L E : A d d th e fo llow in g lik e d en om inate nu m bers and sim p lify th e su m if n ecessary .

1. 2 ft 2 in 3. 3 g al 2 qt
2 ft 8 in 1 g al 3 qt
+ 5 ft 5 in 5 g al 2 qt
10 ft 15 in = 1 0 ft + 12 in + 3 in 9 g al 7 q t = 9 g al + 4 qt + 3 qt
= 1 2 ft 3 in. = 1 0 g al 3 q t

2. 2 h r 1 5 m in
4 h r 5 0 m in
6 h r 6 5 m in = 6 h r + 60 m in + 5 m in
= 7 h r 5 m in
Unit 4 - Measurement 39

To subtract like denominate numbers:

1. Write the numbers in column form so that like units are aligned.
2. If necessary for subtraction, borrow 1 of the larger units and rewrite the top
number.
3. Subtract the like units.

EXAMPLE: Subtract the following like denominate numbers.

1. 8 lb 14 oz
3 lb 10 oz
5 lb 4 oz

2. 6 ft 5 in. Here 5 in. is smaller than 8 in., and we cannot subtract. So, borrow
2 ft 8 in. 1 ft = 12 in from 6 ft.
6 ft 5 in. = 5 ft 17 in. (12 + 5 in = 17 in)
2 ft 8 in = 2 ft 8 in.
3 ft 9 in.

3. 13 hr 20 min Here 20 min is smaller than 50 min, and we cannot subtract.

10 hr 50 min So, borrow 1 hr = 60 min from 13 hr.

13 hr 20 min = 12 hr 80 min (60 min + 20 min = 80 min)

10 hr 50 min = 10 hr 50 min
2 hr 30 min
Unit 4 - Measurement 40

4.7 U.S. CUSTOMARY AND METRIC EQUIVALENTS

In this section we will discuss equivalent measures between the metric system and the U.S.
customary system.

Temperature: U.S. Customary measure is in degrees Fahrenheit ( 0 F)

Metric measure is in degrees Celcius ( 0 C)

The two scales are shown here on thermometers. Approximate conversions can be found by
reading along a ruler or the edge of a piece of paper held horizontally across the page.
U nit 4 - M easurem en t 41

EX A M PLES:
1. H old a straight edge h orizon tally acro ss the tw o th erm om eters an d you w ill read:

1 00 0 C = 212 0 F w ater boils at sea level

40 0 C = 105 0 F ho t d ay in th e desert
20 0 C = 68 0 F com fortable room tem p eratu re
T w o form ulas that giv e ex act con version s are giv en here.

F = F ahren heit tem perature and C = C elciu s tem perature.

5 (F - 32) 9. C
C = F = + 32
9 5
A calcu lato r w ill give answ ers accurate to 8 dig its. A nsw er that are n ot exact m ay be
roun ded o ff to w h atev er place of accuracy you cho ose.

2. L et F = 86 0 and find th e eq uivalent m easu re in C elcius

S olution

(86 - 32) 5(54)

C = = = 30
9 9

86 0 F = 30 0 C

3. L et C = 40 0 and co nvert th is to d eg rees F ahrenheit

S olution

9 . 40
F = + 32 = 7 2 + 3 2 = 104
5
40 0 C = 10 4 0 F

In this tab les of L ength E quivalen ts, A rea E qu ivalen ts, and V o lum e E qu ivalen ts (T ab les
1 0.2 an d 10 .5), the equivalent m easures are ro un ded off. A n y calcu latio n w ith these m easure
(w ith or w itho ut a calculator) canno t be any m ore accurate that the m easure in the table.
T able 10 .2 sh ow s som e length equiv alents.
U nit 4 - M easu rem ent 42

T ab le 10.2 L en gth E q u iv alents

U .S T O M E T R IC M E T R IC T O U .S .
1 in. = 2.54 cm (ex act) 1 cm = 0 .394 in.
1 ft = 0.305 m 1 m = 3.28 ft
1 yd = 0.915 m 1 m = 1.09 yd
1 mi = 1.61 km 1 km = 0.62 mi

In the exam ples u se T able 10.2 to co nvert m easurem ents as ind icated.

