Freshwater Resources in Third-World Countries

Taylor Clouser & Madison Cundiff

Purdue University

Introduction to Environmental and Sustainability Studies

Professors Leigh Raymond, Ellen Wells, and Laura Zanotti

April 30, 2020

Part I. Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to focus on freshwater resources and how they

impact third-world countries. With freshwater resources being over-exploited for years

worldwide, this problem has caused third-world countries to suffer and face the

hardships of having limited accessibility to freshwater resources that may be

contaminated. We will be looking at this problem through three different disciplines: a

health science perspective, an anthropological/social perspective, and an engineering

perspective. For health scientists, numerous research opportunities have gone into how

both sanitation and the demand for water have significant impacts on health. The

engineering perspective has seen numerous attempts to make integrated water

resource systems to assist with this problem and redirection of freshwater sources to

other areas. From an anthropological and social view, there needs to be policies

implemented to combat the issues surrounding freshwater resources as well as

understanding the cultural significance of water among different countries. We

anticipate collecting a variety of data on how freshwater resources’ availability affects

third-world countries and what can be done to assist in resolving this issue. Another

goal for data examination is to examine the similarities between all three perspectives

and how they can be combined to resolve the issues at hand. Freshwater resources are

struggling to stay replenished due to a lack of regulations controlling its usage,

especially in third-world countries who may not have proper infrastructure to assist. If

our thesis is correct, we will study the implications of implementing new infrastructure to

protect freshwater resources and gain sustainable usage methods.

Part II. Introduction

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 In the world there are numerous threats for becoming sustainable, but for the

purpose of this paper we will be focusing on freshwater resources, particularly in third-

world countries. We will be looking at the regulation and maintenance of freshwater

resources for the Earth, especially in third-world countries who struggle with unclean

water and improper sanitation practices. But how does freshwater impact sustainability?

If you look at the sustainable development goals that the UN has set, you will notice that

many are impacted by freshwater resources. For example, good health and well-being,

clean water and sanitation, life below water, and life above water all rely on having

readily accessible and clean freshwater resources.

There are many factors that impact these freshwater sources becoming depleted.

Some of these include climate change, over development, and polluted runoff. Each of

these have a negative impact on our freshwater resources. Climate change impacts the

rate of snow and ice that is melting. Instead of melting at a regular pace, climate change

has sped up the melting of these vital resources and caused flooding in some of the

low-land regions. Many communities rely on the snow melt for their water, but with the

rapid increase of melting, this resource is being depleted quicker. There is a limited

amount of freshwater on the planet, which is approximately 2% of the world's water. Of

this 2%, almost 70% is gained from snow and ice (Grantham Institute, 2012). There is

also less space to store all of the freshwater that is flowing, and some may be wasted.

The snow and ice melt may also run into the seas when it is melting, which this means

that the sources are no longer freshwater and are salinized. With a growing population,

it is no secret that we will need more and more resources to accommodate everyone.

Overdevelopment seems to be a critical issue that we are struggling to tackle in all

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areas of life. This factor impacts many different things, from habitat loss to freshwater

depletion. As more people need water for agricultural, industrial, or domestic uses,

water is increasingly being used and consumed without replenishing properly. Which

means that some may be taking more than what they may need, leaving people with

very little or none to utilize. With a higher population, there is also an increase seen in

water pollution. This can lead to increase in waste contaminating these freshwater

resources, creating wastewater. Wastewater is virtually unusable, but some areas may

not have the choice and have to use wastewater for their water demands and needs.

As the population grows, the more agriculture we will need to feed everyone. Which

leads us to our next issue, polluted runoff. A lot of agricultural practices use fertilizers on

crops, whether that is nitrogen, phosphorus, etc based. But with extreme weather

events, such as heavy rainfall, the excess fertilizer contaminates the nearby freshwater

resources. Agricultural processes tend to use a lot of water, crops need to be watered

as well as livestock.

