TOPIC 1 -Electromagnetic waves are produced when

TOPICS electrically charged particles oscillate or change

energy in some way.
1. Introduction to electromagnetics
2. Electrodynamics -The waves travel perpendicularly (900 )to both
3. Maxwell’s equation electric and magnetic fields.
4. Properties of electromagnetic waves
5. Energy and Momentum in the
electromagnetic field

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES
Objectives
1.Explain sources of electromagnetic radiations
i)Long wavelengths
ii)Visible light
iii)Short wavelengths
2.Analyse the detectors used in electromagnetic
radiations
3.Explain the application of electromagnetic
waves

Introduction:
Definition of electromagnetic waves
Electromagnetic waves refers to waves that do not
require any material medium for transmission
The electromagnetic spectrum
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM It is divided into seven major regions or bands. A
band consists of a range of frequencies in the
spectrum in terms of frequencies
Electromagnetic spectrum is a continuum of all
electromagnetic waves arranged according to
Classifications of electromagnetic waves
frequency and wavelength. It includes:
according to wavelengths and frequencies
i) long wavelength
1. Ra –Radio waves
ii) Visible light
2. M – Microwaves
iii) Short wavelength
3. I – Infra red
4. L – Light waves(visible light)
a)LONG WAVELENGTHS
5. UV –Ultra Violet
These have greater wavelength but low frequencies
6. X - X -rays
and low energy.
7. G – Gamma Rays
They are the first three
Friend --- frequency
a)Radio waves
b)Micro waves
The order a above is the arrangement in terms of
c)Infra – red
Increasing frequency I.e Gamma rays has the
highest frequency while Radio waves has the least
B)VISIBLE LIGHT
frequency
This is the middle of electromagnetic spectrum that
NB – The wave with the Highest frequency
human eye can detect. This gives the reason why
(Gamma ) is the one with the least Wavelength,
this part of spectrum is known as Visible light.
while the wave with the least freaquecy(radio
waves), has the highest wavelength
c)SHORT-WAVELENGTH
These have shorter wavelength with high
frequencies and high energy
They represent the last three in the electromagnetic
spectrum.
i)Gamma rays
ii)X-rays
iii)Ultra – violet radiations

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 Properties of electromagnetic waves
Common properties

i) They do not require material medium for 3.Green light has a wavelength of 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟕
transmission Calculate the energy it emits
ii) They travel at the speed of light i.e. 3 × 108 ms-1 Sln
iii)They are transverse in Nature v=fλ
iv) They carry no charge, hence not affected by 𝑉 3.0 𝑥 108
f= =
electric or magnetic fields λ 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟕

v) They undergo reflection, refraction and = 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 Hz

diffraction. But E = hf
vi)Posses energy in different portion according to = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 𝒙 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟒
the relation 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟕𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 J
vii) They obey the wave equation (v = λ f).
3.A radio station is transmitting at a frequency of
Note 15.42 MHz Calculate the wavelength Ans: 19.46m
h- Planks Constant (6.63 x 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 𝑯𝒛)
speed of light is given by c = 𝟑. 𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎/𝒔
4.An X –ray machine produces radio of wavelength
Examples of 1.0 𝑥 10−11 m .Calculate:
1. A VHF radio transmitter broadcasts radio waves a) The frequency of the radiation 𝐴𝑛𝑠 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗 𝑯𝒛
at a frequency of 30 M Hz. What is their b) Its energy content 𝑨𝒏𝒔: 𝟏. 𝟗𝟖𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟒 𝑱
wavelength?
Solution Sources of electromagnetic Wave interference
v=fλ i)Ignition systems
𝑉 3.0 𝑥 108 ii)Cellular network of mobile phones
then λ = = iii)Motive/air space vehicle
𝑓 300 𝑥106
= 1.00 m. Generally we can say:
2. Calculate the frequency of a radio wave of i)Broadcasting station
wavelength 150 m. ii)Atmospheric discharge eg lighting
Solution : v = f λ iii) Air space and motive device
𝑉 3.0 𝑥 108 iv) Voltage surge etc.
f= =
𝜆 150
v) Ignition systems.
= 2M Hz
SOURCES,PRODUCTION,DECTECTION and APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Type of wave Source/ How it is produced How it is detected Use/application

Radio waves By Oscillators Resonant circuits in radio receivers with 1.Used in radio, TV and cellular mobile
i.e Oscillation of electrical diodes and earphones communications.
circuit 2.Satellite imagery
From Stars, gases in space
Microwaves By Oscillation of charges in By RADAR 1.In microwave Oven to cook or warm
special Aerials mounted on food
dishes
2.In RADAR communication (Locating the
positions of aeroplanes and ships)
3.Communication in telephone and
computer data
Infra red -Sun -Human skin 1.Tv remote control
radiation -Fire -Photo graphic film 1.In cooking, heating and drying.
-TV remote system 2.In green houses to grow crops
3.Ware fare and burglar alarm system
Visible light -Sun -Human eye 1.Enable people and animals to see
-Burning candle -Photographic film 2.Photosynthesis in plants
-Lighting bulb -photocell 3.Used in LASER
UV-light -Sun -Photographic films In medicine- to kill bacteria, skin treatment
-Sparks -Photocell Source of Vitamin D
-Mercury vapour lamps -Fluorescent materials
-Paper lightly smeared with Vaseline
X -Rays -X –Rays tubes as a result in -Fluorescent screen 1.In medicine –To locate bone fracture or
the energy changes of an -Photographic film foreign objects (swallowed pins)
electron 2.Cancer therapy
3.Controlling pests and germs by radiation
4.Crystallogy-to detect flaws in metals
Gamma rays -Emitted by radioactive -Photographic plates 1.Medicine-for sterilising medical
substance -Radiation detectors(Geiger Muller Tube) equipment, killing cancerous growth
As a result of energy changes 2.Industries –to detect flaws in metal
in the nuclei of an atom

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 KEY TERMS and Points
1. ‘RADAR’ – Radio Detection and Ranging.
2. LASER- Light Amplification by the Stimulated
Emission of Radiation
3. Gamma rays have Higher energy, hence high
penetrating powers

MICROWAVE OVEN
Microwaves are also used for Cooking in a
microwave oven

How Microwave oven Works

Microwaves are produced by the Magnetrons at a
frequency of 2500M Hz. The waves are then
directed to a rotating metal stirrer which reflect
them to different parts of the oven.
In the oven, food is placed on a turntable, where it
absorbs the waves evenly. The waves heat up the
water and fat molecules in the food, thereby
cooking it.
The wire mesh on the door reflects the microwaves
back inside. The device is switched off before
opening the door.

Hazards of Some Electromagnetic waves

i. Excessive use of UV rays, X-rays and Gamma
rays, which carry high energy, may cause damage
to the body cells, skin burn, effects
ii. Cancer diseases may also occur

How to minimize dangers Posed by

Electromagnetic spectrum
i.Use of protective device to Shield the rays from
coming in contact with the skin
ii. Reducing the time of exposure
iii. Ensure the X-ray machine is installed in aroom
with cemented thick wall

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TOPIC 2 Its SI unit is Coulomb per squared metre (C/𝒎𝟐 )

ELECTRODYNAMICS H)Magnetic field Strength (H) and Magnetic

flux density (B)
Objectives

a. Explain terms used in electrostatics i)Magnetic field strength H - It is the measure of

i. Electric field intensity E how strong or weak any magnetic field is.
ii. Electric flux 𝜳 Or
iii. Electric flux density D The ability of magnetic field to magnetise a
b. Analyse the electric field intensity about an material medium
infinite long line SI unit is Ampere per metre (A/m)
i. Coulombs Law
ii. Gauss’ Law ii)Magnetic flux density B - is the magnetic flux
c. Explain terms used in magneto statics per unit Area
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥
i. Magnetic field strength H B=
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴
ii. Magnetic flux density, B The SI unit of magnetic flux density is Tesla (T)
iii. Magnetic Flux Ф
d. Analyse the magnetic field intensity about an
infinitely long line NOTE:
Using :
i. Amper’s circuit law Electric intensity E at a point is the force per unit
charge
ii. Biot –Savart law 𝐹
iii. Faraday’s Law E=
𝑄
e. Faradays Law and its significance in time Where :
varying magnetic field. E = Electric field intensity
F = Force
ELECTRODYNAMICS Q = Charge
Objective a(i)
The Electric force on test charge 𝑸𝒕 is given by
Defination of Terms
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝒕
𝑭𝒕 = 𝒂𝟏𝒕
𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐
a)Electric field – Is the space around an electric
charge in which its influence can be felt And expressing the force per unit charge
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝒕
b)Electric field intensity - Is the force per unit 𝑭𝒕 𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐 𝒒𝟏
= = 𝒂
charge 𝒒𝒕 𝒒𝒕 𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐 𝟏𝒕
So, since, electric field intensity E is force per unit
Or
charge
c)Electric field intensity (E) – is defined as the 𝑭𝒕 𝒒𝟏
force per unit charge that a very small stationary Then E = = 𝒂𝟏𝒕
𝒒𝒕 𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐
test charge experiences when it is placed in a Or
𝒒
region where an electric field exists E= 𝒂𝟏𝒕
𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐

Electric intensity E at a point is the force per unit The SI unit is Newton per Coulomb (N/C) or
𝐹 Voltage per metre (V/m)
charge E = . SI units is Force per Unit Charge
𝑄
So E has a single charge component whose effect
(N/C) or V/m
is Radial
d)Electric flux (Ψ) -
It is therefore:
According to Faraday, Electric flux (Ψ) is equal to
the total charge (Q) enclosed by a surface. i) A vector quantity
Ψ=Q
Hence it is measured in Coulomb (C) Directly proportional to the direction of the
force
e)Electric flux Density (D) – Is total flux per unit
ii) It is in the direction of the force F
surface area.
𝑸
Hence, D = C/𝒎𝟐 Its SI unit is Newton per Coulomb which is
𝑺𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
𝚿 𝐐 (N/C) the same as Volts per meter (v/m)
D= =
𝑨 𝑨
Where : Ψ = Electric flux
Q =Quantity of charge
A = Area

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NOTE:
Due to a point charge q, the intensity of the electric
field at appoint d units away from it is given by the
expression as follows:
So q d
𝒒
Electric field intensity (E) = N/C
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒅𝟐

a. Electric field intensity due to appositive

charge is always directed away from the
charge
If 𝑸𝟏 and 𝑸𝟐 have like signs, the vector force 𝑭𝟐
b. Electric field intensity due to a negative
on 𝒒𝟐 is in the same direction as vector 𝑹𝟏𝟐
charge is always directed towards the
Note that:
charge.
i. The force acting along the line joining
Objective (bi) the two charges is
ii. Repulsive if the forces are alike
OCOULOMB LAW iii. Attractive if the charges are unlike
Colonel Charles coulomb, a French Army Therefore the force 𝑭𝟐 will be given by:
𝒒 𝒒
engineer, performed an elaborate series F = 𝟏 𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝟏𝟐
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒓
experiments using a delicate torsion balance. Where 𝒂𝟏𝟐 is the unit vector in the direction of
𝑹𝟏𝟐
He determined the Force exerted between two And given by:
objects, each having a static charge of 𝑹𝟏𝟐
electricity. Unit vector 𝒂𝟏𝟐 =
√(𝒙)𝟐 + (𝒚)𝟐 +(𝒛)𝟐

The law states that: The force between two point Example
charges is directly proportional to the product of Two point charges of 1 coulombs each separated
Charges𝑞1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞2 and inversely proportional to by 1m apart. Find the magnitude of the
the square of the distance between them. repulsive force assume 𝜺𝒓 = 1
Sln
According to Coulombs’ The nature of Force is: 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞2
i)Along the line joining them F= =
ii)Directly proportional to the product 𝑄1 𝑄2
4𝜋𝜀𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜀 𝜀 𝑟 2 0 𝑟
1𝑥1
iii)Inversely proportional to the square of the F = 10−9
= 9 𝑥109 N
4𝜋 𝑥 𝑥 1 𝑥 (1)2
36𝜋
distance R between them
𝒒 𝒒
So F∝ 𝟏𝟐 𝟐
𝒓 Example
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
F=k N Two point charges of 1 coulomb each are
𝒓𝟐
separated by 1m apart. Find the magnitude of
𝟏
And the constant k =
𝟒𝝅𝜺
the repulsive force, assume 𝜺𝒓 = 1.
Where the permittivity of free space:
Sln
𝜀 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟
10−9 𝑄1 𝑄2
𝜀0 = 8.854 𝑥 10−12 or Farad /metre (F/m) F =
4𝜋𝜀𝑟 𝑟 2
36𝜋
And 1𝑥1
= = 9 𝑥 10 9 N
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 (1)2
𝜺𝒓 = relative permittivity
Example
Where 𝒒𝟏 and 𝒒𝟐 are the positive or negative a)Calculate the force of attraction between
charge and r is the distance between them. 𝑸𝟏 = 𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟖 C and 𝑸𝟐 = 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟓 C and
10cm apart in a vacuum.
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 Sln
So F =
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒓𝟐 Since placed in a vacuum
𝑄1 𝑄𝑡 1
DIAGRAMATICAL ILLUSTRATION F = but = 9 𝑥 10 9 N
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜀𝑜
𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟖 𝒙 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟓
= 9 𝑥 10 9 𝑥
(𝟎.𝟏)𝟐
= 2.16 N
b)What is the force if it is placed in kerosene
where 𝜺𝒓 = 𝟐

Sln

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Since in a different medium
𝑄1 𝑥𝑄2 1
F= 2 but = 9 𝑥 10 9 N
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 (𝑟) 4𝜋𝜀𝑜
9 4 𝑥 10 −8 𝑥 6 𝑥 10 −5
= 9 𝑥 10 𝑥 = 1.08 N
(2)(0.1)2

Example
A positive charge of magnitude 4𝝁 Coulombs is 𝑞1 𝑞3 10 −6 𝑥 0.5 𝑥 10 −6
situated in air at the origin of a rectangular 𝐹𝑞1𝑞3 = = 10−9
= 0.018N
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑟 2 4𝜋 𝑥 𝑥 (0.5)2
36𝜋
coordinate system and a second positive charge
Acting between 𝑎𝑥 and 𝑎𝑦
of 10𝝁C is situated on the positive Z – axis at a
separation 30cm from the origin. Find the force i.e 0.018Sin60 = 0.02𝑎𝑦
on the 2nd Charge 0.018Cos 60 = 0.009𝑎𝑥

𝑞2 𝑞3 −10 −6 𝑥 0.5 𝑥 10 −6
Sln 𝐹𝑞2𝑞3 = = = -0.018N𝑎𝑥
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑟 2 10−9
4𝜋 𝑥 𝑥 (0.5)2
36𝜋
Total forces
= -0.018N𝑎𝑥 + 0.009𝑎𝑥 + 0.02𝑎𝑦
= -0.009𝑎𝑥 +0.02𝑎𝑦

VECTORIAL FORCES
-If two point charges Q1 and Q 2 are located at the
point having position vectors r1 and r2 as shown in
the figure below:
𝑄1 𝑄𝑡 1
F = 𝑎12 but = 9 𝑥 10 9 N
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜀𝑜
30
And 𝑎12 = unit vector = =1
√(30)2
𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔
= 9 𝑥 10 9 𝑥 x 1 = 4 N 𝒂𝒛
(𝟎.𝟑)𝟐

Example
3 point charges are situated in a straight line
10cm apart. 𝑸𝟏 = 2𝝁C, 𝑸𝟐 = -1𝝁C and 𝑸𝟑 = The force 𝐹12 on charge 𝑄2 due to 𝑄1 is given by :
3𝝁C, with 𝑸𝟐 at the centre. Find the force on 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹12 = 2 𝒂𝑹𝟏𝟐
each due to the other two. 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑅
𝑹 𝑹𝟏𝟐
Sln Where 𝒂𝑹𝟏𝟐 = unit vector = |𝑹|
=
√(𝒙)𝟐 + (𝒚)𝟐 +(𝒛)𝟐

Hence :
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑹 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑅
Force 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝐹12 = 𝒂𝑹𝟏𝟐 = 𝑥 |𝑹| =
𝑜𝑛 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑅 2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑅 2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |𝑹|3
𝑞1 𝑞2 2 𝑥 10 −6 𝑥 −1 𝑥 10 −6
𝐹𝑞1𝑞2 = = 10−9
= -1.8N
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑟 2 4𝜋 𝑥 𝑥 (0.1)2 -If there are More than two point charges, the
36𝜋
Force 𝑞1 𝑜𝑛 𝑞3
principle of superposition is used to determine a
𝑞1 𝑞3 2𝑥 10 −6 𝑥 2 𝑥 10 −6 force on a particular charge.
𝐹𝑞1𝑞3 = = 10−9
= 0.9N
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑟 2 4𝜋 𝑥 𝑥 (0.2)2
36𝜋
Force 𝑞2 𝑜𝑛 𝑞3
Principle of superposition
𝑞2 𝑞3 2𝑥 10 −6 𝑥 −1 𝑥 10 −6 The principle state that, if there are any charges Q1
𝐹𝑞2𝑞3 = = = -1.8N
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑟 2 4𝜋 𝑥
10−9
𝑥 (0.1)2 Q 2 , Q 3 ……… Q n charges located respectively at
36𝜋
the points with vectors r1 r2 , r3 ……… rn
Example respectively, then the resultant force becomes:
𝑞𝑞1 (r1 −𝑟) 𝑞𝑞2 (r2 −𝑟) 𝑞𝑞3 (r2 −𝑟)
3 point charges 𝑸𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔 , 𝑸𝟐 = −𝟏𝟎 −𝟔 and F= + + …..
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |r1 −𝑟|3 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |r2 −𝑟|3 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |r2 −𝑟|3
𝑸𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔 are located in air at the 𝑞𝑞𝑛 (rn −𝑟)
+
corners of an equilateral triangle of 50cm sides. 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |rn −𝑟|3
𝑞 𝑞 (r −𝑟)
Determine the magnitude and the direction of F = ∑𝑛 𝑖 1
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑖=1 |rn −𝑟|3
the force on 𝑸𝟑 .
The resultant force F on charge Q located at the
point r is the vector sum of the forces exerted on Q
by each of the charges Q1 Q 2 , Q 3 ……… Q n

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Example: moving slowly around the fixed charge, it is
A charge of 𝒒𝟏 = 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 C is located at noted that there exist everywhere a force on this
M(1,2,3) and a second charge 𝒒𝟐 = − 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝑪 is second charge. I.e there is electric field on
at N (2,0,5) in a vacuum. Determine the force charge 𝑸𝒕 due to charge 𝑸𝟏
exerted on 𝒒𝟐 by 𝒒𝟏
Sln-
Electric field intensity E is force per unit charge
𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟐 𝑭𝒕 𝒒𝟏
Then E = = 𝒂𝟏𝒕
𝒒𝒕 𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐
𝟏 𝟐 Or
[𝟐] [𝟎 ] 𝒒
E= 𝒂𝟏𝒕
𝟑 𝟓 𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐

𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐

So 𝑹𝟏𝟐 = 𝒓𝟐 − 𝒓𝟐
Electric Field intensity due several point charges
𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
on the test charge Q
= [𝟎] - [𝟐] =[−𝟐]
𝟓 𝟑 𝟐 a) Electric field intensity due to two point
And the 𝑹𝟏𝟐 = 𝒂𝒙 − 𝟐𝒂𝒚 + 𝟐𝒂𝒛 charges

Since the Coulomb forces are linear, the electric

And Unit vector :
field intensity due to two point charges will be
𝒂𝟏𝟐 =
𝒂𝒙 −𝟐𝒂𝒚 +𝟐𝒂𝒛
=
𝒂𝒙 −𝟐𝒂𝒚 +𝟐𝒂𝒛 given by the sum of forces on 𝑸𝒕 caused by 𝑸𝟏
𝟑 and 𝑸𝟐 acting alone, so that:
√(𝟏)𝟐 + (−𝟐)𝟐 +(𝟐)𝟐

𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
Hence Force 𝑭𝟐 E= 𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐
𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐
𝒒 𝒒
𝐹12 = 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝒂𝟏𝟐
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓 b) Electric field intensity due to several
𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒙 (−𝟏𝟎−𝟒 ) 𝒂𝒙 −𝟐𝒂𝒚 +𝟐𝒂𝒛
𝐹12 = 𝒙 point charges
𝟒𝒙 𝟑.𝟏𝟑𝟐 𝒙𝟖.𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝒙 𝟑𝟐 𝟑
𝒂𝒙 −𝟐𝒂𝒚 +𝟐𝒂𝒛
𝐹12 = -3 ( ) x 𝟏𝟎𝟗 The electric field intensity due to Several point
𝟑
= (−𝒂𝒙 + 𝟐𝒂𝒚 − 𝟐𝒂𝒛 ) x 𝟏𝟎 N 𝟗 charges will be given by the sum of forces on 𝑄𝑡
caused by 𝑄1 , 𝑄2 𝑄3 …… 𝑄𝑚 a acting alone, so
that:
NOTE: 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟑
The force expressed by Coulomb’s law is a E= 𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 + ……+ 𝒂𝒎
𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐
mutual force, for each of the two charges
experience a force the same magnitude, Hence:
although of opposite direction. 𝑞1 (r1 −𝑟) 𝑞2 (r2 −𝑟) 𝑞𝑞3 (r2 −𝑟)
𝑭𝟏 = 𝑭𝟐 E= + + …..
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |r1 −𝑟|3 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |r2 −𝑟|3 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |r2 −𝑟|3
𝑞𝑛 (rn −𝑟)
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 +
𝒂𝟏𝟐 = − 𝒂𝟏𝟐 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |rn −𝑟|3
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒓𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒓𝟐
In summary, for a system of charges , Electric field
Example 2 intensity E is given by:
1 𝑞𝑖 (r1 −𝑟)
E= ∑𝑛𝑖=1
A charge of 𝒒𝑨 = −𝟐𝟎𝝁C is located at A(-6,4,7) 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |rn −𝑟|3

and a second charge 𝒒𝑩 = 𝟓𝟎𝝁𝑪 is at M (5,8,-2)

in a vacuum. Determine Example
A thunder cloud above the earth sets up an
a)Vector 𝑹𝑨𝑩 𝑨𝒏𝒔: 𝟏𝟏𝒙 + 𝟒𝒂𝒚 − 𝟗𝒂𝒛 m electric field of 50V/m. In this field, there is a
rain drop carrying the charges of 0.3𝝁C. What
b)The magnitude of 𝑹𝑨𝑩 Ans: 14.76 m
is the force on the rain drop.
c)The vector force exerted by 𝒒𝑨 onto 𝒒𝑩 Sln
𝐹
E=
𝑄
Ans 𝟑𝟎. 𝟕𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟕𝒂𝒚 − 𝟐𝟓. 𝟏𝟑𝒂𝒛 m
F = E x Q = 50 x 0.3 x 10−6 = 1.5 x 10−5 N
ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY (E) DUE TO
APOINT CHARGE Example
If we consider only one charge 𝑸𝟏 to be in one A point charge 𝑸𝟏 = 300𝝁𝑪 situated /located at
Fixed position and another test charge 𝑸𝒕 to be (1,-1,-3) is experiencing aforce 𝑭𝟏 = 8𝒂𝒙 - 8𝒂𝒚 +

7|Page BY: ODIPO 0729692775

8𝒂𝒛 due to a charge 𝑸𝟐 which is at (3,-3,-2)m. 0 3
Determine 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐐𝟐 |𝑟 − 𝑟1 | = |(3) − ( 2 )|= √−32 + 12 + 22
Sln 1 −1
𝑞1 𝑞2 =√14
𝐹12 = 2 𝑎12
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑟 0 −1
𝐹1 = 8𝑎𝑥 - 8𝑎𝑦 + 8𝑎𝑧 |𝑟 − 𝑟2 | = |(3) − (−1)|= √12 + 42 + −32 =
Magnitude of Force = |𝐹| 1 4
= √(8)2 + (−8)2 + (4)2 = 12N √26
𝑞 𝑞1 (𝑟1 −𝑟) 𝑞2 (𝑟2 −𝑟)
3 1 F= [ |𝑟1 −𝑟|3
+ |𝑟2 −𝑟|3
]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟
|𝑟 − 𝑟1 |= |(−3) − (−1)|= √22 + (−2)2 + 12 =3 1 𝑥 10−3 (−3)𝑎𝑥+(1)𝑎𝑦 +2𝑎𝑧
F= 9 𝑥 10 9 x 10 𝑥 10 −9 [ 𝑥 +
−2 −3 (√14)
2
√14
Since we are only interested on the value of the −2𝑥 10−3
𝑥
(1)𝑎𝑥 +(4)𝑎𝑦 +−3𝑎𝑧
]
2
|√26| √26
charge −3
𝑞 𝑞 Factorizing 10 outside the bracket
𝐹12 = 1 2 2 (1)𝑎𝑥 +(4)𝑎𝑦 +−3𝑎𝑧
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 −3 (−3)𝑎𝑥 +(1)𝑎𝑦 +2𝑎𝑧
F= 90 𝑥 10 [1 𝑥 3 + −2𝑥 3 ]
300 𝑥 10−6 𝑥 𝑞2 (14)2 (26)2
12 = (−2)𝑎𝑥 +(−8)𝑎𝑦 +6𝑎𝑧
4𝜋 𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10−12 𝑥 (3)2 (−3)𝑎𝑥+(1)𝑎𝑦 +2𝑎𝑧
F= 90 𝑥 10 −3 [ + ]
And 𝑄2 = 4 x 10−5 Coulombs 52.23 132.57
−3
F= 90 𝑥 10 [(−0.057)𝑎𝑥 + (0.019)𝑎𝑦 + 0.0382𝑎𝑧 +
Example: (−0.015)𝑎𝑥 + (−0.0603)𝑎𝑦 + 0.0453𝑎𝑧 ]
Point charges of 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝟑 pC are placed at each F= 90 𝑥 10 −3 [(−0.072)𝑎𝑥 + (−0.0413)𝑎𝑦 + 0.0835𝑎𝑧 ]
corner of a square whose side is 0.2m. Find the 𝐹 90 𝑥 10 −3 [(−0.072)𝑎𝑥 +(−0.0413)𝑎𝑦 +0.0835𝑎𝑧 ]
magnitude and the direction of the electric field E= =
𝑄 10 𝑥 10 −9

at the vacant Corner. E = 9 𝑥 10 6 [(−0.072)𝑎𝑥 + (−0.0413)𝑎𝑦 + 0.0835𝑎𝑧 ]

