98

SECTION 3 - GEOMETRY

UNIT-11
CIRCLE

OBJECTIVE:
After studying this unit you should be able to:
Identify lines and angles used in describing the properties of circles.
Apply circumference and arc length formulas in computations.
Apply chord, tangent, arc, and central angle theorems in computations.

A circle is a closed curve of which every point on the curve is equally distant from a
fixed point called the center. A circle is also defined as the set of all point in a plane that
are at a given distance from a given point in the plane.
The uses of circles in everyday living and in occupations are almost unlimited. Circles are
important in art, architecture, construction, and manufacturing. Circular designs are often
used to create artistic effects. Machines operate by the use of combinations of gears and
pulleys. Circular forms are widely found in nature. The earth and most plants have a
circular cross section.

The relation of lines to circles are presented in this unit. Radii, diameters, chords, secants,
and tangents have wide practical application.

11-1 DEFINITIONS
These terms are commonly used to describe the properties of circles. It is necessary to
know and understand these definitions.

The circumference is the length of the curved line which forms the circle. See figure 11-1

A chord is a straight line segment that joins two points on the circle. In figure 11-1, AB is
a chord.
A diameter is a chord that passes through the center of a circle. In figure 11-1, CD is a
diameter.
A radius (plural radii) is a straight line segment that connects the center of a circle with a
point on a circle. In figure 11-1, OE is a radius.
 Unit 11 - Circle 99

Fig.11-1
An arc is that part of a circle between any two points on the circle. The symbols written
above the letters means arc. In figure 11-1 AB is an arc.

A tangent is a straight line that touches the circle at only one point. The point on the circle
touched by the tangent is called the point of tangency. In figure 11-2 CD is a tangent and
point P is the point of tangency.
A secant is a straight line passing through a circle and intersecting the circle at two point. In
figure 11-2, EF is a secant.

Fig. 11-2

A segment is a figure formed by an arc and the chord joining the end points of the arc. In
figure 11-3, the shaded figure ABC is a segment.
A sector is a figured formed by two radii and the arc intercepted by the radii. In figure 11-3,
the shaded figure EOF is a sector.

Fig. 11-3
 100
Unit 11 - Circle

A central angle is an angle whose vertex is at the center of the circle and whose sides are
radii. In figure 11-4, MON is a central angle.
An inscribed angle is an angle in a circle whose vertex is on the circle and whose sides are
chords. In figure 11-4, SRT is an inscribed angle.

Fig. 11-4

11-2 CIRCUMFERENCE FORMULA

An important relationship exist between the circumference and the diameter of a circle. As
the number of sides of an inscribed polygon increases, the perimeter approaches a certain
Number times the diameter. This number is called pi and has a value of 3.1416 to four
decimal places. The symbol for pi is π. No matter how many sides an inscribed polygon has
the value of π cannot be expressed exactly with digits. Pi is called an irrational number.
The value of π used in computations depends on the type of problem to be solved and the
degree of precision required. For example, a welder working to the nearer tenth inch would
compute using a value of π, such as 3.14159. The most commonly used approximations for
π are 3 1 , 3.14, and 3.1416.
7

The circumference of a circle is equal to pi times the diameter or two pi times the radius.

Expressed as a formula where C is the circumference, d is the diameter, and r is the radius.

C = π d or C = 2πr
Example: What is the circumference of a circle if the diameter equals 14.5 inches?

Solution: Since the diameter is given to only 1 decimal place, use 3.14 for the value of π.
Substitute values.
C =πd C = 3.14 (14.5 in) C = 45.5 in Ans.
 101
Unit 11 - Circle
11-3 ARC LENGTH FORMULA

There are the same number of degrees in the arc of a central angle as there are in the central
Angle itself. In figure 11-5, if central 1 = 620, the AB = 620 and if CD = 1500 , the 2 =
1500.
When computing lengths of arcs, consider a complete circle as an arc of 360 0. The ratio of
The number of degrees of an arc to 3600 gives thee fractional part of the circumference for
The arc.

The length of an arc equals the ratio of the number of degrees of the arc to 360 0 times
the circumference.

Expressed as a formula:
Arc Degrees
Length of Arc = (2 π r) or
3600

Central Angle.
(2 π r)
Length of Arc = 3600
Fig. 11-5

Example: Determine the length of a 650 arc on a circle with a 4.2 inch radius.

Solution: Substitute values in the formula.

Arc Degrees
Length of Arc = (2 π r) or
3600

650
= [2(3.14)(4.2 in)]
3600

= 4.8 in Ans.
 102
Unit 11 - Circle

SOLVING PROBLEM B
1. Identify terms used to describe the properties of circle. Refer
A
to figure 11-6. Write the word that identifies each of the O
following. C D

a. AB c. EO

b. CD d. Point O E

Fig. 11-6

2. Refer to figure 11-7. Write the word that identifies each of the following.

a. M c. SG S T
M
b. P d. RW
0
e. RW R W
P

Fig. 11-7

3. What is the circumference of a circle if the radius equals 23.764 centimeters.

1.6
m

4. Determine the radius of the circle shown in figure 11-8. 1260

r
5. Determine the central angle which cuts off an arc length
of 2.8 inches on a circle with a 5-inch radius. Fig. 11-
8
 103

SECTION 3 - GEOMETRY

UNIT-12
AREAS OF POLYGON
OBJECTIVE:
After studying this unit you should be able to:
Compute areas of common polygon, given bases and altitude.
Compute altitudes of common polygon, given bases and areas
Compute bases of common polygon, given altitudes and areas
Compute areas of more complex figures which consist of two or more common
polygons

Many occupations require computation of common polygon areas in finding job materials
and costs. It is also sometimes necessary to find unknown length, widths, and heights of
polygons when the areas are known.