As the depletion of freshwater becomes more daunting, new threats rise to this

issue. The growing population has become a significant threat against our freshwater

systems. With an increase in population there will be an increase in demand for these

resources. This overdevelopment can also play a part in impacting the pollution of the

water. With more people, more waste will be produced. Which then contaminates our

freshwater sources. These water systems become heavily contaminated, creating

unsanitary conditions and can even lead to health implications. But there are other ways

that humans are wasting water. In the more developed countries, water is often taken

for granted. For example taking a long shower after a hard day. That person does not

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need to take the 20 minute shower, instead they are using excessive amounts and

wasting our available water resources. But most people aren’t necessarily thinking

about running out of water. They know that they can turn on the faucet and water comes

out. Which can contribute to how much water is being wasted, a lack of education on

this issue. Freshwater resources are struggling to stay replenished due to a lack of

regulations controlling its usage, especially in third-world countries who may not have

proper infrastructure to assist. If our thesis is correct, we will study the implications of

implementing new infrastructure to protect freshwater resources and gain sustainable

usage methods.

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Part III. Engineering Perspective

The first perspective that is discussed is the engineering perspective, which will

explore what solutions that engineers have created in the past to help combat water

resource instability. In the past, many engineers have explored alternative solutions to

help reduce water loss in third-world countries and to help improve sanitation of water

resources. Water must be controlled through engineering projects and allocated to all

people equally, which can be difficult when third-world countries do not have the proper

infrastructure necessary to maintain their resources. Freshwater access can be costly to

third-world countries, illustrated by The Water Project when discussing Africa’s access

to water sources. The people of Africa prefer the quantity of water more than the quality

of water, which can be dangerous when faced with challenges such as pollution and

waterborne diseases present in these sources (Lewis, n.d.). Many of the challenges that

engineers have previously faced with water resources include improper agricultural

irrigation methods, contaminated water sources, and more. One key question that

engineers are still working to answer is what are the most effective methods of reducing

water resource instability?

One strategy that engineers have explored is the implementation of Integrated

Water Resource Systems, a complex network of engineering projects designed to assist

water resource allocation. Integrated Water Resource Systems is a process that

promotes the synchronized development and management of water, land, and other

related natural resources, while working to maximize the economic and social welfare in

a balanced manner without compromising sustainability of vital ecosystems and

environment (Global Water Partnership). This strategy is a flexible long-term opportunity

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for third world countries to begin working towards preserving water resources while

helping to provide stability through its outline. One of the main focuses in an Integrated

Water Resources Systems approach is agricultural irrigation techniques, which

contribute to a large amount of water being wasted or overutilized in maintaining crops.

An Integrated Water Resources System strategy would focus on improving these

techniques for agricultural irrigation first before exploring the improvements for other

areas of water usage (domestic purposes, industrial purposes, etc.).

One location that has been utilizing Integrated Water Resources Systems has

been the state of Oregon in the United States of America. Oregon has chosen to

combat water resource instability by utilizing this strategy, and has steadily worked

towards their goal of improving both instream and out-of-stream needs. By

implementing this strategy, Oregon has successfully "dedicated funding for

measurement and monitoring, launched a new funding program, improved effectiveness

monitoring on forest lands, and more actions" (Oregon's Integrated Water Resources

Strategy, 2017, p. 11). Oregon's water infrastructure is steadily improving as Oregon

allocates more finances to assist its IWRS strategy in place. This same strategy can be

implemented in third-world countries and help to provide stable, long-term employment

for a number of citizens. Global Water Partnership (2011) illustrates that IWRS

strategies are “based on the understanding that water resources are an integral

component of the ecosystem, a natural resource, and a social and economic good”,

which highlights the importance of understanding all purposes of water resources.