E = 9 𝑥 10 6 [(−0.072)𝑎𝑥 + (−0.0413)𝑎𝑦 + 0.0835𝑎𝑧 ]
Sln E = [(−0.648𝑎𝑥 − 0.3717𝑎𝑦 + 0.7515𝑎𝑧 ] MV/m

Approximately
E = [(−0.65𝑎𝑥 − 0.37𝑎𝑦 + 0.75𝑎𝑧 ] MV/m

Alternatively,
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞2
E= 2 𝑎1 + 𝑎 + ………+ 𝑎𝑚
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
1 𝑞1 𝑞
E= [ 𝑎 + 22 𝑎2 ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 1 𝑟

The length from one diagonal to the other : 1 1 𝑥 10−3 (−3)𝑎𝑥 +(1)𝑎𝑦 +2𝑎𝑧
E= [ 2 𝑥 +
4𝜋𝜀0 (√14) √14
= √0.22 + 0.22 = 0.28m
1 −2𝑥 10−3 (1)𝑎𝑥 +(4)𝑎𝑦 +−3𝑎𝑧
but = 9 𝑥 10 9 N 2 𝑥 ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (√26) √26

𝐸1 =
𝑞1
𝑎1 =9 𝑥 10 9 x
3 𝑥 10 3
=675𝑎𝑥 V/m Factorizing 10−3 outside the bracket
4𝜋𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 𝑟 2 (0.2)2 1 (−3)𝑎𝑥 +(1)𝑎𝑦 +2𝑎𝑧
𝑞2 9 3 𝑥 10 3 𝐸 = 9 𝑥 10 9 𝑥 10−3 [ 2 𝑥 +
𝐸2 = 𝑎2 =9 𝑥 10 x =344𝑎𝑥 V/m (√14) √14
4𝜋𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 𝑟 2 (0.28)2
−2 (1)𝑎𝑥 +(4)𝑎𝑦 +−3𝑎𝑧
Hence 344 Sin 45 = 243. 24𝑎𝑦 2 𝑥 ]
(√26) √26
And 344 Cos 45 = 243. 24𝑎𝑥 (−3)𝑎𝑥 +(1)𝑎𝑦 +2𝑎𝑧 (1)𝑎𝑥 +(4)𝑎𝑦 +−3𝑎𝑧
𝑞2 3 𝑥 10 3 E = 9 𝑥 10 6 [1 𝑥 3 + −2𝑥 3 ]
9
𝐸3 = 𝑎2 =9 𝑥 10 x =675𝑦𝑥 V/m (14)2 (26)2
4𝜋𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 𝑟 2 (0.2)2 (1)𝑎𝑥 +(4)𝑎𝑦 +−3𝑎𝑧
(−3)𝑎𝑥 +(1)𝑎𝑦 +2𝑎𝑧
𝐸𝑇 = (675+ 243.24) 𝑎𝑥 + (675+ 243.24) 𝑎𝑦 E = 9 𝑥 10 6 [1 𝑥 3 + −2𝑥 3 ]
(14)2 (26)2
= 918.24𝑎𝑥 + 918.24 𝑎𝑦 (−3)𝑎𝑥 +(1)𝑎𝑦 +2𝑎𝑧 (−2)𝑎𝑥 +(−8)𝑎𝑦 +6𝑎𝑧
E = 9 𝑥 10 6 [ + ]
52.23 132.57
Example. 6
E = 9 𝑥 10 [(−0.057)𝑎𝑥 + (0.019)𝑎𝑦 + 0.0382𝑎𝑧 +
Apoint charge of 1mC and -2mC are located
(3,2,-1) and at (-1,-1,4) respectively. Calculate (−0.015)𝑎𝑥 + (−0.0603)𝑎𝑦 + 0.0453𝑎𝑧 ]
the electric force on a 10n coulomb located at E = 9 𝑥 10 6 [(−0.072)𝑎𝑥 + (−0.0413)𝑎𝑦 + 0.0835𝑎𝑧 ]
(0,3,1) E = [(−0.648𝑎𝑥 − 0.3717𝑎𝑦 + 0.7515𝑎𝑧 ] MV/m
Sln
𝐹
E= Approximately
𝑄
𝑞 𝑞1 (𝑟1 −𝑟) 𝑞𝑞2 (𝑟2 −𝑟) E = [(−0.65𝑎𝑥 − 0.37𝑎𝑦 + 0.75𝑎𝑧 ] MV/m
F = +
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |𝑟1 −𝑟|3 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |𝑟2 −𝑟|3
𝑞 𝑛 𝑞𝑖 (𝑟1 −𝑟)
F= ∑𝑖=1
4𝜋𝜀 𝜀 0 𝑟 |𝑟 −𝑟|3
𝑛

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Example Example.
Point charge 5nC and -2nC are located (2,0,4) Find electric field intensity E at P(1,1,1) caused
and (-3,0,5) respectively . by four identical 3nC charges located at
a)Determine the force on 1nC point charge at 𝐏𝟏 (1,1,0) , 𝐏𝟐 (-1,1,0), 𝐏𝟑 (-1,-1,0) , and𝐏𝟒 (1,-1,0)
(1,-3,7) Sln
Sln F
𝑞 𝑞1 (𝑟1 −𝑟) 𝑞𝑞2 (𝑟2 −𝑟)
F = +
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |𝑟1 −𝑟|3 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |𝑟2 −𝑟|3
𝑞 𝑛 𝑞𝑖 (𝑟1 −𝑟)
F= ∑𝑖=1
4𝜋𝜀 𝜀 0 𝑟 |𝑟 −𝑟|3 𝑛
1 2
|𝑟 − 𝑟1 |= |(−3) − (0)|=√(−1)2 + (−3)2 + 32 =√19
7 4
1 −3
|𝑟 − 𝑟2 | = |(−3) − ( 0 )|= √42 + −32 + 22 = √29
7 5
𝑞 𝑞1 (𝑟1 −𝑟) 𝑞2 (𝑟2 −𝑟)
F= [ |𝑟1 −𝑟|3
+ |𝑟2 −𝑟|3
]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟
5 𝑥 10−9 (−1)𝑎𝑥 +(−3)𝑎𝑦 +3𝑎𝑧
F= 9 𝑥 10 9 x 1 𝑥 10 −9 [ 2 𝑥 +
(√19) √19
−2𝑥 10−9 (4)𝑎𝑥 +(−3)𝑎𝑦+2𝑎𝑧
2 𝑥 ]
|√29| √29
Factorizing 10−9 outside the bracket
5 (−1)𝑎𝑥 +(−3)𝑎𝑦 +3𝑎𝑧
F= 9 𝑥 10 9 x 1 𝑥 10 −9 𝑥 10−9 [ 2 𝑥 + For:
(√19) √19
−2 (4)𝑎𝑥 +(−3)𝑎𝑦 +2𝑎𝑧
1 1
2 𝑥 ] |𝑟 − 𝑟1 | = |(1) − (1)|= √02 + 02 + 12 = 1
|√29| √29

(−1)𝑎𝑥+(−3)𝑎𝑦 +3𝑎𝑧 (4)𝑎𝑥+(−3)𝑎𝑦 +2𝑎𝑧 1 0

F= 9 𝑥 10 −9 [5 𝑥 3 + −2𝑥 3 ] 1 −1
(19)2 (29)2
(−5)𝑎𝑥 +(−15)𝑎𝑦 +15𝑎𝑧 (−8)𝑎𝑥 +(6)𝑎𝑦+8𝑎𝑧 |𝑟 − 𝑟2 | = |(1) − ( 1 )|= √22 + 02 + 12 = √5
F= 9 𝑥 10 −9 [ + ]
82.82 156.17 1 0
−9
F= 9 𝑥 10 [(−0.06)𝑎𝑥 + (−0.181)𝑎𝑦 + 0.181𝑎𝑧 + 1 −1
(−0.051)𝑎𝑥 + (0.0384)𝑎𝑦 + 0.051𝑎𝑧 ] |𝑟 − 𝑟2 | = |(1) − (−1)|= √22 + 22 + 12 = 3
F= 9 𝑥 10 −9 [(−0.11)𝑎𝑥 + (−0.1427)𝑎𝑦 + 0.154𝑎𝑧 ]
1 0
1 1
F = [(−1.088)𝑎𝑥 + (− 1.278)𝑎𝑦 + 1.386𝑎𝑧 ]𝑥 10 −9 N |𝑟 − 𝑟2 | = |(1) − (−1)|= √02 + 22 + 12 = √5
1 0
b)Find the electric field intensity at (1,-3,7) Therefore
Sln 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞2
E= 2 𝑎1 +
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 𝑎2 + ………+
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 𝑎𝑚 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝐹 10 −9 [(−1.088)𝑎𝑥 +(− 1.278)𝑎𝑦 +1.386𝑎𝑧 ) ]
E= = 3𝑥 10−9 (0)𝑎𝑥 +(0)𝑎𝑦 +1𝑎𝑧
𝑄 1 𝑥 10 −9 E= 𝑥 +
4𝑥 3.142 𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10−12 𝑥 12 1
E = (−1.088)𝑎𝑥 + (− 1.278)𝑎𝑦 + 1.386𝑎𝑧 V/m 3𝑥 10−9 (2)𝑎𝑥 +(0)𝑎𝑦 +1𝑎𝑧
2 𝑥 +
4𝑥 3.142 𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10−12 𝑥 (√5) √5
Example 3𝑥 10−9 (2)𝑎𝑥 +(2)𝑎𝑦 +1𝑎𝑧
Find the Force on a unit charge at P on x-axis (2,0) due to 𝑥 +
4𝑥 3.142 𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10−12 𝑥 (3)2 3
𝟏 𝐱 𝟏𝟎 −𝟗 C at the origin and −𝟐 𝐱 𝟏𝟎 −𝟗 C at (1,0)
3𝑥 10−9 (0)𝑎𝑥 +(2)𝑎𝑦 +1𝑎𝑧
Sln 𝑥 +
4𝑥 3.142 𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10−12 𝑥 (√5)2 √5
Draw
𝑞 𝑞1 (𝑟1 −𝑟) 𝑞𝑞2 (𝑟2 −𝑟)
F = + = 6.82𝑎𝑥 + 6.82𝑎𝑦 + 32.8𝑎𝑧 V/m
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |𝑟1 −𝑟|3 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |𝑟2 −𝑟|3
𝑞 𝑛 𝑞𝑖 (𝑟1 −𝑟)
F= ∑𝑖=1
4𝜋𝜀 𝜀 0 𝑟 |𝑟 −𝑟|3 𝑛 Example
|𝑟 − 𝑟1 |= |(2) − (0)|=√(2)2 + (0)2 =2 A charge of – 0.3𝝁C is located at A(25,-30,15) (in
0 0
cm) and second charge 0.5𝝁C is at B(-10,8,12).
|𝑟 − 𝑟2 | = |( ) − (1)|= √(1)2 + (0)2 =1
2
0 0 Find E at :
𝑞 𝑞1 (𝑟1 −𝑟) 𝑞2 (𝑟2 −𝑟)
F= [ + ] a)Origin . Ans: 92.3𝑎𝑥 − 77.6𝑎𝑦 − 105𝑎𝑧 kV/m
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |𝑟1 −𝑟|3 |𝑟2 −𝑟|3
9 1 𝑥 10−9 (2)𝑎𝑥 +(0)𝑎𝑦 −2 𝑥 10−9 (1)𝑎𝑥 +(0)𝑎𝑦
F= 9 𝑥 10 x1 [ 𝑥 + 𝑥 ] b)P(15,20,50) cm
22 2 12 1
−9
Factorizing 10 outside the bracket
F= 9 𝑥 10 9 𝑥 1𝑥 10−9 [ 2 𝑥
1 (2)𝑎𝑥 +(0)𝑎𝑦
+
−2
𝑥
(1)𝑎𝑥+(0)𝑎𝑦
] Ans 32.9𝑎𝑥 + 5.94𝑎𝑦 + 19.69𝑎𝑧 kV/m
2 2 12 1
(2)𝑎𝑥 (−2)𝑎𝑥
F= 9 [ + ]
23 13
F= 9 [(0.25)𝑎𝑥 + (−2)𝑎𝑥 ]
GAUSS LAW FOR THE ELECTRIC FIELD
F=9 [(−1.75)𝑎𝑥 ] = -15.75 N
Gauss’ Law -state that the total Electric flux
passing through an enclosed surface is equal to
the total charge enclosed by that surface.

Gauss law allows us to determine the electric

field due to the energy of these charge distributions

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without the evaluation of any integrals. In addition, ∮ 𝒅𝒔 = 4𝝅𝒓𝟐 (Area of The Gaussian surface
the use of Gauss law gives us a great deal of insight chosen)
unto the problem that the direct evaluation does not And thus D 4𝝅𝒓𝟐 = Q
provide. 𝑸
Giving : D= 𝒂𝟏𝟐 eqtn 5
Consider a closed surface Containing some charges 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐

as shown.
But the relationship between D and E is such
As we know that electric field lines ( E or D)
begins on positive charges and terminate on that:
negative charges 𝜺𝟎 𝑬 = 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒙 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 D
In order to compute gauss law, we place at the D = 𝜺𝟎 𝑬 C/𝑚2 eqtn 6
origin of the given coordinates system the default
coordinates would be rectangular coordinate And Therefore:
𝑸
systems. 𝜀𝐸 = D =
𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐

Next we decide on the coordinate system and the 𝑸𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅

So that E = V/m eqn 7
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐
surface shape to be used which will help us
compute Gause law easily . This is the critical That is the formula for E by Gauss Law
aspects of Gauss law.
Where:
Since E and D fields lines form point charge Q enclosed = Flux density x Area of Gaussian
emanate radially a way from it, we will choose a Surface
spherical coordinate system and let the system be From before: we established that :
𝑸
sphere of radius r E= 𝒂𝟏𝟐 V/m eqtn 1
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐

Therefore the charge Q = 𝜺𝟎 𝑬 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐 eqtn 2

And it should be noted that from the formular

eqtn 3
And 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐 = Gaussians’ Surface area of the
sphere (which was chosen)

From the formula: it means that if we can

determine how many flux lines cut a given surface
If we count the number of E or D lines existing in a area, we can determine charge enclosed within
closed surface, This should give us an indication of the given surface area.
the net positive charges enclosed by the surface
This observation is gauss law and stated
By Gause Law: mathematically as :
∮𝑫̅ . 𝒅𝒔̅ = Q enclosed eqtn 1 ∮𝐷̅ . 𝑑𝑠̅ = Q enclosed eqtn4
Q enclosed = ∫ 𝑫 ̅ . 𝒅𝒔̅
𝒔
Note that the dot products in the integral
Or
requires that we obtain the component of 𝑫 ̅ that
is perpendicular to the surface.
For volumes:
Since the E and D fields emanate radially a way ̅
Q enclosed = ∫𝒗 𝒑𝒗 𝒅𝒗
from the point charge, they will be perpendicular to
the chosen spherical surface. Deriving the Maxwells equation fom Gauss law
Hence the dot product is not needed and the Gauss From Gauss divergent :
law reduces to : Ψ=∫ 𝐷 ̅ . 𝑑𝑠̅ = Q enclosed
𝑠

̅ . 𝒅𝒔̅ = ∮ 𝑫 𝒅𝒔̅ eqtn 2 Q = ∫𝑣 𝑝𝑣 𝑑𝑣̅ = ∫𝑣 (𝛻. 𝐷) 𝑑𝑣

∮𝑫
Further more, The D fields has the same value at
affixed distance from the charge, that is over the
surface. Hence the magnitude of D, can be removed
from the integral and Gauss law simplifies for the
judicious choice of the surface to.
𝑫 ∮ 𝒅𝒔 = Q eqtn 3
And from this eqtn 4
And therefore
∫𝑣 𝑝𝑣 𝑑𝑣̅ = ∫𝑣 (𝛻. 𝐷) 𝑑𝑣
From which it can be observed that:
𝛻. 𝐷 = 𝑝𝑣 (this is known as Maxswell’s 1st
equation in point or differential form)
̅ . 𝑑𝑠̅, (this is known as Maxswell’s
Q=∫ 𝐷 𝑠
equation in integral form).

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 𝑸
E= 𝒂𝟏
𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 𝑹𝟐
Gauss’ Law - state that the total Electric flux
When there is a continuous charge distribution, the
passing through an enclosed surface is equal to
value of Q has to be replaced by integration
the total charge enclosed by that surface
depending on Q configuration
We have the charge distribution for:
a) Point charge
Assumptions of Gauss law:
b) Line Charge
Calculations of electric Field for charge
c) Surface charge
distribution
d) Volume charge
The power of Gauss laws lies in the fact that we
a)Point charge – A point charge is an electrical
can choose the surface over which it is evaluated.
charge regarded as Q, concentrated in a
In all such problems, we should attempt to chose
mathematical point, without spatial extent (Q = It)
the surface such that:
1. The D and E field lines are perpendicular
b)Charge distribution for an infinite line charge
to the surface
Infinite Line charge – This are the charges
2. The D and E field lines are constants
superimposed on infinity line.
over that surface
The symbol 𝒑𝒍 stands for line charge
The first condition means that the dot product from
the integral leaving. ∮ 𝑫 𝒅𝒔̅ = Q enclosed

And the second condition means that D is

independent of the position on the surface and
hence can be removed from the integral leaving
𝑫 ∮ 𝒅𝒔 = Q enclosed
The first condition, choosing the surface so that the Example:
D and E are everywhere on the surface Determine the electric field about an infinite line
perpendicular to it is a necessary first step. If this charge bearing a uniform line charge
cannot be done, then Gauss law will not provide distribution 𝑷𝒍 Using Gauss law.
computational simplifications Sln
An infinite line charge bearing a charge distribution
If coulombs law had depended on distance to any that is uniformly distributed along it will have, by
power other than 2.oo, Gauss law would not have symmetry, an electric field that is directed radially
occurred. For example, redoing Gauss law using a way from the line as illustrated below.
Normal integration, we have:
∮𝑫 ̅ . 𝒅𝒔̅ = ∮ 𝑫 𝒅𝒔̅
𝑸
=∮ 𝒅𝒔̅
𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐
𝟐
But 𝒅𝒔̅ = 𝒓 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽𝒅Ф
𝑸
∮ 𝒓𝟐 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽𝒅Ф
𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐 Using symmetry to determine that the electric field
𝑸
=∮ 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽𝒅 intensity vector must be radially directed a way
𝟒𝝅 from the line charge
2𝜋 𝜋
𝑸 In order to take advantage of this symmetry,
= ∫ 𝑑Ф ∫ 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽 observation we choose the Gaussian surface as a
𝟒𝝅
Ф=0 𝜃=0 cylinder of radius r centred on the surface as shown
𝑸 2𝜋
=
𝟒𝝅
∫Ф=0 𝑑Ф [−𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃]2𝜋
0 below.
𝟐𝑸 𝑸
= [Ф]2𝜋
0 = 2𝜋
𝟒𝝅 𝟐𝝅
=Q
Therefore if the electric field had not been an
inverse square law, this would not result. So the
inverse square dependence is a fundamental
dependence in electromagnet (and many other
physical law)
The length of the cylinder will be chosen as L over
the ends of the cylinder, the field is parallel to these
CHARGE DISTRIBUTION FOR LINE surfaces since the line is infinite in length and
CHARGE, SURFACE AND VOLUME contributes nothing to Gauss’ law. Over the sides
When there is discrete system of charge, the of the cylinder, the field is perpendicular to it and
electric field intensity is given by:

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hence the dot product in Gauss’ law may be tan𝜽 = 0
removed. ∞ = rtan𝜽
∞
Further, Over this constant radius surface, the field = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽
𝒓
is constant, so that Gauss’ law reduces
𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎
∮𝑫 ̅ . 𝒅𝒔̅ = ∮ 𝑫 𝒅𝒔̅ = Q enclosed 𝒙
∞=
= D 2𝝅𝒓𝑳 𝟐
𝒙
𝑷𝒍 𝑳 𝒓.𝐫𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽𝒅𝜽
The total charge enclosed by the surface is given 𝑬𝝆 = ∫𝟐 𝟑
𝟐𝝅𝜀 0
by: [𝒓𝟐 +(𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽)𝟐 ]𝟐
𝒙
Q enclosed = 𝑷𝒍 𝑳 𝑷𝒍 𝑳 𝒓𝟐 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽𝒅𝜽
𝑬𝝆 = ∫𝟐 𝟑
D 2𝝅𝒓𝒍 = 𝑷𝒍 𝒍 𝟐𝝅𝜀 0
[𝒓𝟐 +𝒓𝟐 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝜽]𝟐
𝑃𝑙 𝑙 𝑃𝑙 𝒙
D= = 𝑷𝒍 𝑳 𝒓𝟐 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽𝒅𝜽
2𝜋𝑟𝑙 2𝜋𝑟 𝑬𝝆 = ∫𝟐 𝟑
𝑷𝒍 𝟐𝝅𝜀 0 𝟑 𝟐
𝜺𝟎 𝑬 = 𝒂𝒓 𝟐𝒙
𝒓 𝟐 [𝟏+𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝜽]
𝟐𝝅𝒓
𝑷𝒍 𝟐 𝟐
𝑬= 𝒂𝒓 Let 𝟏 + 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝜽
𝟐𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓 𝒙
𝑷𝒍 𝑳 𝒓𝟐 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽𝒅𝜽
Where we assume that the material surrounding the 𝑬𝝆 = ∫𝟐 𝟑
𝟐𝝅𝜀 0 𝟑 𝟐
line charge has permittivity 𝜀 𝒓
𝟐𝒙𝟐
[𝟏+𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝜽]
𝒙
𝑷𝒍 𝑳 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽𝒅𝜽
𝑬𝝆 = ∫𝟐 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟑 𝜽
Alternatively, 𝟐𝝅𝜀𝑟 0
𝒙
𝑷𝒍 𝑳 𝟐 𝒅𝜽
By integration method 𝑬𝝆 = ∫
𝟐𝝅𝜀𝑟 0 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝜽
Line charge is the quantity of charge per unit line 𝟏
But = Cos 𝜽
𝑺𝒆𝒄𝜽
𝒙
𝑷𝒍 𝑳
𝑬𝝆 = ∫𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝟐𝝅𝜀𝑟 0
𝒙
𝑷𝒍 𝑳
𝑬𝝆 = [𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃]𝟐0
𝟐𝝅𝜀𝑟
𝑷𝒍 𝑳
𝑬𝝆 =
𝟐𝝅𝜀𝑟

