Keeping Village Poultry

A technical manual on small-scale poultry production

Network for Smallholder Poultry Development

Table of Contents

Table of contents Page

Introduction 3

1. Management 5

2. Housing 23

3. Feeding 33

4. Diseases and Health Management 50

5. Profitability and marketing of products 66

6. Animal selection and breeds 78

Annexes

A. Additional material 85
B. International Poultry Networks 88
Introduction

Need for a manual on small-scale village poultry

There is a growing attention and interest in using poultry as a tool in poverty
alleviation in villages throughout the world. However, the existing literature either
gives advice on industrial or semi-industrial production systems using exotic
(imported) breeds under highly controlled conditions, or very simple field guides
giving little useful advice on how to rear poultry at village level. The present manual
tries to gather existing knowledge on how to improve village poultry production
systems with relatively few inputs. The manual will deal with improved free-range
systems consisting of small flocks of 5- 50 local or cross-bred chickens. Small-
scale confined poultry rearing, sometimes also called small-scale industrial poultry
production will not be dealt with in the present manual. The main reason behind
this choice is the fact that many excellent practical handbooks and guidelines
dealing with such systems already exists. Please consult Annex A for titles on
manuals and books relating to small-scale industrial poultry production, as well as
references for relevant training manuals dealing with improved free-range systems.
In Annex B, you may find a short introduction to the three major international
networks on small-scale village poultry development.

The primary target group of the manual is extension workers in the government and
private sector involved with smallholder poultry development at village level. A
secondary target group is literate small-scale poultry farmers. It is the intention that
extension workers and literate farmers should themselves be able to extract the
material they need from the manual and reuse it in their specific contexts.

Need for a participatory approach

When instructing villagers in improving poultry management and production, it is
important that the training takes place in a participatory manner. Involvement and
learning are enhanced when the participants contribute to the discussion. It is
therefore essential that the participants are encouraged to come forward with their
own experiences, and that the discussions take their point of departure in records
of local practices and problems. Likewise, practical instruction, where the
participants prepare equipment out of local materials, mix local feeds etc., highly
increases their ability to remember what they have learned. The participatory
method and learning-by-doing will create a direct connection between the training
and the challenges the farmers encounter when implementing new methods. Please
consult the separate Poultry Network manual on Farmer Field Schools for more
advice and ideas on how to use the technical advice in practical training at farm
level.

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 Introduction

Introduction to technical chapters

The manual has been divided into six chapters dealing with 1) Poultry Management,
2) Housing, 3) Feeding, (4) Diseases and Health Management, 5) Profitability and
Marketing of products, and 6) Animal and breed selection. Each chapter will present
background information and possible solutions to practical problems in the every
day management of small-scale poultry production under village conditions in the
tropics.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the support and ideas given by resource
people involved in rural poultry development Worldwide. A first draft of the manual
has been tested in several countries supported by Danida through Agricultural
Sector Programme Support (ASPS) or NGO supported agricultural development
activities. In Vietnam, Dr. Jens Peter Tang Dalsgaard, ASPS livestock advisor, his
colleagues and local technical advisors have given fruitful feedback on techniques
and training issues. In Benin, Dr. Christophe Chrysostome, FSA-UAB and his
colleagues have tested several techniques and approaches and given us valuable
feedback. In Bangladesh, Burkina Faso and Senegal rural development efforts
supported by Danida under different development programmes and projects have
provided us with useful information on technical as well as training issues. In
Denmark, the Danish Poultry Network has received important critique from poultry
development experts Mr. Hans Askov Jensen, Mr. Peder Lund, Mr. Peter Wollesen
and Dr. Hans Ranvig. Finally, Dr. Emmanuelle GuerneBleich, Dr. Manuel Sanchez and
Dr. Simon Mack from AGAP/FAO gave important feedback and advice on the first
draft and supported us in terms of access to previous training material and
drawings published through the UN system.

If you find that certain paragraphs or chapters should be changed or new issues
added, please do not hesitate to contact the Network for Smallholder Poultry
Development on our e-mail: poultry@kvl.dk.

Copenhagen, Denmark
September 2004

Jens Christian Riise

Anders Permin
Charlotte Vesterlund McAinsh
Lone Frederiksen

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Chapter 1 Management

Village-based poultry production systems

Nearly all rural and peri-urban families keep a small flock of poultry. These are
mostly owned by women and managed by women and children. Profits are usually
low and products are used for home consumption, as gifts and for religious
purposes. Village-based poultry production systems may be divided into at least
three different categories (Table 1.1) i.e., A: traditional free-range, B: improved
free-range and C: small-scale confined rearing systems. The aim of this manual is
to suggest different interventions which may help the farmer to move from A to B,
that is, to improve the traditional free range system into what is often called a
“semi-scavenging system” .The small-scale confined systems, also called small-
scale industrial poultry production, has been dealt with in several other handbooks
and manuals, and will not be dealt with in this manual. Annex A gives references to
a number of valuable publications relating to small-scale confined systems.

Table 1.1 Village-based poultry production systems.

A: Traditional free-range
(1-10 birds)
Low input/low output
Majority of rural families
Owned mostly by women
Home consumption
Small cash income
Social & cultural importance
(gifts, religious)
Indigenous breeds
High mortality
No feeding (scavenging)
No vaccination
No medication
No housing
Egg production: 30-50
eggs/y/hen
Long broody periods
Growth rate = 5-10 g/day
B: Improved free-range
(5 – 50 birds)
Low input/low output
Moderate number of rural
families
Owned by women & family
Home consumption and sale
on local markets
Family income
Social importance
Micro-credit
Indigenous/ improved breeds
Moderate mortality
Local feeds (semi-
scavenging)
Newcastle Disease
vaccination
Little medication/local
remedies
Simple housing
Egg production: 50-150
eggs/y/hen
Short broody periods
Growth rate = 10-20 g/day
C: Small-scale confined
(50 – 200 birds)
High input/high output
Few rural families
Businessmen
Business income
Little social importance
Credit based on assets
Hybrids (broilers or layers)
Low mortality
Balanced feeds
Several vaccination schemes
Full medication
Houses with cages or deep
litter
Egg production: 250-300
eggs/y/hen
No broodiness
Growth rate = 50-55 g/day

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Management

Due to the complexity of the systems, there are many ways of improving poultry
production of which the most important are reflected in the titles of the chapters of
this manual, i.e. management, housing, feeding, disease and health management,
marketing and breed and animal selection.

A. Traditional free-range poultry production

The present situation in many villages is that poultry is left with little or no care.
This causes severe fall in productivity. The birds find their feed by scavenging
among the houses in the village, and in addition they might get leftovers from the
harvest and from the kitchen. As a result, feed is rarely adjusted to the needs of the
birds. Young chicks are left scavenging together with adult birds, having to compete
for feeds and becoming easy prey for predators and spread of diseases.

Very often birds do not get enough water, or they get dirty water, which may
transfer diseases. Birds are seldom put in an enclosure or a shelter to protect them
from wind and rain, or to keep them safe from predators and thieves. Nests for hens
are rarely provided, causing the birds to lay their eggs on the ground. Furthermore,
the system is usually based on hens with an ability to go broody and rear their own
chicks. This has many advantages, but the long broody periods reduce egg
production. Birds are seldom vaccinated or given medicine against diseases or
parasites, as this is not seen as being profitable. Different poultry species are kept
together and animals bought in the market or other villages are mixed with the
flocks.

Consequently many birds die very young, due to predators, diseases, starvation,
adverse weather conditions, and accidents. Often eight out of ten chicks die within
the first few months.

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Fig. 1.1 Poorly managed poultry farm

Many birds may get ill and grow slowly, producing fewer eggs and less meat. Birds
that roam everywhere may easily catch and spread diseases. When one bird has a
contagious disease, there is a greater risk that all birds in the village will get it. If
there is a general lack of essential nutrients, resistance against diseases is low.

Village poultry production often encounters problems related to lack of

organisation, which implies that local inputs, such as feed, medication, veterinary
services, and training, are rarely available locally. Without organisation and
knowledge about the potentials of village poultry, the abscense of an enabling
environment, the farmers, mostly women, receive very little support and advice from
each other or from extension workers. As a consequence village-based small-scale
poultry production remains rudimentary in most places.

Poultry behaviour
Normally village poultry form small groups consisting of 5-10 hens with one cock,
but flocks may vary from one up to around 30 adults and young growers, depending
on the feed resource base and disease level in the area. Up to this number they will
still be able to recognise each other, which will help diminishing conflicts among the
birds. Each cock or hen in the flock enjoys his or her special status in relation to the
others, implying that some have priority over others when choosing places for

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nesting, for resting, for scavenging, etc. High-ranking animals will have nice
feathers and combs, and their posture will show their dominant position. If a low-
ranking hen comes too close to the territory of a hen of higher rank, the latter will
indicate this by stretching her neck and turning her bill towards the intruder.
Normally this will suffice for the other to retire. The ranking may change according
to age, brooding, and other factors. The system of more or less stable dominance is
very practical, since the animals can be free to concentrate on finding food and
watch out for enemies.

Poultry have a very constant rhythm day in and day out. In the early morning and
late afternoon they scavenge for food. Later in the morning the hens will often lay
eggs, and after midday they will rest. When they sleep at night, they prefer to sit
high in order not to be easy preys for predators.

Fig 1.2 Dust bathing is important for poultry to keep clean.

To protect against very high or low temperatures and to be fit to escape predators,
it is important for birds to have good feathers. They therefore spend much time
cleaning and preening their feathers with their beaks. In order to protect themselves
against external parasites, they dust bathe several times each day (Fig. 1.2).

B. Improved free-range poultry rearing

A village hen often weighs no more than 1.2 – 1.5 kg at the point of lay. A village
cock weighs maybe 1.4 – 2.0 kg at age of maturity. Poultry need a good supply of
varied feed and of clean water. Depending on the time of the year they will be able
to find part of their feed by scavenging in the surroundings of the household. But
often they will need an extra supply of nutrients in order to gain weight and for
hens to lay a good quantity of eggs. Especially the small chicks need good protein-
rich feeds such as balanced feeds or from simple supplementary sources such as
maggots, snails, termites etc. (see chapter 3 for more advice on feeds and feeding).

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Often a free-range hen will lay the first eggs at the age of 22-28 weeks and lay 3-4
clutches of 10-15 eggs a year, depending on season, and in particular availability of
feeds. A hen will often find a dark, quiet place for laying eggs and for brooding. She
does not want to be disturbed by the others, and she wants to feel safe from
predators and passers-by. Unfortunately, many eggs go bad before they are
hatched, because of disturbance, lack of nests, and annoying ecto-parasites making
the hen leave the nest frequently, with resulting low hatchabililty.

After 21 days of incubation remaining eggs will hatch. Most free-range poultry
keepers will let young chicks follow the mother hen immediately after hatching. The
result is very high chick mortality during the first weeks of age, mainly due to
predation by eagles and snakes, drowning, from road accidents and general chick
exhaustion.

Flock management
In general, it only takes a little continuous attention every day to improve your free-
range poultry production. But before starting, it is highly advisable to make
calculations of whether the enterprise will be profitable or not. For further advice on
how to calculate inputs and outputs and to assess the risk, please see chapter 5 on
Marketing.

Fig. 1.3 An example of simple housing for up to 5 hens (Night basket)

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Fig. 1.4 An example of a simple house for a flock of 10-20 birds in Senegal

A simple night-basket or chicken house or (Fig. 1.3 and 1.4) will diminish the risk of
loss because of bad weather, predators and thieves. Inside the house the birds need
perches to sit on when they sleep. If you put the nests inside the house as well, it is
easy to find the eggs, and the hens will not be disturbed.

For table egg production, you only need hens. However, some farmers keep one
cock with the hens to watch for predators and to facilitate the pecking order, thus
minimizing conflicts within the flock. To produce fertile, hatchable eggs, you will
need one cock for approximately 10-15 hens. When surplus cocks reach a
marketable size, they should be sold, slaughtered, or given away as presents, to
prevent the cocks from eating the scarce feed resources, as well as fighting and
stressing the hens (Fig. 1.5). You may easily recognise young cocks by their tail
feathers, their comb, and their general (aggressive) behaviour and appearance in
comparison to the hens.

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Fig. 1.5 Undesirable cock-fighting may be avoided by selling of young cocks.

Always take into consideration that the size of the flock should match the size of
the house, the amount of feed you can afford to buy and the feed resources in the
environment (scavenging feed resource base). Additional advice on housing and
feeding may be found in chapters 2 and 3.

Do not buy animals at the market from uncontrolled sources, especially not during
periods when outbreaks of diseases are common. They may introduce contagious
diseases into your flock.

Vaccinate all birds against Newcastle Disease and other prevailing diseases such as
Fowl Pox on a regular basis to prevent high mortality. Small chicks should be
vaccinated against the common contagious diseases at the age of 2-3 weeks. Re-
vaccination should always be performed according to the instructions (see chapter 4
on disease and health management for further advice).

In case of serious diseases you should slaughter the bird (it can be eaten if cooked
well), call the veterinarian, or use drugs if you feel absolutely sure that you know the
disease. If you do not kill it the bird at once, it must be separated from the others.
Sick birds (or parts from sick birds) should be burned or buried deep enough to
avoid that dogs and other animals dig them up and spread the disease. If you have
many sick animals, do not introduce new birds, and do not vaccinate.