Another strategy that engineers have explored is utilizing hydroelectric dams to

help allocate water resources in certain regions for third world countries. One example

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of this strategy is the Three Gorges Dam, which was built in 2009 on the Yangtze River

in China. Some of the primary goals that had been established for utilizing the Three

Gorges Dam are for flood control, power generation, navigation, and tourism

opportunities (O’Hara, 2005). The Three Gorges Dam will protect nearby residents’

homes from annual flooding events and reroute the water. Hydroelectricity is one of the

largest sources of energy provided for China and has facilitated the use of renewable

energy, reducing fossil fuel usage and its pollution effects. Another positive effect of the

Three Gorges Dam is facilitating inland trade and boosting China’s economy for future

water resource allocation opportunities, which can provide more stable job security for

residents.

The utilization of hydroelectric dams comes with detrimental impacts however,

which can be a burden to third-world countries who may not have the proper funds

available for the infrastructure buildings. One lasting effect of hydroelectric dams is that

they have forced many residents to relocate elsewhere due to construction nearby.

During construction of the Three Gorges Dam, an estimated number of 1.3 to 1.9 million

residents had to relocate from their homes along the Yangtze River (O’Hara, 2005). The

impacts of relocating the residents were significant in China, and could be devastating

to residents within third-world countries who may not have proper fundings available to

relocate. Another effect of hydroelectric dams is that the natural environment and its

wildlife have been impacted as well. Many species of fish are unable to travel through

the Yangtze River due to the dam blockade preventing passage, and this can be

devastating to species who rely on travel for reproduction purposes. Another

environmental impact is the “submergence of hundreds of factories, mines and waste

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dumps, and the presence of massive industrial centers upstream” (Three Gorges Dam -

IR, n.d.). The amount of pollution that would occur from the construction of hydroelectric

dams would be devastating to the water resources impacted by the dam’s building. One

final environmental impact that hydroelectric dams present as a challenge is that a large

amount of water within the reservoir could trigger natural disasters such as earthquakes

and landslides (Three Gorges Dam - Britannica, 2019).

The solutions that have been created from the engineering perspective have both

positive and negative qualities associated. Even though the Integrated Water Resource

Systems strategy is flexible in terms of what infrastructure to utilize, this strategy can

take decades or longer to implement due to how much time and financial support the

projects require. Another quality to consider for the engineering perspective is the

impacts on surroundings. Many of the residents will be concerned about their homes

potentially being nearby infrastructure projects, and will also be concerned about the

natural environment being affected. Pollution and other damaging effects from the

projects can cause more problems than solutions to the freshwater resource instability

thesis. This perspective is important to gain education within and understand the

complexities of taking on either an Integrated Water Resource Systems strategy or

hydroelectric dams, which are both large-scale projects.

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Part IV. Anthropological Perspective

The second perspective we will be analyzing is the anthropological perspective.

For many decades people have been using water. Water was utilized by all people

including the settlers, soldiers, priests, and Native Americans. This makes water an

essential part of human history. Not only has water been a critical part of human

development, but water is essential for human life. Anthropologists view water as a

human right, meaning that water is necessary for survival. The United Nations

recognized water as a human right in 2010 at the Human Rights Council. But the

question still remains, if water is considered a human right why is it not being treated as

so?

Part of the issue regarding freshwater resources is the unequal distribution of

water. There are many countries who have abundant resources of water, and have the

proper facilities to manage it. This means that these countries can properly allocate the

freshwater resources to their populations and provide sanitized water for their people.

However in many third-world countries, there is a lack of water due to residents living in

more arid and dry regions. These countries typically do not have the financial

capabilities to run facilities that can maintain and keep the water sanitized. Thus, there

becomes a shortage of safe and sanitized water in third-world nations.

Anthropologists have studied how water can impact humans for many years.

Upon analyzing water and people, it was found that culture is significantly reliant on

water. There are numerous cultures that have been shaped or stem from water. Water

can also play a role in how people's personalities are shaped within a society. For

example you can look at the Native American culture. Water plays a significant role in

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their culture, as they often perform rain dances. The history behind this is that they

performed these rituals because rain is seen as a blessing. Water holds the key to life,

as it is essential, so it must be celebrated. This brings in the idea that water is also key

in religions, as people pray to be blessed with life and in turn receive rain (Roberts, I.,

n.d.).