Method of computing areas, sides, and heights of rectangle, parallelograms, trapezoids, and
triangles are presented in this unit. The areas of complex polygons are found by dividing the
complex polygons into two or more of these simpler figures.

12-1 AREAS OF RECTANGLES

A rectangle is a four-sided polygon with opposite sides equal and parallel and with each
angle equal to a right angle. The area of a rectangle is equal to the product of the length and
width.

Where A = area
A = lw
l = length
w = width

Example: A rectangular platform is 24 feet long and 14 feet wide. Find the area of the
platform.

A = 24 ft x 14 ft

A = 336 sq. ft. Ans

 104
Unit 12 – Areas of Polygons

12 -2 AREAS OF PARALLELOGRAMS

A parallelogram is a four-sided polygon with opposite sides parallel and equal. The area of
a parallelogram is equal to the product of the base and height or altitude. (The height or
altitude is a line segment which is perpendicular to a base.)

A = bh Where A = area
b = base
h = height or altitude

In figure 12-1, AB is a base and DE is an altitude of parallelogram ABCD.

Area of parallelogram ABCD = AB(DE)

Fig. 12 -1

In figure 12-2, BC is a base and DF is an altitude of parallelogram ABCD.

Area of parallelogram ABCD = BC(DF)

Fig. 12 - 2
Example: The lot shown in figure 12 – 3 is in a shape of parallelogram. Find the area of the
lot to the nearer meter.

Fig. 12 - 3
 105
Unit 12 – Areas of Polygons

Find the base.

Base = 1 Ft = 15
1 4 in

Find the altitude using the Pythagorean Theorem

(40 m)2 = (20 m)2 + h2

1 600 m2 = 400 m2 + h2

1 200 m2 = h2
h 1 200
=
 m2

h = 34.64 m

Find the area:

A = 66 m x 34.64 m

A = 2 286 m2 Ans

12 -3 AREAS OF
TRAPEZOIDS
A trapezoid is a four-sided polygon which has only two sides parallel and equal. The
parallel
side are called bases. The area of a trapezoid is equal to one-half the product of the height
or
altitude and the sum of the bases.
A = ½h ( b1 + Where A = area
b2 ) h = height or
altitude
b1 and b2 = bases
 106
Unit 12 – Areas of Polygons
In figure 12 - 4, DE is the altitude, and AB and DC are the bases of trapezoid
ABCD.

Area of trapezoid ABCD = ½ DE (AB +

DC)
Fig. 12 -
4
Example: Find the area of the stairway wall ABCD, shown in figure 12 – 5. Round the
answer to 1 decimal place.

A = ½ (4.2 m)(7.0 m + 3.8 m)

A = ½ (4.2 m)(10.8 m)

A = 22.7 m2 Ans
Fig. 12 - 5
12 - 4 AREAS OF TRIANGLES GIVEN THE BASE AND
ALTITUDE
In parallelogram ABCD shown in figure 14 – 6, segment DE is the altitude to the base
AB.
Diagonal ABDB = divides the parallelogram into two congruent triangle.
DC
The opposite sides of af a
AD = parallelogram
BC Are equal.
AB 
DB =
 D
CDB Fig. 12
Parallelogram
DB ABCD and triangle ABD and CDE have equal bases and -6 altitudes
equal
The
area of either triangle is equal to one-half the area of the parallelogram. The area of
Th
paralle- ABD CDB = ½
area of a triangle is equal to one-half the product of the base and e
logram ABCD = AB(DE). Therefore, the area of or AB(DE).
altitude.
A = ½ Where A = area
bh b = base
h = height or
altitude
 107
Unit 12 – Areas of Polygons
Example: Find the area of the triangle shown in figure 12 -
7
A = ½ (22 cm)(19 19
cm) cm
A = 209 cm2
Ans.
22
Fig. cm
12 -
7
12 -5 AREAS OF TRIANGLES GIVEN THREE
SIDES

Sometimes the three sides of a triangle are known but an altitude is not known and cannot be
found. A formula, called Hero’s or heron’s Formula, may be used to compute areas.
where A = area s =½(a + b +
A s (s - a)(s - b)(s -
=  c)
a, b, and c =
sides
c)

Example: Refer to the triangle shown in figure 12– 8.

a. Find the area of the triangle
b. Find the altitude, JK 10.00
J
m
a. Compute the area using Hero;s 5.00
Formula m
s = ½ (7 m + 5 m + 10
m)
s = 11
m 7.00 k
m
Fig. 12 - 8
A 11 m (11 m - 7 m)(11 m - 5 m)(11 m - 10
=  m)
A
=  11
m)
m (4 m)(6 m)(1

A 264
= m 4

A = 16.25 m2
Ans.
 109
Unit 12 – Areas of Polygons
b. Compute altitude JK using the formula, A = ½
bh.
16.25 m2 = ½ (10 m)
(JK)
16.25 m2 = 5 m
(JK) JK = 3.25 m
Ans.