Example
Find D and E in the region a bout uniform line
𝜹 𝑬𝝆 = 𝜹ECos∅ charge of 8n C/m lying along the Z plane at 3m
𝑬𝝆 = ECos∅ Sln
𝑸 For a uniform line charge:
But E =
𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 𝑹𝟐 𝑃𝑙 8 𝑥10−9
i) D= = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐𝟒𝒂𝒓 C/𝒎𝟐
For line , Q enclosed = 𝑷𝒍 𝑳 2𝜋𝑟 2𝑥𝜋𝑥3
ii) D = 𝜀𝐸
𝑷𝒍 𝑳 𝐷 0.424
𝑬𝝆 = Cos∅ And E = = = 47.9𝒂𝒓 V/m
𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 𝑹𝟐 𝜀 8.85 𝑥10−12
𝑷𝒍 𝑳 ∞ 𝜹𝒛
𝑬𝝆 = ∫ 𝐂𝐨𝐬∅
𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 −∞ 𝑹𝟐 c)Charge distribution for infinite surface charge
Now 𝜹𝑳 = 𝜹𝒛
𝟏
R = L = [𝒓𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐 ]𝟐
Thus
𝑷𝒍 𝑳 ∞ 𝜹𝒛
𝑬𝝆 = ∫ 𝐂𝐨𝐬∅
𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 −∞ 𝒓𝟐 +𝒛𝟐
𝒓 𝒓
But : 𝐂𝐨𝐬∅ = = 𝟏
𝑹
[𝒓𝟐 +𝒛𝟐 ]𝟐
Hence the equation changes To:
𝑬𝝆 =
𝑷𝒍 𝑳 ∞
∫
𝜹𝒛
𝐱
𝒓 Surface distribution – is the quantity of charge
𝟒𝝅𝜀 −∞ 𝒓𝟐 +𝒛𝟐 𝟏
[𝒓𝟐 +𝒛𝟐 ]𝟐 distributed in the surface.
𝑬𝝆 =
𝑷𝒍 𝑳 ∞ 𝒓𝜹𝒛 It is also the electrical potential difference between
∫
𝟒𝝅𝜀 −∞ 𝟑
[𝒓𝟐 +𝒛𝟐 ]𝟐 the inner and the outer surface of the dispersed
+𝑎 𝑎 space in a coil.
Note: ∫−𝑎 = 2 ∫0 (𝑤𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦)
𝟐𝑷 𝑳 ∞ 𝒓𝜹𝒛
𝐩𝐬 stands for surface charge
𝑬𝝆 = 𝒍 ∫0 𝟑
𝟒𝝅𝜀
[𝒓 +𝒛𝟐 ]𝟐
𝟐
𝑷𝑳 ∞ 𝒓𝜹𝒛
𝛿Q = 𝑝𝑠 ds
𝑬𝝆 = 𝒍 ∫0 𝟑
𝟐𝝅𝜀
[𝒓𝟐 +𝒛𝟐 ]𝟐
Charge enclosed in asurface Q = ∫ 𝑝𝑠 𝑑𝑠
Let z = rtan𝜽 Q = 𝑷𝒔 𝟐𝝅𝒂𝑳
𝒅𝒛
= r𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽
𝒅𝜽
dz = r𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽𝒅𝜽

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 +𝑎 𝑎
Example Note: ∫−𝑎 = 2 ∫0 (𝑤𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦)
Determine the electric field outside within an ∞ 𝑃𝑙 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛉𝐝𝐥
𝑬𝝆 = 2 ∫0
infinitely long cylinder of radius a that bears a 𝟐𝝅𝜀𝑟
surface charge distribution 𝐏𝐬 C/𝐦𝟐 that is
𝑃𝑙 ∞ 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛉
uniformly distributed both a long the cylinder 𝑬𝝆 = ∫
𝝅𝜀 0 𝑟
length and a round the cylinder periphery But 𝑝𝑙 = 𝑝𝑠 𝑑𝑦
Sln 𝑃𝑠 ∞ 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛉𝑑𝑦
𝑬𝝆 = ∫
𝝅𝜀 0 𝑟
𝟏
R = r = [𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 ]𝟐
Thus
z=x
𝒙 𝒙
But : 𝐂𝐨𝐬∅ = =
𝒛 𝒓
Hence the equation changes To:
𝑃𝑠 ∞ 𝐱 𝑑𝑦
𝑬𝝆 = ∫ 𝑟 𝑥𝑟
𝝅𝜀 0
𝑃𝑠 ∞ 𝐱 𝑑𝑦
𝑬𝝆 = ∫
𝝅𝜀 0 𝒙𝟐 +𝒚𝟐
We observe that because of symmetry, the cylinder
is infinitely long and the charge is uniformly
distributed along its length and around periphery) Let y = xtan𝜽
the electric field is radially directed. 𝒅𝒚
= x𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽
𝒅𝜽
We choose a Gaussian surface to be a cylinder of
dy = x𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽𝒅𝜽
length L and radius r and centre it on the axis of the 𝒙
charged cylinder as illustrated in the figure above. ∞=
𝟐
𝒙
A gain the fields are parallel to the ends of the 𝑷𝒔 𝒙.𝒙 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽𝒅𝜽
𝑬𝝆 = ∫𝟐
𝝅𝜀 0 𝒙𝟐 +𝒙𝟐 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝜽
cylinder but perpendicular to the surface. Hence 𝒙
𝑷𝒔 𝟐 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽𝒅𝜽
Gauss law reduces to: 𝑬𝝆 = ∫
𝝅𝜀 0 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽
∮𝑫 ̅ . 𝒅𝒔̅ = ∮ 𝑫 𝒅𝒔̅ = Q enclosed 𝑷𝒔
𝒙
𝑬𝝆 = ∫𝟐 𝒅𝜽
= D 2𝝅𝒓𝑳 𝝅𝜀 0
𝒙
So that the charge enclosed is: 𝑷𝒔
𝑬𝝆 = [𝜃]𝟐0
𝝅𝜀
Q enclosed = 𝑷𝒔 𝟐𝝅𝒂𝑳 𝑷𝒔
So that: 𝑬𝝆 =
𝟐𝝅𝜀
D 2𝜋𝑟𝐿 = 𝑃𝑠 2𝜋𝑎𝐿
𝑃𝑠 2𝜋𝑎𝐿 𝑃𝑠 𝑎 d)Charge distribution due to Continious volume
D= = 𝑎𝑟
2𝜋𝑟𝐿 𝑟
𝑃𝑠 𝑎 charge
𝜀0 𝐸 = 𝑎𝑟
𝑟
𝑷𝒔 𝒂
E= 𝒂𝒓 and r > 𝒂
𝜺𝟎 𝒓
For points interior to the cylinder of charges, there
are electric flux lines on the interior and hence no
charge is enclosed by Gaussian surface, and hence
the field is Zero
E = 0 and r< a
Volume charge – is the quantity of unit charge per
unit volume
Alternatively
𝒑𝒗 stands for volume charge
Q = ∫ 𝑝𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑎 ∅=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋
Q = ∫0 ∫0 𝑝𝑣 𝑟 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
∫0
𝑎 ∅=2𝜋
= ∫0 ∫0 [−𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃]𝝅0 𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
𝑎 ∅=2𝜋 2
= ∫0 ∫0 𝑟 𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
𝑎
= 2𝑝𝑣 ∫0 [∅]𝟐𝝅0 𝑑𝑟
𝑎 2
= 4𝜋𝑝𝑣 ∫0 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝒂
𝑟3
= 4𝜋𝑝𝑣 [ ]
3 0
4𝜋𝑝𝑣 𝑎3
=
By integration 3

𝑝𝑙 = 𝑝𝑠 𝑑𝑦
𝜹 𝑬𝝆 = 𝜹ECos∅
𝑬𝝆 = ECos∅

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Charge distribution for Coaxial Cable
Example.
A coaxial transmission line consists of two
concentric cylinders shown in the figure below.
This is a common structure used to guide EM
waves from one point to the other. The inner
cylinder has radius a and the outer cylinder has
the radius b. Determine the electric field
between the cylinder.
𝐸̅ = 0 r< 𝑎
Observe also that the electric field outside the cable
is also zero, since the total charge enclosed by
cylindrical Gaussian surface surrounding both
cylinders is Zero.
This is the reason for using such a cable: The
exterior is ‘’shielded ‘’ from the fields interior to
the cable. Coaxial cable is therefore known as the
shielded cable.

Example
A 50cm length coaxial cable has an inner radius
of 1mm and an outer radius of 4mm. The space
between conductors is assumed to be filled with
air.
The total charge on the inner conductor is 30nC.
Determine the electric field for a coaxial cable a) Find the charge densities on each
Sln conductor
b) The E and D fields

Sln
a)For coaxial cable:
We begin by finding the charge density on the inner
cylinder.
𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑙 30 𝑥 10−9
Charge density 𝜌𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 = =
2𝜋𝑎𝐿 2𝜋(10−2 )(0.5)
𝟐
= 𝟗. 𝟓𝟓𝝁𝑪/𝒎
Surface the inner cylinder has a surface charge The negative charge on the inner surface of the
distribution of 𝐏𝐬 C/𝐦𝟐 that is uniformly outer cylinder (Equal but opposite) is
distributed along its length and around its 𝑄 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑙 −30 𝑥 10−9
Charge density 𝜌𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 = =
periphery. The outer cylinder has the same total 2𝜋𝑎𝐿 2𝜋(4 𝑥10−3 )(0.5)
𝟐
charge as the inner cylinder distributed over its = −𝟐. 𝟑𝟗𝝁𝑪/𝒎
inner surface. But is of opposite polarity. (the
distribution are different but those are uniform c) Internal field may be calculated easily:
around the inner and outer peripheries) For Coaxial cable:
Both cylinders are considered infinite in length.
𝑃𝑠 𝑎 9.55 𝑥 10−6 𝑥 (0.001) 𝟗.𝟓𝟓
Because of the uniform charge distribution and D = = = n 𝑪/𝒎𝟐
𝑟 𝑟 𝒓
infinite length of the cylinder is the electric fields 𝐷 9.55 𝑥 10−9 𝟏𝟎𝟕𝟗
will radially directed from the inner cylinder And E = = = V/m
𝜀 8.85 𝑥 10−12 𝑥 𝑟 𝒓
towards the outer cylinder we enclose the inner Where r in this case is the radius of the Gaussian
cylinder with a cylindrical Gaussian surface of surface
radius r.
The electric fields will be perpendicular to the sides Both of the expressions apply to the region
of the Gaussian surface and parallel to the ends where 1 < r < 4mm and Note that for A coaxial
surface. Cable For r < 1mm or r > 4mm, E and D are
Zero
̅ . 𝒅𝒔̅ = ∮ 𝑫 𝒅𝒔̅ = 𝑫 ∮ 𝒅𝒔̅ =Q enclosed
∮𝑫
Hence Q enclosed = 𝑫 ∮ 𝒅𝒔̅ = D2𝝅𝒓𝒍
And Q enclosed = D2𝝅𝒓𝒍 = 𝐏𝐬 𝟐𝝅𝒂𝒍 Example
D2𝝅𝒓𝒍 = 𝐏𝐬 𝟐𝝅𝒂𝒍 Determine the electric field of an infinite plane
𝑷𝒔 𝟐𝝅𝒂𝒍 𝑃𝑠 𝑎 of charge that is uniformly distributed over its
D= = 𝑎12
𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒍 𝑟 surface using Gauss’ law.
𝑃𝑠 𝑎
𝜀0 𝐸 = 𝑎12
𝑟
𝑷𝒔 𝒂 Sln
E= 𝒂𝟏𝟐 and 𝒂 <r < 𝒃
𝜺𝟎 𝒓 We place the plane of the charge in the xz plane.
The electric field inside the inner cylinder is zero Once again, we observe that because of the infinite
since a cylindrical Gaussian surface inside the extent of the plane and the uniform distribution of
cylinder will contain no charge, since there are no
electric flux line within it

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charge over it, the electric field will be
perpendicular to its surface. Quick review Questions
Suppose that distribution is 𝐏𝐬 C/𝐦𝟐 , since the Example
fields will be perpendicular to the surface, an Determine, using Gauss’ law, the electric field
appropriate choice of the Gaussian surface is a due to a sphere of charge of radius a where the
rectangular surface extending to the right and to the charge is uniformly distributed over the sphere
left of the plane.. The electric field will be parallel surface with distribution of 𝑷𝒔 C/𝒎𝟐 ,.
to the sides of the rectangular Gaussian surfaces Sln
and contribute nothing there but will be
perpendicular to the front and back surface. Hence
Gauss law becomes.
∮𝑫 ̅ . 𝒅𝒔̅ = 𝑫 ∮ 𝑫
= 2DA
Where the front and back surface have area A. The
total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is
Q enclosed = 𝐏𝐬 A
Q enclosed = 2DA = 𝐏𝐬 A
𝐏𝐬 𝐀
D=
2𝐴
𝑃𝑠
𝜀0 𝐸 = 𝑎𝑦
𝑟
𝑃𝑠𝑎
E= 𝑎 and y>0 ∮𝐷̅ . 𝑑𝑠̅ = 𝐷 ∮ 𝑑𝑠̅
2𝜀0 𝑟 𝑦

E =
−𝑷𝒔 𝒂
𝒂 y< 𝟎 = D 4𝜋𝑟 2
𝟐𝜺 𝒓 𝒚
𝟎 Q enclosed = Ps 4𝜋𝑎2
D 4𝜋𝑟 2 =Ps 4𝜋𝑎2
ELECTRIC FLUX (𝜳) and ELECTRIC FLUX Ps 4𝜋𝑎2
DENSITY ( D ) D=
4𝜋𝑟 2
Ps 𝑎 2
D=
𝑟2
a)Electric flux (Ψ) - 𝐏𝐬 𝒂𝟐
According to Faraday, Electric flux (Ψ) is equal to 𝜀0 𝐸 =
𝒓𝟐
the total charge (Q) enclosed by a surface. 𝐏𝐬 𝒂𝟐
𝑬= 𝒂𝒓 r > a
Ψ=Q 𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐

Hence it is measured in Coulomb (C)

d)Charge distribution for Volume
c)Electric flux Density (D) – Is total flux per unit
surface area. Example
𝑸 Determine using Gauss’ law, the electric field
Hence, D = C/𝒎𝟐
𝑺𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 due to sphere of charge of radius a where the
𝚿 𝐐
D= = charge is uniformly distributed throughout the
𝑨 𝑨
Where : Ψ = Electric flux sphere with volume charge distribution 𝑷𝒗
Q =Quantity of charge C/𝒎𝟑 ,.
A = Area
Its SI unit is Coulomb per squared metre (C/𝒎𝟐 )

NOTE: D is also known as electric displacement

a)For line charge
D = 𝜀𝐸
𝑃𝑙 𝐿 𝑃𝑙 𝐿
D=𝜀 =
2𝜋𝜀𝑟 2𝜋𝑟

b)For surface charge

D = 𝜀𝐸
𝑃𝑠 𝑃𝑠 In this case: when r > a
D=𝜀 = ̅ . 𝑑𝑠̅ = 𝐷 ∮ 𝑑𝑠̅
2𝜋𝜀 2𝜋 ∮𝐷
= D 4𝜋𝑟 2
NOTE: When calculated as shown above, It is 4
Q enclosed = Pv 𝜋𝑎3
known as Charge density 𝝆𝒔 if for area or 𝝆𝑽 if for 3
Volume Hence,
4
Hence 𝝆𝒔=
𝑸
or 𝝆𝑽 =
𝑸 D 4𝜋𝑟 2 = Pv 𝜋𝑎3
𝑺.𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 3
Note That Gauss law is useful to obtain the E in 4
Pv 𝜋𝑎3 Pv 𝑎 3
case of complex problems in electrostatics. And D = 3
==
4𝜋𝑟 2 3𝑟 2

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 𝟒
𝐏𝐯 𝝅𝒂𝟑
𝟑 𝐏𝐯 𝒂𝟑 i)D = 6xyi + 𝟒𝒙𝟐 j C/𝒎𝟐
E=
𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐
=
𝟑𝜺𝒓 𝟐 𝒂𝒓 r > a 𝑝𝑣 = ( ∇ . D)
𝑑
ii) When r < 𝒂 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑥
̅ . 𝑑𝑠̅ = 𝐷 ∮ 𝑑𝑠̅ 𝑑
∮𝐷 = 𝑑𝑦 . (𝑎𝑦 )
= D 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑑
𝑎𝑧
4𝜋𝑟 3 [( 𝑑𝑧 ) ]
Q enclosed = 𝑝𝑣
3 𝑑
Hence, 𝑑𝑥 𝟔𝐱𝐲𝐢
4𝜋𝑟 3 𝑑
D 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝑝𝑣 = 𝑑𝑦 . ( 𝟒𝒙𝟐 𝐣 )
3
4
Pv 𝜋𝑎3
3 Pv 𝑎 3 𝑑 0
And D = = [( 𝑑𝑧 ) ]
4𝜋𝑟 2 3𝑟 2
𝟒
𝐏𝐯 𝝅𝒓𝟑
𝟑 𝐏𝐯 𝒓 = 6y + 0 + 0
E= = 𝒂𝒓 r < a 𝑝𝑣 = 6y
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒓𝟐 𝟑𝜺

GAUSS’S LAW DIFFERENTIAL VOLUME ii) rSin∅𝒂𝒓 + rCos∅𝒂∅ + 𝟑𝒛𝟐 𝒂𝒛 C/𝒎𝟐

sln
p=r
Cylindrical or spherical
1 𝑑 1 𝑑𝐴∅ 𝑑𝐴𝑍
∇ . A = ( ) 𝑝𝑑𝑝 + ( )+ in cylindrical
𝑝 𝑑𝑝 𝑝 𝑑∅ 𝑑𝑧
1 𝑑 1 1
∇.A= (𝑟 2 𝐴𝑟) + (𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝐴∅)
𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 𝑟𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
1 ∅
+ (𝐴∅) in spherical
𝑟𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃

Example
Find the approximate value for the total charge
in an incremental volume of 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎𝟑 located at
the origin given that:
A differential –sized Gaussian surface about the
D =𝒆−𝒙 siny𝒂𝒙 - 𝒆−𝒙 Cosy𝒂𝒚 +2z𝒂𝒛 C/𝒎𝟐
point p is used to investigate the space rate of
Sln
change of D in the neighbourhood of p
𝑄𝑒𝑐𝑙𝑑 = ( ∇ . D) x 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ∆v
𝑑
In differential form, the integral of Electric flux 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑥
density D gives the total charge enclosed in an 𝑑
= 𝑑𝑦 . (𝑎𝑦 ) 𝑥 ∆v
incremental volume:
𝑑
𝑎𝑧
∮ 𝑫. 𝒅𝒔 = 𝑸𝒆𝒄𝒍𝒅 = ( 𝛁 . D) x 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 ∆v
[( 𝑑𝑧 ) ]
Where ∆v = incremental volume 𝑑
𝑑𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥 siny
So: 𝑑
= 𝑑𝑦 . (− 𝑒 −𝑥 Cosy) 𝑥10−9
∇. 𝐷 = 𝑝𝑣 (this is known as Maxswell’s 1st
𝑑 2z
equation in point or differential form) [( 𝑑𝑧 ) ]
= [− 𝑒 −𝑥 siny + (−𝑒 −𝑥 (−siny )) + 2]𝑥10−9
𝒅
= [− 𝑒 −𝑥 siny + 𝑒 −𝑥 siny + 2]𝑥10−9
𝒅𝒙 𝒂𝒙 At the origin, the first two expressions are Zero
𝒅
Div D = . D = 𝒂
. ( 𝒚) [ 2]𝑥10−9 = 2nC
𝒅𝒚
𝒅
𝒂𝒛
( 𝒅𝒛) Example
The electric flux density in an electric field is
𝒅 𝒅 𝒅 given by
= 𝒅𝒙 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒂𝒚 + 𝒅𝒛 𝒂𝒛
𝒅𝒚 D = (2𝒚𝟐 +)𝒂𝒛 + 4xy𝒂𝒚 + x𝒂𝒛 C/𝒎𝟐 . Determine
the volume charge density at a point (-1,0,3)
Where F is a vector function F(x,y,z) (4mks)
Sln
Example
Volume charge density 𝑝𝑣 = ( . D)
Determine the charge density due to each of the 𝑑
following electric flux density 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑥
i)D = 6xyi + 𝟒𝒙𝟐 j C/𝒎𝟐 𝑑
= 𝑑𝑦 . (𝑎𝑦 )
ii) rSin∅𝒂𝒓 + rCos∅𝒂∅ + 𝟑𝒛𝟐 𝒂𝒛 C/𝒎𝟐 𝑎𝑧
𝑑
[(𝑑𝑧 ) ]
sln

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 𝑑 Sln
𝑑𝑥 𝟐𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛 Note: Divergence merely tells us how much flux is
𝑑
= 𝑑𝑦 . ( 4𝑥𝑦 ) leaving a small volume on a per-unit volume.
𝑑 𝑥 𝑄𝑒𝑐𝑙𝑑 = ( ∇ . D) x 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ∆v
[( 𝑑𝑧 ) ] 𝑑
= 0 + 4x + 0 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑥
𝑑
And at point (-1,0,3) = 𝑑𝑦 . (𝑎𝑦 )
𝑝𝑣 = 0 (-1) + 4(0) + 3(0) = 0 𝑑
𝑎𝑧
[( 𝑑𝑧 ) ]
𝑑
Example 𝑑𝑥 𝟖𝐱𝐲𝒛𝟒
𝑑
Given the electric flux density = 𝑑𝑦 . ( 𝟒𝒙𝟐 𝒛𝟒 )
D = 2xy𝒂𝒙 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒂𝒚 + 𝟔𝒛𝟑 𝒂𝒛 C/𝒎𝟑 . Use Gauss’ 𝑑 𝟏𝟔𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝒛𝟑
law to evaluate the total charge enclosed in the [( 𝑑𝑧 ) ]
volume 0< x,y,z<a . Find the derivative at = [8𝑦𝑧 4 + 48𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 2 ]
𝒂 𝒂 𝒂 0+2 1+3
p( , , ) Point p ( , , 2) = p (1,2,2)
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 2 2
= [8(2)(2) + 48(1)2 (2)(2)2 ]
4

Sln = [256 + 384 ] = 1024

𝑄𝑒𝑐𝑙𝑑 = ( ∇ . D) x 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ∆v
𝑑 𝑄𝑒𝑐𝑙𝑑 = ( ∇ . D) x 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ∆v
𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑥 𝑑
𝑑
= 𝑑𝑦 . (𝑎𝑦 ) 𝑥 ∆v 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑥
𝑑
𝑑
𝑎𝑧 = 𝑑𝑦 . (𝑎𝑦 ) 𝑥 10−9
[( 𝑑𝑧 ) ] 𝑑
𝑎𝑧
𝑑 [( 𝑑𝑧 ) ]
𝑑𝑥 𝟐𝐱𝐲 𝑑
𝑑 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑦 . ( 𝒙𝟐 ) 𝑥 𝑎3 𝟖𝐱𝐲𝒛𝟒
𝑑
𝑑 𝟔𝒛𝟑 = 𝑑𝑦 . ( 𝟒𝒙𝟐 𝒛𝟒 ) 𝑥 10−9
[( 𝑑𝑧 ) ] 𝑑 𝟏𝟔𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝒛𝟑
= [2𝑦 + 18𝑧 2 ]𝑥 𝑎3 [( 𝑑𝑧 ) ]
At the center P, Find the Coordinates as follows = [8𝑦𝑧 4 + 48𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 2 ]
0+𝑎 0+𝑎 0+𝑎 At Point p (2,-1,3)
P( , , )
2 2 2
𝒂 𝒂 𝒂 = [8(−1)(3)4 + 48(2)2 (−1)(3)2 ]
And at p( , , )
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 = [−648 − 1728 ] = 2376 𝑥 10−9 x 10−12
𝒂 𝒂
Q = [𝟐( ) + 𝟏𝟖( )𝟐 ] 𝑥 𝑎3 = 2.38 𝑥 10−21 C
𝟐 𝟐
Q = [𝐚 + 𝟒. 𝟓(𝒂)𝟐 ]𝑥 𝑎3
NOTE:
𝟑 𝟓 Gauss law is means of analysing E and D in
Q = 𝒂 + 𝟒. 𝟓𝒂 closed
asymmetrical charge distribution. For such
conditions, we construct mathematical closed
surface (model) known as Gaussian surface

a)For appoint charge

∅=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋
Q = ∫0 ∫0 𝐷𝑑𝑠
But 𝒅𝒔̅ = 𝒓𝟐 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽𝒅Фdr
And we consider r as constant
∅=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋
Q = ∫0 ∫0 𝐷𝑟 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅
Example ∅=2𝜋
Given that: Q = 𝐷𝑟 2 ∫0 [−𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃]𝝅0 𝑑∅
∅=2𝜋
D = 8xy𝒛𝟒 𝒂𝒙 + 4𝒙𝟐 𝒛𝟒 𝒂𝒚 + 16𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝒛𝟑 𝒂𝒚 pC/𝒎𝟐 . Q= 𝐷𝑟 2 𝑥 2 ∫0 𝑑∅
Find; 2 ∅=2𝜋
Q= 𝐷𝑟 𝑥 2 ∫0 𝑑∅
a)Find the total electric flux passing through the 2 [∅]𝟐𝝅
rectangular surface 0<x<2, 1<y<3, and z = 2 in Q= 2𝐷𝑟 0
2
the 𝒂𝒛 direction. Q = 4𝐷𝜋𝑟
𝑸
b)Find E at p(2,-1,3) Hence D = 𝒂𝒓
4𝜋𝑟 2
c)Find an approximate value for the total charge
contained in an incremental sphere located at b)For infinite line charge
p(2,-1,3) and having a volume of 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝒎𝟑 Q = ∫ 𝐷 ds
Q = ∫ 𝑝𝑙 𝐿 dl

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Refer to the figure below Conditions
4𝜋𝑝𝑣 𝑎3
D4𝜋𝑟 2 =
3
Dvividing by 4𝜋𝑟 2
4𝜋𝑝𝑣 𝑎3 𝑝𝑣 𝑎3
D= =
3 𝑥4𝜋𝑟 2 3 𝑟2
Condition 1 Condition 2 Condition 3
when r<a when r =a When r>a
𝑝𝑣 𝑟 𝑎𝑝𝑣 𝑟
𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑣 𝑎3
3 3 𝑎
3 𝑟2 𝑟