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Fig. 1.6 A separate shed may be necessary to isolate ill or newly purchased birds.

Before introducing new birds to your flock, you should keep them isolated for one to
two weeks (Fig. 1.6).

Fig. 1.7 Careful observation of the flock on a daily basis is important.

Daily rhythm and careful observation

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It is very important to spend some time each day observing every animal carefully
(Fig. 1.7). In this way early signs of disease, malnutrition, or other problems may be
discovered, and the necessary precautions taken. Knowing each hen will also help
you choose eggs from the best hen for hatching, so that the chicks may inherit her
qualities.

Eggs for sale or hatching should be collected in the morning and again in the
evening. In this way they will not be dirty or crack when the hens sit on them and
the hens will not be so tempted to brood as when there are many eggs in the nests.
Eggs should be stored in a cool and humid place until sale or brooding.

In order to prevent internal as well as external parasites a good hygiene is a must

(Fig. 1.8). So every day the feeders and drinkers should be washed, and the house
and the nests must be cleaned for droppings, insects etc. Put fresh straw or hay in
the nests weekly. Adding a little ash on top may help prevent parasites (see chapter
2 for nest management).

Fig. 1.8 Every day the house, feeders and drinkers should be cleaned carefully.

At least once a year, and always after serious outbreaks of diseases, the house,
perches, and nests should be disinfected by thorough cleaning and lime-washing
(fig. 1.9). Alternative ways of disinfection, e.g. smoking, may be used but are less

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effective. If problems persist in small wooden cages or houses, they should finally
be burned, and a new house built, as parasites may hide in even the smallest cracks.

Fig.1.9 Lime-washing the inside of the house for disinfection.

The birds should always have access to a dry place for dust bathing. If they prefer a
certain place, you may add a little sulphur or ash against the parasites.
You may encounter problems with hens pecking each other, but mostly in flocks
with high density, or if you keep local birds inside during the day. Wounds from
pecking should be treated immediately to avoid cannibalism in the flock.

Fig. 1.10 Pecking often occur if local birds are kept inside for days.

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It is advisable to keep records of your production. This will make it easy for you to
see successes and problems at an early stage. See chapter 5 for advice on record
keeping.

Feed and water

To produce well and have good resistance against diseases, birds need adequate
quantities of good quality feed. See Chapter 3 for more advice on feeding and
watering. Supplementary feed and clean water should be given at least early in the
morning and again in the evening when the birds are returning to the house for the
night. It is important that the feeders and drinkers are kept clean, so that infections
do not spread through dirty feed and water.

Fig. 1.11The drinker and feeder should be carefully cleaned early morning and late
evening to avoid spreading of diseases.

Young chickens should be fed separately from the adult birds (Fig. 1.20B) They will
often have a special diet, and it is best for them not to have to compete with the
adults for food. It is very important for small chicks always to have access to clean
water, as they may easily die from dehydration. There is more information on
management of young chickens later in this chapter.

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Laying hens
Hens start laying eggs at the age of 22-32 weeks, depending on the breed, their
health, and development. Often indigenous hens will start much later than imported
(exotic) breeds. Hens around 40-50 weeks of age lay the most eggs, and then
gradually their egg production decreases slowly. If a mature hen lays very few eggs,
you should sell or eat it. In small flocks, it is relatively easy to check whether the
hens are laying eggs or not (Fig. 6.4). Laying hens should have easy access to
calcium rich food that may be supplemented by calcium-rich sources such as
crushed snail or egg shells.

Provide nests in the hen house for laying. This way it is easier to find the eggs, and
they can be kept clean. In order to teach the hens to lay in the nests, you may place
a couple of eggs or stones looking like eggs in the nests. If you mark the eggs
properly, you will know which eggs are new and should be collected. When hens go
broody and sit on the eggs, they always stop laying. By collecting eggs several times
a day, you may avoid that the hens become broody. If a hen goes broody, and you
don’t want her to, separate her immediately from the rest. You may for example
isolate her in a small cage in a cool place, without access to nest material for a few
days (Fig. 1.12).

Fig. 1.12 If you do not want a hen to go broody, separate her from the rest.

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Do not hatch new chicks if you don’t have enough feed for them. If you hatch too
many chicks, they may die from starvation or malnutrition, or their resistance to
diseases may be reduced.

Natural incubation and hatching

For chickens it takes 21 days for eggs to hatch, for ducks it takes 28 days.

Eggs should be fresh before incubation. The age of eggs should be no more than 10
days, when stored at temperatures below 20º C. If the temperature is higher, the
eggs should be no more than 5 days old. To obtain the best incubation result, the
eggs selected for incubation should be of average size and normal shape for the
breed. Further, the eggs should have a smooth uncracked shell. If there are cracks
in the shell, the loss of moisture from the egg can be too high and the embryo may
die. There is also a risk of bacteria entering the egg, which may lead to unhealthy or
dead embryos. Store the eggs in a cool and humid place until incubation, for
example in a box in a hole in the floor of the coolest part of the house. Eggs for sale
may also be stored in the same place. During incubation you should always check,
which eggs are fertile and which are non-fertile. Fertile eggs very quickly develop
blood vessels, which may be seen against a sharp light from a torch (See figures
1.13 and 1.14).

a. b.

Fig. 1.13 Home-made candlers using either your hand or a wooden box, and a torch

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Fig. 1.14 Identification of infertile eggs (a), fertile eggs (b) and eggs with dead
embryos (c)

After 7-10 days of incubation the eggs can be candled and the infertile eggs and
eggs with dead embryos can be removed from the nest. Figures 1.13a-b shows two
simple candlers and figure 1.14 shows how fertile eggs, infertile eggs and eggs with
dead embryos are identified at the age of 7 days. When candling, a fertile egg has
visible blood vessels and a dark spot that is the embryo. The blood vessels can be
more or less developed depending on how strong the embryo is. If the embryo is
dead, it is seen as a ring of blood around the embryo. An infertile egg has an
enlarged air cell and the yolk causes and obvious dark area in the egg. It is
important that infertile eggs and eggs with dead embryos are removed from the
nest as they will decompose and may break and spoil the fresh eggs under
incubation.

Fig. 1.15 Bad situation for the brooding hen:

− The hen is disturbed by others.
− She does not have access to feed and water.
− The nest is full of parasites disturbing her.
− The result is few eggs being hatched and a low survivability of the hatched
chicks, who easily get ill and die.

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Fig. 1.16. A good situation for the brooding hen:

− The hen is left alone with access to feed and water.
− The nest is well-managed with clean hay and antiparasitic remedies.
− She leaves the nest only shortly to drink and feed.
− The result is a high hatchability and healthy and lively chicks with a high
survivability.

A broody hen should be separated from the flock to prevent other hens from
disturbing her (fig. 1.16). Keep the hen in a separate nest with free access to fresh
water and feed within a short distance. Provide the hen with a brooding nest or
basket big enough to contain all her eggs. Put fresh hay or straw in the nest and add
some ash to prevent parasites. Add more eggs from other nests until she has
enough according to her size.

In the dry and hot season, you may spray the breast of the hen with water to
increase the humidity around the eggs. The hen will do the work of hatching
perfectly if she has the right conditions, for example a clean and suitable nest and
quiet surroundings.

If only small quantities of chicks are to be hatched, a free-range hen is a better

brooder than an artificial incubator, as she will normally have a higher rate of
hatching (80-100%) than an incubator (60-80%).

After hatching and until the chicks are old enough to be on their own, usually
around 4 weeks of age, the hen will directly protect the chickens from adverse
weather conditions and predators by covering them with her wings. Indirectly, the
hen will protect the newly hatched chicks against diseases for the first two weeks;
and slowly transfer her natural behaviour to the chicks. Natural behaviour means
knowing how to search for food and water; which feed to take and which to avoid,
how to avoid predators by hiding or seeking shelter in bushes and trees, how to
keep healthy by dust bathing, etc.

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Management of small chickens (basket system)

In hot climates, the best and cheapest method to guard the small newly hatched
chicks is the so-called “basket system” (Fig. 1.17). Small chickens should be kept
with their mother overnight in a so-called night basket, i.e. a round conical cage
with a floor, see figure 1.3. A night basket may be made from bamboo or thin
pieces of wood. Dry cut straw, rice husk, saw dust or shavings of 8-10 cm depth can
be used as litter. In the morning, the chicks should be removed from the night
basket and kept in a day basket, which is a bottomless conical cage, see figures
1.17 and 1.18. A dry jute or straw mat should be placed in the cage if the soil is
damp or wet. The day basket should be moved to a new clean spot every day to
avoid diseases. The night basket is closed in order to prevent predators from
entering and in order to keep the hen and chicks warm at night.

Fig. 1.17 A day basket with a jute mat, a feeder and a drinker.

The basket can easily be moved around. The day basket needs to be bigger and
more open in order for the chicks to move around without the hen stepping on them
and in order to secure good ventilation. There has to be room for a small feeder and
drinker. When the weather is hot, the chicks often do not need extra heat, but they
should be protected against wind and rain.

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Fig. 1.18 Management of small chickens using the day basket system

The basket system may be used according to the following schedule pictured in fig.
1.18:

A: 0-1 week of age:

Keep the hen with the chicks from 4-7 days to protect them and to adjust the
temperature. She will know exactly how to adjust the temperature according to the
sound of the chicks. Make sure there is easy access to clean water and high-protein
feed for the chicks. Ensure that the basket is kept clean, by removing droppings and
spilled feed on a piece of paper or a woven mat placed beneath the basket.

B: 1-3 weeks of age:

Keep the chicks in the cage all the time, but let the hen out for scavenging during
the day. She should be able to hear the chicks from where she moves. If she wants
to enter the cage, she should be allowed to do so. Make sure there is easy access to
clean water and high-protein feed, and ensure that the basket is kept clean at all
times. Keep hen and chicks together during the night.

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C: 3-6 weeks of age:

Keep hen and chicks together during the night, but gradually let the chicks out for
scavenging with their mother during daytime. At first, only for a few hours during
the morning, and then gradually a little longer. Make sure that the chicks still have
easy access to clean water and high-protein feed under the basket, but that the
entrance is too small for older birds to enter. Ensure that the basket and the ground
are kept clean at all times.

D: After 6 weeks:
Remove the basket system, and let the chicks scavenge freely together with the
mother hen. Give supplementary feeding in the evening for the whole flock,
according to their needs (se chapter on feed).

Ten simple rules for better management

1. Provide simple houses or shelters and perches inside houses;
2. Use day baskets during day and night basket during night;
3. Give unlimited access to clean water;
4. Separate young chicks from adults, when they are fed;
5. Control the birds’ health daily;
6. Apply vaccines regularly according to the advice of local vaccinators or
veterinarians;
7. Isolate a bird when it becomes ill, - call the veterinary assistant or kill the
bird;
8. Kill or sell non-productive birds, i.e. cockerels and old hens that have
stopped laying;
9. Provide nests, and control nests for eggs two times a day;
10. Check the reproduction status of each hen once a month, and give extra care
to hens that are brooding.

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Chapter 2 Housing

Why should poultry have houses or shelters?

Housing is essential to protect against predators, thieves, rough weather (rain, sun,
very cold winds, dropping night temperatures) and to provide shelter for egg laying
and broody hens. A suitable or comfortable poultry house is also important for
efficient production and convenience of the poultry farmer. In the following, we will
discuss the simple guidelines for size and type of the chicken house, site selection,
and lastly the equipment needed for rearing.

Fig. 2.1 Housing should first of all protect against predators and bad weather.

Depending on availability of materials, weather, and tradition you will find different
types of poultry houses and shelters in tropical regions. Choice of chicken house
should be built upon a rationale involving an estimate of the costs, the durability,
and immediate gain of using a house for the poultry.

Fig. 2.2 Three night baskets kept in the stable during night

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Housing

The simplest and often most cost-effective housing system is the basket system
(fig. 2.2. and 1.3). Night baskets (Fig. 1.3) may be placed in a quiet and dry place in
the house or in the stables on the farm during night, either on the floor or hanging
from the roof. A night basket may hold 5-10 chickens depending on size.

If the need for a bigger and separate chicken house arises, you need to carefully
consider the site, the materials and not least the costs involved. When choosing the
right site, you should consider:

• A shady and dry place on flat ground to keep the floor dry during the rainy
season. It may be necessary to dig a drain around the house, or to raise the
ground first. Alternatively the house can be elevated from the ground as in
figure 2.3.
• A fertile well-drained soil is desired. The area must not get flooded during
heavy rains. The chickens can drown. Furthermore it is very detrimental to
have wet floors in a chicken house, it leads to many diseases. A sloping
hillside provides good drainage and affords some protection also.
• Trees and bushes close to the houses provide shade and are therefore
beneficial. Trees serve as a windbreak in the winter and for shade in the
summer and protect from flying predators.
• It is also for security reasons important to have the chicken house near the
house. You must be able to hear if chickens get disturbed at night by
predators, or a thief who wants to steal the birds.
• The orientation of a chicken house has to take into consideration the
movement of the sun and the dominating winds, making the house naturally
shaded and ventilated at certain times of the day. Select a site on which the
poultry house should face South or East in moist localities. Windows placed
on the south side of the house will be a good source of light and warmth in
winter and a good source of ventilation in summer. In a rectangular house the
end walls must face East and West. This will ensure that only the end walls
face the hot morning sun or the even hotter sun during the afternoon.