E X A M PL E S :

1. 6 ft = cm

6 ft = 72 in. = 72 (2.54 cm ) = 183 cm (rou nded off)

or 6 ft = 6 (0.305 m ) = 1.83 m = 183 cm

2. 25 m i = km

25 m i = 25(1.61 km ) = 4 0.25 km

3. 30 m = ft

30 m = 30(3.28 ft) = 98.4 ft

4. 10 km = mi

10 km = 1 0(0 .62 m i) = 6.2 m i

5. 5.2 cm = in.

5.2 cm = 5.2 (0.394) = 2.048

U nit 4 - M easurem ent 43

T able 10.3 A rea E quivalents

U .S TO M E TR IC M E T R IC T O U .S.
1 in 2 . = 6.45 cm 2 . 1 cm 2 = 0.155 in 2 .
1 ft 2 = 0.093 m 2 1 m2 = 10.764 ft 2
1 yd 2 = 0.836 m 2 1 m2 = 1.196 yd 2
1 acre = 0.405 ha 1 ha = 2.47 acre

In the exam ples use T able 10.3 to convert m easurem ents as indicated. (A lso see fig. 10.2)

EX A M PLE S:

1. 40 yd 2 = m2

40 yd 2 = 40(0.836 m 2 ) = 33.44 m 2

2. 5 acres = ha

5 acres = 5(0.405 ha) = 2.025 ha

3. 5 ha = acres

5 ha = 5(2.47 acres) = 12.35 acres

4. 100 cm 2 = in 2

100 cm 2 = 100(0.155 in 2 ) = 15.5 in 2

5. 5.2 cm = in.

5.2 cm = 5.2 (0.394) = 2.048

U n it 4 - M easu rem en t 44

T a b le 1 0.4 V o lu m e E q u iv a len ts
U .S T O M E T R IC M E T R IC T O U .S .
1 in 3 . = 1 6 .3 87 cm 3 . 1 cm 3 = 0 .0 6 in 3 .
1 ft 3 = 0.0 2 8 m3 1 m3 = 3 5.3 1 5 ft 3
1 qt = 0 .9 4 6 L 1 L = 1 .0 6 q t
1 g al = 3 .78 5 L 1 L = 0 .2 6 4 g al

In th e exam ples u se T ab le 1 0.4 to con ve rt m easu re m en ts as ind icated . (A lso see fig . 1 0.3 )

EXA M PLES:

1. 2 0 g al = L

2 0 g al = 2 0 (3 .7 85 L ) = 7 5 .7 L

2. 42 L = gal

4 2 L = 4 2 (0 .2 6 4 g al) = 1 1 .0 8 8 g al

o r 4 2 L = 1 1 .1 g al (ro u n d ed o ff)

3. 6 qt = L

6 qt = 6 (0 .9 4 6 L ) = 5 .6 7 65 L

or 6 qt = 5 .7 L (rou n d ed off)

4. 10 cm 3 = in 3

1 0 cm 3 = 1 0 (0 .0 6 in 3 ) = 0 .6 in 3

5. 3 in 3 = cm 3 .

3 in 3 = 3 (16 .3 8 7 cm 3 ) = 4 9 .1 6 1 cm 3
Unit 4 - Measurement 45

Table 10.5 Mass Equivalents

U.S TO METRIC METRIC TO U.S.
1 oz = 28.35 g 1 g = 0.035 oz.
1 lb = 0.454 kg 1 kg = 2.205 lb

In the examples use Table 10.5 to convert measurements as indicated. (Also see fig. 10.4)

EXAMPLES:

1. 5 lb = kg

5 lb = 5(0.454 kg) = 2.27 kg

2. 15 kg = lb

15 kg = 15(2.205 lb) = 33.075 lb

or 15 kg = 33.1 lb (rounded off)

U nit 4 - M easu rem ent 46
S O L V IN G P R O B L E M
L en gth an d P erim eter M etric S y stem in P ractical A p p lication

1) F ind th e perim eter of a rectangle w ith length 50 m and w idth 5 0 dm . W rite your answ er
in m eters.