SOLVING PROBLEM

1. A building floor plan is shown in figure 12 – 9. Find the area of the floor

Fig. 12 - 9

2. A drawing of a base plate is shown in figure 12 – 10. The plate is made of number 2
gage (thickness) aluminum which weight 3.6 pounds per square foot. Find the weight
of the plate.

Fig. 12 - 10
 110
Unit 12 – Areas of Polygons

SOLVING PROBLEM
3. The section of land shown in figure 12 – 11 is to be graded and paved. The cost is $10.35
per square yard. What is the total cost of grading and paving the section? Express the
answer to the nearer dollar.
83’
65’
42’
Fig. 12 - 11 20‘ 68’

42’
65’
83’

4. The triangular piece of land shown in figure 12 – 12 is graded and seeded at a coat of
$1550. What is the grading and seeding cost per square foot?

160’ 160’

210’
Fig. 12-12
5. A drafter designs a duct with a triangular cross-section as shown in figure 12-13. The
specifications require the duct to have a cross-sectional area of the opening equal to 250
square inches and to have a sides of 32 inches and 40 inches. Find the length of the
third side.

32.00”

40.00”
Fig.12-13
 111
SECTION 3 - GEOMETRY

UNIT-13
AREAS OF CIRCLES, SECTORS, SEGMENTS, AND ELLIPSES

OBJECTIVE:
After studying this unit you should be able to:
Compute areas, radii, and diameters of circles
Compute areas` radii, and central angles of sectors.
Compute areas of segments.
Compute areas , major axes, and minor axes of ellipses.

Computations of areas of circular objects are often made on-the-job. Material quantities and
weights are based on computed areas. Many industrial and construction material strength
computations are also based on circular cross-sectional areas of machined parts and structural
members.

13-1 AREAS OF CIRCLES

The area of a circle is equal to the product of pi and the square of the radius.
A = π r2 where A = area
r = radius
π = 3.14 or 3.1416

The formula for the aread of circle can be expressed in terms of diameter. Since the radius is
one-half the diameter. 2 can be substituted in the formula for r.
π d2 3.1416 d2
A =π ( d2 )2 A =
4
A =
4 A = 0.785 d2

Example: Find the area of a circle which has a radius of 6.5 inches.
Substitute values in the formula and solve.
A = π r2 = 3.14 (6.5 in)2 = 3.14 (42.25 sq. in) = 132.7 sq. in Ans.

13.2 RATIO OF TWO CIRCLES

The areas of two circles have the same ratio as the squares of the radii or diameters.
A1 r 12 d 12
= =
A2 r 22 d 22
 112
Unit 13 – Areas of Circles, Sectors, Segments and Ellipses

Example: The radii of two circles are 5 feet and 2 feet. Compare the area of the 5-foot radius
circle with the area of the 2-foot radius circle.
Form a ratio of the squares of the radii.
( 5 ft )2 25 sq ft
= 4 sq ft = 6.25
( 2 ft )2

The area of the 5-ft radius circle is 6.25 times greater than the area of the 2-ft
radius circle. Ans

The radii or diameters of two circle have the same ratio as the square roots of the areas.

r1 d 1 A 1
r2 = =
d2 A 2

13.3 AREAS OF SECTORS

A sector of a circle is a figure formed by two radii and the arc intercepted by the radii. To
find the area of a sector of a circle, first find the fractional part of a circle represented by
central angle. Then multiply the fraction by the area of the circle.

A = θ ( π r2 ) Where A = area
3600 θ = central angle
π = 3.14 or 3.1416
r = radius

Example: An apartment balcony is designed in the shape of a sector. The balcony has a
central angle of 2250 and contains 24 square meters of surface area. Find the
radius.
Substitute values in the formula and solve.

2250 ( 3.1416 )r2

24 m2 = 24 m2 = 1.9635 r2
3600

r2 = 12.223 m2

r = 3.50 m Ans
 113
Unit 13 – Areas of Circles, Sectors, Segments and Ellipses
13. 4 AREAS OF SEGMENTS
A segment of a circle is a figure formed by an arc and the chord joining the end points of the
arc. In the circle shown in figure 13-1, the area of segment ACB is found by subtracting the
area of triangle AOB from the area of sector.
B.

C. 0

.
A
Fig. 13-1

Example: Segment ACB is cut from the circular plate shown in figure in figure 13-2. Find
the area of the segment.

Find the area of the sector: 1400

A =
1400 (3.1416)(4.5 in)2
= 24.740 sq in
C.
3600
.
A D . B
1.54”
Find the area of isosceles triangle AOB:
0
c2 = a2 + b2 4. 50” radius
(4.50 in)2 = (1.54 in)2 + AD2

20.25 sq in = 2.371 6 sq in + AD2 Fig. 13-2

2
AD = 17.878 4 sq in
AD = 4.228 in

The base AB of isosceles triangle AOB is bisected by altitude DO.