Building the house

• Always use cheap local materials like bamboo, wood, reeds, thatch grass, or
clay bricks.
• Remove the bark from the wood you use, as parasites often hide behind the
bark.

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• Clay houses should have windows. A hole in the top of the house may ensure
good ventilation. These measures will also give light, making it easier to work
in the house. However, make sure winds will ventilate the house without
making chickens or hens cold.
• During the rainy season, rain and wind may cause severe chilling.
• Heat, humidity, and harmful gasses may be considerably reduced through
good ventilation of the house or shelter. High temperatures may cause deaths
or drop in egg production, low shell quality, and reduced weight gain. A
combination of high temperatures and high humidity may kill young chicks.
• Placing perches and nests inside the house will safeguard against most
predators. It will also help to keep the legs of the chickens and the eggs
clean.
• If the nests are in a quiet place in the house, the hens will feel comfortable
and at ease.
• The best protection against diseases and parasites is a good hygiene. It is
therefore important that it is easy to clean the house or shelter. It should be
tall enough for a grown-up person to work in there. Cleaning will also be
easier if the floor in wooden houses is covered with slats.
• Make the nests and perches easy to remove when cleaning.
• Houses or shelters may be sprayed or lime washed after cleaning to disinfect
and kill parasite eggs from the walls and cracks. You may put some ashes on
the floor and in the nests to discourage parasites.
• Clear the grass and bushes for about 3 meters on all sides of the house to
keep snakes and rats away from your chickens.
• In wooden houses, use slatted, raised floors to remove droppings and avoid
predators.
• In clay houses, use wired windows to avoid predators.
• Some houses are built on poles, well above the ground to protect the
chickens from predators like dogs, rats and snakes, as well as humans.
• Build your poultry house to prevent possible injury to your birds. Remove any
sharp edged objects from the house.
• The house has to be so large that there is sufficient room for the birds, and
so that the air inside does not become too heavy with humidity and gasses. A
round or square house of 1.5-2.0 m² will hold 10-12 adult birds.

Figures 23a and b illustrates a badly and a well constructed chicken house.

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Fig. 2.3a A badly constructed chicken house is placed in the sun with a low flat
roof and no windows making it very hot and badly ventilated. It has a small door,
which makes it difficult to access and clean.

Fig. 2.3b A well-constructed chicken house is placed in the shade, has a high
roof and windows with wire mesh, providing good ventilation. The door is facing
north to avoid direct sun. The door is big enough for a person to enter to clean
the house frequently.

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Theft
Often the entrance to the chicken house is very small and not easily accessible. The
reason is that people are worried that their chickens will be stolen. There are
however, a lot of problems connected with this method of securing the chickens. It
makes cleaning and collection of eggs very difficult and it also causes bad
ventilation. The opening to the chicken house must therefore be so big that an adult
person easily can enter and work in the house. Other precautions against theft
should therefore be taken. The house should be placed near the household in order
for the owner to react on any unusual noises during night. Alternatively, a lock may
be fitted on the door.

Perches
Perches (fig. 2.4 and 2.5) are important for chickens to rest during night. Diseases
and parasites may attack poultry resting on the floor, and perches often reduce the
risk of external parasites entering the feathers at night. Each one-meter perch may
roost five adult birds. Perches are best made of bamboo or round sticks to
accommodate for the size and structure of the birds’ feet (fig. 2.5). If the sticks are
too big or too small, the birds may fall (fig. 2.4). To prevent attack of external
parasites, the perches may be treated with oil or kerosene, where the perch meets
the wall.

Fig. 2.4 Avoid using either too big or to small sticks as perches

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Fig. 2.5 Sticks should match the size of the birds’ feet

Nests
In many villages, nests are not provided for the hens and eventually the hens will lay
their eggs on the ground, in high grass or in natural shelters, where they may be
difficult to find. Some poultry farmers build nests on the ground outside the chicken
houses. This should be avoided, as eggs outside houses are more exposed to
predators and thieves. Nests should be placed inside the chicken house and
preferably above the ground. For laying you may have a battery of nests where more
hens can lay at a time (fig. 2.6).

Fig. 2.6 Battery of nests for laying hens

There must be 1 nest for every 5 hens. The nests for brooding on the other hand
must be individual, placed in a quiet and dark place, and they must be easily
removable (fig. 2.7). Once the hen is broody it can be necessary to remove her to a
different place, e.g. the farmer’s house, to avoid other hens disturbing her, or even
going broody as well.

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Fig. 2.7 Nests for broody hens should be placed in a quiet place

Simple nests may be clay pots, calabashes or baskets made of local fibres,
cardboard, or wooden boxes (fig. 2.8). Nests should be of the right size for the hen
to feel comfortable. A nest box will typically measure 30 x 30 x 30 cm. Don’t make
them too big, as the hen will not feel comfortable. A calabash or nest basket may
measure 40 x 20 x 25 cm (upper diameter x height x lower diameter). A clay pot,
more or less the same.

Fig. 2.8 Simple nests for broody hens should be easily transported

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A healthy and attractive nest for the broody hen may be prepared by following these
three steps (fig. 2.9):

1. Make sure that the pot or basket is clean and dry;

2. Fill sand mixed with ashes up to 1/3 of the depth;
3. Put clean, soft nesting material (hay or straw) on top up to 2/3 of the depth.

Fig. 2.9 Three steps in preparing a nest.

Nesting material should be changed at least once a week. You should assure that
the rim is 1/3 of the depth to make the hen feel secure, and if necessary put
“dummy eggs” ( e.g. boiled or stone eggs) in the nest, to attract a hen. Mixing
ashes, tobacco leaves or other anti-parasitic substances with the nesting material
will keep out most external parasites. External parasites in nests may reduce the
hatchability of eggs, as the hen will use too much time and energy leaving the nest,
cleaning and scratching her body, leaving the eggs cold.

Providing nests also makes it easier to collect eggs. You may avoid dirty and cracked
eggs, if the eggs are collected twice a day. Collect eggs at the same time every day,
in the morning and the evening. Removing eggs continuously is important if you
want to avoid that the hens become broody, as broody hens stop laying eggs.

Shelters for the mother hen and chicks

After hatching, it is important to keep the hen and the chicks close together in a
separate cage: the basket (see also Chapter 1, Management of small chickens –
basket system). Such a shelter should primarily protect against adult poultry
competing for feed, and against predators, and it should provide a stable
environment, sheltering from sun, rain, and wind.

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Fig. 2.10 Shelter for chicks after hatching. Place the shelter on a mat to protect
against the cold.

A shelter of basketwork with a top hole (diameter 20 cm) is useful, as feed and
water may be changed without disturbing the birds unnecessarily. It also gives the
necessary ventilation.

A woven mat on the floor may provide additional protection during cold periods.
The mat should be cleaned daily to remove droppings and leftovers from feeding
(fig. 2.10). Droppings may be recycled as manure in a vegetable garden.

Chicken runs
In some regions, chicken runs are very popular, a fenced open air space of 25 m² or
more, where poultry may be kept in protection against predators and thieves.
Fenced areas are also used for feeding, watering, observation of the flock, and
collection of eggs. 1.5 – 2 meter high walls made of clay or woven mat are
constructed as fences (fig. 2.11). A chicken run is relatively costly, but may provide
a sort of security to the farmer. It is however crucial that adult birds are left
scavenging outside during daytime in order to keep feed costs low.

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Fig. 2.11 Chicken runs may be used for feeding, watering and observation of the
flock.

Ten simple rules for good housing

1. Use baskets for night shelter and day shelter for small chicks to reduce costs
and labour involved;
2. Always use local materials to reduce costs;
3. In wooden houses, use slatted, raised floors to remove droppings and avoid
predators;
4. In clay houses, use wire netting for the windows to keep out predators;
5. Place the perches and nests inside the house, and make them removable to
facilitate cleaning;
6. Make sure winds will ventilate the house without making chickens or hens
cold;
7. Consider heavy rains and hot sun when placing the house or shelter.
8. Provide nests with clean straw, which are easy to access, clean an move.
9. Always house young chicks with their mother away from other adults.
10. Make sure that houses are easy to access and clean.

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Fig. 3.1 Supplementary feeding and water is essential to increase production

Why give supplementary feed?

Feeding is essential if you want to increase the production of meat and eggs from
poultry. Even small flocks will eventually starve during certain periods of the year, if
they are fed only leftovers and feed, they find by scavenging. Lack of feed or water
will reduce the birds’ resistance to diseases and parasites, and subsequently
increase flock mortality.

Egg production and the birds’ growth are limited by access to feed and their genetic
potential. Local birds living in the villages are normally the best converters of feed
to eggs under fluctuating environmental conditions, although their production
potential is much lower than genetically improved breeds. You may easily increase
egg production and growth of local birds by giving supplementary feeds, but also
improved breeds may perform well under village conditions, if they are given a
steady supply of feeds. However, you should always start by making calculations of
the cost-benefit and judge the risks involved (Chapter 5), before choosing the
quantity and type of feeding. Advice on feeds and feeding will be different for free-
range, improved free-range systems or small-scale confined systems of poultry
production, basically due to different economic situations. In the following, we will
focus only on improved free-range systems and discuss the importance of feed
requirements, feed types, feed mixing, and lastly needs for storing and the
equipment needed for feeding and watering.

What to feed?
The composition and availability of feeds will vary, depending on the season, site
location and farming systems. In general, poultry, as other animals, need feed

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containing energy and protein, as well as vitamins and minerals. The need for feed
will change, depending on the age and status (chicken, grower, egg layer, broody
hen) of the bird. The cheapest – and also often the best – way to supplement the
diet of your poultry, is to use local resources. However, many vitamins and nutrients
are destroyed if stored too long or under sub-optimal conditions, e.g. high humidity
and heat. Knowledge of the quality and source of different feedstuffs is thus
important, to reduce the risk of bad feeding.

If your production is based on improved breeds for egg production, different types
of commercial diets may be given: usually they are divided into three distinct
categories, with decreasing amount of protein, e.g:
A. A starters’ diet: high in protein; from hatch up to 4 to 6 weeks of age;
B. A growers’ diet: medium in protein; up to 20 weeks;
C. A layers’ diet: lower in protein; hens from 20 weeks.

If you consider buying commercial feeds, you have to calculate whether it is

profitable to do so. If the price of eggs or meat is lower than the price of feed, it
does not pay. Avoid giving commercial feeds to local breeds, as it is rarely feasible.
Only during the first four to six weeks of age, you may consider giving premixed
supplementary feed bought in the market.

Scavenging
In a free-range or improved free-range poultry rearing system, adult hens and
cocks should always be given enough time and space for finding feed in the
surroundings (scavenging). Small chicks should be kept in confinement for the first
4-6 weeks (see Chapter 1- Management). The best time for scavenging is early
morning and late afternoon, as there are most insects and less heat. The best time
for giving supplementary feed will be in the morning and in the evening, when the
birds come back to the house. Ad libitum water should be provided in shady areas
during the day to avoid heat stress.

Types of feeds
Depending on the type of feed, it will contain more or less energy and protein, as
well as vitamins and minerals (fig. 3.2).

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Fig. 3.2 Feed types split into sources of energy (a), protein (b), minerals (c) and
vitamins (d). Remember always to give free access to water.

Energy feeds
Normally, at least ¾ of a poultry diet is made of energy feeds. Energy feeds are the
most important feeds to maintain body temperature and exercise levels of the birds.
Cereals, grain, roots, and tubers are the most important energy feeds. Examples of
energy feeds are cereals like maize (corn) and its by-products (bran), sorghum
(milo), wheat and its by-products (bran, shorts, screenings), rice and its by-
products (bran, polishing), cassava root meal (farina, tapioca), malanga (taro), yam
meal, yucca meal, sweet potato meal, plantain and banana meal. Roots and tubers
should be soaked in water for 60 minutes or cooked before drying to remove
harmful substances, and the proportion in the diet in general kept below 1/10.

Fat is also a good source of energy, in particular in hot climates, as the heat
produced during metabolism is less than from traditional energy feeds, e.g. cereals.
Sources of fat are e.g.: tallow, lard, oil cake meals, poultry fat, fish oil, restaurant
grease. However, fat should only be given in small amounts, i.e. less than 1/10 of
the total diet.

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Protein
Protein is needed for growth and keeping up a good health status. Normally no
more than 1/5 of a diet is protein-rich feeds, as they are normally very expensive.
Protein may come from either animal sources or plants. Examples of protein-rich
local feeds are: Maggots, termite eggs, insects, worms, meat scraps, fish scraps, fish
meal, meat meal, bone meal, blood meal, feather meal, peas, beans, and oil cakes
from e.g. ground nuts, cotton seeds, palm kernels, and coconuts. Harmful
substances are present in some protein-rich plants, e.g. beans, and the proportion
in the diet should thus be kept low. The level depends on the type of plant, and
whether the feed is being prepared before feeding.