Q = ∫ 𝐷𝑝 𝑑𝑠 dl
𝐿 𝜃=2𝜋
Q = ∫0 ∫0 𝐷𝑝 𝑑𝑠𝑝
But 𝒅𝒔̅ = 𝒅∅𝒅𝒛
𝐿 𝜃=2𝜋
Q = ∫0 ∫0 𝐷𝑝 𝑃𝑑𝑠
𝐿 ∅=2𝜋
Q= 𝐷𝑝 𝑃 ∫0 ∫0 𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
𝐿 𝟐𝝅 Example
Q= 𝐷𝑝 𝑃 ∫0 [∅]0 𝑑𝑧
Aspherical volume of radius R has avolume
Q= 𝐷𝑝 𝑃2𝜋[𝑧]𝑳0
charge density 𝒑𝒗 = kr where r is the radial
Q= 𝐷𝑝 𝑃2𝜋[𝑧]𝑳0
distance and k is the constant. Find the
Q = 𝐷𝑝 2𝜋𝑝𝐿 expression for E in the region
But Q = 𝑝𝑙 𝐿 0≤ 𝒓 ≤ ∞
𝐷𝑝 2𝜋𝑝𝐿 = 𝑝𝑙 𝐿
𝑝𝑙
Hence 𝐷𝑝 = Sln
2𝜋𝑝
c)For infinite sheet of charge Charge enclosed Q = ∫ 𝐷𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝑝𝑣 𝑑𝑣
Q = ∫ 𝐷 ds And
Q = ∫ 𝑝𝑠 ds 𝒑𝒗 = kr
dv = 𝒓𝟐 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
𝑎 ∅=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋
Q = ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 𝑝𝑣 𝑟 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
𝑎 ∅=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋
∫ 𝐷𝑑𝑠 = ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 (𝑘𝑟)𝑟 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
𝑎 ∅=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋𝑘
D4𝜋𝑟 2 = ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 𝑘𝑟 3 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅𝑑𝑟

𝑎 ∅=2𝜋
= 𝑘 ∫0 ∫0 𝑟 3 [−𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃]𝝅0 𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
𝑎 ∅=2𝜋 3
= 2𝑘 ∫0 ∫0 𝑟 𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
𝑎
ds = A = 2𝑘 ∫0 𝑟 3 [∅]𝟐𝝅
0 𝑑𝑟
Q = ∫ 𝑝𝑠 A =
𝑎 3
4𝜋𝑘 ∫0 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑝𝑠 𝐴 = 𝐷𝑠 [2𝐴] 𝒂
𝑟4
So that = 4𝜋𝑘 [ ]
4 0
𝐷𝑠 [2𝐴] = 𝑝𝑠 𝐴 4𝜋𝑘𝑎4
𝑝 =
𝐷𝑠 = 𝑠 4
2 D4𝜋𝑟 2 = 4𝜋𝑘𝑎4
𝑘𝑎4
D=
4𝑟 2

e)Flux density for uniformly charged sphere Condition 1

Q = ∫ 𝑝𝑣 𝑑𝑣 r <a
𝑎 ∅=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋 𝑘𝑟 4 𝑘𝑟 2
Q = ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 𝑝𝑣 𝑟 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅𝑑𝑟 D= =
4𝑟 2 4
𝑎 ∅=2𝜋
= ∫0 ∫0 [−𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃]𝝅0 𝑑∅𝑑𝑟 But D = 𝜀 E
𝑎 ∅=2𝜋 2 𝑘𝑟 2
= ∫0 ∫0 𝑟 𝑑∅𝑑𝑟 𝜀E=
4
𝑎 𝑘𝑟 2
= 2𝑝𝑣 ∫0 [∅]𝟐𝝅
0 𝑑𝑟 E=
4𝜀
𝑎 2
= 4𝜋𝑝𝑣 ∫0 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝒂 Condition 2
𝑟3
= 4𝜋𝑝𝑣 [ ]
3 0 r=a
4𝜋𝑝𝑣 𝑎3 𝑘𝑟 4 𝑘𝑎4 𝑘𝑎2
= D= = =
3 4𝑟 2 4𝑎2 4

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 But D = 𝜀 E Example
𝑘𝑎2 Determine the electric field to aspherical cloud
𝜀E=
4 giving the volume charge density
𝑘𝑎2
E= 𝒑𝒗 = -𝒑𝟎 0≤ 𝒓 ≤ 𝒂
4𝜀
Condition 3 =0 r>0
r>a Sln
𝑘𝑟 4 𝑘𝑎4 𝑎 ∅=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋
D= = D4𝜋𝑟 2 = ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 −𝒑𝒐 𝑟 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
4𝑟 2 4𝑟 2
But D = 𝜀 E
𝑎 ∅=2𝜋
𝑘𝑎4 = −𝒑𝒐 ∫0 ∫0 [−𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃]𝝅0 𝑟 2 𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
𝜀E=
4𝑟 2 𝑎 ∅=2𝜋 2
𝑘𝑎4 =−2𝒑𝒐 ∫0 ∫0 𝑟 𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
E= 𝑎
4𝜀𝑟 2
= −2𝒑𝒐 ∫0 𝑟 2 [∅]𝟐𝝅
0 𝑑𝑟
Example 𝑎
In a spherical co-ordinates system, the volume = −4𝜋𝒑𝒐 ∫0 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟
𝟑 𝒂
𝑟3
charge density 𝐩𝐯 = 𝐩𝐨 ( ) C/𝐜𝐦 .
𝐫 𝟐 𝟑 D4𝜋𝑟 2 = −4𝜋𝒑𝒐 [ ]
3 0
𝐚
2 𝑎3
a)How much charge lies in the sphere of radius D4𝜋𝑟 = −4𝜋𝒑𝒐
3
r=a −𝒑𝒐 𝑎3
sln D=
3𝑟 2
Charge enclosed Q = ∫ 𝐷𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝑝𝑣 𝑑𝑣
And At r > a (eg remains)
𝟑 −𝒑𝒐 𝑎3
𝒓 𝟐 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝒑𝒗 = 𝒑𝒐 ( ) 3𝜀𝑟 2
𝒂
𝑎𝑛𝑑
dv = 𝒓𝟐 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
𝟑
At r < a
−𝑝 𝑟
D4𝜋𝑟 = 2 𝑎 ∅=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋
∫0 ∫0 ∫0 𝒑𝒐
𝒓 𝟐
( ) 𝑟2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅𝑑𝑟 𝐸𝑖𝑛 = 0
𝒂 3𝜀

𝟑 Example
𝑎 ∅=2𝜋 𝒓
= 𝒑𝒐 ∫0 ∫0 [−𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃]𝝅0 ( )𝟐 𝑟 2 𝑑∅𝑑𝑟 Using Gauss law in integral form, obtain the
𝒂
𝟑 electric field at all points due to the following
𝑎 ∅=2𝜋 𝒓 𝟐
=2𝒑𝒐 ∫0 ∫0 ( ) 𝑟 2 𝑑∅𝑑𝑟 charge distribution in cylindrical coordinates
𝒂
𝐫
𝑎 𝑟𝟐
𝟕 𝒑𝒐 (𝒓, ∅, 𝒛) = 𝐩𝐨 0≤ 𝒓 ≤ ∞
𝐚
= 2𝒑𝒐 ∫0 𝟑 [∅]𝟐𝝅
0 𝑑𝑟
𝑎𝟐
=0 a≤ 𝒓 ≤ ∞
𝟕 Sln
𝑎 𝑟𝟐
= 4𝜋𝒑 ∫ 𝒐 0 𝟑 𝑑𝑟 Charge enclosed Q = ∫ 𝐷𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝑝𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑎𝟐
𝟗 𝒂
ds = 𝒓𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
𝑟𝟐 ℎ ∅=2𝜋
= 4𝜋𝒑 [ ]
𝒐 𝟑 Q = ∫0 ∫0 𝑫𝒓𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
𝑎𝟐 0 ℎ
9 = 𝐷𝑟 ∫0 [∅]𝟐𝝅
0 𝑑𝑧
𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎
= 4𝜋𝑝 𝑜9 3 = 8𝜋𝑝𝑜 = 2𝜋𝐷𝑟 ∫0 𝑑𝑧
9
𝑎2
2
𝑎3
= 2𝜋𝐷𝑟[𝑧]𝒉0
D4𝜋𝑟 2 = 8𝜋𝑝𝑜 = 2𝜋𝐷𝑟ℎ
9
𝑎3 But D = 𝜀 E
D = 2𝑝𝑜
9𝑟 2
= 2𝜋 𝜀 𝐸𝑟ℎ
2𝑝𝑜 𝑎3
D= = 2𝜋 𝜀 𝐸𝑟ℎ
9𝑟 2

Again
b)Find the electric flux density at r = a Charge enclosed Q = ∫ 𝐷𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝑝𝑣 𝑑𝑣
Sln ds = 𝒓𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
But r = a ℎ ∅=2𝜋 𝒂 𝐫
Q = ∫0 ∫0 ∫𝟎 𝐩𝐨 𝐚 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
2𝑝𝑜 𝑎3 2𝑝𝑜 𝑎3 2𝑝𝑜 𝑎
D= = = ℎ ∅=2𝜋 𝒂 𝐩𝐨 𝒓𝟐
9𝑟 2 9(𝑎)2 9 = ∫0 ∫0 ∫𝟎 𝑑𝑟𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
𝐚
D = 𝜺𝑬 ℎ ∅=2𝜋 𝑝𝑜 𝑟 3
𝒂

E= 𝑜
2𝑝 𝑎 = ∫0 ∫0 [ ] 𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
3𝑎 0
9𝜀
ℎ 𝑝𝑜 𝑎3
= ∫0 [∅]𝟐𝝅
0 dz
3𝑎
𝑝𝑜 𝑎3𝑎
= 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑑𝑧
3𝑎 0
𝑝 𝑟2
= 2𝜋 𝑜 [𝑧]𝒉0
3

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 2𝜋𝑝𝑜 𝑎2 ℎ 𝑄 1 1
= V=− [ − ]
3 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 ∞
1
So that: But =0
∞
2𝜋𝑝𝑜 𝑎2 ℎ 𝑄
2𝜋 𝜀 𝐸𝑟ℎ = V= (which is a scalar quantity)
3 4𝜋𝜀𝑟
𝑝𝑜 𝑎2 𝑄
𝐸= V=
3𝜀𝑟 4𝜋𝜀|𝑟−𝑟 1 |

Condition 1 -For discard system of charges:

r <a 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
V = 1 | + 2 | + 3 |……...+
𝑄𝑛
𝑝𝑜 𝑟 2 𝑝𝑜 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀|𝑟1 4𝜋𝜀|𝑟2 4𝜋𝜀|𝑟3 4𝜋𝜀|𝑟𝑛 |
𝐸= = In summary
3𝜀𝑟 3𝜀
1 𝑄𝑖
V= ∑𝑛𝑖=1
Condition 2 4𝜋𝜀 |𝑟𝑖 |

r=a
𝑝𝑜 𝑎2 𝑝𝑜 𝑎 - For continuity of charge distribution.
𝐸= = a)for line charge
3𝜀𝑎 3𝜀
𝑃𝐿
V = ∫𝐿 𝑑𝐿
Condition 1 4𝜋𝜀𝑟

r >a b)for surface charge

𝑃𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑝𝑜 𝑟 2 𝑝𝑜 𝑎2 V = ∫𝑠 𝑑𝐿
𝐸= = 4𝜋𝜀𝑟
3𝜀𝑟 3𝜀𝑟
c)For volume charge distribution
𝑃𝑣 𝑑𝑣
Exercise V = ∫𝑠 𝑑𝐿
4𝜋𝜀𝑟
Find electric field intensity at all points using
Gauss law in integral form: NOW REMEMBER
𝐩𝐨 (r,∅, 𝐳) = 0 0≤𝐫≤∞ 𝑄𝑄1
i) F= 2 𝑎𝑟 4𝜋𝜀𝑅
= 𝐩𝐨 r a≤ 𝐫 ≤ 𝐛 𝑄1
=0 b≤𝐫≤∞ ii) E= 𝑎𝑟
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 2
𝑄1
iii) V=
4𝜋𝜀𝑅
Electric Potential
This is the work done when moving a point charge
Example
from one point to another.
A negative charge of magnitude 2𝝁𝑪 is situated
Work done = Force x distance
in the air at the origin and two positive charges
But F = QE
of 1𝝁𝑪 each are at the point y = ± 2m. find:
Where Q = charge
a)E
E = electric field strength.
b)Voltage at the point 4m from the origin of the
Hence, work done = QE xL
x –axis.
Work done = − ∫ 𝑸𝑬 𝒅𝑳
Sln
NOTE: The negative sign indicates that the
workdone is by an external agent against the field.

Dividing both sides by Q

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
= − ∫ 𝑬 𝒅𝑳
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒(𝑄)
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
But = Voltage
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒(𝑄)
So:
𝑟
Voltage = − ∫∞ 𝐸𝑑𝐿
𝑄 a) E
But E = 𝑎𝑟 𝑄1
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 2 𝐸1 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 2
So: 1 𝑄1 −2 𝑥 10−6
Voltage (V) = − ∫∞
𝑟 𝑄 𝐸1 = 𝑥 = 9 𝑥 109 x = -1125 V/m
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 2 𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝐿 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2 (16)2
𝑄2 𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 1 𝑥 10−6 𝑥 9 𝑥 109 𝑥 2
But dL = 𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝐸2 = 𝐸3 = 𝑥2 = 2 𝑥𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑟 𝑄 4𝜋𝜀𝑅 2 [√20]
V= − ∫∞ 𝑎 . 𝑎 𝑑𝑟 9 𝑥 103 𝑥 2
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 2 𝑟 𝑟 4
𝑟 𝑄 𝐸2 = 𝐸3 = 2 𝑥 = 804.98 V/m
V= − ∫∞ 𝑑𝑟 [√20] √20
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 2
𝑄 𝑟 1 Total 𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3 = - 1125 + 804 .98 = -
V= − ∫ 𝑑𝑟 320 V/m
4𝜋𝜀 ∞ 𝑅 2
𝑄 𝑟 −2
V= − ∫ 𝑅 𝑑𝑟 b)Voltage at the point 4m from thr origin of the
4𝜋𝜀 ∞
𝑄 1 𝒓 x –axis.
V=− [ ] Sln
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 ∞

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 𝑄1 −2 𝑥 10−6 1 0
𝑉1 = = 9 𝑥 109 x = - 4500 V/m
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 4 |𝑟 − 𝑟2 |=|(0) − ( 4 )|= √12 + (−4)2 + 32
𝑄1 1 𝑥 10−6
𝑉2 = 𝑉3 = = 9 𝑥 109 x x 2 = 4024.92 1 −2
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 √20
=√26
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 = -4500 + 4024.92 =-475.08 𝑄1 𝑄2
V/m 𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 = +
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 4𝜋𝜀𝑅
−6 −4 5
= 9 𝑥 109 x 10 [ + ]= - 5.872kV
√6 √6
Example
A positive charge point is suited at (0,2) of
magnitude 4𝝁𝑪 . Another charge of -2𝝁C is
Exercise
located at (0,-2). Find E and V at the point (0,1) 𝒓𝟐
𝒑𝒗 = 𝒑𝟎 (1 - ) r≥ 𝒂
𝒂𝟐
𝒑𝒗 = 0 r≤𝒂
Find
(i) 𝑬𝒊𝒏
(ii) 𝑬𝒐𝒖𝒕
(iii) Show that 𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙 is at r = 0.745

POTENTIAL DUE TO UNIFORMLY

CHARGED LINE
In case of along uniformly charged line with
charge line density of 𝑝𝐿 we have:
Sln 𝑝
E = 𝐿 𝑎𝑟
For electric field intensity 2𝜋𝜀𝑟
The potential difference between two points A and
0 0 0 B is given by:
𝑅1 = [ − ] = [ ] = √02 + (−1)2 = 1 𝑎
1 2 −1 V = − ∫𝑏 𝐸𝑑𝐿 . 𝑎𝑟
𝑄
𝐸1 = 1 2
4𝜋𝜀𝑅
1 𝑄1 4 𝑥 10−6 But dL = 𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝐸1 = 𝑥 = 9 𝑥 109 x = 36000 V/m 𝑎 𝑝
𝑅2 (1)2
4𝜋𝜀0
V = − ∫𝑏 𝐿 𝑎𝑟 . 𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑟
And 2𝜋𝜀𝑟
𝑎 𝑝𝐿
0 0 0 V = − ∫𝑏 𝑑𝑟
𝑅2 = [ − ] = [ ] = √02 + (3)2 = 3 2𝜋𝜀𝑟
𝑎1
𝑝𝐿
1 −2 3 V= − ∫ 𝑑𝑟
1 𝑄 −2 𝑥 10−6 2𝜋𝜀 𝑏 𝑟
𝐸2 = 𝑥 12 = 9 𝑥 109 x = -2000 V/m 𝑝
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2 (3) V= − 𝐿 [ln 𝑟]𝒂𝑏
2𝜋𝜀
Total 𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 = 36000 + (-2000) = 3400V/m Or
𝑝𝐿 𝑏
V= 𝑙𝑛
For voltage V 2𝜋𝜀 𝑎
𝑄1 4 𝑥 10−6 Where : a = inner radius
𝑉1 = = 9 𝑥 109 x = 36000 V/m
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 1 B = outer radius
𝑄1 −2 𝑥 10−6
𝑉2 = = 9 𝑥 109 x = -6000
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 3
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 =36000 + (-6000) = 30000 V/m POTENTIAL BETWEEN TWO COAXIAL
CYLINDERS (CABLES)
𝑝𝐿 𝑏
From 𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝑙𝑛 ………. (i)
2𝜋𝜀 𝑎
Potential between any two points specified by b and
r will be given by:
𝑝𝐿 𝑏
𝑽𝑨𝒓 = 𝑙𝑛 ………. (ii)
2𝜋𝜀 𝑟
𝑝𝐿 𝑏
From equation (i) , 𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝑙𝑛
2𝜋𝜀 𝑎
Making 𝑝𝐿 the subject, we get:
2𝜋𝜀𝑽𝑨𝑩
𝑝𝐿 = 𝑏 …….. eqtn (iii)
𝑙𝑛
Example 𝑎

Two point charges of magnitude -4𝝁𝑪 and 5𝝁𝑪 And substituting equation (iii) into (ii)
2𝜋𝜀𝑽𝑨𝑩
are located at (2,-1,3) and (0,4,-2) respectively. 𝑏
𝑙𝑛𝑎
𝑝𝐿 𝑏 𝑏
Find the electrical potential at (1,0,1) assuming 0 𝑽𝑨𝒓 = 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛
2𝜋𝜀 𝑟 2𝜋𝜀 𝑟
potential at infinity. 𝑝𝐿 𝑏 2𝜋𝜀𝑽𝑨𝑩 𝒙 𝑙𝑛 𝑟
𝑏

Sln 𝑽𝑨𝒓 = 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑏
2𝜋𝜀 𝑟 2𝜋𝜀 𝑥 𝑙𝑛
𝑎
1 2 𝑏
𝑽𝑨𝑩 𝑙𝑛 𝑟
|𝑟 − 𝑟1 |= |(0) − (−1)|= √12 + 12 + (−2)2 =√6 𝑽𝑨𝒓 =
𝑝𝐿
𝑙𝑛
𝑏
= ….Eqtn(iv)
2𝜋𝜀 𝑟 𝑏
1 3 𝑙𝑛
𝑎

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN E and V = 4x + 30y
UNDER MAGNETOSTATICS At point p(10,0)
The potential difference between A and B is given
by E = - ∇𝑉
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = - 𝑉𝐵𝐴 E= -(4x + 30y)
𝑉𝐴𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐴 = 0 E = - (4 x 10) – (30x0) = - 40𝑎𝑥 V/m
But
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = - ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝐿 At point p(14,16)
Differentiating the voltage side
𝑑𝑉 E = - ∇. 𝑉
= -E
𝑑𝐿
E= -(4x + 30y)
But
𝑑 E = - (4 x 14) – (30x16) = - 7736𝑎𝑦 V/m
=∇
𝑑𝐿
Hence ∇𝑉 = - E POISON EQUATION AND LAPLACE
E = −𝛁𝑽 EQUATION
Note: From Gauss law or Maxwell’s first equation in
The –ve sign indicate that the direction of E is point form
opposite that of V ∇. 𝐷 = 𝑝𝑣 ……….. (i)
As ∇ x 𝐸 = 0 But D = 𝜀E .……….(ii)
Replacing equation (ii) into (i)
Alternatively 𝑝
∇. 𝜀𝐸 = 𝑣 ………(iii)
𝜀
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = - 𝑉𝐵𝐴
But E = - ∇. 𝑉
𝑉𝐴𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐴 = 0 𝑝𝑣
But ∇. (− ∇. 𝑉) =
𝜀
𝒑𝒗
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = - ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝐿 𝛁𝟐𝑽 = (This is known as Poisson’s Equation)
𝜺

Using stokes theorem Where : 𝛁 𝟐 = is known as Laplace operator

- ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝐿 = ∫(∇x E)ds 𝒅𝟐 𝒗 𝒅𝟐 𝒗 𝒅𝟐 𝒗
𝒂)𝛁 𝟐 𝑽 = + + = 0 (in Cartesian )
- ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝐿 =0 𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒚𝟐 𝒅𝒛𝟐
𝟏 𝒅 𝒑𝒅𝒗 𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝒗 𝒅𝟐 𝒗
Buf if : - ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝐿 =0 𝒃)𝛁 𝟐 𝑽 = ( )+ ( )+ = 0 (in
𝒑 𝒅𝒑 𝒅𝒑 𝒑𝟐 𝒅∅ 𝒅𝒛𝟐
Then
Cylindrical)
∫(∇x E)ds = 0 𝟏 𝒅 𝒓𝟐 𝒅𝒗 𝟏 𝒅 𝒅𝒗 𝟏
But ds cant be equal to zero (0), ds≠ 0 c) 𝛁 𝟐 𝑽 = ( )+ (𝒔𝒊𝒏 )+
𝒓𝟐 𝒅𝒓 𝒅𝒓 𝒓𝟐 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒅𝜽 𝒅𝜽 𝒑𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽
So: 𝒅𝟐 𝒗
= 0 (in spherical)
∇ x E = 0 (Maxswell’s 2nd equation in point form 𝒅∅𝟐

And
∫ 𝐸𝑑𝐿 =0 (Maxswell’s 2nd equation in integral Example
form) Find an expression for a potential difference in
From the definition of potential difference terms of applied voltage given that :
𝐕 = 𝑽𝟎 𝐚𝐭 𝐫 = 𝐚
Differentiating the voltage side {
𝑑𝑉 𝐕 = 𝟎 𝐚𝐭 𝐫 = 𝐛 (𝐟𝐨𝐫
= -E Cylindrical capacitor)
𝑑𝐿
But Sln
𝑑 1 𝑑 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑣
=∇ 𝛻 2𝑉 = ( )=0
𝑑𝐿 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
2
Multiplying by 𝑟 all through
Hence ∇𝑉 = - E 1 𝑑 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑣
𝑟2 𝑥 ( ) = 0 x 𝑟2
E = −𝛁𝑽 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑑 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑣
Note: ( )=0
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
∇xE=0 Integrating both side
Then 𝑑 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑣
∇ x (−∇ V) = 0 by vector identity ∫ 𝑑𝑟 ( 𝑑𝑟
) = ∫0
Example 1 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑣
=A
𝑑𝑟
The potential distribution is in the form
Dividing all through by 𝑟 2
V = 𝟏𝟎𝐲 𝟑 + 2𝐱 𝟐 . Find E at (10,0) and (14,16) 𝑑𝑣 𝐴
Sln =
𝑑𝑟 𝑟2
𝐴
E = - ∇𝑉 So that : v=∫ 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑟2
∇𝑉 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 V=− +B
𝐴
……… (i)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑟
𝑑2𝑥 2 𝑑10𝑦 3
∇𝑉 = + From the condition given:
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦

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 𝐴 Electric flux density D = 𝜀𝐸
𝑽𝟎 = − + B …… eqtn (ii)
𝑎 −𝜀𝑉𝑜
𝐴 D = V/m
0=− +B …… eqtn (iii) 𝑟𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑎
𝑏
𝑏
𝐴 𝑄
From equation (iii), B= ……. (iv) D=
𝐴
𝑏
And replacing eqtn (iv) into (ii) Q=DxA
𝐴 𝐴 −𝜀𝑉𝑜
𝑽𝟎 = − + Q = 𝑎 xA
𝑎 𝑏 𝑟𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑏
𝐴 𝐴
𝑽𝟎 = - A = 2𝜋𝑎ℎ
𝑏 𝑎
𝐴𝑎−𝐴𝑏 𝐴(𝑎−𝑏) 𝑄 −𝜀𝑉𝑜 𝐴 −𝜀𝑉𝑜 𝐴
𝑽𝟎 = = C= = 𝑎 = 𝑎 F
𝑉 𝑟𝑉𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
𝑉𝑜 𝑎𝑏
A= ……. Eqtn (v)
𝑎−𝑏
Replacing equation (v) into
𝐴 𝐴 𝑉𝑜 𝑎𝑏 Example
V=− +B Note : B= = In a cylindrical coordinate, two ∅ constants are
𝑟 𝑏 (𝑎−𝑏)𝑏
𝑉𝑜 𝑎𝑏 𝑉𝑜 𝑎𝑏
V=− + located along the z-axis. Negleting fridging,
(𝑎−𝑏)𝑟 (𝑎−𝑏)𝑏
𝑉𝑜 𝑎𝑏 𝑉𝑜 𝑎
calculate the expressions for between planes
V=− + assuming V = 100Volts for Ф = ∝
(𝑎−𝑏)𝑟 (𝑎−𝑏)