AB = 2(AD) = 2 (4.228 in) = 8.456 in

A = 0.5 (8.456 in)(1.54 in) = 6.511 sq in
Find the area of segment ACB:
A = 24.740 sq in - 6.511 sq in = 18.23 sq in Ans.
 114
Unit 13 – Areas of Circles, Sectors, Segments and Ellipses

13. 5 AREAS OF ELLIPSES

The curve of intersection of a plane which diagonally cuts through a cone is an ellipse as
shown in figure 13.3. An ellipse is a closed oval-shaped curve that is symmetrically to two
lines or axes that are perpendicular to each other. The curve shown in 13.4 is an ellipse. It is
Symmetrical to axes AB and CD. The longer axis is called the major axis and the shorter axis
CD is called minor axis. The area of an ellipse is equal to the product of pi and one-half the
Major axis and one-half the minor axis.

Fig. 13.3 Fig. 13.4

A = π ab Where A = area
a = ½ major axis
b = ½ minor axis
Example: Find the area of an elliptical swimming pool that is 9 meters long (major axis)
and 6 meters wide (minor axis)

a = 0.5 (9 m) = 4.5 m
b = 0.5 (6 m) = 3 m
A = 3.14 (4.5 m)(3 m) = 42.4 m2 Ans.
 115
Unit 13 – Areas of Circles, Sectors, Segments and Ellipses

SOLVING PROBLEM
1. Determine the diameter of a circular table top which is to have an area of 1.65 sq meter

2. A circular hole is cut in a square metal plate as shown in figure 13.5. The plate weight
8.3 pounds per square foot. What is the weight of the plate after the hole is cut?

Fig. 13.5
3. The area of two circles are 36 cm2 and 9 cm2. Compare the diameter of the 36 cm2
circle with the diameter of the 9 cm2 circle.
4. The parking area in the shape of a sector as shown in figure 13.6 is graded and paved. At
a cost of $0.40 per square foot, find, to the nearer dollar, the total cost of grading and
paving the area.

Fig. 13.6

5. An elliptical platform is designed to have a surface area of 700 square feet. To give the
desired form, the major axis must be 112times as long as the minor axis. Determine the
dimensions of the major and minor axes.
 116
SECTION 3 - GEOMETRY

UNIT-14
PRISMS AND CYLINDERS: VOLUMES, SURFACE AREA, AND WEIGHTS

OBJECTIVE:
After studying this unit you should be able to:
Compute volumes of prisms and cylinders
Compute surface areas of prisms and cylinders
Compute capacities and weights of prism and cylinder

The ability to compute volumes of prisms and cylinders is required in various occupations.
Heating and air conditioning technicians compute volume of air in a building when
determining heating and cooling system requirements. In the construction field, the type
and size of structural supports used depends on the volume of the materials being supported.
The displacement of an automobile engine is based on the volume of its cylinders. Nurses use
volume measure when giving medications to patients.

Surface areas of the faces or sides of prisms and cylinders are often needed. To determine
material requirements and costs, a welder computes the surface area of a cylindrical
weldment. A packaging designer consider the surface area for the material of a carton when
pricing a product.

14.1 PRISMS

In practical work, perhaps the most widely used solid is the prism. A prism is a solid which
has two identical (congruent) parallel polygon faces called bases and parallel lateral edges.
The other sides or faces of a prism are parallelograms called lateral faces. The lateral edge is
the line segment where two lateral faces meets. The altitude of a prism is the perpendicular
distance between its two bases.
Prisms are named according to the shape of their bases, such as triangular, rectangular,
pentagonal, hexagonal, and octagonal. Some common prism are shown in figure 14.1 The
parts of the prisms are identified. In a right prism, the lateral edges are perpendicular to the
bases. Prisms A and B in figure 14.1 are examples of right prisms. In an oblique prism, the
lateral edges are not perpendicular to the bases. Prism C and D are examples of oblique prisms.
 117
Unit 14 – Prisms and Cylinders: Volumes, Surface Areas, and Weights

Fig. 14.1
14.2 VOLUMES OF PRISMS

The volume of any prism (right or oblique) is equal to the product of the base area and
altitude.
V = AB h Where V = volume
AB = area of base

h = altitude

Example: Compute the volume of a prism which has a base area of 15 square inches and
altitude of 6 inches.
V = 15 sq in x 6 in = 90 cu in Ans
14.3 CYLINDERS

Cylinders are used in many industrial and construction application. Pipes, shaft, support
columns, and tanks are a few of the practical uses made of cylinders.

A circular cylinder is a solid which has identical circular parallel bases. The surface between
the bases is called lateral surface. The altitude of a circular cylinder is the perpendicular
distance between the bases. The axis of a circular cylinder is a line which connects the
centers of the bases.
 118
Unit 14 – Prisms and Cylinders: Volumes, Surface Areas, and Weights

In a right circular cylinder the axis is perpendicular to the bases. A right circular cylinder
with its parts identified is shown in figure 14.2. Only right circular cylinder are considered
in this book.

Fig. 14-2
14.4 VOLUMES OF CYLINDERS

As with a prism, a right circular cylinder has a uniform cross-sectional area. The formula for
computing volumes of right circular cylinders is the same as that of prisms. The volume of
a right circular cylinder is equal to the product of the base area and altitude.
V AB h
= where V = volume
AB
= area of base
h = height

Example: Find the volume of a cylinder with a base area of 30 square centimeters and an
altitude of 6 centimeters.
V = 30 cm2 x 6 cm = 180 cm3 Ans.