50 dm
50 m

2) F ind th e perim eter of a triangle w ith sides of 5 cm , 55 m m , and 0.3 dm . W rite y our
answ er in centim eters.

5 cm 55 m m

0.3 dm

A rea M etric S ystem in P ractica l A p p licatio n

3 . T he section of the steel p late as show n in th e figure4 .3 is to be subd iv ided . W h at is the

total area of the steel plate? E x press your an sw er in cen tim eter.

83 m m
65 m m
42 m m

20 m m 1 2 3 68 m m

42 m m
65 m m
83 m m
F igu re 4.3
U n it 4 - M e a s u re m e n t 47
S O L V IN G P R O B L E M
V o lu m e M e tr ic S y s te m in P r a c tic a l A p p lic a tio n

F in d th e v o lu m e o f e a c h o f th e so lid s w ith th e d im e n sio n s in d ic a te d . (U s e   3 .1 4 ).

4. 5 6.

M a s s (W e ig h t) M e tr ic S y ste m

C h a n g e th e fo llo w in g u n its a s in d ic a te d .
7 ). 5 0 0 m g = -------------- g 8) 5 0 0 k g = ---------------t

U sin g E n g lis h U n its o f L in e a r M e a s u r e P r a c tic a l A p p lic a tio n

9 . A m a c h in e s s u b d iv id e s a p a rc e l o f s te e l p la te s in to 4 p a rts a s sh o w n in th e fig u re b e lo w .
D e te rm in e th e n u m b e r o f fe e t in d is ta n c e s A a n d B o f lo t # 1 .
Unit 4 - M easurement 48
SOLVING PROBLEM
Using English Units of Linear M easure Practical Application

10. The first floor plan of a ranch house is shown in the figure below. Determine distances
A, B, C, and D in feet and inches.

DENO M INATE NUM BERS

Add and simplify if necessary.

11. 5 yd 2 ft 8 in 12. 2 hr 15 min 45 sec 13. 4 gal 3 qt 10 fl oz

+ 6 yd 2 ft 10 in. + 1 hr 55 min 30 sec + 2 gal 3 qt 10 fl oz

Subtract.

14. 5 yd 1 ft 7 in 15. 9 gal 2 qt 4 fl oz

2 yd 2 ft 5 in. 5 gal 3 qt 6 fl oz
U nit 4 - M easurem ent 49

SO L V IN G P R O B L E M
U .S. C ustom ary and M etric E q uivalent

16. D eterm ine dim ension A , B , C , and D of the plate in the below . R ound the answ ers to
2 decim al places.

17. C om m on brick w eight 112 pounds per cubic foot. H ow m any cubic yards of brick
can be carried by a truck w hose m axim um carrying load is rated at 10 short tons.

18. A n assem bly housing w eights 7.50 pounds. T he w eight of housing is to be reduced
to 5.25 pounds by drilling holes in the housing. H ow m any holes m ust be drilled if
each drilled holes rem oves 1.5 ounce of m aterial.

19. A n engine running at a constant speed uses 140 m illiliters of gasoline per m inute.
H ow m any liters of gasoline are used in 7 hours?

20.. The liquid intake of a hospital patient during a specified period of tim e is as follow s:
275 m L , 150 m L , 325 m L , 275 m L , 200 m L , and 300 m L . W hat is the total liter
intake of liquid for the tim e period?
Unit 4 - Measurement 50

SOLVINGPROBLEM

U.S. CUSTOMARYANDMETRIC EQUIVALENT

Use the appropriate formula to convert the degrees as indicated

21. 250C = 0F

22. 800C = 0F

23. 1000F = 0C

24. Howmany strips, each having an area of 36 square inches, can be sheared froma sheet
of aluminumwhich measures 12 square feet?

25. An assembly consists of five metal plates. The respective areas of the plates are 650 cm2,
800 cm2, 16.3 dm2, 12 dm2, and 0.12 m2. Determine the total surface measure, in square
meters, of the five plates.