Minerals
Minerals are important for bone formation, eggshell formation and a good health
status. The most important minerals are calcium and phosphorous. To produce
strong shells for their eggs, laying hens need free access to calcium (limestone or
crushed shells), and adult birds are usually able to balance their intake according to
needs. If you add phosphorous rich feeds, it should be balanced with calcium, since
too high levels of one may cause deficiency of the other. Examples of sources for
minerals are: bone meal, crushed oyster shells, snail shells, and burned eggshells.
Using bone meal or eggshells is a good way of balancing the calcium and
phosphorus levels. Eggshells should always be scorched or cooked before re-use in
diets to remove any disease germs, see figure 3.3.

Fig 3.3 Scorching bones or eggs shells to produce calcium-rich bone meal

Vitamins
Scavenging birds get vitamins by eating green grass, vegetables, fresh cow dung
and through sunlight. Vitamins A, B2, and D3 are considered very important

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because many problems arise when birds lack these vitamins. Sunlight and green
grass or green fodder normally provide Vitamin A and D, whereas Vitamin B may
come from fresh cow dung. Vitamin B may also be added by giving e.g. Riboflavin
tablets. Additional vitamins may be given in very small quantities and purchased
through drug stores or feed sellers, but this is normally not needed for scavenging
poultry. Confined birds always need additional vitamins mixed into their feeds.

Simple feed mixing

It is advisable to make a semi-balanced diet for the small chicks from 0-6 weeks of
age. Locally available ingredients should be dried in the shade (the sun may destroy
important vitamins) and grounded in a mortar before mixing. Locally available
containers such as tomato tins or matchboxes may be used for easy quantification
of the different ingredients. Grams or percentages should be transferred into local
quantities for field practice. Large ready-mixed quantities should only be stored, if
adequate storage capacities are assured (see under “Twelve simple rules” in this
chapter). In general you should not store mixed feed more than a few weeks to
avoid contamination from mould, bacteria or rodents. Above 6 weeks of age, poultry
may be fed in a cafeteria system saving time and energy on mixing feeds. The
cafeteria system is described later in this chapter.

Table 3.1 Simple ration for supplementing local chicks age 0-6 weeks (total 930 g)
Ingredient Quantity
Crushed sorghum/millet grain or maize 1 tin can (1 kg tomato tin)
Wheat bran, sorghum bran or millet bran 1 tin can
Groundnut or sesame oil cake 2 match boxes
Sea shell or bone meal/salt mix 1 match box (1 salt with 13 bone meal)
Fish or blood meal 2 match boxes
Sesbania leaves 2 match boxes

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Fig. 3.4 Bone meal (see fig. 3.3.) and salt are mixed in matchboxes in a 13:1 ratio.

Termites or maggots may also be added during the first 6 weeks. Depending on the
types of crops grown in particular areas, substitutes for cereals, oil cakes etc. will
have to be found. Alternatively a chick starter ration can be used during the first 4-6
weeks of age. In this way you will ensure that the chicks are provided with
everything they need during these most vulnerable weeks.

Simple techniques for growing maggots and termites

Maggots and termites are excellent and cheap sources of protein in the improved
free-range systems. However, they will only be a supplement to other feeds. Give
the maggots or termites to the small chicks, as they have the biggest need for a
good protein source.

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Fig. 3.5 Growing maggots

Maggots may be grown by a simple technique and used to supplement the diet of
the young chicks (Fig. 3.5). Blood, offal, and cow manure are mixed in a large open
pot. The pot is filled with 1/3 water. Flies will lay their eggs in the mixture, and the
maggots will feed on it. Leave the pot open during daytime and closed during the
night. After 5-10 days (depending on temperature), when the maggots are ready to
pupae, you collect the maggots by gently pouring water into the pot. The maggots
will float and you can then wash them, and feed them directly to the birds.
Remember to place the pot away from public places, as the smell at times may be
offensive.

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Fig. 3.6 Growing termites

Fig. 3.6 shows a simple method for growing termites to be applied in dry areas. You
take a pot with a short neck and a capacity of at least 10 litres. Fill it up with cow
dung and straw, and sprinkle it all with a little water. Set the pot upside down with

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the opening on sandy soil. After one day and one night, the pot will be full of
termites and you may empty the living contents in front of the hen house in the
morning.

How much to feed?

In the free-range or improved free-range systems, the economic advantage is based
on the poultry finding a majority of their feeds scavenging the surroundings. This
so-called scavenging feed resource base (SFRB) will change over the seasons and
depend on the climate, geography and farming systems of the areas on which the
poultry scavenge for feeds. Depending on the season, the chickens may find nearly
all they need in the surroundings (e.g. during harvest) or close to nothing (during
lean season).

Table 3.2 Amount of feed given and eaten at different ages of local poultry
Age, weeks Approximate amount Approximate amount eaten per
given to each bird per day per bird (g dry weight)
day (g dry weight)
1 week 10-15 grams dry weight 12-15 grams
2 weeks 15 – 20 grams 15 – 21
3 weeks 21 – 30 grams 21 – 35
4 – 6 weeks 30-40 grams 35-50
8 weeks 30-40 grams 55-60
16 –27 30-50 grams 65-80
weeks
/grower
28 weeks 30-50 grams 100 grams
/adult

You should limit the quantity you give to local birds to no more than 30% - 50% of
their full intake as an adult (see table 3.2. for feed levels and needs). In general this
means giving maximum 30-40 g/bird/day from week 4-6 and onwards, gradually
reducing the supplementary feeding. At age 0-4 weeks, the small chicks will receive
feed according to their needs. As the birds grow, they will gradually get a smaller
portion of what they need, until they only get between 1/3 and half of their needs as
adults. In practice this means estimating the economic benefit from sale of eggs and
live birds, and the costs for medicine, housing, labour and feed, calculating the
break-even point, and learning how to reduce costs without reducing benefits (see
Chapter 5 for risk assessment and simple estimation procedures).

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To assure a stable egg and meat production, it is better to give a little feed on a
continuous basis, than to give large quantities during harvest seasons or festivals
and no feed during lean seasons. If feeds are too costly, you should consider
reducing your flock size, rather than reducing the amount of feed given to each
bird.

How to feed?
It is important to use simple local measures to administer your feeds. By using table
3.2, you can calculate how much feed to use. Fig. 3.7. shows the calculation on how
is needed per day based on a flock of 1 cock, 4 hens and 15 three week old chicks.

Table 3.3 Simple calculation on how much feed is needed per day
1 cock: 35 g. = 35
4 hens: 4 x 35 g. = 140
15 chicks: 15 x 25 g. = 375
Total: = at least 550 grammes per day

If you use a container (e.g. a tomato tin or a cup) and measure how much the
container holds when full, it is easy to calculate how many containers of feed you
need to feed every day. If the container holds 750 g of feed you will need to fill the
container only ¾ full. To keep the birds hungry for scavenging, you should give no
more than half in the morning, which is then equal to an almost half full container.
To avoid competition, you give a little more than half of this to the small chicks
under a separate shelter. Then you feed the hens and finally, before the feeder is
empty you give the cock. If you give the cock at first, he will eat too much and leave
little to the others, and you will gain very little. If the cock is hungry, he will be
better at finding feeds in the surroundings. The young chickens will need relatively
more protein in their diet than adult birds, so the best solution is to mix two
different kinds of rations for young and adult birds, respectively. If you do not want
to mix two different rations, you can alternatively give a little extra supplement of a
good protein source to the young chickens, e.g. maggots and termites (see table
3.4)

Cafeteria system
Adult birds are able to mix their own feed according to their needs. The best way to
feed Improved free-range birds above 6 weeks of age is the cafeteria system,
whereby the most common types of feeds are given in separate compartments.

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Fig. 3.7 Cafeteria system. A bamboo pole is split and feed divided into three
compartments, enabling the poultry to choose from feed ingredients according to their
needs.

In the cafeteria system, there should be at least one feeding compartment for
A. Energy rich feeds, e.g. maize, millet, sorghum.
B. Protein rich feeds, e.g. beans, peas, oil cakes, fish, meat, bone meal,
maggots, termites.
C. Mineral rich feeds, e.g. bone meal, crushed oyster shells, snail shells, burned
eggshells.

An additional compartment for oil rich feeds may be added, e.g. tallow, oil cake
meals, fish oil. By giving adult birds feeds in compartments, you can observe
feeding behaviour of your birds and avoid feeding unnecessary amounts and types
of feed. For example, during harvest seasons you may find that they feed less on
energy feeds in the evenings because there is plenty of cereal in the environment.
You may also try out alternative feeds that the birds do not find tasteful. The
cafeteria system is a good way of learning about your birds´ behaviour and taste.

Feed mixing
Mixing and formulation of poultry feeds may be based on simple assumptions about
the nutritional requirements of the birds and the content of the feedstuffs, or it may
be calculated by use of computers and of so-called Least Cost Formulation
Programmes (see reference list).

If possible, it often pays to have samples of feed ingredients analysed at a national

nutrition laboratory once or twice a year, depending on season and geographical
area. National tables on nutritional content of feed ingredients could also be used.
Table 3.4 shows the content of energy and protein for some locally used feedstuffs.

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Table 3.4 Examples of protein and energy sources. + = low, + + = medium, + + +

= high content
Feed ingredient Protein Energy
Cassava tuber + +++
Sweet potato tuber + +++
Millet bran + ++
Rice hulls + +
Rice bran ++ ++
Sorghum bran + ++
Maize bran + +
Sorghum grain ++ +++
Sesbania leaves ++ +
Cowpeas ++ +++
Chick pea ++ +++
Cotton seed oil cake ++ ++
Sesame oil cake +++ +++
Groundnut oil cake +++ +++
Soya bean meal +++ ++
Maggots +++ ++
Fish meal +++ ++
Meat and bone meal +++ ++
Blood meal +++ +++

It is important to realise that the nutritional requirements of the birds may be met in
many ways by offering a large variety of feed ingredients. Final decisions on which
feed ingredients to use in which seasons, will depend on the availability, quality, and
not least the price. Tables 3.8 and 3.9 give you an example of how to calculate the
price of feed based on local feedstuffs.

Table 3.5 Example of composition of 1 kg feed mixture for local chickens at

different ages
Ingredients Cereals: millet bran, Oil cake, e.g. Meat, blood, Cassava, Total
sorghum bran, rice bran ground nut or or fish meal tubers (g)
Age (g) sesame (g) (g) (g)
0 – 8 weeks 700 200 100 - 1000
9 – 20 650 150 50 150 1000
weeks
> 20 weeks 600 100 100 200 1000

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Table 3.6 Examples of diets for chickens (layers, growers 7-20 weeks and chicks 0-
6 weeks) in Asia, East Africa and West Africa. Contents of 1 kg
Ingredients Rice Rice Sorghum Sorghum Millet Millet Soya Fish Ground Cassava Bone
hulls bran bran grain bran grain bean meal nut oil tuber meal
Age (g) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g) meal (g) cake (g)
Asia
Layers 200 600 150 50 Ad
lib.
Growers 300 500 100 100 Ad
lib
Chicks 300 400 150 150
East Africa
Layers
400 400 200 Ad
lib.
Growers 500 300 200 Ad
lib
Chicks 100 600 300
West Africa
Layers
300 300 400 Ad
lib.
Growers 400 300 300 Ad
lib
Chicks 600 100 100 200

The diets in table 3.6 are based on a simple feed formulation using the Pearson
Square (the Envelope method). As it can be seen from the table, young chicks need a
cereal grain. For older birds some of the cereal grain can be substituted with cereal
residues as bran or hulls. Which cereal and cereal residue to use will depend on the
area, availability and price. All age groups will need to be fed some kind of protein
source. Again area, availability and price will determine which one is best to use.
There can also be problems in using too high concentrations of some feedstuffs.
Harmful substances in some feeds can cause problems if fed in excessive amounts,
or they may contain anti-nutritional components and should not be fed in raw form,
see table 3.7.