14.5 COMPUTING ALTITUDES AND BASES OF PRISMS AND CYLINDERS

The altitude of a prism or a right circular cylinder can be determined if the base area and
volume are known. Also, the base area can be found if the altitude and volume are known.
Substitute the known values in the volume formula and solve for the unknown value.
Example: The volume of a steel shaft 20 inches long is 60 cubic inches. Compute the
cross-sectional area.

Substitute the values in the formula and solve.

A
60 cu in = B (20 in)
AB
= 3 sq in Ans.
 119
Unit 14 – Prisms and Cylinders: Volumes, Surface Areas, and Weights

14.6 SURFACE AREAS OF RIGHT PRISMS AND CYLINDERS

It is often necessary to determine surface areas of prisms and cylinders. For example, a trade
person computes the number of square feet of stock for an air duct, the number of bundles of
shingles for building siding, or the amount of paint for a cylindrical storage tank.

The lateral area of a prism is the sum of the areas of the lateral faces. The lateral area of a
cylinder is the area of the curved or lateral surface. The lateral area of any prism is
determined by computing the area of each lateral face, then adding all of the areas of the
faces.

The lateral area of a right prism equals the product of the perimeter of the base and altitude.

LA = PB h
Where LA = lateral area
PB
= perimeter of base
h = altitude

To derive this formula, think of the lateral faces as being spread out on a flat surface or plane.
For example, with the triangular prism shown in figure 14.3, imagine that a cut is made along
edge E. Then the left face is unfolded back along edge G. The three faces now lie on a flat
surface or plane as shown in figure 14.4. It can be seen that the total area of the prism faces
equal to the area of rectangle in figure 14.4. Distance A + B + C is the perimeter of the
triangular prism base. Distance A + B + C is also the length of the rectangular formed by
unfolding the prism faces.

Fig. 14.3 Fig. 14.4

 120
Unit 14 – Prisms and Cylinders: Volumes, Surface Areas, and Weights
The lateral area of a right circular cylinder is equal to the product of the circumference of the
base and altitude.
C h Where LA = lateral area
LA = B CB
= circumference of base
h = altitude
This formula is developed in much the same way as that of the prism. Imagine that a vertical
cut is made along the lateral surface of the cylinder shown in figure 14.5. The lateral surface
is then spread out flat as shown in figure 14.6. The length of the rectangle in figure 14.6 is
equal to the circumference of the cylinder base in figure 14.5.

Fig 14.5
Fig 14.6
The total surface area of a prism or a cylinder must include the area of both bases as well as
the lateral area. The surface area of a prism or a cylinder equals the sum of the lateral area
and two times the base area.
SA = LA + 2AB where SA = total surface area
LA = lateral area
AB = area of base

These examples illustrate the method of computing lateral areas and total surface areas of
right prisms.
Example: A shipping crate is shown in figure 14.7.
a. Compute lateral area.
b. Compute the total surface area.
a. Find the perimeter of the base.
PB = 2 (6 ft) + 2 (4.5 ft) = 21 ft.

Find the lateral area: Fig. 14.7

LA = 21 ft x 4 ft = 84 sq ft Ans.
b. Find the area of the base: SA = 84 sq ft + 2(27 sq ft) = 138 sq ft Ans.
AB = 6 ft x 4.5 ft = 27 sq ft
 121
Unit 14 – Prisms and Cylinders: Volumes, Surface Areas, and Weights

SOLVING PROBLEM
1. A concrete slab with a rectangular base is shown in figure 14.8.
a. Find the number of cubic yards of concrete required.
b. One cubic yard of concrete weights 3 700 pounds. Find the weight of the slab.

Fig.14-8
2. Find the approximate volume of air contained in the building shown in figure 14.9.
Disregard the wall and ceiling thicknesses.

Fig. 14.9

3. A length of pipe shown in figure14.10. Find the volume of metal in the pipe.

Fig. 14.10
 122
Unit 14 – Prisms and Cylinders: Volumes, Surface Areas, and Weights

SOLVING PROBLEM

4. A concrete retaining wall is shown in figure 14.11. Find the length of wall that can be
constructed with 50 cubic yards of concrete.

Fig. 14.11

5. A cylinder hot water tank has a diameter of 0.6 meter and a height of 1.7 meters.

a. Find the lateral area

b. Find the total surface area.

 123
SECTION 3 - GEOMETRY

UNIT-15
PYRAMIDS AND CONES: VOLUMES, SURFACE AREA, AND WEIGHTS
OBJECTIVE:
After studying this unit you should be able to:
Compute volumes of pyramids and cones
Compute surface areas of pyramid and cones
Compute capacities and weights of pyramid and cones
Compute volumes of frustums of pyramid and cones
Compute surface areas of frustums of pyramid and cones
Compute capacities and weights of frustums of pyramid and cones

15.1 PYRAMIDS
A pyramid is a solid whose base is a polygon and whose sides of faces are triangles. The
triangles meet at a point called vertex. The triangular faces which meet at the vertex are
called lateral faces. A lateral edge is the line segment where two lateral faces meet. The
altitude of a pyramid is the perpendicular distance from the vertex to the base.
Pyramids are named according to the shape of the bases, such as triangular, quadrangular,
pentagonal, hexagonal, and octagonal. In a regular pyramid, the base is a regular polygon
and the edges are equal in length. Only regular pyramid are considered in this book. Some
common regular pyramids are shown in figure 15-1. The parts of the pyramid are identified.

