Physics 106 Lecture 12

Oscillations – II
SJ 7th Ed.: Chap 15.4, Read only 15.6 & 15.7

• Recap: SHM using phasors (uniform circular motion)

• Ph i l pendulum
Physical d l example
l
• Damped harmonic oscillations
• Forced oscillations and resonance.
• Resonance examples and discussion
– music
– structural and mechanical engineering
– waves
• Sample problems
• Oscillations summary chart

Damped Oscillations
• Non-conservative forces may be present
– Friction is a common nonconservative force
neglect – No longer an ideal system (such as those dealt with
gravity so far)
• The mechanical energy of the system diminishes in
time, motion is said to be damped
• The motion of the system can be decaying
oscillations if the damping is “weak”.

• If damping is “strong”, motion may die away without oscillating.

• Still no driving force, once system has been started

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Add Damping: Emech not constant, oscillations not simple
• Spring oscillator as before, but with dissipative force
Fdamp
neglect
such as the system in the figure, with vane moving in fluid.
gravity
Fdamp viscous drag force, proportional to velocity

Fdamp = −bv

• Previous force equation gets a new, damping force term

d2x(t) dx(t)
Fnet = m 2
= − kx(t)
()− b
dt dt
new term
2
d x(t) b dx(t) k
+ = − x(t)
dt2 m dt m

Solution for Damped oscillator equation

new term
2
d x(t) b dx(t) k
2
+ = − x(t)
dt m dt m

bt
−
Solution:
x(t ) = x me cos(ω' t + φ) k b2
modified
2m
ω' ≡ −
exponentially altered ω’ can be real
m 4m2
oscillations
decaying envelope frequency or imaginary

k
ω0 = : natural frequency
m
ω ' ≡ ω02 − (b / 2m) 2

• Recover undamped solution for b Æ 0

2
 Damped physical systems can be of three types
bt
−
Solution: x( t ) = x me cos(ω' t + φ) k b2
damped
2m
ω' ≡ −
m 4m2
oscillations

U d d
Underdamped:
d small
ll b < 2 km
k
2
b k
< , for which ω is positive.
4m 2 m

Critically damped: b = 2 km
b2 k
2
≈ ≡ ω02 for which ω' ≈ 0
4m m

Overdamped: b2 k
> ≡ ω02 for which ω' is imaginary
4m2 m
Math Review: cos(ix) = cosh( x) = (e x + e − x ) / 2
sin(ix) = sinh( x) = (e x − e − x ) / 2
cos(ix + y ) = cos(ix) cos( y ) − sin(ix) sin( y )

Types of Damping, cont (Link to Active Fig.)

a) an underdamped oscillator
b) a critically damped oscillator
c) an overdamped oscillator

For critically damped and overdamped oscillators there is no

periodic motion and the angular frequency ω has a different
meaning

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 b2 k
Weakly damped oscillator : << ≡ ω20
4m2 m
bt
−
ω'≡ k b2
−
m 4 m2
≈ ω0 x(t ) = xm e 2m
cos(ω0t + ϕ )

bt
-
Xm = ( ) ≈ x me
x m (t) 2m
2

slow decay
of amplitude envelope

≈ cos(ω0 t + φ) small fractional

change in
amplitude
during one
complete cycle

b2 k
Weakly damped oscillator : 2
<< ≡ ω20
4m m

ω'≡ ≈ ω0
bt
k b2 −
−
m 4 m2 x(t ) = xm e 2m
cos(ω0t + ϕ )
bt
- Amplitude : X m = A
x m (t) ≈ x m e 2m

small fractional
slow decay change in amplitude
of amplitude envelope during one complete
cycle

≈ cos(ω0 t + φ)

Velocity with weak damping: find derivative

bt
d − maximum velocity
v( t ) = x(t ) ≈ vme 2m sin(ω' t + φ) v m = − ω0 x m
dt
altered
exponentially
frequency ~ ω0
decaying envelope

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Mechanical energy decays exponentially in an
“weakly damped” oscillator (small b)
1 1
Emech = K(t) + U(t) = mv 2 (t) + kx 2 (t)
2 2

bt
−
x(t ) = xm e 2m
cos(ω0t + ϕ )
Velocity with weak damping: find derivative
bt
d − maximum velocity
v( t ) = x(t ) ≈ vme 2m sin(ω' t + φ)
dt v m = − ω0 x m
altered
exponentially
frequency ~ ω0
decaying envelope