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Table 3.7 Problems related to some feeds

Feedstuff Problems
Fish meal Can give a fishy taste to meat and eggs.
Can contain excessive amounts of salt.
Cassava tubers Contains cyanide, which is toxic, and the tubers must be sliced and
dried in the sun before fed to chickens.
Oil seed cakes Can contain excessive amounts of oil and fibre, which lower
digestibility of the feed.
Beans and peas Contain a number of anti-nutritional components and should be
dried in the sun or cooked for a short period (chick pea and pigeon
pea are exceptions and can be fed raw after crushing)

Table 3.8 Examples of poultry feed prices and quantity measures in Benin (January
2002)
Ingredient Price USD/kg kg in a tomato-tin
Maize 0.323 505
Wheat bran 0.129 320
Soya cake 0.517 467
Fish meal 0.536 500
Sea shell/salt mix 0.106 587
Dry Sesbania leaves Found locally 125

Table 3.9 Simple feed price calculation based on feed prices (table 3.7.) and
ingredients and quantities (table 3.1.) for supplementing free-range growers and
adults.
Ingredient Local containers Quantity (g) Price (USD)
Wheat bran 50 tomato tins 50 x 320 g = 16 kg x 0.323 =
2.07
Soya cake 2 tomato tins 2 x 467 g 0.934 kg x 0.517
= 0.48

Fish meal 2 tomato tins 2 x 500 g 1 kg x 0.536 =

0.54
Sea shell/salt mix 1 tomato tin 587 g 0.587 kg x 0.106
= 0.06
Sesbania leaves 2 tomato tins 2 x 125 g 0
Total 1 bag 18,8 kg 3.15 USD
Price/kg 0.168

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Feed and water

Feeders and drinkers

Feeders and drinkers are the same, whether being used in free-range, improved
free-range systems or small-scale confined systems. Feeders and drinkers should
always be kept clean to prevent spread of diseases (see also Chapter 1 on
Management). They should be big enough for all birds of the same age to feed at
the same time. One metre trough or a 35 cm (diameter) tube feeder is big enough
for 20 adult birds to eat and for 40 to drink. Feeders and drinkers may easily be
produced out of local materials. An empty tin can placed upside down on a plate
forms an excellent drinker. By keeping the tin can upside down, you avoid dirt
contaminating the water (fig. 3.8). You start by making two small holes near the rim
diagonal to each other. Pour clean water in the can. Put a flat plate with a small rim
on top and turn the can and plate upside down, while pressing them against each
other. Gently place the drinker on the ground. The rim of the plate should be low
enough for small birds to drink, but also high enough for adult birds to dip their
wattles to keep them cool during hot weather. Usually several waterers in different
sizes should be applied. It is important that the feeders are constructed in such a
way that feed waste is avoided. Also feed waste can be decreased if feeders are not
filled to the top. It is better to fill feeders just half full and then check them regularly
for refills.

Fig. 3.8 Simple drinker made of an old tin can and a plate

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Feeding

Fig. 3.9 Feeders and drinkers may also be made locally of wood, clay, or metal.

Fig. 3.10 Commercial drinker/feeder in plastic or metal

Commercial feeders and drinkers may also be bought at the market, either in metal
or plastic. They are often expensive and normally not any better than locally
produced feeders or drinkers.

Twelve simple rules for feed management

Before buying, mixing, and storing feeds, it is important to understand some
underlying principles of good feed management.

It is crucial to:
1. Use local feed ingredients for local birds;
2. Know the quality or feed value, and changing prices of each feed ingredient;
3. Buy missing feed ingredients, such as vitamins or protein sources locally;
4. Change the feed formulation depending on availability, quality or feed value, and
changing prices;
5. Reduce the flock size in free-range systems during lean seasons and if the feed
becomes too costly;
6. If you change feed and feeding level, always do it slow and gradual;

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Feed and water

7. Mix feed ingredients uniformly in relatively small quantities to avoid too long
storage time;
8. Use locally available materials such as tomato tins or matchboxes for quantifying
the different ingredients to be mixed. Grams or percentages do not work in
practice;
9. Store mixed feed or feed ingredients separately upon a platform approx. 30 cm
above the floor;
10. Stop the entry of rats, pigeons, or other type of birds into the feed store room;
11. Make sufficient ventilation of air so that the feed ingredients are not wet due to
humidity;
12. Be careful that feed ingredients, which are mouldy, discoloured or from which
pests have eaten, are not used.

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Chapter 4 Diseases and Health Management

Healthy and unhealthy birds

It is very important for the farmer to learn how to detect an unhealthy or sick bird,
so he can initiate the right action In fig. 4.1 you will find the main characteristics of
healthy and unhealthy birds. Healthy birds may be able to fight against the diseases
themselves whereas unhealthy birds will have difficulties in fighting diseases. It is
important to isolate unhealthy or sick birds from the healthy flock in order to ensure
a minimum of loss.

Healthy birds Unhealthy/Sick birds

- Alert and on guard - Tired and lifeless

- bright eyes and comb - dull eyes and comb
- walk, run, stand, and scratch - sit or lie down
continuously
- eat and drink normally - eat and drink less
- lay eggs normally - lay less or stop laying eggs
- smooth and neat feathers - ruffled and loose feathers
- soft compact droppings - wet droppings with blood or worms,
diarrhoea
- breathe quietly - cough, sneeze and breathe noisily
Fig. 4.1 Characteristics of healthy and unhealthy birds

If you find an unhealthy or sick bird, isolate the animal and call for the veterinarian
or health assistant for disease identification and further advice. If the bird dies, burn
it or bury it. You should remove dead birds, so that the germs are not left on the
ground to be passed on to the other birds.

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Health and disease management

Ten simple rules for disease prevention:

1. Give access to the right feed and clean water, in particular for small chicks;
2. Build shelters against wind and rain;
3. Clean houses regularly and apply lime wash on the floor and the walls;
4. If necessary, provide dry litter regularly;
5. Do not put too many birds together;
6. Different species of poultry, for example hens, turkeys, pigeons, ducks and
guinea fowls should be kept separate;
7. Separate chicks from adult birds except from the mother hen;
8. Vaccinate chicks against the most important diseases and revaccinate if
necessary;
9. Isolate and treat sick birds – if medication is not available then kill the sick
birds;
10. Burn or bury killed birds.

Prevention of diseases
Diseases are everywhere and will attack birds at all ages, but careful management
will prevent many diseases. Figure 4.13 shows a poultry house, which is clean and
nicely kept outside and inside. A woman is vaccinating a bird with eye-drop method.
One sick hen is isolated in a small shelter away from the others. Birds are well fed
and characteristically healthy. Figure 4.2 shows a poultry house with food and
droppings lying around, with sick and dead birds among each other, dirty water in
the pot and dirty feed in the feeder. Birds are characteristically sick and the farm
generally badly managed.

Feeding
Supplementary feeding, in particular for small chicks, is one of the most important
means of preventing diseases. Feeds should always be stored in a dry and clean
place, as they may easily get contaminated and spread diseases.

Clean Water
Clean water from a well, not a pond, is important to avoid the spread of waterborne
diseases, such as Fowl Cholera and Avian Influenza (AI). If a highly contagious strain
of AI is present in the environment strict care should be taken to avoid water
potentially contaminated by wild birds.

Hygiene
Dry and clean housing is essential for diseases not to spread or develop. Once in a
while after cleaning, houses and shelters should be disinfected with lime wash (see

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Chapter 1 for detailed advice on proper management). It is best to slaughter hens

that are too thin and do not grow or produce eggs any more, as they do not resist
diseases well and can pass diseases to poultry in good health.

Fig. 4.2 Bad management = diseases

Space
Too many birds together may wound or even kill each other, as the stronger ones
peck the weaker (see fig. 1.10). You should never keep local breeds in confinement
without free access to outdoor areas. If you use outdoor runs, you should provide at
least 5 square meters per adult animal. When space is limited, diseases are passed
more easily from one bird to another. Other species of birds may carry diseases
without showing any signs of being ill. For example, ducks, guinea fowls, and
turkeys can pass on diseases to hens, or vice versa. The best way to avoid spreading
diseases from one species to another is to keep them separate in different cages,
baskets or houses. Always keep domesticated birds as far away from wild birds as
possible.

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Table 4.1 Disease types and possible treatments

Disease type Possibilities for control or cure
Virus Viral diseases cannot be cured, but may be prevented or
controlled if the animals are vaccinated before the disease
occurs in the flock. If the disease is present in the flock,
vaccinations might increase the severity of the disease,
ultimately killing the birds.
Bacterial Many bacterial diseases can be treated with the use of
antibiotics. It is important to diagnose the disease in order to
choose the right antibiotic.
Parasites Most parasites can be treated with traditional and
conventional medicine (anthelmintics).
Fungus Fungal diseases might be treated with antibiotics.
Nutritional Nutritional diseases or disorders are caused by a wrong feed
diseases/disorders composition. Depending on the disease it can be prevented
by mixing the right feed with minerals and vitamins, or giving
access to a diversity of feedstuffs from the surroundings, e.g.
green grass and fresh cow dung.

Important diseases
Diseases are often characterised according to their biology, such as Virus, Bacteria,
Parasites, Fungi, and their causes, e.g. nutritional disorders (table 4.1). However, in
the following the most important diseases in poultry are divided into three
categories according to their severity and importance in village-based small-scale
production systems. Distinct features such as their characteristics during outbreaks
(symptoms), and possible treatments (prevention or control) as well as the time of
occurrence, will be presented. The importance of a disease is judged by mortality
rates and effect on production, and will vary greatly from area to area and from
season to season. High importance (▼▼▼) signifies a common disease with high
mortality (more than 30% of the flock), highly contagious and difficult treatment.
Medium importance (▼▼) common, medium mortality (10-30%) of the flock and/or
difficult treatment. Less importance (▼) signifies not common, lower mortality
and/or easy treatment.

Combination of diseases
Some less important diseases may interact with other diseases to create a more
severe effect on the birds. This is the case for e.g. E.coli infections, nutritional

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deficiencies and internal parasites. Such diseases rarely kill the individual bird, but
have a remarkable effect on the immune system of the birds, thus creating the basis
for easy infection by other diseases.

▼▼▼Newcastle Disease (fig. 4.3)

The disease is very common during dry seasons, and is often seen in young chicks,
but also in adults. High flock mortality, often between 30% and 80% of the birds die,
when the disease hits. The chickens lose appetite and have poor digestion. They
might show heavy breathing, greenish droppings, and sometimes bloody diarrhoea .
They may show nervous symptoms, paralysis and die suddenly, and the symptoms
may occur all at the same time. The disease is a virus, so there is no treatment, but
it may be prevented through vaccination of all birds including chicks from two
weeks of age.

▼▼▼ Avian Influenza (AI)

The disease is found naturally in ducks and other waterfowl, and may spread as a
highly contagious and potentially dangerous form to chickens. High flock mortality,
blue and swollen comb and wattles. Infects through contaminated feed and drinking
water from ponds. The disease is a virus, so there is no treatment. Best prevention
is strict hygiene and slaughter of sick birds. AI can presently NOT be prevented
through vaccination of birds. Culling and burning of all birds in the flock and strict
cleaning of chicken houses must be considered after a disease outbreak. Always call
a veterinarian, if you suspect an AI outbreak. Do not eat infected birds.

▼▼▼ Fowl pox (fig. 4.4)

Is often seen in young chicks, but also in adults, and shows as pocks (small lumps)
on wattles, comb and face. High body temperature, tiredness followed by sudden
death. The disease is common during dry seasons, but may be found all year
around. The disease is a virus, so there is no treatment. Vaccine is available and
highly effective.

▼Marek´s disease (fig. 4.5)

Seen only in birds older than 16 weeks. Initially the birds may show paralysis of one
or both wings. Or one or both legs might be paralysed. The disease is a virus, so
there is no treatment, but commercial vaccines are available.

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Fig. 4.3 Newcastle Fig. 4.4 Fowl pox Fig. 4.5 Marek´s Disease
disease in advanced
stage

▼ E. coli infection
Common among newly hatched chicks, causing infection in the stomach region.
Symptoms in older birds: Respiratory distress or infection in the egg organ with stop
of egg production. The best prevention is improved hygiene of eggs for hatching
and of the nests. Treatment of sick chicks might be possible with antibiotics.

▼▼▼Fowl cholera (pasteurellosis)

May occur any time in all ages. Symptoms are severe diarrhoea, respiratory
symptoms, loss of appetite, blue combs and wattles. May occur as a chronic disease
or hit as sudden death. Infection through contaminated feed and drinking water.
There is no treatment. Best prevention is strict hygiene and vaccination. Kill and
burn affected birds. Vaccine is usually available.

▼▼ Pullorum disease (Baciillary white diarrhoea)

Usually in young chicks. Chicks walk with difficulty, show big bellies and drag their
wings. Faeces is liquid and turns white. There is no treatment. Prevention is strict
hygiene. If illness occurs, isolate or kill and burn the birds. Disease is transmitted to
chicks from the eggs of infected hens, which may not show signs of being ill.

▼▼ Fowl typhoid
Usually seen in older birds. Symptoms: high body temperature, tiredness, blue
comb, sudden death. No treatment. Prevention through strict hygiene and culling of
ill hens. Do not buy chicks from unknown sources, and do not use eggs for hatching
from hens that have been ill.

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▼▼Gumboro (fig 4.6) (Infectious Bursal Disease, IBD)

Only seen in chicks younger than 6 weeks, and normally only in large flocks kept in
confinement. Not common in small-scale village based systems. Common
symptom: Diarrhoea. The disease is a virus, so there is no treatment. Vaccine is
available.

▼▼ Infectious coryza
Symptoms: Runny nose, swellings under the eyes, closed eyes, drop in egg
production. Treatment by adding antibiotics in drinking water.

▼▼ Chronic respiratory disease (Fig. 4.7) (Mycoplasmosis)

Symptoms: Runny or blocked nose, swollen face, closed eyes, drop in egg
production, rare deaths. Treatment by adding antibiotics in drinking water.

▼▼▼Coccidiosis (internal parasites)

The disease may occur at any time at all ages, but can be prevented by regular and
careful cleaning of troughs and poultry houses. Symptoms: Sick, tired, head down,
ruffled feathers, bloody diarrhoea. Death in young chicks. If the chicks survive, they
will remain thin and be late in laying. Treatment: Anticoccidiostatics in drinking
water or feed. Prevention: Not too many birds together. Avoid different age groups
of birds in the same house, as the disease may spread from adults to young chicks.