V=
𝑉𝑜 𝑎 𝑉𝑜 𝑎𝑏
− V = 0 for Ф = 0
(𝑎−𝑏) (𝑎−𝑏)𝑟 Sln
𝑉𝑜 𝑎 𝑏
V= [1 − ]
(𝑎−𝑏) 𝑟

Example
Find the electric field intensity (E ) in a coaxial
capacitor given that :
𝐕 = 𝑽𝟎 𝐚𝐭 𝐫 = 𝐚
{
𝐕 = 𝟎 𝐚𝐭 𝐫 = 𝐛 (𝐟𝐨𝐫
Cylindrical capacitor)
Find D and hence the capacitance
Sln
1 𝑑2𝑉
Coexial capacitor = cylinder 𝛻 2𝑉 = ( )=0
𝑟2 𝑑Ф2
Sln Multiplying by 𝑟 2 all through
2 1 𝑑 𝜌𝑑𝑣
𝛻 𝑉= ( )=0 1 𝑑2𝑉
𝜌 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜌 𝑟2 𝑥 ( ) = 0 x 𝑟2
𝑟2 𝑑Ф2
Multiplying by 𝜌 all through 𝑑2𝑉
1 𝑑 𝑟𝑑𝑣 =0
𝜌𝑥 ( )= 0 x 𝜌 𝑑Ф2
𝜌 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝑣
𝑑 𝑟𝑑𝑣
A=
𝑑Ф
( )=0
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 v = ∫ 𝐴 𝑑Ф
Integrating both side V = 0 and Ф= 0
𝑑 𝑟𝑑𝑣
∫ 𝑑𝑟 ( 𝑑𝑟 ) = ∫ 0 0=0+B
𝑟𝑑𝑣 B=0
=A
𝑑𝑟 When v = 100, Ф = ∝ [𝐵 = 0]
Dividing all through by r A∝ = 100
𝑑𝑣 𝐴
= 100
𝑑𝑟 𝑟 A=
𝐴 ∝
So that : v=∫ 𝑑𝑟 V=
100
Ф
𝑟
1 ∝
Note: ∫ = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 r E = −∇𝑉
𝑟
1 𝑑𝑣
V = 𝐴𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 r + B ……. (i) E =−
𝑟 𝑑Ф
0 = 𝐴𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 r + B −100
E= V/m
B = - 𝐴𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 r 𝑟∝
𝑎 Example
𝑉𝑜 = A𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑉𝑜
𝑏 In aspherical co-rdinates V = 0 at 𝒓𝟏 = 0.2m and
A= 𝑎 v = 200V at 𝒓𝟐 = 4m. Calculate D and E assume
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑏
𝑉0 = 𝐴𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 a - 𝐴𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 b… (ii) a force space between these concentric spherical
𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜 shells.
V= 𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 r - 𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 b
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑏
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑏
Sln
𝑉𝑜 𝑟 1 𝑑 𝑟 2𝑑
V= 𝑎 (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ) 𝛻 2𝑉 = ( )=0
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑏 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑏 2
E = −∇𝑉 Multiplying by 𝑟 all through
1 𝑑 𝑟 2𝑑
E=-
𝑑𝑣
=
−𝑉𝑜
( )=
1 −𝑉𝑜
V/m 𝑟2 𝑥 ( ) = 0 x 𝑟2
𝑑𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑎
𝑟 𝑟𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑎 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑏 𝑏

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𝑑 𝑟 2𝑑 −𝜌𝑣𝑧 2
( )=0 v= + Az + B
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 2𝜀
Integrating both side V = 0 and z = 0
𝑑 𝑟 2𝑑 V = 0 and z = 1.5
∫ 𝑑𝑟 ( 𝑑𝑟 ) = ∫ 0
0=0+B
𝑟 2 𝑑𝑣
=A B=0
𝑑𝑟
−𝜌𝑣𝑧 2
Dividing all through by 𝑟 2 v= + Az + B
𝑑𝑣 𝐴 2𝜀
= E = −∇𝑉
𝑑𝑟 𝑟2
𝐴 𝒅𝒗 2𝜌𝑣𝑧
So that : v=∫ 𝑑𝑟 = +A
𝑟2 𝒅𝒛 2𝜀
𝐴 𝜌𝑣𝑧
V=− +B ……… (i) E=
𝜀
-A
𝑟
V = 0 when r = 0.2 At z = 0
From the condition given: E = 100
𝐴 100 = 0 - A
0=− +B …… eqtn (ii)
0.2
A = -100
A = 0.2B
At z = 1.5, v = 25v/cm
And 𝜌𝑣(1.5)
𝐴 25 = + 100
B= …… eqtn (iii) 𝜀
0.2
25𝜺 = 1.5 𝜌𝑣 + 100𝜀
And replacing eqtn (iv) into (ii)
𝐴 𝐴 -75𝜺 = 1.5 𝜌𝑣
200 = − + 𝜌𝑣 = - 50𝜀
4 0.2
𝐴 𝐴
200 = -
0.2 4
20𝐴 −𝐴 19𝐴 ii)∫ 𝑫𝒅𝒔 = Q
200 = =
4 4 ∫ 𝜺𝑬𝒅𝒔 = Q
800 = 19A
𝐴
Q = ∫ 𝒑𝒔 ds
B= ∫ 𝜺𝑬𝒅𝒔 = ∫ 𝒑𝒔 ds
0.2
800
Replacing B = = 210.53 𝒑𝒔 = 𝜺𝑬
19 𝑥 0.2
Replacing equation into
𝐴 TERMS USED IN MAGNETO STATICS
V=− +B
𝑟
800 800
V=−
19𝑟
+
3.8
a)Magnetic Flux(Ф)
E = −∇𝑉 Magnetic flux refers to the total number of
𝑑𝑣 800 magnetic field lines penetrating any surface placed
= 𝑎𝑟 V/m
𝑑𝑟 19𝑟 2 perpendicular to the magnetic field.
D = 𝜀𝐸
800
D= 𝜀 𝑎𝑟 V/𝑚2 b)Magnetic Flux Density (B)
19𝑟 2

Example
Measurement made in the atmosphere shows
that there is an electric field which varies widely
with time to time . Its average values on the
earth surface and at an height of 15km was
found to be 100v/cm and 25V/cm directed
towards the earth respectively. Calculate :
i)The mean space charge in the atmosphere
between 0 and 1.5km
ii)Surface charge density on the earth Magnetic field density B is given by
Sln 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 Ф (𝑊𝑏)
1. B= =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑚2 )
From Maxwells equation
B = 𝜇0 𝑯 (free space only)
∇ . 𝐷 = 𝜌𝑣
Where 𝝁𝟎 = 𝟒𝝅𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟕 H/m
D = 𝜀𝐸
∇ . 𝜀𝐸 = 𝜌𝑣
𝜌𝑣 Where Ф is the magnetic flux
∇ .𝐸 =
𝜀 The SI unit of magnetic flux density is Tesla (T)
E = −∇𝑉
𝜌𝑣
𝛻 2𝑉 =
𝜀
𝒅𝟐 𝒗 −𝜌𝑣
∫ 𝒅𝒛𝟐 = ∫ 𝜀
𝒅𝒗 −𝜌𝑣
=∫
𝒅𝒛 𝜀
𝒅𝒗 −𝜌𝑣𝑧
∫ 𝒅𝒛 = ∫ +𝑨
𝜀

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Example 𝑰
= dФ
𝟐𝝅
A motor field pole has an area of 60𝒄𝒎𝟐 . If the And integrating H.dL over the entire closed path
pole carries a flux of 0.3Wb. Calculate the 2𝜋 𝑰
magnetic flux density. H.dL = ∫Ф=0 𝐝Ф
𝟐𝝅
𝐼 𝟐𝝅𝑰
Sln: = [Ф]2𝜋
0 = =I
2𝜋 𝟐𝝅
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 Ф (𝑊𝑏)
B= = Where I is the current carried by the conductor
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑚2 )
0.3 (𝑊𝑏) This proves that the integral H.dL along the closed
B = = 50 T
0.006 (𝑚2 ) path gives the direct current enclosed by that
c)Magnetic Field intensity (H) closed path.
It is the measure of how strong or weak any
magnetic field is.
Or Applications of Ampere’s circuital Law
The ability of magnetic field to magnetise a
material medium a) H due to infinitely long straight
SI unit is Ampere /metre (A/m) conductor
The relationship between B and H is that
B = 𝜇H

AMPERE CIRCUIT LAW

In electrostatics, the Gauss law is useful to obtain
The E in case of complex problem.
In magneto statics, the complex problems can be
solved by Ampere’s circuital law.

Ampere’s circuital law states that:

The line integral of magnetic field intensity H a For an infinite long conductor.
round a closed path is exactly equal to the direct H.dL = H.r dФ
current enclosed by the path. And According to amperes Circuital law:
Mathematical expression: ̅ . 𝒅𝑳 = 𝑰
∮𝑯
∮𝑯̅ . 𝒅𝑳 = 𝑰 2𝜋
∫Ф=0 𝑯. 𝒓 𝐝Ф = I
The law is helpful to determine H when the current 2𝜋
distribution is symmetrical. H.r ∫Ф=0 𝐝Ф = 𝐈
Hr (2𝜋) = I
𝑰
Proof of Ampere’s circuital Law H= A/m
𝟐𝝅𝒓
Consider a long straight conductor carrying direct Or
current I placed along z axis as shown below. 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝑯 = I

b) H due to infinite sheet of Current

By considering a closed circular path of radius r

which encloses the straight conductor carrying
current I. The point P is at perpendicular distance r
from the conductor. Consider dL at appoint P The current flowing across the distance b is given
which is in 𝑎̅∅ direction, tangential to the circular by: 𝑲𝒚 b
path at point P Where : 𝑲𝒚 = current density
As current is flowing in y direction, H cannot have
dL= r dФ𝒂 ̅∅ component in y direction since they are parallel
while H is obtained at point P, from Biot-savart and their curl is zero.
Law due to infinitely long conductor is : For an infinite sheet of current density K, H is
𝑰
H= 𝑎̅∅ given by
𝟐𝝅𝒓
𝑰 𝑰
H.dL = 𝑎̅∅ . r dФ𝒂
̅∅ ̅𝑵
H= K×𝒂
𝟐𝝅𝒓 𝟐
𝑰 Where :
= . r dФ (i.e 𝒂
̅∅ . 𝒂
̅∅ = 𝟏)
𝟐𝝅𝒓

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 ̅𝑵 = Unit Vector normal from the current sheet to
𝒂 c) At r = 4cm
the point at which H is to be obtained Here, all three currents are enclosed, so Ampere’s
law become
Examples 2𝜋𝑟𝐻Ф = 7 x 10−3 + (2𝜋𝑟0.5𝑐𝑚 𝐻) + (2𝜋𝑟1𝑐𝑚 𝐻)
A current filament on the z- axis carries a = 7 x 10−3 + (2𝜋(0.005)𝑥 − 0.2) +
current of 7mA in the 𝒂𝒛 direction and current (2𝜋(0.01)(0.5)
sheet of 0.5𝒂𝒛 A/m and -0.2𝒂𝒛 A/m are located at = 7 x 10−3 – 6.28 x 10−3 + 3.14 x 10−2
r = 1 cm and r = 0.5cm respectively. 2𝜋𝑟𝐻Ф = 3.214 x 10−2 A
Calculat H at; 3.214 𝑥 10−2
𝐻Ф = = 1.3 x 10−1 𝑎̅∅ A/m
a) r = 0.5cm 2𝜋𝑥(0.04)

b) r = 1.5 cm
c) r = 4cm d)What current sheet should be located at
d) What current sheet should be located at r = 4cm so that H = 0 for all r > 4cm?
r = 4cm so that H = 0 for all r > 4cm?
Sln We require that the total enclosed current be zero.
Therefore the net current in the proposed cylinder
at 4 cm must be negative. This must be – 3.2 x10−2
A
So the surface current density at 4cm must be
−3.214 x 10−2 A
K= = - 1.3 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟏 𝒂
̅𝒛 A/m
2𝜋𝑥(0.04)

Application of Ampere’s circuital law to the

Perimeter of a deferential surface element

a) at r = 0.5cm CURL
In this case, we are either just inside or just
outside the first current sheet.
Note that Just inside means before the first sheet
And Just outside means after the first sheet
So we shall compute for both just inside and for
just outside
𝑰
𝑯Ф = A/m
𝟐𝝅𝒓
Or
𝟐𝝅𝒓𝑯Ф = I
𝐼 7 𝑥 10−3 An incremental closed path in Cartesian
and 𝐻Ф (𝑱𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆) = = 𝑎̅
2𝜋𝑟 2 𝑥 𝜋 𝑥 0.005 ∅ coordinates is selected for the application of
−𝟏
= 2.2 x 𝟏𝟎 𝒂 ̅∅ 𝑨/𝒎 Ampere’s circuital law to determine the spatial
Again just outside the current sheet at 0,5cm will rate of change of H
be given by:
2𝜋𝑟𝐻Ф = I + I (just outside the first sheet at (0.5)) ∮ 𝑯.𝒅𝑳
Curl H =
2𝜋𝑟𝐻Ф = 7 x 10−3 + (2𝜋𝑟0.5 𝐻) ∆𝑺𝑵
2𝜋𝑟𝐻Ф = 7 x 10−3 + (2𝜋(0.005 𝑥 − 0.2)) Where ∆𝑺𝑵 = is the planar area enclosed by
2𝜋𝑟𝐻Ф = 7 x 10−3 - (2𝜋(0.005 𝑥0.2)) line integral.
= 0.007 -0.006284 = 0.00072 =𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 A In Cartesian coordinates the definition
𝐼 7 𝑥 10−4 ∮ 𝑯.𝒅𝑳
𝐻Ф (𝑱𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆) = = 𝑎̅ Curl H =
2𝜋𝑟 2 𝑥 𝜋 𝑥 0.005 ∅ ∆𝑺𝑵
−𝟐 May be written in the terms of the vector
= 2.3 x 𝟏𝟎 𝒂 ̅∅ 𝑨/𝒎
operator
b) At r = 1.5 cm Curl H = ∇ × H
Here, all three currents are enclosed, so Ampere’s 𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
𝝏𝑯 𝒅𝑯 𝝏𝑯
law become 𝛁 × H = | 𝝏𝒙 |
𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛
2𝜋𝑟𝐻Ф = 7 x 10−3 + (2𝜋𝑟0.5𝑐𝑚 𝐻) + (2𝜋𝑟1𝑐𝑚 𝐻) 𝑯𝒙 𝑯𝒚 𝑯𝒛
= 7 x 10−3 + (2𝜋(0.005)𝑥 − 0.2) +
(2𝜋(0.01)(0.5) 𝒅𝑯 𝒅𝑯 𝒅𝑯 𝒅𝑯 𝒅𝑯 𝒅𝑯
= 7 x 10−3 – 6.28 x 10−3 + 3.14 x 10−2 =( - )𝒂𝒙 - ( - )𝒂𝒚 +( - )𝒂𝒛
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚
2𝜋𝑟𝐻Ф = 3.214 x 10−2 A Example
3.214 𝑥 10−2 The magnetic field intensity is given in the square
𝐻Ф = = 3.4 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟏 𝒂
̅∅ A/m
2𝜋𝑥(0.015) region x = 0, 0.5 < y < 1, 1 < z < 1.5 by
H = 𝑧 2 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑥 3 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑦 4 𝑎𝑧 A/m

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Find 𝛁 × H - It can also be referred to us the current in
Sln the conductors due to the flow of electrons
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛 𝐽𝑑 = Displacement current i.e the current between
𝝏𝑯 𝒅𝑯 𝝏𝑯 two plates of a capacitor due to electric field
𝛁 × H = | 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛
|
𝑯𝒙 𝑯𝒚 𝑯𝒛 Displacement current
In a parallel plate capacitor, the charging current
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛 𝐶𝑑𝑉
can be obtained by 𝐼𝑐 =
𝝏𝑯 𝒅𝑯 𝝏𝑯 𝑑𝑡
𝛁×H=| 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 | Where : C = capacitor
V = voltage
𝑧2𝒙 𝑥 3𝒚 𝑦 4
𝒛 𝐼𝑐 = conduction current
𝒅 𝑦4 𝒛 𝒅 𝑥3𝒚 𝒅 𝑦4𝒛 𝒅 𝑧 2𝒙 𝒅 𝑥3𝒚 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐴
=( - )𝒂𝒙 - ( - )𝒂𝒚 +( - But C =
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒙 𝑑
𝒅 𝑧 2𝒙 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐴 𝑑𝑉
)𝒂𝒛 𝐼𝑐 =
𝒅𝒚 𝑑 𝑑𝑡
= 4𝑦 3 𝒂𝒙 + 2𝑧𝒂𝒚 + 3𝑥 2 𝒂𝒛 In acapacitor, the current flow when applied
voltage is changing. The current via the
AMPERE LAW IN POINT FORM capacitor is called displacement current.
From the above formula, diving by area:
Ampere’s circuital law in point form is given by
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐴 𝑑𝑉
In point form, the Ampere’s law is given by: 𝑰𝒄 𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑑𝑉
𝒅𝑫 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 current 𝐽𝑑 = = =
𝛁 ×H=J + 𝐴 𝐴 𝑑 𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝒕 𝜀 𝜀 𝑑𝑉
Where : 𝐽𝑑 = 0 𝑟
𝑑 𝑑𝑡
H = magnetic field strength From original formulae of electric field intensity E
𝑉
J = Current density E=
𝒅𝑫 𝑑
= time rate of change of D And V = dE
𝒅𝒕
Replacing into the above equation,
The point form implies that, The curl of H would 𝜀 𝜀 𝑑𝑉 𝜀 𝜀 𝑑𝐸 𝜀 𝜀 𝑑𝐸 𝜀𝑑𝐸
𝐽𝑑 = 0 𝑟 = 0 𝑟 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0 𝑟 =
produce the current density J and the time rate of 𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜺𝒅𝑬
change of D , producing a circulation of H around 𝑱𝒅 =
𝒅𝒕
the point Or

In non conducting medium or free space in which From D = 𝜀𝐸

no volume charge density is present, J = 0 𝒅𝑫
𝑱𝒅 =
And Hence the above point form equation 𝒅𝒕
becomes:
𝒅𝑫
𝛁 ×H=
𝒅𝒕 Remember the following from mathematics
Y or f(x) 𝒅𝒚
NOTE:This can be used to show the relationship 𝒅𝒙
between H and E a𝒙𝒏 an𝒙𝒏−𝟏
sinax Acos ax
Equation of Continuity for steady current Cos ax -a sin ax
NOTE: 𝒆𝒂𝒙 a𝒆𝒂𝒙
From eqtn 3 of Maxswell’s in point form ln ax 𝟏
∇𝑥𝐻=J 𝒙
And diverging this equation on both sides
∇(∇ 𝑥 𝐻) = ∇.J
Both the divergent of a curl is zero(0) and
Hence Some standard integrals
∇(∇ 𝑥 𝐻) = 0 𝟏
= 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒄
∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒂𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒂

Summary of Ampere law 𝟏

∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒙 𝒅𝒙 =- 𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝒂𝒙 + c
The law can be summarized as the electromotive 𝒂
force (MMF) around aclosed path is equal to the 𝟏 = ln x + c
total current enclosed in it. The total current is the ∫− 𝒅𝒙
𝒙
sum of the conducting and displacement current.
𝒅𝑫
∮ 𝑯. 𝒅𝑳 = ∫ 𝑱. 𝒅𝒔 + ∫ 𝒅𝒕 . 𝒅𝑺
J = 𝐽𝑐 + 𝐽𝑑
I = 𝐼𝑐 + 𝐼𝑑
Where 𝑱𝒄 = Conduction current density which
refers to the amount of current (charge) flowing on
the surface of the conductor.

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Example: EXERCISE
The magnetic field in free space is given by 1.Amagnetic field intensity vector in free space is
̅ = 𝑯𝒎 Cos (𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒚 in free space.
𝑯 given in rectangular coordinate as
Determine the corresponding electric field from 𝐻̅ = 0.5Cos (𝛽𝑧)𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡)𝑎𝑦 . determine the electric
Ampere law field intensity vector that satisfy the ampere law
Sln
Note in free space , J = 0 2.Determine whether the following satisfy ampere
Hence : law in free space
𝛁 ×H=
𝒅𝑫 𝐻̅ = 𝐷𝑚 Cosx cos t 𝑎𝑧
𝒅𝒕 ̅
𝐷 = 𝐷𝑚 Sinxt 𝑎𝑦
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
𝝏𝑯 𝒅𝑯 𝝏𝑯
̅ =|
𝛁×𝑯 | FARADAY’S LAW
𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛
𝑯𝒙 𝑯𝒚 𝑯𝒛
The emf induced in a conductor is directly
proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛 𝒅Ф
𝝏𝑯 𝒅𝑯 𝝏𝑯 emf = − V
̅ =|
𝛁×𝑯 | 𝒅𝒕
𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛
𝟎 𝑯𝒎 𝐂𝐨𝐬 (𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷𝒛) 𝟎 A time –varying magnetic field produces an
=(
𝒅𝟎
-
𝒅𝑯𝒎 𝐂𝐨𝐬 (𝝎𝒕−𝜷𝒛)
)𝒂𝒙 - (
𝒅𝟎
- electromagnetic field (emf) which may establish a
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒙 suitable current in a suitable closed circuit.
𝒅0 𝒅𝑯𝒎 𝐂𝐨𝐬 (𝝎𝒕−𝜷𝒛) 𝒅0
)𝒂𝒚 +( - )𝒂𝒛
𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚 An electromagnetic force is merely a voltage that
arises from conductors moving in amagnetic field
Hence applying the chain rule: or from changing magnetic fields.
Let U = 𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷𝒛
̅ = 𝑯𝒎 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝐮)
So: 𝑯 emf = −
𝒅Ф
V
̅
𝑑𝑯 ̅
𝑑𝑯 𝑑𝑈 𝒅𝒕
Using Chain Rule: = 𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑡
̅
𝑑𝑯 𝑑𝑈
The magnet magnetic flux is that flux which
But = 𝑯𝒎 sin 𝑈 and = −β passess through any and every surface whose
𝑑𝑈 𝑑𝑡
̅
𝑑𝑯 ̅
𝑑𝑯 𝑑𝑈 𝑑Ф
Therefore: =( 𝑥 ) perimeter is the closed path and = is the time
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑈 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= −𝜷𝑯𝒎 sin 𝑈 rate of change of this flux.
𝑑Ф
And replacing u The value of = may results from any of the
𝑑𝑡
= −𝜷𝑯𝒎 sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷𝒛) following situations:
1)A time –changing flux linking astationary closed
Hence path
𝒅𝑫
−𝜷𝑯𝒎 sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷𝒛) = 2)Relative motion between a steady flux and closed
𝒅𝒕
Or path
𝒅𝑫 3)A combination of the two
= −𝜷𝑯𝒎 sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷𝒛)
𝒅𝒕

NOTE: The minus sign is an indication that the

Hence D = ∫ −𝜷𝑯𝒎 sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷𝒛)dt emf is in such a direction as to produce a current
whose flux,if added to the original flux, would
Again integrating by substitution method: reduce the magnitude of the emf. ( Lenz Law).
Let:
U = (𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷𝒛) If the closed path is that taken by an N-turn
So: V = −𝜷𝑯𝒎 sin(𝒖) filamentary conductor, it is often sufficiently
𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒖
= 𝝎 so that dt = accurate to consider the turns as coincidental and
𝒅𝒕 𝝎
𝒅𝒖 𝜷𝑯𝒎 Cos(𝒖) let
D = ∫ −𝜷𝑯𝒎 sin(𝒖) = 𝒅Ф
𝝎 𝝎
emf = −𝑵 V
And substituting U back 𝒅𝒕
𝜷𝑯𝒎 Cos(𝒖)
D= where Ф is now interpreted as the flux passing
𝝎
But D = 𝜺𝒐 𝑬 through any one of N coincident paths.
𝑫 𝜷𝑯𝒎 Cos(𝒖)
So E = = V/m Defination of E.M.F
𝜺𝒐 𝝎𝜺𝒐