⎛ b ⎞ − 2m
bt
xm ⎜ − ⎟ e cos(ω0t + ϕ ) term is negligible, because b is small..
⎝ 2m ⎠

Mechanical energy decays exponentially in an

“weakly damped” oscillator (small b)
1 1
Emech = K(t) + U(t) = mv 2 (t) + kx 2 (t)
2 2
Substitute previous solutions:
bt bt
− −
x(t ) = x me 2m cos(ω' t + φ) v( t ) ≈ − ω0 x me 2m sin(ω' t + φ)

1 2 −bt / m
Emech = mω02 x m e sin2 (ω' t + φ)
2
1 2 − bt / m
kx m e+ cos2 (ω' t + φ)
2
As always: cos2(x) + sin2(x) = 1
k
Also: ω02 ≡
m

e −bt / m
1
∴ Emech (t ) = 2
kx m
2

exponential decay at twice

Initial mechanical energy the rate of amplitude decay

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 Damped physical systems can be of three types
bt
−
Solution: x( t ) = x me cos(ω' t + φ) k b2
damped
2m
ω' ≡ −
exponentially altered
m 4m2
ω’ can be real
oscillations decaying envelope frequency or imaginary

b2 k
Underdamped:
2
<< ≡ ω02 for which ω' ≈ ω0
4m m
ƒ The restoring force is large compared to the damping force.
ƒ The system oscillates with decaying amplitude

b2 k
Critically damped:
2
≈ ≡ ω02 for which ω' ≈ 0
4m m
ƒ The restoring force and damping force are comparable in effect.
ƒ The system can not oscillate; the amplitude dies away exponentially

Overdamped: b2 k
2
> ≡ ω02 for which ω' is imaginary
4m m
ƒ The damping force is much stronger than the restoring force.
ƒ The amplitude dies away as a modified exponential
ƒ Note: Cos( ix ) = Cosh( x )

Forced (Driven) Oscillations and Resonance

ƒ An external driving force starts oscillations in a stationary system
ƒ The amplitude remains constant (or grows) if the energy input per cycle
exactly equals (or exceeds) the energy loss from damping
ƒ Eventually, Edriving = Elost and a steady-state condition is reached
ƒ Oscillations then continue with constant amplitude
ƒ Oscillations are at the driving frequency ωD

FD (t ) = F0 cos(ωD t + φ' )
FD(t)
Oscillating driving force applied to
a damped
d d oscillator
ill t

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Equation for Forced (Driven) Oscillations
k
ω0 = natural frequency ω0 =
m
ωD = driving frequency of external force
External driving force function:

FD (t ) = F0 cos(ωD t + φ' )

dx(t ) d 2 x(t )
Fnet = FD (t ) -b - k x(t) = m
dt dt 2
FD(t)

Solution for Forced (Driven) Oscillations

dx(t ) d 2 x(t )
Fnet = FD (t ) -b - k x(t) = m
dt dt 2
FD (t ) = F0 cos(ωD t + φ' )

Solution (steady state solution):

x(t ) = A cos(ωD t + φ)

F0 / m
where A=
bωD 2
(ωD2 − ω02 ) 2 + ( )
m FD(t)

The system
Th t always
l oscillates
ill t att the
th
driving frequency ωD in steady-state

The amplitude A depends on how k

close ωD is to natural frequency ω0 ω0 =
m
“resonance”

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Amplitude of the driven oscillations:
F0 / m
A=
bωD 2
(ωD2 − ω02 ) 2 + ( )
m
ƒ The largest amplitude
oscillations occur at or resonance
near RESONANCE (ωD ~
ω0)

As damping becomes
weaker
Æ
resonance sharpens
&
amplitude at
resonance increases.

Resonance

ƒ At resonance, the applied force is in

phase with the velocity and the power
Fov transferred to the oscillator is a
maximum.
ƒ The
Th amplitude
lit d off resonantt
oscillations can become enormous
when the damping is weak, storing
enormous amounts of energy

Applications:
• buildings driven by earthquakes
• bridges under wind load
• all kinds of radio devices, microwave
• other numerous applications

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Forced resonant torsional oscillations due to
wind - Tacoma Narrows Bridge

Roadway collapse - Tacoma Narrows Bridge

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Twisting bridge at resonance frequency

Breaking glass with voice

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