Fig. 4.6 Fig. 4.7 Chronic Fig. 4.8 Diarrhoea may be caused
Gumboro respiratory disease by several diseases, but the looks
and colour will differ.

▼▼Roundworms and tapeworms (internal parasites) (fig. 4.8 and 4.9)

Internal parasites are very common in all ages in the village based production
systems. These parasites will cause poor health, weight loss, drop in egg
production, and bloody diarrhea. The best treatment is adding anthelmintics in the
drinking water once or twice a year, at best two weeks before vaccination against
ND (See above). Careful hygiene may prevent heavy infection.

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Fig. 4.9 Internal parasites as found in the faeces

▼▼External parasites (fig. 4.10)

Attacks all ages any time, but occurs more frequently in humid chicken houses with
bad hygiene. Adult birds are clearly disturbed and spend a lot of time pecking and
polishing feathers. Young chicks may die from anemia. If not treated, mites, lice,
fleas, ticks will cause weight loss and possibly loss of feathers due to the parasites
sucking blood and to skin irritation. Lice can be seen around eyes and nose. Fleas
can be seen on the belly. Treatment: Spray or dust with pesticides, ashes, and oil.
Ashes and sulphur powder may be used where the hens do dust bathing. Nests may
be protected by putting a few tobacco leaves mixed with ashes in the nests.

Fig. 4.10 External parasites (behaviour and parasites)

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▼ Scaly legs (fig 4.11)

Scaly leg is caused by an external parasite irritating the skin on the birds’ legs.
Symptoms: Legs clearly have scales and wounds and may become crippled in their
appearance. Treatment: Dip the legs daily in kerosene, oil or in an insecticide until
the scales disappear.

Fig. 4.11 Scaly legs in three stages

▼Nutritional diseases (fig. 4.12)

Symptoms: Bone deformation and feather loss. The birds walk with difficulty; they
limp. Legs are deformed. Some deficiencies may cause feather loss. Treatment, if
detected in time: Supplementary vitamins and calcium, fresh grass, and cow dung.
Nutritional diseases may be avoided when the birds have access to normal
vegetation and are therefore rare in scavenging chickens.

Fig. 4.12 Nutritional diseases. Feather loss (a) and leg deformation (b)

▼▼Mycotoxicosis (fungal poisoning)

Symptoms: Weakness, pale combs. Treatment: Supplementary vitamins. Prevention:
Proper storage of feed to prevent growth of the fungi producing mycotoxins, the
cause of the disease.

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Fig. 4.13 Good management = healthy birds

Medication and vaccination

Medication
Some diseases may be cured by drugs. Parasitic diseases, such as lice or worms may
be cured by use of anti-parasitic drugs or by applying simple methods such as
baths in oil. Some bacterial diseases causing diarrhoea, may be cured with
antibiotics. For viral diseases there is no treatment. But the viral diseases may often
be prevented by vaccination.

Vaccination
All poultry should be vaccinated against the most common viral disease(s) in the
area. Vaccination schemes at village level should cover Newcastle Disease and Fowl
Pox. Vaccination against Avian Influenza should be avoided, unless recommended
by veterinarian authorities. Other viral diseases such as Gumboro and Marek’s
disease may be covered by vaccination, but they are often less important at village
level. A bacterial disease such as Fowl cholera may also be prevented by vaccination.
Poultry should be vaccinated when they are very young, and before they have begun
to lay eggs. Most young birds that have not been vaccinated do not resist diseases,
and often die. Vaccines should only be given to healthy birds. If you vaccinate a sick

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bird you may kill the bird, see fig. 4.14. Anthelmintics against internal parasites
should be given two weeks before vaccination, to improve the effect of the vaccine.

Fig. 4.14 Never vaccinate a sick bird

Vaccination methods
There are four fundamental ways of vaccinating birds:
1. Eye drops
2. Injections
3. Skin piercing.
4. Orally (in feed or water)

For scavenging poultry, you should avoid mixing vaccines with drinking water or
feed, as it is difficult to give the right dose. Research have shown that protection
against e.g. Newcastle Disease is highly variable if vaccine is given through water or
feed. Giving the right dose is essential for the vaccine to work properly. A too high
dose of a live vaccine may kill a young chick, whereas a too low dose will not give
adequate protection. Thus, it is important to consult a veterinarian or auxiliary
veterinarians (barefoot vets, village vaccinators) for further advice before carrying
out a vaccination.

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Fig. 4.15 Important vaccination tools

Tools for application normally include a clean apron (green or other dark colour if
possible) (Fig. 4.15A), vaccine vial (B) stored in a cool box (C), soap to clean hands
(D), clean needles (E), clean syringe (G) and a clean box for needles and syringe (F).
Needles and syringe should be boiled in water for 5 minutes and cooled before re-
use (Fig. 4.16).

Fig. 4.16 Boiling water to clean needles and syringe before vaccination

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It is important to treat the clean syringe and needle carefully. Do no touch the end
of the needle after cleaning. Put the needle gently on the syringe holding the needle
with the sharp end upwards (Fig.4.17A). Put the vaccine vial upside-down and press
the needle gently through the plastic seal of the vial cap. Pull the syringe handle
gently down, while sucking the vaccine out of the vial until the syringe is full (Fig.
4.17B). Press the syringe handle back until you reach the right volume (Fig.4.17C).
Make sure that there are not air bubbles trapped in the syringe or the needle. Air
bubbles will give the wrong dose to the chickens. Normally a full 1 ml syringe will
match 10 doses, one for each of ten adult birds (Fig. 4.18). This however depends
on the weight of the bird and the type of vaccine, and the application method.

Fig. 4.17 It is important to handle the syringe and needle correctly

Fig. 4.18 One full 1 ml syringe is usually enough for ten adult birds

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B.

A.

C.
Fig. 4.19 The most common methods for vaccinating adult poultry are eye drops (A),
injections in the breast or thigh muscles (B) or by piercing the skin of the wing (C).

The most common methods for young chicks are eye drops and skin piercing (fig.
4.19, A and C). When the birds grow older, injections are given in the breast or thigh
muscles (Fig. 4.19, B). Depending on the vaccine type, eye drops may also be used
for adult birds. Please consult the reference list in Appendix A for technical
literature on how to vaccinate against Newcastle Disease and other diseases.
Vaccines should be given either early morning, before letting the birds out of the
chicken house or when the local birds are easy to catch resting in the trees. When
vaccinating adult poultry for the first time, you should preferably be two persons,
one holding the bird, the other one vaccinating (Fig. 4.20).

Fig. 4.20 Two persons vaccinating adult poultry by injection in the breast muscle

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General precautions for vaccination with live vaccines

1. All vaccines should be stored in a refrigerator before use.
2. Some vaccines are so-called heat stable, which means that the vaccine will
tolerate high temperatures. However, heat stable vaccines should also be
stored in a cold place to keep them viable. You should always keep vaccines
out of direct sunlight.
3. When using vaccines in the field, you should as far as possible transport them
in a cool box with ice.
4. The syringe, needle and other equipment to be used for vaccination should
not be cleaned by any chemical disinfectants, as these may destroy the
vaccine. They should instead be disinfected in boiling water (Fig. 4.16) and be
used after cooling.
5. The vaccines must be mixed or diluted in cold distilled water, and care must
be taken to ensure that the vaccines do not come in contact with direct
sunlight.
6. It is best to vaccinate birds during the cool hours of the day, either in the
morning or evening.
7. Some mixed vaccines should be used within 30 minutes. Otherwise they will
be useless and should be thrown away.
8. Always consult a veterinarian or an auxiliary veterinarian before conducting a
vaccination campaign.

Disease prevention calendar

It is important to prevent and treat diseases according to the occurrence of
diseases. Vaccination campaigns against Newcastle Disease (ND) or Fowl Pox should
be implemented before the onset of the disease, as the vaccine otherwise may kill
already sick birds. To plan vaccination and medication, it is advisable to use a so-
called “disease prevention calendar”, where veterinarians, farmers and extension
workers together identify the periods, where diseases should be prevented or
treated. The last table in chapter 4 shows “disease prevention calendar” indicating
how birds at different ages are vaccinated against ND (a) and Fowl Pox (d) and
treated against internal parasites (worms) (b) and external parasites (d) following the
annual cropping cycle and festivals.

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Fig. 4.21 Disease prevention calendar

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Chapter 5 Profitability and marketing of products

Introduction
Before starting any production, it is important to know the market situation, the
investment costs, running costs, and expected revenue for the different products.

Fig. 5.1 Marketing your products is essential

It is advisable to know the local situation very well through detailed market studies
and cost and benefit analysis, before deciding on the type of production to
introduce. At village level, it will often be advisable to start with a production based
on local breeds, local feeds, and local demands, before entering into a more
sophisticated production system with improved breeds and a need for a more stable
market outlet. In general the economic outcome as well as the need for investments
and the risk involved in the production, will be very different for improved free-
range systems (relatively low risk) and small-scale confined systems (higher risk).

Commercialisation
At traditional village markets, mainly live birds and sometimes fertile eggs are for
sale. Imported non-fertile table eggs are more often found in peri-urban areas or
along traffic corridors, where confined production systems can be managed.

At local markets cocks and hens are sold at highly variable prices depending on
factors such as demand (high during festivals), size and weight, plumage and colour
(often a higher price for white-feathered birds). Cocks are usually higher priced at
the market than hens. In most regions, local birds are also higher priced than
imported improved breeds, although they are often smaller. Also local eggs are
often higher priced than imported eggs, despite their smaller size. Taste and texture
of meat and eggs are major reasons for the higher price of local products.

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Fig. 5.2 A-B Birds for sale

Birds for sale

Cockerels should be sold as soon as they fetch a good price, as one cock to 10-15
hens is sufficient to produce fertile eggs. In some cases, you may also want to sell a
cock, if it is not doing a good job in mating. At the age of 6 months and a weight of
approximately 1 kg, cocks are usually big enough to be sold at the market. Birds
should always be sold alive in the markets, but no live birds should be returned
from the market, as this is a major cause of transfer of diseases. Old hens, which
are no longer laying (See fig. 1.13), should also be sold. When you want to catch the
birds, you catch them in the house in the late evening during sleep, or attract them
with feed, or by using a long stick or a piece of metal wire, bent at the end.

Eggs for sale

Eggs should be collected and marketed while fresh, in particular if not cooled.
Collect eggs from the nesting boxes at least once, but rather two times a day, and

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store them in a dark and cool place. Eggs should normally not be cleaned, but kept
clean in the nests. If they are dirty, clean the eggs with a clean, dry sponge or cloth,
and sell the eggs immediately. Cleaning eggs with water may disturb the natural
protection of the shell and introduce infections to the egg.

Fig. 5.3 Eggs for sale

Pack eggs in boxes, egg trays, or other suitable package, e.g. banana leaves.
Sell eggs in the market two to three times a week, so you get a good name for
selling fresh eggs. If profitable, grade your eggs according to size. Always keep
records of your production and sale, as explained below.

Fig. 5.4 Keep records of your production and sale

Keeping records
To manage a poultry production, you have to keep detailed records on a daily or
weekly basis. Table 5.1-5.2 and fig. 5.5 -5.6 give two examples of how to keep
records. The first may be used for literate, the second for illiterate people. It is very
important to spend some time each day observing your flock carefully. In this way
early signs of disease, malnutrition, or other problems may be discovered, and the
necessary precautions taken (see chapter 1 for advice on management).

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Table 5.1 Record keeping for small-scale chicken production. Animals

Production Record Week/Day:
Name of farmer: Family:
Record Number Price Comments
1. Hens Health status, in lay?
2. Cocks Health status,
3. Growers Health status, age, weight
4. Chickens Health status, age, weight
5. Dead birds Cause of death
6. Eggs laid
7. Fertile eggs incubated
8. Chickens hatched
9. Cocks sold Where and to whom?
10. Hens sold
11. Growers sold
12. Chicks sold
13. Eggs sold To whom?
14. Eggs/Poultry consumed
15. Poultry given as gifts
16. Hens and Cocks vaccinated What treatment/vaccine
17. Growers/cockerels and how?
vaccinated
18. Chickens vaccinated
19. Birds given medicine
Table 5.2. Record keeping for small-scale chicken production.
Materials and feed
Name: Day:
Record Numbers Price Comments
Materials
a. Baskets
b. Shelters
c. Chicken houses
d. Nests
e. Feeders
f. Drinkers
g. Other materials Type, quantity
Feed Type, quantity
h. Feed stuffs
i. Formulated feeds
j. Vitamins, minerals
k. Medicine

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Fig. 5.5 Record keeping for small-scale chicken production. Animals

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Fig.5.6 Record keeping for small-scale chicken production. Materials and feed

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Records should be kept on chickens and hens, noting their approximate age or time
of hatching. As you know that hens should start laying eggs at 22-32 weeks of age,
you should monitor the age of first lay and the production over time. If egg
production is delayed or drops suddenly, you should check conditions in the house,
access to feed, water etc. If egg production drops gradually, it may be time to
change the older hens. If your costs for feed exceed the income from selling cocks
and/or eggs, you may also consider selling birds, or reducing the amount of feed
given.