Fig. 15.1
15.2 CONES

A circular cone is a solid with a circular base and surface that tapers from the base to a
point called vertex. The surface lying between the base and the vertex is called the lateral
surface. The altitude of a circular cone is a perpendicular distance from the vertex to the
 124
Unit 15 – Pyramids and Cones: Volumes, Surface Area, and Weights

Base. The axis of a circular cone is a line which connects the vertex to the center of the
circular base.
In a right circular cone the axis is perpendicular to the base. A right circular cone with the
Parts identified is shown in figure 15.2. Only right circular cones are considered in this book.

Fig. 15.2

15.2 VOLUMES OF REGULAR PYRAMIDS AND RIGHT CIRCULAR CONES

Considered a prism and a pyramid which have identical bases and altitudes. If the volumes of
the prism and pyramid are measured, the volume of the pyramid would be one-third the
volume of prism. Also, if the volumes of a cylinder and a cone with identical bases and
altitudes are measured, the volume of the cone would be one-third the volume of the
cylinder. The formulas for computing volumes of prisms and right circular cylinder are the
same. Therefore, the formulas for computing the volumes of regular pyramids and right
circular cones are the same. The volume of a regular pyramid or right circular cone equals
one-third the product of the area of the base and altitude.
1 A h
V = B
where V = volume
3 AB = area of the base
h = altitude
These examples illustrate the method of computing volumes of regular pyramids and right
circular cones.
Example: Compute the volume of a pyramid which has a base area of 24 square feet and
an altitude of 6 feet.

24 sq ft x 6 ft
V = = 48 cu ft Ans.
3
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Unit 15 – Pyramids and Cones: Volumes, Surface Area, and Weights

15.3 COMPUTING ALTITUDES AND BASES OF REGULAR PYRAMIDS AND

RIGHT CIRCULAR CONES

As with prisms and cylinders, altitudes and base areas of regular pyramids and right circular
cones are readily determined. Substitute known values in the volume formula and solve for
the unknown value.

Example: The volume of a regular pyramid is 270 cubic centimeters and the height
(altitude) is 18 centimeters. Compute the base area.

Substitute the values in the formula and solve:

AB (18 cm)
270 cm3 = AB = 45 cm2 Ans.
3
15.4 SURFACE AREAS OF REGULAR PYRAMIDS AND
RIGHT CIRCULAR CONES

To determine material requirements and weights of pyramids and conical shaped objects,
surface areas are computed. These types of computations have wide application in the
industrial and construction fields.
Slant heights are used in determining lateral areas of pyramids and cones. The slant heights
of a regular pyramid is the altitude of any of the lateral faces. The slant height of a regular
pyramid is shown in figure 15.3. The slant height of a right circular cone is a straight line
segment which connects the vertex to any point on the circular base. The slant height of a
right circular cone is shown if figure15.4. The lateral area of a pyramid is the sum of the areas
of the lateral faces. The lateral area of a regular pyramid equals one-half the product of the
perimeter of the base and the slant height.

Fig. 15.3 Fig. 15.4

LA = ½ PB hs Where LA = lateral area

PB = perimeter of base
hs = slant height
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Unit 15 – Pyramids and Cones: Volumes, Surface Area, and Weights

The lateral area of a circular cone is the area of the lateral surface. The lateral area of a right
circular cone equals one-half the product of the circumference of the base and the slant height.

LA = ½ CB hs Where LA = lateral area

CB = circumference of base
hs = slant height

The total surface area of a pyramid or cone includes the base as well as the lateral area. The
total surface area of a pyramid or cone equals the sum of the lateral area and the base area.
These examples illustrate the procedure for computing lateral areas and total surface areas of
Regular pyramids and right circular cones.

Example: Refer to the right circular cone shown in figure 15.5.

a. Compute the lateral area.
b. Compute the total surface area.
a. Find the lateral area:

LA = 0.5 (3.14)(14 in)(16 in) = 351 sq in Ans.

b. Find the total surface area:

AB = 3.14 (7 in)2 = 153.86 sq in
Fig. 15.5
SA = 351. sq in + 153.86 sq in = 505.5 sq in Ans.

15.5 FRUSTUMS OF PYRAMID AND CONES

When a pyramid or cone is cut by a plane parallel to the base, the part that remains is called
a frustum. Frustums of pyramids and cones are often found in architecture. As well as
architecture application, containers, tapered shafts, funnels, and lamp shades are few familiar
examples of frustums of pyramids and cones.