Emf is defined by :
Emf = ∮ 𝑬 dL
It is a voltage in an closed path

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 𝑑Ф 240𝜋
Replacing Ф in − by the surface integral of =
𝜌
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑈 (2𝜋)𝑆𝑖𝑛U
𝑑𝑡
magnetic flux density B in the direction of dS and And substituting back u into the above equation we
increasing with time thus produces an average have:
value of E which is opposite to the positive
240𝜋
direction about the closed path. 𝒅
𝜌
Cos (6 x 108 𝜋𝑡−2𝜋𝑧)
=
𝒅𝒛
The equation becomes: 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝝅
2𝝅( )Sin𝟔 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝝅𝒕 − 𝟐𝝅𝒛)
𝝆
𝒅
Emf = ∮ 𝑬 dL = - ∫ 𝑩 𝒅𝑺 Meaning:
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝑬 𝟒𝟖𝟎𝝅𝟐
𝛁×E= =( )Sin(𝟔 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝝅𝒕 − 𝟐𝝅𝒛)
𝒅𝒛 𝝆
And by using the Right-Hnd rule, the fingers shows
the direction of the closed path and the thumb
Second step: Find the R.H.S
shows the direction of ds.
Note: that B = 𝜇H
FARADAY’S LAW IN POINT FORM 2
𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝜇0 𝐇 𝑑(𝜇( Cos (6 x 108 𝜋𝑡−2𝜋𝑧)
In point form of Faraday’s law is Given by: − =− = 𝜌

𝒅𝑩 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝛁 ×E= − Let U = 6 x 108 𝜋𝑡 − 2𝜋𝑧
𝒅𝒕
2𝜇
And forms one of the maxwell’s four equations. So: B = 0 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑢
𝜌
𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝑈
Example: Using Chain Rule: = 𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐵 2𝜇0 𝑑𝑈
Show that the following equations satisfy the But = − sin 𝑈 and = 6 x 108 𝜋
𝑑𝑈 𝜌 𝑑𝑡
Faraday’s law 𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝑈
𝟐𝟒𝟎𝝅 Therefore: − = −( 𝑥 )
E= Cos (6 x 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝝅𝒕 − 𝟐𝝅𝒛)𝒂𝒙 V/m 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑈 𝑑𝑡
𝝆 2𝜇0 8 2𝜇0
𝟐 = Sin U (6 x 10 𝜋) = (6 x 108 𝜋)𝑆𝑖𝑛U
H= Cos (6 x 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝝅𝒕 − 𝟐𝝅𝒛)𝒂𝒙 A/m 𝜌 𝜌
𝝆
But 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 𝑥10−7
Sln So ;
Note: 2𝑥 ( 4𝜋 𝑥10−7 )
B = 𝜇H = (6 x 108 𝜋)𝑆𝑖𝑛(6 x 108 𝜋𝑡 − 2𝜋𝑧)
𝜌
Faraday’s law in point form is given by: ( 8𝜋 𝑥10−7 )((6 x 108𝜋)
𝑑𝐵
= 𝑆𝑖𝑛(6 x 108 𝜋𝑡 − 2𝜋𝑧)
𝜌
∇ ×E= −
𝑑𝑡 𝟒𝟖𝟎𝝅𝟐
First find the L.H.S, the Curl of E =( )Sin(𝟔 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝝅𝒕 − 𝟐𝝅𝒛)
𝝆
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
∇ × E = = | 𝝏𝒙 And substituting U back into the equation above:
𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 |
𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝜇0 𝐇 𝟒𝟖𝟎𝝅𝟐
𝑯𝒙 𝑯𝒚 𝑯𝒛 − =− =( )Sin(𝟔 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝝅𝒕 − 𝟐𝝅𝒛)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝝆
By comparison of the L.H.S and R.H.S
𝛁×E= The two equations are the same therefore,
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛 Faraday’s laws is satisfied.
𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
|| 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 ||
240𝜋 8
Example
Cos (6 x 10 𝜋𝑡 − 2𝜋𝑧) 𝟎 𝟎 In the figure below B = 0.2Cos 120𝝅𝒕 and
𝜌
𝒅𝟎 𝒅0 𝒅𝟎 assume that the conductor joining the two ends
=( - )𝒂𝒙 - ( -
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒙
240𝜋 of the resistor is perfect. Assuming tha magnetic
𝒅 Cos (6 x 108 𝜋𝑡−2𝜋𝑧) 𝒅𝟎
𝜌
)𝒂𝒚 +( - field produced by the I(t) is negligible.
𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒙
240𝜋
𝒅 Cos (6 x 108 𝜋𝑡−2𝜋𝑧)
𝜌
)𝒂𝒛
𝒅𝒚
240𝜋
𝒅𝟎 𝒅 Cos (6 x 108 𝜋𝑡−2𝜋𝑧)
𝜌
=0-( - )𝒂𝒚 + 0
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒛
Note
Let U = 6 x 108 𝜋𝑡 − 2𝜋𝑧
240𝜋
So: E = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑢
𝜌
𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝑈
Using Chain Rule: = 𝑥
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑈 𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝐸 240𝜋 𝑑𝑈
But = − 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑈 and = −2𝜋
𝑑𝑈 𝜌 𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝑈
Therefore: = 𝑥 Find:
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑈 𝑑𝑧
240𝜋 a)𝑽𝒂𝒃 (t)
=− 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑈 (-2𝜋)
𝜌 b)I(t)

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 𝑄 60 𝑥10−6
Charge density 𝜌𝑠 = =
Sln 𝐴 𝜋(𝑟 2 )
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 Ф (𝑊𝑏) 60 𝑥10−6
B= = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑚2 ) 𝜋(102 )

Ф = Area x B = 1.9 𝑥10−7 C/𝑚2

= 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑥 0.2Cos 120𝜋𝑡 Wb
= 3.142 x 0.15 x 0.15 x0.2Cos 120𝜋𝑡 ii)Force on the charge due to a circle plate of
= 1.41 x 10−2 Cos 120𝜋𝑡 Wb charge 600𝝅𝝁𝑪 at aradius 𝒓 ≤ 𝟏𝟎𝒎, z = 0m
(5mks)
And Sln
𝑑Ф In cylindrical form R = -𝑟𝑎𝑦 +10𝑟𝑎𝑧
emf =𝑉𝑎𝑏 (t) = − 𝑄1 𝑄2
𝑑𝑡
𝑑Ф 𝑑(0.2𝜋𝑟 2 Cos 120𝜋𝑡) F=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2
emf = − =−
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 In differential form
U = 120𝜋𝑡 2𝜋 10 (60𝑥 10−6 )𝜌𝑠 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑∅
So: Ф = 0.2𝜋𝑟 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑢 F = ∫0 ∫0 10−6
3
4𝜋( )(𝑟 2 +100)2
𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝑈 36𝜋
Using Chain Rule: = 𝑥 2𝜋 10 (60𝑥 10−6 )(6𝑥 10−6 )(10𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑∅
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑡 F = ∫0 ∫0 𝑎𝑧
3
𝑑Ф 2 𝑑𝑈 10−6
But = − 0.2𝜋𝑟 sin 𝑈 and = 120𝜋 4𝜋( )(𝑟 2 +100)2
𝑑𝑈 𝑑𝑡 36𝜋
𝑑Ф 𝑑Ф 𝑑𝑈 2𝜋 10 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑∅
Therefore: − = −( 𝑥 ) F = 32.4 ∫0 ∫0 3 𝑎𝑧
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑈 𝑑𝑡 (𝑟+100)2
𝑑Ф 2 2𝜋
Emf = − =(120𝜋) 0.2𝜋𝑟 sin 120𝜋𝑡 F = 10.28 ∫0 𝑑∅ 𝑎𝑧
𝑑𝑡
Emf = 5.33Sin120𝜋𝑡 V = 10.28 Nm I opposite direction

𝑉 5.33Sin120𝜋𝑡 V
b)I(t) = =
𝑅 250
= 21.3Sin120𝜋𝑡 mA

6a)Distinguish between electric and magnetic

dipoles with reference to electromagnetic field
(2mks)
Sln
Electric dipoles-Deals with the separation of
positive and negative charges found in any
electromagnetic system eg a pair of electric
charges
Magnetic dipoles –deals with a closed circulation
of electric current system eg aclosed single loop of
a wire of constant through it.

b)Figure 3 shows a point charge of 60𝝁𝑪 at point

(0.0.10)m. Determine the

i)Charge density (3mks)

Sln

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 BIOT-SAVART LAW ̅ = ∮ 𝐼𝑑𝐿 𝒂̅3𝑹
𝒅𝑯
4𝜋𝑅
The Biot-Savart Law states that:
The magnetic field intensity d𝑯 ̅ produced at
appoint p due to differential current IdL is
1)Directly Proportional to the product of the
current I and differential length dL.
2)The sine of the Angle between the element and
the line joining point P to the element
3)And inversely proportional to the square of the
distance R between point P and the element

The closed line integral is required to ensure that

all the current are considered. This is because
current can flow only in closed path provided by
the closed circuit. If the current element is
considered at point 1 and point p at point 2, as
shown in the figure above, then
̅𝑹𝟏𝟐
𝑰𝟏 𝒅𝑳 𝒂
𝑯𝟐 = ∮ A/m
𝟒𝝅𝑹𝟏𝟐 𝟑

Consider a differential length dL, hence the
differential current is IdL. This is very small part
of the current carrying conductor. The point P is at
distance R from the differential current element
and the line joining point p to the differential
current element.
This is known as integral form Biot- Servat law
Where:
𝑰𝟏 = Current flowing through 𝒅𝑳𝟏 = at point 1
𝒅𝑳𝟏 = Differential vector length at point 1
𝑹𝟏𝟐 = unit vector in the direction from element at
poit 1 to point p at point 2

Mathematically, the Biot-Savart law can be BIOT-SERVANT LAW INTERMS OF

stated as: DISTRIBUTED SURFACE:
𝐼𝑑𝐿𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 Consider a surface carrying a uniform current over
𝒅𝑯̅ ∝ its surface as shown below. Then the surface
𝑅2
𝐾𝐼𝑑𝐿𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 current density is denoted by K and measured in
𝒅𝑯̅=
𝑅2 ampere metre (A/m). Thus for a uniform current
1 density, the current I in any width b is given by:
Where k = = Constant of proportionality
4𝜋
I =kb, where width b is perpendicular to the
Hence:
direction of current flow.
̅ = 𝐼𝑑𝐿𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝒅𝑯 2 eqtn 3 Hence;
4𝜋𝑅
Expressing the a bove equation in Vector form: 1:If ds is the differential surface area considered of
Let: dL = Magnitude of vector length of 𝒅𝑯 ̅ a surface having current density K then :
𝒂𝑹 =unit vector in the direction from IdL = Kds
differential current element to point P ii)If Current density is a volume of a given
Then from the rule of cross products: conductor is J measured in A /𝑚2 then for
𝒅𝑯̅ × ̅̅̅̅
𝒂𝑹 = 𝒅𝑳|𝒂 ̅̅̅̅|𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒆𝜽
𝑹 = dL𝒂̅̅̅̅sin0
𝑹 adifferntial volume dv, we can write IdL = Jdv
And replacing into eqtn 3 Hence the Biot-Servat law can be expressed for
𝒅𝑯̅ = 𝐼𝑑𝐿 𝒂̅2𝑹 A/m eqn 4 surface current considering Kds while for Volume
4𝜋𝑅
̅
𝑹 ̅
𝑹
Current considering Jdv
̅𝑹 = |𝑹| =
But 𝒂 ̅ = ∫ 𝐾 × 𝒂̅3𝑹 A/m (For surface)
𝑯
𝑹
̅𝑹
𝐼𝑑𝐿 𝒂 4𝜋𝑅
̅=
Therefore : 𝒅𝑯 A/m eqtn 5 ̅ = ∫𝐽× ̅𝑹
𝒂
4𝜋𝑅 3 𝑯 A/m (For Volume)
4𝜋𝑅 3
Both equations 4 and 5 forms the Biot–Servart law
Note: that according to direction of the cross Where K = Curent surface density
product, the direction of dH is normal to the plane J =Current volume density
The entire conductor is made up of all such × = cross-product
differential elements, hence to obtain total H = Magnetic field intensity
magnetic field intensity, H the a bove equation (4) ̅𝟏𝟐 = Unit vector
𝒂
takes the integral form.

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ALWAYS REMEMBER FROM CROSS
PRODUCT(page 726 4th edition strauds
1 ∞ 𝐼𝑑𝑧(𝟐𝒂𝒚 −𝟑𝒂𝒙 )
engineer mathematics) = ∫
4𝜋 −∞ 3
[(𝟐)𝟐 + (𝟑)𝟐 +(𝟒−𝒛)𝟐 ]2
Remember that in Cross products, when the
Cartesian coordinates are as follows 𝐼 ∞ (𝟐𝒂𝒚 −𝟑𝒂𝒙 )
= ∫
4𝜋 −∞ 3
[(𝒁𝟐 −𝟖𝒁 +𝟐𝟗]2

And using integral tables:

∞
𝐼 2(2𝑧−8)(𝟐𝒂𝒚 −𝟑𝒂𝒙 𝐼
H= [ 1 ] = (𝟐𝒂𝒚 − 𝟑𝒂𝒙 )
4𝜋 26𝜋
52[(𝒁𝟐 −𝟖𝒁 +𝟐𝟗]2
−∞

And substituting I = 8mA

Direction of angles are measured such that:
i)When angles are measured anticlockwise 𝑯𝟏 = (𝟏𝟗𝟔𝒂𝒚 − 𝟐𝟗𝟒𝒂𝒙 )𝜇A/m
between two axes, the angle is +90
c)When x = -1, y = 2:
i.e i x j = (1)(1)sin90 = k But 𝑹𝟏𝟐 = 𝒓𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏
Similarly: j x k = i
kxi=j 𝟐 −𝟏 𝟑
ii)When angles are measured clockwise between = [𝟑] - [ 𝟐 ] =[ 𝟏 ]
𝟒 𝒛 (𝟒 − 𝒛)
two axes , the angle – 90
1 ∞ 𝐼𝑑𝑧 𝒂𝒛 × (𝟑𝒂𝒙 +𝒂𝒚 +(𝟒−𝒛𝒂𝒛 )
= ∫ x
i.e j x i = -(1)(1)sin90 = - k 4𝜋 −∞ [(𝟑)𝟐 + (𝟏)𝟐 +(𝟒−𝒛)𝟐 ]2 √(𝟑)𝟐 + (𝟏)𝟐 +(𝟒−𝒛)𝟐
Similarly: k x j = -i
i x k = -j ̅ 𝟏𝟐
And cross product in the direction of 𝒂𝒛 and 𝑹

𝒂𝒛 𝟑𝒂𝒙 𝟑𝒂𝒚
iii)When parallel, angle in between axes, is Zero:
i x i = (1)(1)sin0 = 0 𝒂
[ 𝒛 ] × [ 𝒂𝒚 ] =[−𝟑𝒂𝒙 ]
𝒂𝒛 (𝟒 − 𝒛𝒂𝒛 ) 𝟎
Similarly: j x j = 0
kxk=0

1 ∞ 𝐼𝑑𝑧(𝟑𝒂𝒚 −𝒂𝒙 )
= ∫
4𝜋 −∞ 3
Examples [(𝟑)𝟐 + (𝟏)𝟐 +(𝟒−𝒛)𝟐 ]2
Find H in the Cartesian Components P(2,3,4) if
𝐼 ∞ (𝟑𝒂𝒚 −𝒂𝒙 )
there is a current filament on the Z axis = ∫ 3
4𝜋 −∞
carrying 8mA: [(𝒛𝟐 −𝟖𝒁 +𝟐𝟔]2

a) In the 𝒂𝒛 Direction.
And using integral tables:
b) If the filament is located at x = -1, y = 2.
c) If both filaments are present ∞
𝐼 2(2𝑧−8)(𝟑𝒂𝒚 −𝒂𝒙 ) 𝐼
Sln H= [ 1 ] = (𝟑𝒂𝒚 − 𝒂𝒙 )
4𝜋 20𝜋
Since no limits/Boundaries are given, and applying 40[(𝒁𝟐 −𝟖𝒁 +𝟐𝟔]2
−∞
Biot–Savart law, we integrate from infinity to
infinity (−∞ 𝑡𝑜 ∞) And substituting I = 8mA
̅ = ∫∞ 𝐾 × 𝒂̅3𝟏𝟐 = ∫∞ 𝐼𝑑𝐿× 𝒂̅3𝟏𝟐
𝑯 𝑯𝟐 = (−𝟏𝟐𝟕𝒂𝒙 + 𝟑𝟖𝟐𝒂𝒚 )𝜇A/m
−∞ 4𝜋𝑅 −∞ 4𝜋𝑅
But 𝑹𝟏𝟐 = 𝒓𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏
c)Finding H when both filaments are present
𝟐 𝟎 𝟐
= [𝟑] - [𝟎] =[ 𝟑 ] 𝑯𝑻 = 𝑯𝟏 + 𝑯𝟐
𝟒 𝒛 (𝟒 − 𝒛)
= (𝟏𝟗𝟔𝒂𝒚 − 𝟐𝟗𝟒𝒂𝒙 ) + (−𝟏𝟐𝟕𝒂𝒙 + 𝟑𝟖𝟐𝒂𝒚 )
∞ 𝐾 1 ∞ 𝐼𝑑𝐿×
̅
𝑯 = ∫−∞ ̅ = ∫−∞ 2 𝑹
𝒂 ̅ 𝟏𝟐
4𝜋𝑅 3 𝟏𝟐 4𝜋 𝑅 = (−𝟒𝟐𝟏𝒂𝒙 + 𝟓𝟕𝟖𝒂𝒚 )𝜇A/m
1 ∞ 𝐼𝑑𝑧 𝒂𝒛 × (𝟐𝒂𝒙 +𝟑𝒂𝒚 +(𝟒−𝒛𝒂𝒛 )
= ∫ x
4𝜋 −∞ [(𝟐)𝟐 + (𝟑)𝟐 +(𝟒−𝒛)𝟐 ]2 √(𝟐)𝟐 + (𝟑)𝟐 +(𝟒−𝒛)𝟐

̅ 𝟏𝟐
And cross product in the direction of 𝒂𝒛 and 𝑹

𝒂𝒛 𝟐𝒂𝒙 𝟐𝒂𝒚
[𝒂𝒛 ] × [ 𝟑𝒂𝒚 ] =[−𝟑𝒂𝒙 ]
𝒂𝒛 (𝟒 − 𝒛𝒂𝒛 ) 𝟎

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Example
A current filament of 𝟑𝒂𝒙 A lies along the x – axis.
Find H in cartesian components at p (-1,3,2).
Sln
By Biot –Savart Law.
̅ = ∫∞ 𝐼𝑑𝐿× 𝒂̅3𝟏𝟐
𝑯 −∞ 4𝜋𝑅

And IdL = 3𝑑𝑥𝑎𝑥

But 𝑹𝟏𝟐 = 𝒓𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏

−𝟏 𝒙 −𝟏 − 𝒙
= [ 𝟑 ] - [𝟎] =[ 𝟑 ]
𝟐 𝟎 (𝟐)

1 ∞ 𝐼𝑑𝑧 𝒂𝒙 × (−𝟏−𝒙)𝒂𝒙 +𝟑𝒂𝒚 +𝟐𝒂𝒛 )

= ∫ x
4𝜋 −∞ [(−𝟏−𝒙)𝟐 + (𝟑)𝟐 +(𝟐)𝟐 ]2 √(−𝟏−𝒙)𝟐 + (𝟑)𝟐 +(𝟐)𝟐

̅ 𝟏𝟐 Applications of Biot Servat Law

And cross product in the direction of 𝒂𝒛 and 𝑹

𝒂𝒙 (−𝟏 − 𝒙)𝒂𝒙 𝟎
𝒂
[ 𝒙] × [ 𝟑𝒂 𝒚 ] =[ 𝟑𝒂 𝒛 ]
𝒂𝒙 (𝟐𝒂𝒛 ) (−𝟐𝒂𝒚

1 ∞ 𝐼𝑑𝑥(𝟑𝒂𝒛 −𝟐𝒂𝒚 )
= ∫
4𝜋 −∞ 3
[(𝒙)𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙+𝟏𝟒]2

But IdL = 3A
𝐼 ∞ (𝟗𝒂𝒛 −𝟔𝒂𝒚 )
= ∫
4𝜋 −∞ 3
[(𝒙𝟐 +𝟐𝒙 𝟏𝟒]2

And using integral tables:

∞
𝐼 (𝟗𝒂𝒛 −𝟔𝒂𝒚 )(𝒙+𝟏) 2(𝟗𝒂𝒛 −𝟔𝒂𝒚 )
H= [ 1 ] =
4𝜋 4𝜋(13)
13[(𝒙𝟐 +𝟐𝒙 +𝟏𝟒]2
−∞

= (𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝒂𝒛 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟑𝟑𝒂𝒚 ) A/m

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34 | P a g e BY: ODIPO 0729692775
 Where :
TOPIC 3: E = Electric field intensity
MAXWELL EQUATIONS D =Electric flux density
Objectives: B= magnetic field strength
1)Describe Maxwell’s equations in differential J= Displacement current density
and integral forms H =Magnetic flux density
i)Gauss Law for the electric fields
ii) Gauss law for the Magnetic fields NOTE: Magnetic flux is always found in closed
iii)Ampere law loops and never diverge from a point source.
iv)Faraday’s law
2)Analiyse the Maxwll’s equations to derive the Relationship between D and E as well as B and
instantaneous vector field theorem H
i)Instantaneous vector equation The auxiliary equations connecting D and E as
ii)Poyting’s Vector well as B and H are.
3.Explain the properties of electromagnetic waves i) D = 𝜖𝑬 where 𝝐 = 𝝐𝑹 𝜺𝟎
i)Propagation constant Ӷ ii) B = 𝜇H where 𝝁 = 𝝁𝑹 𝝁𝟎
ii)Attenuation constant 𝜶 Defining current density is:
4)Describe the displacement current density of iii) J=𝜎E
parallel plate capacitor. Defining current density in terms of the Volume
charge density 𝜌𝑣 is:
MAXWELL EQUATIONS IN iv) J = 𝜌𝑣 V
DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL FORMS
b)MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS IN INTEGRAL
a)DIFFERENTIAL OR POINT FORM FORM (time varying field in integral form)

A time varying magnetic field produces an The Maxwells’ equations in integral forms are :
𝒅𝑩
electromotive force (emf) which may establish a 1) ∮ 𝑬. 𝒅𝑳 = ∫ . 𝒅𝑺 (Faraday’s law)
𝒅𝒕
current in a suitable closed circuit. 2) ∮ 𝑯. 𝒅𝑳 = ∫ 𝑱𝒅𝒔 +
𝒅𝑫
. 𝒅𝑺 (Ampere’s law)
An electromotive force is merely a voltage that 𝒅𝒕
arise from conductors moving in a magnetic field 3) ∮ 𝑫. 𝒅𝒔 = ∫ 𝝆𝒗 𝐝𝐯 = Q (Gauss law for
or from changing magnetic fields and there is electric)
defined as: 4) ∮ 𝑩. 𝒅𝒔 = 0 (Gauss law for Magnetic)
𝒅Ф These equations can be used to find the boundary
Emf = - V
𝒅𝒕 conditions on B,D,H and E which are necessary in
evaluating the constants obtained in solving
Where Ф is interpreted as the flux passing through Maxwell’s equations in partial differential form.
any one of N coincident paths.
A magnetic flux is that flux which passes through For Retarded potentials (Varying electric field):
any and every surface whose perimeter is the E = - 𝛁𝑽 where V is a scalar electric pottential
closed path.
𝑑Ф
The rate of change - may result from any of the Boundary condition
𝑑𝑡
following situations: It is often desirable to idealize a physical problem
a) A time-changing flux linking a stationary by assuming a perfect conductor for which 𝜎 is
closed paths infinite but J is infinite.
b) Relative motion between a steady flux and Then, from ohm’s law:
a closed path In a perfect conductor E = 0
c) A combination of the two And From Faraday’s Law , H = 0
NOTE: The minus sign is an indication that the emf And from Ampere’s law, J = 0
is in such a direction as to produce a current whose
flux, if added to the original flux, would reduce the From Ampere’s law:
𝒅𝑫
magnitude of the emf i.e The statement that the ∮ 𝑯. 𝒅𝑳 = ∫ 𝑱. 𝒅𝒔 + ∫ 𝒅𝒕 . 𝒅𝑺 (Ampere’s law
induced voltage acts top produce an opposing flux integral form)
(lenz’ law) The meaning of these symbols are:
𝒂) ∮ 𝑯. 𝒅𝑳 = Magneto motive force which
The Maxwell’s equations for time- varying fields corresponding to electromotive force or e.m.f
in point form are: b) ∫ 𝑱. 𝒅𝒔 = 𝑱 = 𝜎 E = 𝑰𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒅𝑩
1) 𝛁 × 𝑬 = − (Faradays law) Where:
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝑫 J=𝜎E
2) 𝛁 × 𝑯 = 𝑱 + (Amperes circuital law
𝒅𝒕
Where : 𝜎 = is the conductivity
in point form) 𝒅𝑫
The remaining two equations are unchanged from 𝒄) ∫ . 𝒅𝑺 = 𝑰𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒏𝒕
𝒅𝒕
their non- Varying form.
3) 𝛁 . 𝑫 = 𝝆𝒗 (Maxwel’s First Equation) ̅ can
The equation implies that magnetic Field 𝐻
4) 𝛁 . 𝑩 = 𝟎 (Gauss law ) produce 𝑰𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 and 𝑰𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒏𝒕

35 | P a g e BY: ODIPO 0729692775

So therefore: Potentials E= −𝛁𝑽 H=
∮ 𝑯. 𝒅𝑳 = 𝑰𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 + 𝑰𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒏𝒕 𝝆𝒍𝒅𝑳 −𝛁𝒗 𝒎 (𝑱 =
V=∫
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝑹
NOTE: 𝟎)
𝝁𝑰𝒅𝑳
i) ∫ 𝑱. 𝒅𝒔 = 𝑰𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = J = 𝜎 E V=∫
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝑹
𝒅𝑫 𝒅𝑬
Flux 𝝋 = ∮ 𝐷ds 𝝋 = ∮ 𝐵ds
ii) ∫ . 𝒅𝑺 = 𝜺𝟎 = 𝜺𝟎 𝝎𝑬 = 𝑰𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒏𝒕 𝝋 = Q = CV 𝝋 = LI
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒅 𝒅𝒗 𝒅𝑳
NOTE: That mathematically =𝝎 I=C
𝒅𝒕
I=C
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒕
WORD STATEMENTS FOR MAXWELL’S
EQUATIONS in time varying fields
𝒅𝑩
1. 𝛁 × 𝑬 = − (Faradays law) TIME VARYING FIELD
𝒅𝒕
Equations dealing with static electric field due to
The electromotive force around a closed path is
electric charges at steady state currents by:
equal to the time divergence of magnetic
displacement through any surface bounded by the Maxswell’s equations in Maxswell’s equation
path. integral form in point or differential
𝒅𝑫
2. 𝛁 × 𝑯 = 𝑱 + (Amperes circuital form
𝒅𝒕
law in point form) ∮ 𝐷ds = Q enclosed ∫𝑣 𝑝𝑣 𝑑𝑣 =
The magneto motive force around a closed path is
equal to the conduction current plus the time ∫𝑣 (∇. 𝐷) 𝑑𝑣
derivative of electric displacement through any 𝑝𝑣 = ∇. 𝐷
closed surface bounded by the path
∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝐿 = 0 ∫(∇. 𝐸) 𝑑𝑠
𝛁 . 𝑫 = 𝝆𝒗 (Maxwel’s First
3. ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝐿 = 0 ∇. 𝐸 = 0
Equation) ∫ 𝐻 𝑑𝐿 = I ∫ 𝐽 𝑑𝑠
The total electric displacement through any surface ∫ 𝐻 𝑑𝐿 = I ∫(∇ 𝑥𝐻)𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝐽 𝑑𝑠
enclosing a value is equal to the total charge within
the volume. ∇𝑥𝐻 = 0
4. 𝛁 . 𝑩 = 𝟎 (Gauss law ) ∫ 𝐵 𝑑𝑠 = 0 ∫(∇. 𝐵)𝑑𝑠
The net magnetic flux in a closed loop is zero ∫ 𝐵 𝑑𝑠 = 0 ∇ .𝐵 = 0

MAXWELL’S EQUATION FOR STATIC EM Remember the following points learnt from the 2nd
FIELD topic of Electrodynamic on Ampere law.
Differential Integral Remarks Equation of Continuity for steady current
(Point) form NOTE:
form From eqtn 3 of Maxswell’s in point form
∇. 𝐷 = 𝜌𝑣 ∫𝑠 𝐷. 𝑑𝑠 = Gauss law ∇𝑥𝐻=J
And diverging this equation on both sides
∫𝑣 𝑝𝑣 dv ∇(∇ 𝑥 𝐻) = ∇.J
∇ .𝐵 = 0 ∫𝑠 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠 = Non existence of Both the divergent of acurl is zero(0)
magnetic Hence
0
monopole ∇(∇ 𝑥 𝐻) = 0
∇𝑥𝐸 =0 ∫𝐿 𝐸. 𝑑𝐿 = Conservativeness
of electrostatic Summary of Ampere law
0
field The law can be summarized as the electromotive
∇𝑥𝐻=J ∮ 𝐻. 𝑑𝐿 = Ampere’s law force (MMF) around aclosed path is equal to the
∫ 𝐽. 𝑑𝑠 + total current enclosed in it. The total current is the
𝑑𝐷
∫ 𝑑𝑡 . 𝑑𝑆 sum of the conducting and displacement current.
𝒅𝑫
∮ 𝐻. 𝑑𝐿 = I ∮ 𝑯. 𝒅𝑳 = ∫ 𝑱. 𝒅𝒔 + ∫ 𝒅𝒕 . 𝒅𝑺
J = 𝐽𝑐 + 𝐽𝑑
The various Laws in Electric and Magnetic I = 𝐼𝑐 + 𝐼𝑑
forms Where 𝑱𝒄 = Conduction current density which
TERMS ELECTRIC MAGNETIC refers to the amount of current (charge) flowing on
Basic Law 𝑄1 𝑄2 𝜇 𝐼𝑑𝐿 the surface of the conductor.
F= 𝑎
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 2 𝑅
dB = 0 2 𝑎𝑅
4𝜋𝑅 - It can also be referred to us the current in
∮ 𝐷ds = Qencl ∮ 𝐻dL = Iencl the conductors due to the flow of electrons
Force Law F = QE F=QxB 𝐽𝑑 = Displacement current i.e the current between
𝜑 𝜑
Flux density D = C/𝑚2 B = (wb/𝑚2 ) two plates of a capacitor due to electric field
𝑠 𝑠
Ralationship D = 𝜺𝑬 B =𝛈𝑯
between Displacement current
fields In a parallel plate capacitor, the charging current
𝐶𝑑𝑉
can be obtained by 𝐼𝑐 =
𝑑𝑡

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 Where : C = capacitor
V = voltage Therefore
𝐼𝑐 = conduction current 𝜷𝑫𝒎 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒚
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐴 B = −∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝜺𝒐
But C = 𝑑 −𝜷𝑫𝒎 𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒚
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐴 𝑑𝑉 B=
𝜺𝒐 𝜔
𝐼𝑐 =
𝑑 𝑑𝑡
In acapacitor, the current flow when applied Example:
voltage is changing. The current via the A perfectly conducting filament containing
capacitor is called displacement current. small 500 Ω resistor is formed into a square as
From the above formula, diving by area: shown below.
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐴 𝑑𝑉
𝑰𝒄 𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑑𝑉
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 current 𝐽𝑑 = = =
𝐴 𝐴 𝑑 𝑑𝑡
𝜀 𝜀 𝑑𝑉
𝐽𝑑 = 0 𝑟
𝑑 𝑑𝑡
From original formulae of electric field intensity E
𝑉
E=
𝑑
And V = dE
Replacing into the above equation, Find I(t) if:
𝜀 𝜀 𝑑𝑉 𝜀 𝜀 𝑑𝐸 𝜀 𝜀 𝑑𝐸 𝜀𝑑𝐸
𝐽𝑑 = 0 𝑟 = 0 𝑟 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0 𝑟 = a) B = 0.3 Cos (120𝝅𝒕 − 𝟑𝟎)𝒂𝒛 T
𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜺𝒅𝑬 b) B = 0.3 Cos[𝝅(𝒄𝒕 − 𝒚)]𝒂𝒚 𝝁T where
𝑱𝒅 =
𝒅𝒕 c = 3 x 𝟏𝟎𝟖 m/s
Or
Sln
From D = 𝜀𝐸 a)First we find/Evaluate the total flux (Ф)
𝒅𝑫
𝑱𝒅 = through the loop where unit Normal to the loop
𝒅𝒕
is 𝒂𝒛
Ф = ∫ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐵 ∫ 𝑑𝑠
Example = Area x B
In a free space D = 𝑫𝒎 𝑺𝒊𝒏 (𝝎𝒕 + 𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒙 . Using = 𝑙 2 (B) = 0.52 (0.3 Cos (120𝜋𝑡 − 30)
Maxwell’s equations , prove that = 0.075 Cos (120𝝅𝒕 − 𝟑𝟎) Wb
−𝜷𝑫𝒎 𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒚 𝐸𝑚𝑓
B= Hence Current I =
𝜀𝜔 𝑅
𝑑Ф
but emf =𝑉𝑎𝑏 (t) = −
𝑑𝑡
Sln 𝐸𝑚𝑓 𝑑Ф 𝑑(0.075 Cos (120𝜋𝑡−30)
𝑑𝐵 So: I = = − = −
∇ ×E= − 𝑅 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐸𝑚𝑓 𝑑Ф 𝑑(0.075 Cos (120𝜋𝑡−30)
𝐷 𝑫𝒎𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒙 I= = − = −
𝑅 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 500 𝑥 𝑑𝑡
E= =
𝜺𝒐 𝜺𝒐 I = 57Sin (𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕 − 𝟑𝟎) mA
i)B
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛 b)B = 0.3 Cos[𝝅(𝒄𝒕 − 𝒚)]𝒂𝒚 𝝁T
𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
∇ × E = | 𝝏𝒙 Since the field varies with y, the flux therefore is
𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 |
given by: NOTE That the conductor is not
𝑬𝒙 𝑬𝒚 𝑬𝒛 integrated for the whole area with ds,
Ф = ∫ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑠 ∫ 𝐵
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛 0.5
𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
= 0.5 x ∫0 0.3 Cos[𝜋(𝑐𝑡 − 𝑦)]𝑑𝑦
0.5
𝛁 × E = || 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 || = 0.5 x 0.3 ∫0 Cos[𝜋𝑐𝑡 − 𝜋𝑦]𝑑𝑦
𝑫𝒎𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛) 0.2 𝜋
𝟎 𝟎 = [Sin [𝜋𝑐𝑡 − ] − 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝜋𝑐𝑡)] 𝜇Wb
𝜺𝒐 𝜋 2
𝑫 𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛) 0.2 𝜋
𝑑0 𝑑0 𝑑0 𝑑 𝒎 𝑑0 𝑬𝒎𝒇 𝑑Ф 𝑑 𝜋 [Sin[𝜋𝑐𝑡− 2 ]−𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝜋𝑐𝑡)]
𝜀
=(
𝑑𝑦
-
𝑑𝑧
)𝑎𝑥 - (
𝑑𝑥
-
𝑑𝑧
)𝑎𝑦 +(
𝑑𝑥
- I= = − = − 𝜇
𝑹 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 500 𝑥 𝑑𝑡
𝑫 𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛) 0.2 𝑥 𝜋 𝑥 𝑐 𝜋
𝑑 𝒎 I=− [Cos [𝜋𝑐𝑡 − ] − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝜋𝑐𝑡)] 𝜇
𝜀 𝜋 2
)𝑎𝑧
𝑑𝑦 0.2 𝑥 3.0 𝑥 108 𝜋
𝑫 𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛) I=− [Cos [𝜋𝑐𝑡 − ] − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝜋𝑐𝑡)] 𝜇A
𝑑 𝒎 𝜺 500 2
= ( 0) + 𝒐
)𝑎𝑦 – 0 + 0
𝑑𝑧
𝜷𝑫𝒎 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒙 Using Double angles for cos(A –B)
=
𝜺𝒐 We shall have:
𝑑𝐵
Since : ∇ × E = − I =120 [𝐂𝐨𝐬[𝝅𝒄𝒕] − 𝑺𝒊𝒏 (𝝅𝒄𝒕)] 𝒎𝑨
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐵 𝜷𝑫𝒎 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒙
− =∇ ×E=
𝑑𝑡 𝜀
𝒅𝑩 𝜷𝑫𝒎 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒙
− =
𝒅𝒕 𝜺𝒐

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Examples
Show that the ratio of amplitudes of conduction c)The total displacement current 𝑰𝒅
current density and the displacement current Again from Ampere circuital law,
𝝈 𝑑𝐷
density is for the E = 𝑬𝒎 Cos𝝎𝒕 .Assume We first find 𝐽𝑑 =
𝝎𝝐 𝑑𝑡
𝝁 = 𝝁𝟎 . 𝑑(10−11 )(
106
)Cos105 𝑎𝜌
𝑑𝐷 𝑑(𝜖𝐸) 𝜌
Sln = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
First D = 𝜖𝑬 106
𝑫 = 𝜖𝑬 = 𝜖𝑬𝒎 Cos𝝎𝒕 = - (10−11 )( )(105 )Sin105 𝑎𝜌
𝜌
The displacement current density 𝟏
𝐽𝑑 = - ( )𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝒂𝝆
𝒅𝑫 𝝆
Differentiating D, 𝐽𝑑 = = -𝝎𝝐𝑬𝒎 Cos𝝎t We then find
𝒅𝒕
Again, secondly, from conduction current density 1
𝐼𝑑 = 2𝜋𝜌𝑙 × 𝐽𝑑 = 2𝜋𝜌𝑙 𝑥 [− ( )Sin105 𝑎𝜌 ]
𝑱𝒄 = 𝝈 E = 𝝈 𝑬𝒎 Cos𝝎t 𝜌
= −𝟎. 𝟖𝝅𝒍 Sin105 𝑎𝜌 A
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚
Ratio =
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 c)The ratio of the amplitudes of 𝑰𝒅 to that of 𝑰𝒄 ,
|𝑱𝒄 | |𝝈 | 𝜎
= |𝑱 | = |−𝝎𝝐| = The quality factor of the capacitor. This will be:
𝒅 𝜔𝜀 |𝑰 | |𝟎.𝟖|
= |𝑰𝒅| = = 𝟎. 𝟏
𝒄 𝟖
Example:
Given that the internal dimensions of a coaxial Example
capacitor is a = 1.2cm, b = 4cm, and l = 40cm. The electric field intensity E in a free space is
The homogeneous material inside the capacitor given by E(z,t) = 𝑬𝒎 Sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒛) 𝒂𝒚 V/m
has the parameters 𝝐 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 F/m, 𝝁 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 Determine the expression for
H/m and 𝝈 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑺/𝒎 a)magnetic field intensity H
If the electric field intensity is b)magnetic field density B
𝟏𝟎𝟔
E=( )Cos𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝒂𝝆 V/m. Find c)magnetic field intensity D
𝝆
sln
a) J
i)Magnetic field intensity H
b) The total conduction current 𝑰𝒄 through
E = 𝜂H
the capacitor 𝐸 𝑬
c) The displacement current 𝑰𝒅 through Hence H = = 𝒎 Sin (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑧)𝒂𝒙
𝜂 𝜂
the capacitor
d) The ratio of the amplitude 𝑰𝒅 to that of ii)magnetic field density B
𝑰𝒄 the quality factor of the capacitor Sln
Sln B=𝜇H
a) 𝑱𝒄 = 𝜎 E but 𝝈 = 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝜇𝑬
Hence B= 𝒎 Sin (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑧)𝒂𝒙
106 𝜂
𝑱𝒄 = 𝜎 E = 105 ( )Cos105 𝑎𝜌 V/m 𝜇𝑬𝒎
𝜌 B= Sin (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑧)𝒂𝒙
10 120𝜋
= ( )Cos105 𝑎𝜌 V/m
𝜌
iii) Electric field density D
b) Total conduction current 𝑰𝒄 through the Sln
capacitor. D=𝜀E
We Have: D = 𝜀 𝑬𝒎 Sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒛) 𝒂𝒚 V/𝒎𝟐
From
𝒅𝑫 Example
∮ 𝑯. 𝒅𝑳 = ∫ 𝑱. 𝒅𝒔 + ∫ 𝒅𝒕 . 𝒅𝑺 (Ampere’s law 𝒃
integral form) Given a coaxial transmission line with = 𝒆𝟐.𝟓 ,
𝒂
𝝁𝑹 =𝝐𝑹 = 1 and electric field intensity is
𝟐𝟎𝟎
E = ( )Cos(𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒕 − 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝟔𝒛)𝒂𝝆 V/m . Find:
𝝆
a) 𝑽𝒂𝒃 , the voltage between the
conductors given that the relationship E
= - ∇𝑉 is valid.
b) The displacement current density

Sln
a)If it is known that the relationship E = - 𝛁𝑽 we
use:
𝟐𝝅 𝒃 𝒃 𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑰𝒄 =∫𝟎 𝑱𝒅𝒔 = 𝟐𝝅𝝆𝒍 𝑱 𝑽𝒂𝒃 = - ∫𝒂 𝑬 = - ∫𝒂 ( )𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒕 − 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝟔𝒛)𝒅𝝆
𝝆
10
= 𝟐𝝅𝝆𝒍( )Cos105 𝑎𝜌 = 200 ln(𝜌)Cos(109 𝑡 − 3.336𝑧)
𝜌 𝑏
= 𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒍Cos105 𝑎𝜌 = 200 ln( )Cos(109 𝑡 − 3.336𝑧)
𝑎
= 𝟐𝟎𝝅 ×
𝟒𝟎
×Cos105 𝑎𝜌 = 200 ln(𝑒 2.5 )Cos(109 𝑡 − 3.336𝑧)
𝟏𝟎𝟎
= 500𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒕 − 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝟔𝒛) 𝑽
= 𝟖𝝅𝒍Cos105 𝑎𝜌 A

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 𝑑𝐷 Therefore
b)Displacement current , 𝐽𝑑 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜖0 (
200
)Cos(109 𝑡−3.336𝑧)
B = ∫ −b (3.0 x 10−3 ) Cos (1.5 x 108 𝑡 − 𝑏𝑥)
𝑑𝐷 𝑑(𝜖𝐸) 𝜌
= = −𝑏 (3.0 𝑥 10−3 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 B= Sin (1.5 x 108 𝑡 − 𝑏𝑥)
200𝑥 109 𝑥 𝜖0 1.5 𝑥 108
9
= −( )Sin(10 𝑡 − 3.336𝑧) B = 2.0 b x 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 Sin (1.5 x 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒕 − 𝒃𝒙)𝒂𝒛 T
𝜌
200𝑥 109 𝑥 8.854𝑥10−12
= −( )Sin(109 𝑡 − 3.336𝑧)
𝜌 ii)H
𝟏.𝟕𝟕
𝑱𝒅 = −( )𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒕 − 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝟔𝒛) From B = 𝜇H
𝝆
𝐵 𝐵 2.0 b x 10−11 Sin (1.5 x 108 𝑡−𝑏𝑥)
H= = =
𝜇 𝜇𝑅 𝜇0 4 𝑥 4𝜋 𝑥 10−7
Example: −𝟔
= (4.0 x 𝟏𝟎 )b sin (1.5 x 𝟏𝟎 𝒕 − 𝒃𝒙)𝒂𝒛 A/m 𝟖
Consider a region defined by |𝒙|, |𝒚| and |𝒛|< 1.
If 𝝐𝑹 = 5 , 𝝁𝑹 = 4 and 𝝈 = 0. If c) Use 𝛁 x H = 𝑱𝒅 + J to find 𝑱𝒅
𝑱𝒅 = 20Cos (1.5 x 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒕 − 𝒃𝒙)𝒂𝒚 𝝁𝑨/𝒎𝟐 . Find : Since 𝝈 = 𝟎, There is no conduction current
a)D and E since J = 0
b)B and H So in this case:
c)Use 𝛁 x H = 𝑱𝒅 + J to find 𝑱𝒅 𝛁 x H = 𝑱𝒅 + J
d)What is the numerical value of b 𝒅𝑫
𝛁 ×H=
sln 𝒅𝒕
a) D and E
𝑑𝐷 𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
Since: 𝐽𝑑 = 𝝏𝑯 𝒅𝑯 𝝏𝑯
𝑑𝑡
̅ =|
𝛁×𝑯 |
Then: 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛
i) D = ∫ 𝐽𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑯𝒙 𝑯𝒚 𝑯𝒛
D = ∫ 𝟐𝟎𝐂𝐨𝐬 (𝟏. 𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒕 − 𝒃𝒙)𝒅𝒕
20 𝑥 10−6 𝛁×𝑯̅=
D= 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (1.5 𝑥 108 − 𝑏𝑥)𝑎𝑦 + C
1.5 𝑥 108 𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
If the integration constant is set to Zero (Assuming 𝝏𝑯 𝒅𝑯 𝝏𝑯
no dc fields are present) | 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 |
D = 1.33 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝐒𝐢𝐧 (𝟏. 𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟖 − 𝐛𝐱)𝐚𝐲 𝐕/𝒎𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 −𝟔
(𝟒. 𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎 )𝐛 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝟏. 𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎 𝒕 − 𝒃𝒙)𝒂𝒛 𝟖

𝒅(𝟒.𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 )𝐛 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝟏.𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒕−𝒃𝒙)𝒂𝒛 𝒅𝟎

ii) From D = 𝝐𝑬 =( - )𝒂𝒙 -
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛
𝐷 1.33 x 10−3 Sin (1.5 x 108 −bx)ay 𝒅(𝟒.𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 )𝐛 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝟏.𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒕−𝒃𝒙)𝒂𝒛 𝒅0 𝒅𝟎 𝒅0
E= = ( - )𝒂𝒚 +( - )𝒂𝒛
𝜖 𝝐𝑹 𝜀0 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚
𝐷 1.33 x 10−3 Sin (1.5 x 108 −bx)ay 𝒅(𝟒.𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 )𝐛 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝟏.𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒕−𝒃𝒙)𝒂𝒛
E= = =0- +0
𝜖 5 𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10−12 𝒅𝒙
𝒅(𝟒.𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 )𝐛 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝟏.𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒕−𝒃𝒙)𝒂𝒛
̅ = 𝑱𝒅 =
𝛁×𝑯
= 3.0 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝐒𝐢𝐧 (𝟏. 𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟖 − 𝐛𝐱)𝐚𝐲 V/m 𝒅𝒙
b) B and H 𝑱𝒅 = 𝟒. 0 𝑥 10−6 𝒃𝟐 𝐶𝑜𝑠(1.5 𝑥108 𝑡 − 𝑏𝑥)𝑎𝑦 A/𝒎𝟐
Use the point form of Faraday’s law and integration d)What is the numerical value of b
with respect to time to Find B and H sln
𝑑𝐵
∇ ×E= − from the question itself:
𝑑𝑡
i)B 20Cos (1.5 x 108 𝑡 − 𝑏𝑥)𝑎𝑦 𝜇𝐴/𝑚2
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛 This can be re-written as:
𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬 20x 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 Cos (1.5 x 108 𝑡 − 𝑏𝑥)𝑎𝑦 𝐴/𝑚2
∇ × E = | 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 |
Hence, To find the value of b, we equate the
𝑯𝒙 𝑯𝒚 𝑯𝒛
constant part of 𝐽𝑑 with that of the question
20x 10−6 = 4 . 0 𝑥 10−6 𝑏 2
𝛁×E= 20
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛 𝒃𝟐 = =5, so b =√𝟓
4
𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
| 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 | Example
−𝟑 𝟖
𝟎 𝟑. 𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎 𝐒𝐢𝐧 (𝟏. 𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎 − 𝐛𝐱)𝐚𝐲 𝟎 A perfectly dielectric medium has an electric
𝑑0 𝑑(3.0 x 10−3 Sin (1.5 x 108−bx)ay 𝑑0 field intensity given by E = E cos (𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛)𝒂𝒙
=( - )𝑎𝑥 - ( -
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 V/m
𝑑0 𝑑(3.0 x 10−3 Sin (1.5 x 108 −bx)ay 𝑑(0) Determine: (6mks)
)𝑎𝑦 +( - )𝑎𝑧
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
i)The magnetic field intensity 𝑯𝒚
𝑑(3.0 x 10−3 Sin (1.5 x 108−bx)ay
=(0- )𝑎𝑥 – 0 + 0 Use the point form of Faraday’s law and integration
𝑑𝑧
−𝟑
= -b (𝟑. 𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎 ) Cos (1.5 x 𝟏𝟎 𝒕 − 𝒃𝒙) 𝟖 with respect to time to Find B and H
𝑑𝐵
Since : ∇ × E = −
𝑑𝐵 ∇ ×E= −
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐵 i)B
− =∇ ×E
𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝑩
− = -b (𝟑. 𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 ) Cos (1.5 x 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒕 − 𝒃𝒙)𝒂𝒛
𝒅𝒕

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 𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛 Use the point form of Faraday’s law and integration
𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬 with respect to time to Find B and H
∇ × E = | 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛
| 𝑑𝐵
∇ ×E= −
𝑬𝒙 𝑬𝒚 𝑬𝒛 𝑑𝑡
i)B
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬 ∇ × E = | 𝝏𝒙 |
𝛁×E=| 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛
| 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛
𝑯𝒙 𝑯𝒚 𝑯𝒛
𝐄𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝟎 𝟎
𝒅
= (0) – (0) – (0- 𝑬𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝒂𝒚 + (0- 𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
𝒅𝒛
𝒅 𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝛁 × E = | 𝝏𝒙
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 |
= k Sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝒂𝒚 𝟎 𝟐𝟎 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟓𝟎𝒙) 𝒂𝒚 𝟎
𝑑𝐵 𝒅
−
𝑑𝑡
=∇ ×E = (0) – (0) + 𝟐𝟎 Cos(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟓𝟎𝒙) 𝒂𝒚
𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝑩
− = k Sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝒂𝒚 = - x(-1000 Sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟓𝟎𝒙) 𝒂𝒛
𝒅𝒕 𝑑𝐵
− =∇ ×E
𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝑩 𝒅𝑩
= - k Sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝒂𝒚 − = 1000 Sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟓𝟎𝒙) 𝒂𝒛
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝑩
= -1000 Sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟓𝟎𝒙) 𝒂𝒛
𝒅𝒕
B = ∫ − 𝐤 𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝒂𝒚 𝒅𝒕
𝑘
B = ∫ −𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟓𝟎𝒙) 𝒂𝒛
B= 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 1000
𝜔 B= 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟓𝟎𝒙)
𝜔