All expenditures for feed or feed ingredients should be registered carefully, noting
quantities, price and date of purchase. If you buy feed from feed sellers, note the
name of the seller and the time of purchase. Feeds of bad quality should as far as
possible be tracked to the seller or producer of feeds. The price and date of
purchase of vaccines and medicine should also be carefully noted. Supplementary
feed consumed on a daily or weekly basis should be noted for each flock or poultry
house separately. Sudden changes in feed intake may be the first indicators of bad
health. Income from sale of eggs, cockerels or chickens should be carefully noted.
Gifts and home consumption of eggs and birds by your family and friends should
also be noted.

Economic analysis and simple risk assessment

Before you start a poultry production, you should calculate if it is economically
feasible to do so, thereby making the right decisions about the production type and
the type interventions you may start with.

Fig. 5.7 The revenue from poultry may be in terms of meat, eggs, money or manure.

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The revenue or income are all the money you earn in relation to your poultry, that is:
• Income from sale of live birds, e.g. growers, cockerels or spent hens;
• Income from sale of eggs;
• Value of eggs or poultry eaten or given away.

To this you may add the value of standing stock, e.g. the flock you have built up,
that you will not sell, but which is the foundation of your future income. Poultry
manure also represents a value when given to your plants. It provides many
nutrients to the plants, and you may reduce cost for buying fertilizer (fig. 5.7)

The costs involved are all the expenses you have in relation to your poultry, which
are for buying:
• Materials for constricting baskets, shelters or poultry houses;
• Growers, hens or cocks;
• Fertile eggs for incubation;
• Day old chicks;
• Supplementary feed, vitamins or minerals;
• Vaccines and medicine;
• Labour and technical advice.

If you feed with crops that could otherwise be sold, this also represents a value and
should be included in the calculation. If you borrow money, the repayment and
interest on loans is also an expense that has to be included among the inputs. In
village poultry, where the outputs are usually low, the inputs should also be kept
low. This means that expenses for buildings and other equipment should be kept at
a minimum. Small basket or shelters (Fig. 1.3. and 2.2) may be built of local
materials without high costs.

Cost-benefit calculation
In order to calculate the profit in your enterprise, you should estimate costs and
revenues on an annual basis. Tables 5.3 -5.4 show examples of the information you
need to make a simple cost-benefit analysis.

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Table 5.3 Example of small-scale free-range system, 52 weeks plan (Benin, 2000)
Flock size Numbers
Local hens laying and brooding 3
Local hens laying eggs, not broody 2
Cocks 1
Surviving chickens/hen/batch* 8
Growers. Weeks 4-24 24
Total Flock size 30
Feed consumption: 1 Kg /bird/4 week =35 g/bird/day Kg
Adults feed: 1 kg x 6 birds x 52/4 weeks 78
Chicken/growers feed: 1 kg x 24 birds x 46 /4 weeks 276
Egg Production: Numbers
Local broody hens. 72 eggs/bird/year 216
Local hens not going broody. 104 eggs/bird/year 208
Eggs for hatching. 3 hens x 12 eggs x two batches /year -72
Home consumption, 1.5 egg/week -82
Saleable birds: 3 batches x 8 growers Numbers
Cockerels. 22 weeks of age 24
Pullets for sale. 24 weeks of age 24
*(12 eggs laid=10 eggs hatched=8 chicks surviving after 6 months)

Table 5.4 Cost-benefit analysis based on example in table 5.3.(*540 Fcfa = 1 USD)
Cost-benefit Analysis Text Cost/Unit Cash flow
Costs Fcfa* Fcfa
5 hens and 1 cock 5 x 1500 + 1 x 2000 -9500
Baskets, 3 night + 3 day baskets 6 baskets 1000 -6000
Low cost home made feed 354 Kg 100 -35400
Vaccine (ND)+medicine (Coc+anti-worm) 60 Doses/year 50 -3000
Miscellaneous -5000
Cash out-flow -58900
Income (Benefit)
Sale of Eggs 424 – 154 = 270 30 8100
Sale of cockerels, 22 weeks 24 1500 36000
Sale of pullets, 24 weeks 24 1200 28800
Total cash in flow 75000
Net cash flow 14000

In the example referred to in table 5.3 and 5.4, the flock size is initially 5 hens and
1 cock, all local breeds. A production may also start with less, i.e. only 1 hen laying
eggs, fertilised by a local cock in the village. Figures will then have to be adjusted
accordingly. With 1 cock and 5 hens, of which no more than 3 hens at one time are
allowed to go broody, the flock size may grow to a maximum of 24 growers and 6
adults, which is manageable for a small-scale farmer. Very important for this system

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is that the scavenging feed resource in the village will be less depleted, if the flock
size is kept below 6-10 adults and 20-30 growers and chicks.

Supplementary feeding should always be kept at a reasonable low level to reduce

costs. However, chicks at age 0-4 weeks should be given what they need (See
chapter 3 on advice for feeding). On average each bird will be given 1 kg feed every
4 weeks. This corresponds to 1000 g/28 days = approximately 35 grams per bird
per day. 2 batches of 24 growers will need feed two times 22-24 weeks, i.e. 44-48
weeks, on average 46 weeks. The total annual need for feed in a flock of 6 adults
and 24 chicks and growers is calculated in Fig. 5.8.

Table 5.5 Supplementary feed needed for a flock of 30 birds in one year.
1 cock: 1 x 1 kg/ 4 weeks x 52 weeks = 13 kg
5 hens: 5 x 1 kg/ 4 weeks x 52 weeks = 65 kg
24 chicks/growers: 24 x 1 kg/ 4 weeks x 46 weeks = 276 kg
Total: = 354 kg
It is assumed that by improved management and feeding, the egg production of the
non-broody hens will increase to 104 eggs/hen/year, i.e. 2 eggs per week on
average. Broody hens will also on average lay 2 eggs per week, however excluding
2 x 3 weeks hatching + 2 x 5 weeks brooding, i.e. 2 x 8 weeks = 16 weeks non-
laying period per year. Annually each hen will then lay: 52 - 16 weeks = 36 weeks x
2 eggs = 72 eggs/hen/year. For three hens going broody only twice a year, the total
egg production will be 3 x 72 = 216 eggs/year.

A production of 24 cockerels and 24 pullets per year (table 5.3.) is based on the
following assumptions: A well-managed broody hen will sit on 12 eggs and hatch
on average 10 chicks. Using the basket system and the improved management will
reduce the overall mortality on the chicks to a maximum of 1 chick out of ten during
the first 4 weeks (equal to 10%) and 1 grower out of nine in the remaining 20 weeks.
At the age of 22-24 weeks, when the growers are to be sold, on average 8 growers
per batch will be alive. Using three broody hens, a total of 3 x 8 growers = 24 birds
may be sold twice a year. Out of these, the half will be cockerels and the other half
pullets.

A well-managed production plan means selling birds at the time of highest price,
and buying feeds, new hens or inputs (e.g. baskets, feeders and drinkers) at the
time of the lowest price. For many farmers this means keeping the birds in the flock
until the time of festivals (e.g. Eid festival, Christmas, Easter or national holidays),
where they may get a price often two or three times the normal price. However, it is

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important to stress that keeping birds in the flock means more feed and a higher
risk in terms of loosing birds caused by predators, diseases or theft. In general birds
should be sold no later than at the age of maturity, e.g. 22-32 weeks of age.

In the example from Benin in table 5.3 and 5.4, the cost of feeding one bird was 100
Fcfa every 4 weeks, as one kg feed costing 100 Fcfa would be spent during 4 weeks.
In this case, if you want to keep a bird 4 weeks longer in the flock, you should be
sure to gain more than 100 Fcfa on the market price. Otherwise, it would be better
to sell 4 weeks earlier at a lower price, and thus be able to restock with new
growers.

Thus, by knowing the market and environmental conditions and by doing simple
economic calculations, you will be able to plan when you should sell your birds,
when you should let your hens go broody, and when you should keep your birds in
the flock.

Risk assessment
A risk assessment is a judgment that most farmers do every day in their normal
lives. They judge, whether they should buy some seeds, sell a chicken, call a
veterinarian for a sick animal etc. or whether it would be better to wait until
conditions are more favourable. In particular, when starting a new enterprise, the
risk assessment becomes crucial. When improving your free-range poultry
production, it is important to judge whether your choice of intervention (e.g. feed,
vaccination, housing, chick shelter) has an effect and which risks may be involved.

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Fig. 5.8. Income is often spent on a variety of items, such as food, children, housing
and savings

Ten simple rules for marketing and financial analysis

1. Analyse the market situation, demand for products, investment costs, running
costs, and expected revenue for different types of poultry production before
starting.
2. Make a thorough calculation of expected costs and revenues for different
production systems.
3. Always keep records of your production and sale.
4. Keep your flock size below 30 birds to assure a feed resource in the
environment.
5. Estimate the production of eggs and birds over the year
6. Plan beforehand when and how you want to sell your birds
7. Never introduce birds from the market directly to your flock.
8. Sell birds, if feed costs are too high or there are high risk of diseases or
dwindling market prices
9. Remember that costs involve investments, running costs, labour, losses, and
maybe loan repayment and interest on loans.
10. Judge the risks involved in each type of production system before starting.

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Chapter 6 Animal selection and breeds

Fig. 6.1 A healthy and strong cock Fig. 6.2 A healthy egg-layer

Introduction
Selection of healthy and sound-looking animals in the villages or markets is
important, if you want to assure a healthy flock and a high productivity.
You should therefore know how to judge the quality of different breeds in different
ages and sex, based primarily on their looks, sound and behaviour. Judging a day-
old chick, a full-grown cock or a laying hen, naturally demands different skills. The
features to look for become even more complicated, when dealing with different
breeds with distinct looks, behaviour and purpose, i.e. egg laying or meat
producing. In the following, we will introduce simple guidelines on how to select a
sound animal at different ages, and introduce what to consider in terms of breed
selection.

Animal Selection
It is important to look for different features in chicks, growers, hens and cocks.
Select or buy your new animals early in the day, as stress from lack of water, feed
and rest, will make most animals look rather sick and drowsy.

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Breeds and selection

Fig. 6.3 A soft belly and a clean, dry navel are important features of a healthy, newly
hatched chick

A healthy, newly hatched chick should have the following features (Fig. 6.3):
- Well developed body length and depth
- Shiny, dry, thick and coloured down feathers
- Soft belly
- Clean, dry navel hollow
- Thick shanks with spaced and straight toes
- Big clear eyes
- Lively behaviour

A healthy and good grower should have the following features:

- should appear healthy and lively
- feathering shiny and normal (may depend on the breed)
- large size for the age
- eyes clear and shiny
- clean and dry beak and nostrils
- clean feathers around the vent
- straight legs and toes

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Animal selection and breeds

A healthy and good egg-layer should have the following features (Fig. 6.2)
- should appear healthy and lively
- feathering normal for the breed
- A red comb (more coloured when in lay)
- eyes clear and shiny
- clean and dry beak and nostrils
- clean feathers around the vent
- straight legs and toes, with no signs of scaly legs
- Legs less coloured in lay
- The breast bone should not be too sharp
- A big broad bottom (laying status can be checked, see fig. 6.4)

Fig. 6.4 Hen in lay (a) and outside lay (b)

In small flocks, it is relatively easy to check whether the hens are laying or not (Fig.
6.4). Check with your hand. The distance between the pubic bones (top) will be
equivalent to two fingers, when the hen is in lay. Only one finger may pass between
the pubic bones, when the hen is outside lay.

A healthy and good cock should have the following features (Fig. 6.1):
- alert and protective nature
- shiny and normal feathering for the breed
- clear and shiny eyes
- clean and dry beak and nostrils
- clean feathers around the vent
- straight legs and toes with no signs of scaly legs
- large size relative to the hens

It may be an advantage to keep records on the growth and productivity of each bird
in order to select birds according to features such as egg production, growth (meat

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Breeds and selection

production) and broody behaviour. Keeping records may help you select the best
layers or the best mother to protect the chicks. See chapter 5 for example on record
keeping.

If new birds are bought on the market it is important to isolate the new birds in
separate baskets for the first two weeks. This will enable you to discover possible
diseases or disorders in the new birds. If they show signs of any kind of illness you
should return them to the seller or slaughter them.

Breed selection
When you have succeeded in improving your productivity and survival of you local
free-range poultry through improved management, housing, feeding, chick
protection etc, you may want to further increase productivity by introducing better
breeds.

A breed is a group of poultry with a characteristic body form and feather contours.
These unique characteristics are inherited from one generation to the next. Also
features such as the comb, colour of ear lobes and shank colours and length are
usually determined by breed. In every breed, different varieties can occur usually
determined by plumage colour. Thus a white and a black hen may just be different
varieties of the same breed. Figures 6.5 – 6.7. shows three different breeds
commonly found in tropical regions, i.e. Frizzled Feathers, Naked-Neck and the
Dwarf. Naked-Neck genes are found in almost every village, and are believed to be a
natural adaptation to avoid heat stress. Frizzled feathers may look ill at a first
glance, but is also common in most village based systems. In some countries,
Frizzled Feathers are higher priced in the markets than normally feathered poultry.
Dwarf poultry show standard colours and plumage, but tend to be 2/3 of the normal
size for poultry, mostly because of the short shanks.