The larger base is the base of the cone or pyramid. The smaller base is the circle or polygon
formed by the parallel cutting plane. The smaller base of the pyramid has the same shape as
the larger base. The two bases are similar. The altitude is the perpendicular distance between
the larger and smaller bases. A frustum of a pyramid and a frustum of a cone with their parts
Identified are shown in figure 15.6.
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Unit 15 – Pyramids and Cones: Volumes, Surface Area, and Weights

Fig 15.6
15.6 VOLUMES OF FRUSTUMS OF REGULAR PYRAMIDS AND
RIGHT
CIRCULAR CONES
The volume of the frustum of a pyramid or cone is computed using this formula:
ABA
V = ⅓ h (AB + Ab +  Where V = volume of the frustum of
b
a
pyramid or cone.
h = altitude
AB = area of larger base
Ab = area of smaller base
The formula for the volume of a frustum of a right circular cone is expressed in this form.

V = ⅓ π h (R2 + r2 + Rr) Where V = volume of a right circular cone

h = altitude
R = radius of larger base
r = radius of smaller base
These examples illustrate the method of computing volumes of frustums of regular pyramids
And right circular cones.
Example: A waste basket is designed in the shape of a frustum of a pyramid with a square
base as shown in figure 15.7. Find the volume of the basket in cubic feet.

Find the larger base area: AB = ( 14 in)2 = 196 sq in

Find the smaller base area: Ab = ( 11 in)2 = 121 sq in

Fig. 15.7
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Unit 15 – Pyramids and Cones: Volumes, Surface Area, and Weights

(16 in) [ 196 sq in + 121 sq in +  (196 sq in)(121 sq in)

V =
3

(16 in)(196 sq in + 121 sq in + 154 sq in)

V =
3

V = 2 512 cu in

Express the volume in cubic feet:

2 512 cu in ÷ 1 728 cu in/cu ft = 1.45 cu ft Ans

!5.7 SURFACE AREAS OF FRUSTUMS OF REGULAR PYRAMIDS AND

RIGHT CIRCULAR CONES

All lateral faces of frustums of pyramids are trapezoids. The slant height of the frustum of a
regular pyramid is the altitude of each trapezoidal lateral face. The slant height of the
frustum of a regular pyramid is shown in figure 15.8. The slant height of the frustum of a
right circular cone is the shortest distance between the bases on the lateral surface. The slant
height of the frustum of a regular circular cone is shown in figure 15.9.

Fig. 15.8 Fig. 15.9

The lateral area of frustum of a pyramid is the sum of the areas of the lateral faces. The
lateral area can be determined by computing the area of each trapezoidal face and adding the
face areas. However, it is easier to compute lateral areas by using altitudes and base
perimeters. The lateral area of the frustum of a regular pyramid equals one-half the product
of the slant height and the sum of the two base perimeters.
Where LA = lateral area
LA = ½ hs (PB + Pb) hs = slant height
PB = perimeter of larger base
Pb = perimeter of smaller base
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Unit 15 – Pyramids and Cones: Volumes, Surface Area, and Weights

The lateral area of frustum of a cone is the area of the lateral surface. The lateral area of the
frustum of a right circular cone equals one-half the product of the slant height and the sum
of the two base circumferences.
LA = ½ hs (CB + Cb) where LA = lateral area
hs = slant height
CB = circumference of larger base
Cb = circumference of smaller base

The formula for the lateral area of the frustum of a right circular cone is simplified to this
Form.

LA = π hs (R + r) where LA = lateral area

hs = slant height
R = radius of larger base
r = radius of smaller base
The total surface area of the frustum of a pyramid or cone must include the area of both bases
As well as the lateral area. The total surface area of the frustum of a pyramid or cone equals
The sum of the lateral area, the larger base area, and the smaller base area.

SA = LA + AB + Ab where SA = total surface area

LA = lateral area
AB = area of larger base
Ab = area of smaller base

These examples illustrate the procedure for computing lateral areas and total areas of
frustum of regular pyramids and right circular cones.
Example: A plywood pedestal has a shape of the frustum of a square based regular pyramid
Each side of the larger base is 4’-6” long. Each side of smaller base is 3’-3” long.
The slant height is 3’-0”.
a. Compute the lateral area of the pedestal
b. Compute the total surface area of the pedestal
a. Compute the lateral area:
PB = 4 x 4.5 ft = 18 ft
Pb = 4 x 3.25 ft = 13 ft
LA = 0.5 (3 ft )( 18 ft + 13 ft ) = 46.5 sq. ft Ans.
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Unit 15 – Pyramids and Cones: Volumes, Surface Area, and Weights

a. Compute the total surface area:

AB = (4.5 ft)2 = 20.25 sq ft
Ab = (3.25 ft)2 = 10.56 sq ft

SA = 46.5 sq ft + 20.25 sq ft + 10.56 sq ft = 77.31 sq ft

SOLVING PROBLEM

1. The roof of the building shown in figure 15.10 is in the shape of a regular pyramid. Find
the approximate number of cubic meters of attic space.

Fig. 15.10
2. The pyramid shown in figure 15.11 has a square base with each base side 20 centimeters
long. The pyramid altitude, 25 centimeters, is given. Find the lateral area of the pyramid.
The slant height is not known and must be computed. In figure 15.12, right triangle
ACB is formed within the pyramid. The triangle is formed by altitude CB, slant height
AB, and triangle base CA.