This brings us back to water being viewed as a human right. Anthropologists

have known that water was essential for life because of the impacts it has on people,

but only recently was it established as a necessity. As stated previously water impacts

cultures in a very significant way. Water represents so much more than what it is, it

represents life and well-being. This is something that is very important among people,

as water is needed for survival. But the issue with this is that there is an unequal

distribution of water and uses for water. There are many regions of the world that water

is abundant and there is no concern for obtaining water. But this is not the case

everywhere. For example, Sub-Saharan Africa struggles to meet its needs for water on

a daily basis. Approximately 16% of people in this area have a household connection for

drinking water. This means the water is readily available through a tap either indoors or

outdoors. Considering this, there are many areas of the world that have readily available

clean water at their fingertips. They turn on the faucet to their sink and water comes out,

often taking this for granted.

The native people of Sub-Saharan Africa, often women and children, are sent out

to gather the water for their daily uses. It has been studied that in these areas only 3-

11% of their household income is used for water (UN-Water, n.d.). What this fails to

consider is the amount of time that the women spend collecting this water, and the

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dangerous situations they can expose themselves to. Oftentimes the women need to

travel great distances in order to collect the water, sometimes traveling several miles a

day in order to reach a source. It is estimated that women spend 40 billion hours a year

walking to collect water (Why Water, 2020). While doing so and traveling to unknown

territories, women can be harrassed and exposed to great dangers by these

communities. Often there are no facilities to use the restroom so they must find a private

area to do so. In doing so women are often violated and taken advantage of, creating an

association of gathering water with violence.

So what would the access to freshwater resources provide for people in third-

world nations? This could impact these areas significantly, and improve the quality of

life drastically. One aspect of this is that children would not be needed to collect water

as frequently or at all. This provides a better education for kids, as the kids would not be

taken away from school in order to complete this hefty task. Having access to clean

water would also improve the quality of life. This is because there are many diseases

that can be present in unsanitized waters. Without these diseases, people would be less

exposed to them and can live healthier lives. Women’s quality of life would also

improve. They would be able to do income generating jobs, relieving them from walking

several miles a day. This would also remove a lot of the violence associated with water

in these areas. Women would be subjected to less violence with the removal of having

to travel to obtain it.

Part V. Health Science Perspective

The third perspective we will be discussing comes from health science. The

largest problem regarding water worldwide is water scarcity (Jury, 2005). One of the

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biggest parts of analyzing freshwater is the quality vs quantity of resources. Meaning

clean water vs the amount of water available. Oftentimes people are so concerned with

obtaining water since it is so scarce they often are not concerned or considering the

cleanliness of the water. The scarcity of freshwater leads to numerous problems, such

as the sanitation of water, the demand for water, and accessibility. As we know

freshwater is not a common type of water on Earth, only about 2% is freshwater. So

with these resources being over-exploited, things are only going to get worse regarding

freshwater unless changes are made.

There is a shortage of water worldwide, and some areas are affected more than

others. Arid regions will continue to get hotter and drier as water becomes even more

scarce. But what is causing this scarcity? There are numerous factors that could be the

cause of this, but one of them is due to population growth. As the population continues

to increase, there are more people who will need water. But the issue is, there is

already a lack of water. Some areas, typically third-world countries, have little to no

water and water is not available to the entirety of the population. So with the countries’

populations increasing at such rapid rates, there is an even larger scarcity of water. The

demand for water will only increase as populations continue to increase. And as this

demand increases, freshwater resources continue to be over-exploited and abused.