Figure 6.5. Frizzled Feathers Fig. 6.6. Naked-Neck Fig. 6.7.Dwarf breed

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 Chapter 6
Animal selection and breeds

Chickens and ducks in industrialised systems are usually kept for two distinct
purposes, that is either egg or meat production. A high productivity in either egg or
meat production is a result of specialised breeding programme. The so-called dual-
purpose breeds is also a result of breeding programmes, and may produce more
eggs as well as more meat than traditional birds. It is important to select birds,
which are suited for the kind of production you have in mind, and which are suited
for the conditions under which they are kept, e.g. free-range or confinement.

The features of birds specialised in egg production, meat production or both (dual-
purpose) are shown in figures 6.8abc. Laying hens are “boat-shaped” with a long
straight back and a big bottom. Meat producers (broilers) are long-legged, in a
more upright position and wings in high position on the body. Dual-purpose breeds
is a form in between the layers and broilers. Local breeds often have the form of a
dual-purpose breed, although much less heavy in body form and size.

a b c
Figures 6.8a, b and c Typical breeds producing eggs (a), meat (b) and both (c)

The commercial sector has developed highly specialised hybrids (crosses of several
breeds) of which layers can produce 300 eggs per year and broilers can reach 2 kg
in 6 weeks. To obtain this high production, the hybrids have very specific
requirements to management, feeding and disease management and production
costs are high. They are therefore not normally suited in free-range and improved
free-range systems.

Cross-breeding
To increase production from local chickens, crossbreeding with other breeds can be
practised. It is however, important to consult professional breeders or breeding

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Breeds and selection

companies, who may recommend suitable and available breeds to increase egg
production, growth or both. It is important to be aware that the offspring will obtain
different qualities depending on whether the cock or the hen of the new breed is
used. This is because some qualities are sex-linked and thus it is important to
consult a breeder.

In Bangladesh, the female of an Egyptian breed, Fayoumi, and the male of an

American breed, Rhode Island Red (RIR), were crossed to produce a crossbreed layer
suitable for a semi-scavenging life under village conditions. The result was a laying
capacity of up to 160 eggs/hen/year and a growth rate under semi-scavenging
conditions of 10 g/day. Furthermore, the brown-golden feathers were highly
praised by the farmers, who named the breed “Sonali” (meaning “Golden” in Bangla).
The cross of male Fayoumi and the female RIR did not give the same satisfactory
results.

It is also important to stress that if a cross-breed is introduced at village level, it is

crucial that management, feeding and health protection schemes are improved.

Cockerel exchange programs

In many countries, a common attempt to increase production from local chickens
has been to establish so-called cockerel exchange schemes. The idea was to
improve the productivity of local birds by mating them with improved cocks. For
several reasons these schemes usually failed to work. First of all the introduced
breeds could not adapt to the hot climate, low feeding and management and thus
many of them died. Furthermore, the improved cocks were not as lively and active
under village conditions as the local cocks and thus lost in the mating competition
for the hens. When reproduction succeeded, the first generation of these cocks
often showed a slight increase in production, but as no strict breeding schemes
were maintained, the effect was gone after a few generations. Another set of
important potential disadvantages were loss of broodiness, reduced scavenging
capacity and reduced survival. Diseases such as Newcastle Disease and Leucosis
were introduced to new areas and the result was high mortality among local birds.
For all these reasons it is very important that selection of breeding birds take place
in the existing environment. Simple cockerel exchange programmes are as such not
recommended.

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Animal selection and breeds

Simple rules for animal and breed selection

1. You should practice judging the external features of cocks, hens, growers
and chicks, knowing what signifies a good animal.
2. Always choose birds with a lively behaviour.
3. Always check whether the hens are in lay (Fig. 6.4).
4. A potentially good layer has a long straight back a broad bottom.
5. Always check the belly and navel spot of newly hatched chicks (Fig. 6.3).
6. Keep new birds isolated for a few weeks before introducing them into the
flock.
7. The results of crossbreeding should always be monitored carefully.
8. Uncontrolled release of exotic cocks into the environment should be avoided.

Page 84
Annex A Additional information

Production manuals – small scale intensive

Ambar, A.J. 2000. Guide for Training of Trainers – Bangladesh Poultry Model. 4th
Edition. Participatory Livestock Development project, Bangladesh. Bangladesh
Department of Livestock Services Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock/Danida, 124pp.
Ref. No. 104.Bangladesh.805-8.

Anonymous 2001. Guide Pratique D’Elevage, Poules Pondeuses. 2ème Edition.

Centre Songhaï/Society for International Development, 46pp.

Anonymous 2002. Guide Pratique, Pharmacopee Veterinaire. Édition revue et

corrigée. Centre Songhaï/Society for International Development, 56pp.

van Eekeren, N., Maas, A., Saatkamp, H.W. and Verschuur, M. 1995. Small-scale
poultry production in the Tropics. Agrodok 4. Agromisa, CTA, The Netherlands,
80pp.

Farrell, D. 2000. A Simple Guide to Managing Village Poultry in South Africa. The
University of Queenland, Australia, 56pp. ISBN 0 620 26105 6.

Moran, F.T. 1996. Success in Poultry Keeping (for Food, Income, Work and
Education). 4th Impression. Longman, Harare, Zimbabwe, 128pp. ISBN: 0 908310 00
5.

Oosterwijk, G., van Aken, D. and Vongthilath, S. 2003. A Manual on Improved Rural
Poultry Production. 1st Edition. Department of Livestock and Fisheries, Ministry of
Agriculture and Forestry, Vientiane, Lao PDR. VII + 115pp. ISBN: 974-91217-9-1.

Smith, A.J. 1990. Poultry, The Tropical Agriculturalist. CTA, the Netherlands, 218pp.

Sonaiya, E.B. and Swan, S.E.J. 2004. Production En Aviculture Familiale – Un Manuel
Technique. FAO Production Et Santé Animales Manual. FAO, Rome, Italy, 134pp.
ISBN: 92-5-205082-5.

van Wageningen, N., Meinderts, J., Bonnier, P. and Kasper, H. 1998. Hatching eggs
using hens and mechanical incubators. Agrodok 34. Agromisa, CTA, The
Netherlands, 60pp.

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 Annex A
Additional information

Wethli, E. 1999. The Southern African Chicken Book: How to Start a Small Business
Keeping Chickens. Juta & Co Ltd., Kenwyn, South Africa, 103pp. ISBN: 07021 4709
5.

Disease control
Alders, R. and Spradbrow, P. 2001. Controlling Newcastle Disease in Village
Chickens: A Field Manual. ACIAR Monograph No. 82, 112pp. ISBN: 1 86320 307 9.

Alders, R., dos Anjos, F., Bagnol, B., Fumo, A., Mata, B. and Young, M. 2002.
Controlling Newcastle Disease in Village Chickens: A Training Manual. ACIAR
Monograph No. 86, 128pp. ISBN: 186320 331 1.

d’Almeida, J. F. et Col. 2001. Manuel du Vaccinateur Villageois de Vorlaille. Ministere

de l’Agriculture de l’Elevage et de la Peche, Republique du Benin. Media and
Technology, Cotonou, Benin, 60pp.

Permin, A. and Hansen, J.W. 1998. Epidemiology, Diagnosis and Control of Poultry
Parasites. FAO Animal Health Manual No. 4, Rome, Italy, 160pp. ISBN: 92-5-
104215-2.

Training
Khisa, G.S. 2004. Curriculum for Farmers Field School on Local Chicken Production
(Egg to Egg Programme). East African Sub-Regional Pilot Project for Farmer’s Field
Schools on Integrated Production and Pest Management, Danida ASP, 40pp.

Minjauw, B., Khisa, G., Maye, D., Mweri, B. and Catley, A. 2001. Training of Trainers
Manual for Livestock Farmer Field Schools. AHP-DFID/FAO/ILRI, Kenya, 107pp.

Pretty, J.N., Guijt, I., Scoones, I. And Thomson, J. 1995. A Trainer’s Guide for
Participatory Learning and Action. IIED Participatory Methodology Series, London,
United Kingdom, 267pp. ISBN: 1 899825 00 2.

Sones, K.R., Duveskog, D. and Minjauw, B. (Eds.) 2003. Farmer Field Schools: The
Kenyan Experience. Report of the Farmer Field School Stakeholders’ Forum, 27th
March 2003, ILRI, Nairobi, Kenya. FAO/KARI/ILRI, Nairobi, Kenya, 58pp.

Page 86
 Annex A
Additional Information

Gender
Sørensen, N.U., Buck, E.M., Olsen, K.M., and Otzen, L. 1999. Gender One Way or
Another: Guidelines for Analysis of the Gender Dimension in Development Projects.
The NGO Counselling Service/KULU Women and Development, Denmark, 30pp. ISBN:
87 87618 494.

Kitalyi, A.J. 1998. Village Chicken Production Systems in Rural Africa – Household
Food Security and Gender Issues. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 142,
Rome, Italy, 81pp. ISBN: 92-5-104160-1.

Textbooks
Oluyemi, J.A. and Roberts, F.A . 1979. Poultry Production in Warm Wet Climates.
Macmillian Tropical Agriculture, Horticulture and Applied Ecology Series. The
Macmillian Press Ltd., Hong Kong, 197pp. ISBN: 0-333-25312-4.

Interdisciplinary Research
Dolberg, F. and Petersen, P.H. (Ed.) 2000. Poultry as a Tool in Poverty Eradication
and Promotion of Gender Equality – Proceedings of a Workshop, March 22. – 26.,
1999, Tune Landbrugsskole, Denmark. DSR Forlag, Frederiksberg, Denmark, 363pp.

Dwinger, R.H. 2002. Characteristics and Parameters of Family Poultry Production in

Africa, Resultus of a FAO/IAEA Coordinated Research Programme. IAEA, Australia,
205pp.

Pedersen, C.V. 2002. Production of Semi-scavenging Chickens in Zimbabwe – Ph.D.

Thesis. Department of Animal Science and Animal Health, The Royal Veterinary and
Agricultural University, Copenhagen, Denmark, 137pp. ISBN: 87-988535-9-7.

Sonaiya, E.B. (Ed.) 2000. Issues in Family Poultry Development Research –

Proceedings of an International Workshop, December 9. - 13., 1997, M’Bour,
Senegal. Network for Family Poultry Development, Department of Animal Science,
Faculty of Agriculture, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria, 308pp.

Page 87
Annex B International Poultry Networks

Network for Smallholder Poultry Development

www.poultry.kvl.dk

The Poultry Network is globally recognized as a multidisciplinary

centre of excellence, when it comes to using poultry as a tool for alleviating poverty
and empowering women. The Network and its partners have supported poverty-
focused poultry activities in the following countries: Bangladesh, Benin, Bolivia,
Burkina Faso, Eritrea, Ghana, India, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Nicaragua, Senegal,
South Africa, Tanzania, Vietnam and Zimbabwe. A powerful triangular connection
between research, field level activities, and education & training are the
cornerstones in the Poultry Network’s approach to poverty alleviation. The
Network’s main areas of expertise are support to project identification, formulation,
implementation, monitoring and evaluation, research identification and support,
curriculum development, development of farmer field schools, training of trainers’
courses and research-based higher education programmes.

International Network for Family Poultry Development (INFPD)

www.fao.org/ag/againfo/subjects/en/infpd/home.html

INFPD is mainly an Information Exchange Network. One of the objectives of the

INFPD is to encourage higher standards that can sustainably increase the
productivity of the family poultry sub-sector's. This will be achieved through
providing advice and collecting data and detailed information about family poultry
production systems. Information is disseminated through a trilingual (English,
French and Spanish) newsletter, which is produced twice a year and distributed
electronically with a printed version for members without e-mail facilities.

Rural Poultry in Developing Countries

www.kyeemafoundation.org

This rural poultry website was developed by staff of the School of Veterinary Science
at the University of Queensland and funded by the Australian Centre for
International Agricultural Research. The aim is to provide a resource for farmers and
workers from research and diagnostic laboratories, extension services, non-
government organizations and development agencies. It is hoped the website will
encourage collaboration between these groups and provide a forum for the
exchange of information and ideas about rural poultry.

Page 88
Front pictures from Bangladesh, Burkina Faso and Benin by Jens Christian Riise.

Published by:
Network for Smallholder Poultry Development
Copenhagen, Denmark
With support from DANIDA
Illustrations: Niels Poulsen
Layout and printing: ISBN no:
Kailow Graphic A/S 87-990401-0-7
All rights reserved. Reproduction and dissemination of material in this information
product for educational or other non-commercial purposes are authorized without any
prior written permissio from the copyright holders provided the source is
aknowledged. Reproduction of material in this information product for resale or
other commercial purposes is prohitibited without written permission from the
copyright holders. Application for such permission should be addressed to Network
for Smallholder Poultry Development, 2 Dyrlaegevej, DK-1870 Frederiksberg C,
Denmark, poultry@kvl.dk