Fig 15.11 Fig 15.12

 Unit 15 – Pyramids and Cones: Volumes, Surface Area, and Weights 131

3. A tapered steel shaft is shown in figured 15.13.

a. Find the number of cubic centimeters of steel contained in the shaft.
b. Find the weight of the shaft. The steel in the shaft weighs 0.0078 kilogram per
cubic centimeters.

Fig. 15.13

4. Compute the number of square centimeters of fabric contained in the lamp shade shown
in figure 15.14. The Slant height must be found. In figure 15.15, right triangle ACB is
formed by the altitude CB, the slant height AB, and triangle base AC.

Fig. 15.14 Fig. 15.15

5. A bronze casting in the shape of a right circular cone is 14.5 inches high and has a base
diameter of 10 inches.

a. Find the volume of bronze required for the casting.

b. Find the weight of the casting. Bronze weighs 547.9 pounds per cubic foot.
 SECTION 3 - GEOMETRY 132

UNIT-16
SPHERES AND COMPOSITE OBJECTS: VOLUMES, SURFACE AREAS, AND WEIGHTS
OBJECTIVE:
After studying this unit you should be able to:
Compute surface areas and volumes of spheres
Compute capacities and weights of spheres

16.1 SPHERES

A sphere is a solid bounded by a curved surface such that every point on the surface is
equally distant from a point called the center. A round ball, such as a baseball or basketball,
is an example of a sphere.
The radius of a sphere is a straight line segment from the center to any point on the surface.
A diameter is a straight line segment through the center with its endpoint on the curved
surface. The diameter of a sphere is twice the radius.
If a plane cuts through a sphere and does not go through the center, the section is called a
small circle. As intersecting planes move closer to the center, the circular section get larger.
A plane that cuts through the center of the sphere is called a great circle. A great circle is
the largest circle that can be cut by an intersecting plane. If a plane is passed through the
center of sphere, the sphere is cut in to equal parts. Each part is a half sphere called hemi-
sphere. A sphere with its part is shown in figured 16.1

Fig. 16.1
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Unit 16 – Sphere and Composite Objects: Volumes, Surface Areas, and Weights

16.2 SURFACE AREA OF A SPHERE

The surface area of a sphere equals four times the area of a great circle
SA = 4 π r2 where SA = surface area of sphere
r = radius of the sphere.

Example: A spherical gas storage tank, which has a 96 foot diameter, will be painted.

a. Compute the surface area of the tank to the nearer square foot
b. Compute, to the nearer gallon, the amount of paint required. One gallon of
paint covers 530 square feet.
a. Find the surface area:
SA = 4 (3.14)(48 ft)2 = 28 938 sq ft Ans

b. Find the number of gallon of paint required:

28 938 sq ft ÷ 530 sq ft/gal = 55 gal Ans

16.3 VOLUME OF A SPHERE

The volume of a sphere equals the surface area multiplied by one-third the radius. Since the
Surface area of a sphere equals 4 π r2, the volume equals ⅓ r (4 π r2). The formula for the
volume of a sphere is simplified to this form.
4
V = π r3 where V = volume of sphere
3
r = radius of sphere
Example: A stainless steel ball bearing contain balls which are 1.80 centimeters in diameter.

a. Find the volume of a ball

b. Find the weight of a ball. Stainless steel weighs 7.88 grams per cubic cm.
4(3.14)(0.90 cm)3
a. Find the volume: V = = 3.05 cm3 Ans
3

b. Find the weight: 3.05 cm3 x 7.88 g/cm3 = 24.03 g Ans

 Unit 16 – Sphere and Composite Objects: Volumes, Surface Areas, and We

16.3 VOLUMES AND SURFACE AREA OF COMPOSITE SOLIDS

Practical volume and surface area application often require working with objects that are a
combination of two or more simple solid shapes. For example, a shaft or a container maybe
a combination of a cylinder and the frustum of cone. A round head rivet is a combination of cylinder and a hemis

To compute volumes or surface areas of composite solids, it is necessary to determine t

volume or surface area of each simple solid separately. The individual volumes or areas

Example: Compute the surface area of the sheet metal elbow shown in fi

Find the lateral area of the rectangular bottom section.

LA = [2(8 in) + 2(10 in)] x 9 in = 324 sq in

Find the lateral area of the triangular section.

The section consist of two triangular faces and

one rectangular back face.
A1 = 0.5 (3 in)(7.4 in) = 11.1 sq in

A2 = 3 in x 10 in = 30 sq in

LA = 2(11.1 sq in) + 30 sq in = 52.2 sq in

Fig. 16.2
Find the lateral area of the rectangular top section:

LA = [2(10 in) + 2(7.4 in)] x 7 in = 243.6 sq in

Find the total surface area of the elbow:

SA = 324 sq in + 52.2 sq in + 243.6 sq in = 619.8 sq in Ans

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Unit 16 – Sphere and Composite Objects: Volumes, Surface Areas, and Weights

SOLVING PROBLEM

1. An aluminum weldment is shown in figure 16.3

a. Find the total volume of the weldment.

b. Find the weight of the weldment. Aluminum weighs 0.0027 kilogram per cubic
centimeters

Fig. 16.3

2. The side view of a flanged shaft is shown in the figure 16.4. Find the volume of metal
in the shaft.

Fig. 16.4