In third-world countries, urban areas are facing a boom in population growth. This

creates many issues regarding freshwater. Often the existing sources of water are being

depleted quicker as much more water is extracted. There is also an increase in human

waste, which means there is a much higher risk of contamination of these water

resources. Once human waste is in the water, it takes a large effort of sanitation and

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finances to remove the contamination. You must have the proper sanitation facilities to

do so, which many of these developing nations are lacking. This can lead to the use of

wastewater being used in agricultural processes or used for household applications.

This leads us to the concern for improper sanitation in third-world countries regarding

freshwater.

Improper sanitation practices are the leading cause of infant mortality worldwide.

Sanitation can involve a lot of different things, from cleaning water to make it safe to

drink to accessibility and quality of toilets. Going back to the scarcity of water, this can

also impact sanitation of water resources. This can be because some regions are

concerned with obtaining water that they don’t focus on the sanitation of the water. As

stated from earlier, the quote from the Water Project illustrates this problem quite well

by explaining that “once a source of water has been provided, quantity of water is often

given more attention than the quality of water” (Lewis, n.d.). Some countries may also

not want to invest in the sanitation of water financially if they do not have water

resources readily available. And many third-world countries are the ones who need the

accessibility to better sanitation practices. But often they lack the financial capabilities,

technology, and other resources to implement these structures and facilities.

Improper sanitation of freshwater resources can have a severe impact on

people's health. Using the restroom without a toilet can lead to the feces being leached

into groundwater resources. This water is then collected and used for various things;

washing hands, drinking, cooking, or household uses. The water is not properly

sanitized, and people use this to wash their hands. This means people are using water

that is infected with sewage to cleanse themselves. There are many different diseases

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that are water-borne, meaning that they can be carried and transmitted through water.

Thus, people are using these disease infested waters to cleanse themselves and

perhaps even drink and ingest this unsanitary water. This then transmits the disease to

the person who is using this water. There are many health implications that come from

disease ridden waters. For example, gastrointestinal diseases, reproductive problems,

neurological disorders, cancers and death can all be a result from improperly sanitized

water.

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Part VI. Interdisciplinary Perspective

After a review of the engineering, anthropological, and health science

perspectives, the interdisciplinary perspective is a summarization of all three

perspectives discussing its agreements and disagreements. All three perspectives have

arrived at the same conclusion, stating that freshwater resources are over-exploited and

that the demand for freshwater resources is continuing to increase. The general

consensus for an integrated solution is to focus on proper allocation of sanitized water

for all three domains (agricultural, industrial, and domestic use). Their individual

solutions are centered around this focus within freshwater resources, but slightly differ

from each perspective’s viewpoints.

Both the engineering and health science perspectives agree that proper

sanitation of water is a crucial factor to reducing waterborne diseases and can also help

to improve the amount of water resources available for use. The health science

perspective explains that reducing waterborne diseases can reduce child mortality,

while the engineering perspective explores different sanitation practices briefly in the

Integrated Water Resource Systems. This factor allows the engineering perspective to

see which one is effective and reasonably priced for third-world countries to utilize. The

differing factors between the engineering perspective and health science perspective

are the reasons behind why sanitation for water resources is important. While the

engineering perspective is concerned with the cost of infrastructure and financial

capabilities to build proper sanitation plants for water resources, the health science

perspective is concerned with the quality of the sanitation plants being sufficient enough

to drastically reduce pollution and waterborne diseases present in the water resources.

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 Another factor that health science, engineering, and anthropological perspectives

agree on is that current environmental policies in place for water resources must be

altered to help repair freshwater resource instability. The engineering perspective has to

work closely with the anthropological perspective on revising the current policies in

place due to how these policies help support infrastructure built in place. An example of

how these two perspectives can combine is when the Three Gorges Dam was

presented to the government for consideration before building started. The World Bank

refused to financially assist with construction of the Three Gorges Dam due to

environmental policies and concerns being present, and the process of approving the

dam took nearly 40 years due to conflicts with the government policies in place (Three

Gorges Dam - Britannica, 2019).

From the health science perspective, a change in policies would be beneficial to

reduce the chances of freshwater resource instability happening again. There must also

be a change in technologies to ensure that they can supplement the revised policies in

place without hindering any other related policies (environmental concerns, quality of

life, etc.). One important factor that the health science perspective has brought up in

previous discussion is the importance of education for third-world countries regarding

freshwater resources. Many of the third-world countries’ residents do not understand the

importance of sanitation plants and why they can benefit from cleaner water available.

By improving on education and policies in place, all three perspectives can create an

integrated recommendation which is expounded next.

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Part VII. Integrated Recommendation

The integrated recommendation that all three perspectives have agreed upon is

a complex process that will require financial support and flexibility in policies. One of the

very first steps that must be taken is to examine critical factors affecting the freshwater

resources, which can differ among the third-world countries in levels of importance to

combat first. This step is assisted by the anthropological perspective by outlining what

the residents of each third-world country struggle with, then implementing policies to

begin supporting both the engineering and health science perspectives. After this step

has been established, the integrated recommendation process begins with exploring the

Integrated Water Resource Systems strategy to see which infrastructure elements

would help resolve critical factors listed previously.

The Integrated Water Resource Systems strategy will help to solve salinity,

waterborne diseases, and pollution issues with a combination of different infrastructure

projects under one system. This step will help to reduce wasting important freshwater

resources in the agricultural and industrial settings, which can help to boost the

domestic sector of freshwater resource utilization. The next step after establishing the

Integrated Water Resource Systems strategy with infrastructure plans in place is to

begin promoting job security through the infrastructure plans. This plan will help unite

the Engineering and Anthropological perspectives as one, since they will be working

alongside each other to ensure that policies in place are still effectively implemented

with the technology in place. By ensuring job security, this can help to boost the

residents’ incomes and provide opportunities to afford the water resources’

infrastructures being built once they are finished. The health science perspective comes

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into play within this step of the integrated recommendation because the job security will

also help to improve quality of life for a number of residents within third-world countries.

The last step in our integrated recommendation is to begin allocating water

resources by population sizes and demands in the area. We must take into

consideration cultural areas, which may not have accurate population numbers and

could present difficulty in following with proper water allocation procedures. Many

cultural areas do utilize water resources for ritualistic and practicing purposes outside of

domestic, agricultural, and industrial uses. Preserving the sanctity of these rituals will be

beneficial for the anthropological perspective, while also understanding how engineering

and health science perspectives can be impacted by the cultural factors coming into

play.

Some of the solutions that were presented in each perspective earlier were not

utilized for the integrated recommendation due to complications within previous

experiences. One example of this is the Three Gorges Dam, which presented strong

negative impacts on the natural environments and displacing residents alongside the

Yangtze River to move elsewhere. The Integrated Water Resource Systems helps to

provide the flexibility that third-world countries will need to combat freshwater resource

instability while still holding a structured outline of plans in place. Oregon has seen great

success with the Integrated Water Resource Systems strategy for all three perspectives

on a small scale, and has also been discussed within global summits but has not seen

larger successes yet. The reasoning for being discussed only is due to how many years

implementing the Integrated Water Resource Systems strategy could take for third-

world countries. Oregon is still improving on its strategy five years after being

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implemented, and still has many decades to go before they can confidently say that

their water resources are secured for residents. By ensuring that the Integrated Water

Resource Systems strategy is implemented alongside job security and proper water

allocation procedures, this integrated recommendation ties in all three perspectives. The

integrated recommendation also balances the challenges and solutions of each

perspective equally while helping to resolve our thesis of freshwater resource instability

in third-world countries.

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solutions-clean-water.

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O'Hara, L. (2005, December 19). The Three Gorges Dam Project. Retrieved April 30,

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https://www.oregon.gov/OWRD/programs/Planning/IWRS/Pages/default.aspx.

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https://www.britannica.com/topic/Three-Gorges-Dam.

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water-crisis.

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