Therefor H
Therefor H
From B = 𝜇H
𝐵 𝑘 From B = 𝜇H
H = = 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝐵 1000
𝜇 𝜇𝜔 H= = 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟓𝟎𝒙)
𝜇 𝜇𝜔

ii)An expression for current density J c)𝝎

Sln Sln
𝜔
Again from Ampere circuital law, Phase velocity 𝑉𝑝 =
𝛽
𝑑𝐷
We find 𝐽𝑑 = 𝜔 = 𝛽𝑉𝑝
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐷 𝑑(𝜖𝐸) 𝑑( 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕−𝒌𝒛) 𝒂𝒚 But 𝑉𝑝 = speed of light = 3.0 𝑥108 m/s
= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜔 = 𝛽𝑉𝑝 = 50 x 3.0 𝑥108 = 150 𝑥108 Hz
= −𝒌𝛚 𝛆𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝒂𝒚
Example
Example In a free space, B = 𝑩𝒎 𝒆𝒋(𝝎𝒕+ 𝜷𝒛) 𝒂𝒚. Show that
In free space , E= 20Cos(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟓𝟎𝒙) 𝒂𝒚 V/m 𝝎𝑩𝒎
E=− 𝒆𝒋(𝝎𝒕+ 𝜷𝒛) 𝒂𝒙 .
Find the 𝝁𝝎
𝒂) 𝑫isplacement current density ( 𝑱𝒅 ) Sln
𝑑𝐵
b)Magnetic field intensity (H) ∇ ×E= −
𝑑𝑡
c)𝝎 Starting with R.H.S
Sln 𝑑𝐵𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ 𝛽𝑧) 𝑎𝑦
𝑑𝐵
Again from Ampere circuital law, − =− = -j𝝎𝐵𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ 𝛽𝑧) 𝒂𝒚
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐷
We first find 𝐽𝑑 = ∇ × E = -j𝝎𝐵𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ 𝛽𝑧)
𝒂𝒚
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐷 𝑑(𝜖𝐸) 𝑑(𝟐𝟎 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕−𝟓𝟎𝒙) 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
= −𝟐𝟎𝛚 𝛆𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟓𝟎𝒙) 𝒂𝒚 ∇ × E = | 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛
|
𝑬𝒙 𝑬𝒚 𝑬𝒛
b)Magnetic field intensity (H)
Sln 𝒅𝑬𝒛 𝒅𝑬𝒚 𝒅𝑬𝒛 𝒅𝑬𝒙 𝒅𝑬𝒚 𝒅𝑬𝒙
Alternative 1 [𝒂𝒙 ( − ) − 𝒂𝒚 ( − ) + 𝒂𝒛 ( − )]
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚
E = 𝜂H Required = [𝒂𝒚 (−
𝒅𝑬𝒛
+
𝒅𝑬𝒙
)]
𝐸 20 Cos (𝜔𝑡−50𝑥) 𝑎𝑥 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒛
H= = 𝒅𝑬𝒛
𝜂 𝜂 But − =0
𝒅𝒙
𝑑𝐵
𝐸 20 Cos(𝜔𝑡−50𝑥) 𝑎𝑥
𝒅𝑬𝒙
=− = −𝐣𝝎𝐵𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ 𝛽𝑧) 𝒂𝒚
𝒅𝒛 𝑑𝑡
Hence H = =
𝜂 120𝜋 𝑬𝒙 = ∫ −𝐣𝝎𝐵𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ 𝛽𝑧) 𝒂𝒙 dz
Or 𝐣𝝎𝐵𝑚
120 B=− 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ 𝛽𝑧)
H= cos (𝜔𝑡 − 50𝑥)𝑎𝑥 𝑗𝛽
120𝜋 𝝎𝐵𝑚
B=− 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ 𝛽𝑧)
𝛽
Alternative 2

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Example
In the figure below, Given B = 0.2cos 120𝝅𝒕 T,
and assume that the conductor joining the two
ends of the resistor is perfect and assuming that
the magnetic field produced by I(t) is negligible.
It was named after an English physicist John N.
Poynting.
Power density
By taking cross product of electric field 𝐸̅ and
magnetic field 𝐻̅ , we get a unit V.A/𝑚2 called
power density, given by
̅=𝑬
𝑷 ̅x𝑯 ̅
̅
Where 𝑷 = Poynting vector and it is the
instantaneous power density vector associated with
the electromagnetic EM field at a given point .

In a perfect dielectric, these E and H fields are

given By

𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑥0 Cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧)

𝐸
𝐻𝑦 = 𝑥0 Cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧)
𝜂
Thus power density P = E x H
𝑬𝟐 𝒙𝟎
Find: 𝑷𝒛 = 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝟐 (𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷𝒛)
𝜼
a) 𝑉𝑎𝑏 (𝑡)
b) I(t) Time – average power density
Sln
Since B is constant over the loop area, To find the time-average power density, we
The flux Ф = Area x B integrate over one circle and divide by the periodic
And since the area is circular, A= 𝜋𝑟 2 time T =
1
The flux Ф = Area x B 𝑓
1 𝑇 𝐸2
Ф = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝐵 𝑃𝑧𝑎𝑣 = ∫0 𝑥0 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧)𝑑𝑡
15 𝑇 𝜂
= 𝜋( )2 x 0.2cos 120𝜋𝑡 1 𝐸 2 𝑥0 𝑇 [1+𝐶𝑜𝑠2(𝜔𝑡−𝛽𝑧]
100 = ∫0 𝑑𝑡
Ф = 0.0141cos 120𝜋𝑡 𝑇 𝜂
2
2
𝑑Ф 1 𝐸 𝑥0 𝑇
So the emf = 𝑉𝑎𝑏 (𝑡) = - V =
2𝑇 𝜂
∫0 [1 + 𝐶𝑜𝑠2(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧)] 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑( 0.0141cos 120𝜋𝑡)
𝑉𝑎𝑏 (𝑡) = - V
𝑑𝑡 1 𝐸 2 𝑥0 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜔𝑡−2𝛽𝑧) 𝑇
𝑉𝑎𝑏 (𝑡) = - 5.33Sin 120𝜋𝑡 V = [𝑡 + ]
2𝑇 𝜂 2𝜔 0
b)I(t) 𝐸 2 𝑥0 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜔𝑡−2𝛽𝑧) 𝑇
𝑉 5.33Sin 120𝜋𝑡 V = [𝑡 + ]
I(t) = 𝑎𝑏 = = 21.3Sin 120𝜋𝑡 mA 2𝑇𝜂 2𝜔 0
𝑅 250
𝐸 2 𝑥0 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜔𝑇−2𝛽𝑧) 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜔(0)−2𝛽𝑧)
= [𝑇 + − ]
2𝑇𝜂 2𝜔 2𝜔
POYTING VECTOR 𝐸 2 𝑥0 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2(2𝜋𝑓)𝑇−2𝛽𝑧) 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜔(0)−2𝛽𝑧)
= [𝑇 + − ]
2𝑇𝜂 2𝜔 2𝜔
Poynting theorem 1
But f = , so the equation becomes,
𝑇
𝐸 2 𝑥0 𝑆𝑖𝑛(4𝜋−2𝛽𝑧) 𝑆𝑖𝑛(−2𝛽𝑧)
By the means of electromagnetic (EM) waves, = [𝑇 + − ]
2𝑇𝜂 2𝜔 2𝜔
energy can be stored in an electric field and 𝐸 2 𝑥0 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝛽𝑧) 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝛽𝑧)
magnetic field is transmitted at acertain rate of = [𝑇 − + ]
2𝑇𝜂 2𝜔 2𝜔
energy flow which can be calculated with the help 𝐸 2 𝑥0
= [𝑇]
of Poynting Theorem. 2𝑇𝜂

Definition of Poynting theorem And Hence average power is given by:

It states that: The net power flowing out of a given 𝟏 𝑬𝟐 𝒙𝟎
𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 = W/𝑚2
𝟐 𝜼
volume V is equal to the time rate of decrease in
the energy stored within volume V minus the
Ohmic power dissipated. If we were using root –mean-square value instead
1
of peak amplitudes, Then the factor would not be
2
present.

The average power flowing through any area S

normal to the Z-axis gives the Total power as :

𝑬𝟐 𝒙𝟎
𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 = SW
𝟐𝜼

41 | P a g e BY: ODIPO 0729692775

 𝑃𝑧𝑎𝑣 = 315 𝑒 −2(0.2)(0.6) = 248 𝒂𝒛 W/𝒎𝟐
In case of a lossy dielectic
In case of lossy dielectric, 𝑬𝒙 and 𝑯𝒚 are not in c)In this case , we can use Poyting theorem in
time phase, we have point form.
𝑬𝒙 =𝑬𝒙𝟎 𝒆−∝𝒛 cos (𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧) J . E = −∇. 𝑃𝑧𝑎𝑣
If we let 𝜂 = |𝜂| < 𝜃𝜂 𝑑
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
0
Then we may write the magnetic field intensity as −∇. 𝑃𝑧𝑎𝑣 = - 𝑑𝑦
. ( 0 )
𝑬𝒙𝟎 −∝𝒛 −2(0.2)𝑧
𝑯𝒚 = |𝜂| 𝒆 cos (𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 − 𝜃𝜂 ) 𝑑 315 𝑒
[(𝑑𝑧 ) ]
And the power ,𝑃𝑧 = E x H 𝑑 −2(0.2)𝑧
𝟐
𝑬 𝒙𝟎 −2∝𝑧 =- (315 𝑒 ) = (0.4) 315 𝑒 −(0.4)𝑧
𝑃𝑧 = 𝐸𝑥 𝐻𝑦 = |𝜂|
𝑒 cos (𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧)cos (𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 − 𝜃𝜂 ) 𝑑𝑧
And using the Identity:
1 1 At z = 60 cm = 0.6m
CosACosB = cos(A + B) + cos(A - B) It becomes
2 2
This improves the above equation to −∇. 𝑃𝑧𝑎𝑣 = (0.4) 315 𝑒−(0.4)(0.6) = 99.1 W/𝒎𝟑
𝟐
𝑬 𝒙𝟎 −2∝𝑧
𝑃𝑧 = 𝑒 cos [(2𝜔𝑡 − 2𝛽𝑧 − 2𝜃𝜂 ) + 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃𝜂 ]
2|𝜂|
This find that power density has only a second –harmonic POYNTING VECTOR AND POWER
component and a dc component .Since the first term has a zero CONSIDERATION
average value of the Poynting vector is an integral number of
periods, the time varying field Integral and Point form of poyting theorem
𝑬𝟐 𝒙𝟎 −2∝𝑧
𝑃𝑧 = 𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃𝜂
2|𝜂| Poynting equation in Point form
NOTE: From Maxwell’s equations B = 𝜇H and
Note that the power density attenuates as 𝑒 −2𝑎𝑧 where 𝑱𝒄 = 𝜎 E
as 𝐸𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻𝑦 fall off as 𝑒 −∝𝑧
Consider Maxswl’s equations given as
We can observe that the above expression for 𝑃𝑧𝑎𝑣 ̅ ̅
𝛁 ×𝑬 ̅ = − 𝒅𝑩 = − 𝒅𝜇𝑯 …eqn 1
can be obtained very easily by using the phasor 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
̅ ̅
form of the electric and magnetic fields. ̅ = J + 𝒅𝑫 = 𝜎𝑬
𝛁 ×𝑯 ̅ + 𝜀 𝒅𝑬 …eqn 2
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝟏
𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 = 𝑹𝒆(𝑬𝒔 × 𝑯𝒔 ) W/𝒎𝟐 ̅ we get
Dotting (2) by 𝑬
𝟐
Where 𝑬𝒔 = 𝐸𝑥0 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝒂𝒙 ̅
̅ .(𝛁 × 𝑯
𝑬 ̅ ) =𝑬
̅ . ( 𝜎𝑬 ̅ (𝜀 𝒅𝑬)
̅ ) +𝑬. eqtn 3
And 𝒅𝒕
𝑯𝒔 =
𝐸𝑥0
𝑒𝑗𝜃 𝑒 +𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝒂𝒚 Making use of the vector identity as shown below’
|𝜂|
̅×𝑩
𝛁 .( 𝑨 ̅) = 𝑩
̅ . (𝛁 × 𝑨̅) - 𝑨
̅ . (𝛁 × 𝑩̅)
𝟏 𝐸 And applying above vector identity to equation 3
𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 = 𝑹𝒆(𝐸𝑥0 𝑒−𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝒂𝒙 × | 𝑥0| 𝑒𝑗𝜃 𝑒+𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝒂𝒚 ) W/𝒎𝟐 Where 𝑨 ̅= 𝑬 ̅ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩 ̅=𝑯̅
𝟐 𝜂
The Identity becomes:
̅×𝑯
𝛁 .( 𝑬 ̅) = 𝑯̅ . (𝛁 × 𝑬
̅) - 𝑬
̅ . (𝛁 × 𝑯 ̅)
And re-arranging it becomes
̅ . (𝛁 × 𝑯
𝑬 ̅) = 𝑯̅ . (𝛁 × 𝑬̅) - 𝛁 . ( 𝑬
̅×𝑯 ̅ ) eqtn 4
Example Hence, comparing the right hand-sides of eqt 4 and
Let η = 250 + j30Ω and jk = 0.2 +j2 𝒎−𝟏 for a 3
uniform plane wave propagating in the 𝒂𝒛 ̅
̅ . (𝛁 × 𝑬
𝑯 ̅) - 𝛁 . ( 𝑬
̅×𝑯̅ )= 𝑬̅ . ( 𝜎𝑬 ̅ (𝜀 𝒅𝑬)
̅ ) +𝑬.
direction in a dielectric having some finite conductivity. 𝒅𝒕
̅
If 𝑬𝒔 = 400V/m at z = 0.Find ̅ . (𝛁 × 𝑬
𝑯 ̅) - 𝛁 . ( 𝑬
̅×𝑯 ̅ (𝜀 𝒅𝑬) ..eqn 5
̅ )= 𝜎𝑬𝟐 +𝑬.
a) 𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 at z = 0 𝒅𝒕
b) 𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 at z = 60 cm
Now from equation 1 above
̅
c) The average Ohmic power disipated in watts per 𝛁 ×𝑬 ̅ = − 𝒅𝜇𝑯
cubic meter at z = 60 cm 𝒅𝒕
̅
Sln ̅ with − 𝒅𝜇𝑯 ,
Lets substitute into eqtn 5, 𝛁 × 𝑬
𝒅𝒕
a) 𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 at z = 0 and it gives:
𝟏 ̅𝟐
𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 = 𝑹𝒆(𝑬𝒔 × 𝑯𝒔 ) W/𝒎𝟐 ̅ . (𝛁 × 𝑬
𝑯 ̅) = 𝑯
̅
̅ . (− 𝒅𝜇𝑯 ) = − 𝒅𝜇𝑯
𝟐
𝟏 𝐸𝑥0 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 = 𝑹𝒆(𝐸𝑥0 𝑒−𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝒂𝒙 × 𝑒𝑗𝜃 𝑒+𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝒂𝒚 ) W/𝒎𝟐 ̅𝟐
𝒅𝑯
̅.
̅
𝒅𝑯
𝟐 |𝜂| But we know that, = 2𝑯
𝟏 400 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 = 𝑹𝒆(400𝑒−∝𝑧 𝑒−𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝒂𝒙 × 𝑒−∝𝑧 𝑒𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝒂𝒚 ) W/𝒎𝟐 So that :
𝟐 |𝜂|
̅𝟐
1 𝒅𝑯 ̅
=
𝟏
(400)𝟐 (𝑒−2∝𝑧 )𝑹𝒆( ) 𝒂𝒛 )
1
̅ . 𝒅𝑯
=𝑯 …… eqtn (i)
𝟐 | | 𝜂 2 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
−2(0.2)𝑧 1
= 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎(𝑒 )𝑹𝒆( ) 𝒂𝒛 )
|√(250)2 +(30)2 | Similarly, we can write,
= 315 𝑒 −2(0.2)𝑧 W/𝒎𝟐 ̅𝟐
1 𝒅𝑬 ̅
̅ . 𝒅𝑬
=𝑬 ………eqtn (ii)
Hence at z = 0, 𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 = 𝟑𝟏𝟓 W/𝒎𝟐 2 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
Now substituting the eqtn (i) and (ii) into eqtn 5
b) at z = 60 cm or z = 0.6m above, we get:
̅𝟐
1 𝒅µ𝑯 ̅𝟐
𝑃𝑧𝑎𝑣 = 315 𝑒 −2(0.2)𝑧 𝑎𝑧 W/𝑚2 − -𝛁.(𝑬 ̅×𝑯̅ ) = 𝜎𝑬𝟐 +1 𝒅𝜺𝑬
2 𝒅𝒕 2 𝒅𝒕

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 2𝜋 𝜋 𝐸𝑜 2 𝜀 𝛾
√𝜇 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜔 (𝑡 − ) 𝑅 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅
𝑜
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ∫∅ ∫0
𝑅2 0 𝑣𝑜
Hence:
̅𝟐 ̅𝟐 2𝜋 𝜋 𝜀 𝛾
̅ ) = 𝜎𝑬𝟐 +1 𝒅𝜺𝑬 + 1 𝒅µ𝑯
̅×𝑯 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ∫∅ ∫0 √ 𝑜 𝐸𝑜 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛3 𝜃𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜔 (𝑡 − ) 𝑑𝜃𝑑∅
-𝛁.(𝑬 𝜇 0 𝑣𝑜
2 𝒅𝒕 2 𝒅𝒕

̅=𝑬
But Poynting vector 𝑷 ̅×𝑯 ̅ But 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2𝜃 = 1 and 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2𝜃
𝑆𝑖𝑛3 𝜃= 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = (1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Hence the equation becomes: 𝜋
̅𝟐 ̅𝟐
-𝛁.𝑷 ̅ = 𝝈𝑬𝟐 +𝟏 𝒅𝜺𝑬 + 𝟏 𝒅µ𝑯 (Which is ∫ (1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠2 𝜃)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝟐 𝒅𝒕 0
Poynting theorem in point form)
Let u = Cos𝜃 so that du = sin𝜃d𝜃
𝜋
∫0 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠2 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑑𝜃 = [−𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃]𝜋0 + [𝐶𝑜𝑠3 𝜃]𝜋0
Poynting equation in integral form [−𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃]𝜋0 + [𝐶𝑜𝑠3 𝜃]𝜋0 = [−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 − (𝑐𝑜𝑠0)] +
If we integrate the power above in point form, over 1 1 4
a volume, we get energy distributes as: [− − ] =
3 3 3
− ∮𝑉 𝛁 . 𝑷̅ 𝐝𝐯 = − ∮ 𝝈𝑬𝟐 + 𝒅 ∮ 𝟏 [𝜺𝑬 ̅ 𝟐 + µ𝑯
̅ 𝟐] 2𝜋 2 𝜀
∫∅=0 √𝜇 𝐸𝑜 3 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜔 (𝑡 −
𝑜 4 𝛾
) 𝑑∅
𝑉 𝑉 𝒅𝒕 𝟐 0 𝑣𝑜

2
And applying divergence theorem to the left of the 8𝜋 𝜀𝑜 𝛾
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝐸 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜔 (𝑡 − )W
above equation, we get: 3 √𝜇0 𝑜 𝑣𝑜

− ∮𝑽 𝛁 . 𝑷 ̅ = − ∮ 𝝈𝑬𝟐 + 𝒅 ∮ 𝟏 [𝜺𝑬
̅ 𝐝𝑺 ̅ 𝟐 + µ𝑯̅ 𝟐]
𝑽 𝒅𝒕 𝑽 𝟐 But as in electric circuit, considering time average
(Which is the Poynting theorem in integral form) over a cycle, the average power
1 𝑇
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ∫0 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 dt
Where : 𝑇
2
4𝜋 𝜀𝑜
− ∮𝑽 𝝈𝑬𝟐 𝐝𝐯 = Power dissipated in volume 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐸 W
3 √𝜇0 𝑜
𝒅 𝟏
∮ [𝜺𝑬̅ 𝟐 ] 𝒅𝒗 = rate of change of stored energy
𝒅𝒕 𝑽 𝟐 Example
in electric field For the dipole antenna of above example, the constant 𝑬𝟎 =
𝒅 𝟏 10. Determine the total average power radiated.
∮ [µ𝑯 ̅ 𝟐 ] 𝒅𝒗 = rate of change of stored energy 𝟐
𝒅𝒕 𝑽 𝟐 𝟒𝝅 𝜺𝒐
𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝑬 W
in electric field 𝟑 √𝝁𝟎 𝒐
In this case, 𝐸̅ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻̅ are assumed to be in real 4𝜋 √36𝜋
1
× 10−9
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐸𝑜 2 W = 1.11 W
form. 3 4𝜋 𝑥 10−9

However, when 𝐸̅ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 ̅ in phasor form, then the

average power will be given as: Example
𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽 −𝒋𝟐𝒓
If 𝑬𝒔 = 60 𝒆 𝒂𝜽 𝑽/𝒎 and
𝒓
𝟏 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽
𝐏𝐳𝐚𝐯 = 𝐑𝐞(𝐸̅𝐬 × 𝐻
̅𝐬 ) W/𝐦𝟐 𝑬𝒔 = 𝒆−𝒋𝟐𝒓 𝒂∅ 𝑽/𝒎 A/m in free space, find
𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝒓
the average power passing outward through the
𝝅
surface r = 𝟏𝟎𝟔 , 0 < 𝜽< and 0 < ∅ < 2𝝅
𝟑
Example
Sln
The radiated fields at sufficient large distance 𝟏
from a dipole antenna are at the form 𝐏𝐳𝐚𝐯 = 𝐑𝐞(𝐸̅𝐬 × 𝐻 ̅𝐬 ) W/𝐦𝟐
𝟐
̅ = 𝑬𝒐 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛉𝐬𝐢𝐧𝝎(𝒕 − 𝜸 )
𝑬
𝑹 𝒗𝒐 𝟏 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽
𝜺𝒐 𝑬𝒐 𝜸
𝐏𝐳𝐚𝐯 = 𝐑𝐞(𝟔𝟎 𝒆−𝒋𝟐𝒓 × 𝒆−𝒋𝟐𝒓 ) W/𝐦𝟐
𝟐 𝒓 𝟒𝝅𝒓
̅ =√
𝑯 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛉𝐬𝐢𝐧𝝎(𝒕 − ) 15𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝝁𝟎 𝑹 𝒗𝒐 =
2𝜋𝑟 2
NOTE: 𝒆−𝒋𝟐𝒓 = Cos(2r) –jsin(2r)
Which are specified in spherical coordinates
Hence 𝒆−𝒋𝟐𝒓 x 𝒆−𝒋𝟐𝒓 =
system. 𝒗𝒐 = 3 x 𝟏𝟎𝟖 m/s is the velocity in free
(Cos(2r) –jsin(2r))(cos (2r) – jSin(2r))
space. Determine the power radiated by the
𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 (2r) + 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 (2𝑟) = 1
antenna.
Hence the power will be
2𝜋
𝜋
15𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
Sln 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ∫∅=0 ∫𝜃=0
3 𝑎𝑟 . 𝑎𝑟 𝑟 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅
2𝜋𝑟2
In order to determine the radiated power, we select NOTE: Change the integral as shown below so that
surface and compute the flux of S that: you start integrating with respect to 𝑑∅ first
𝑆̅ = 𝐸
𝜋
̅ ×𝐻 ̅ 2𝜋 15𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝐬 𝐬 = ∫𝜃=0
3
∫∅=0 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑∅𝑑𝜃
𝐸𝑜 2 𝜀 𝛾 2𝜋
𝑆̅ = √𝜇 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜔 (𝑡 −
𝑜
) 𝜋
2𝜋 15𝑆𝑖𝑛3 𝜃
𝑅2 0 𝑣𝑜 = ∫𝜃=0
3
∫∅=0 𝑑∅𝑑𝜃
2𝜋
𝑆̅ = power density vector …. Indicating that the
3 2𝜋
flow of power is in the direction a way from the 𝜋
= ∫𝜃=0
3 [
15∅𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃
] 𝑑𝜃
antenna. 2𝜋
∅=0
S - has a unit W/𝒎𝟐 and when multiplied by the 𝜋
= ∫𝜃=0
3 [(
15(2𝜋)𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃
)− (
15(0)𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃
3
)] 𝑑𝜃
3

differential surface , gives the radiated power. 2𝜋 2𝜋

𝜋
3
= ∫𝜃=0
3 15𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = ∫ 𝑆̅ ds

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But 𝑆𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = (1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜇0
i.e η = √ = 120𝜋
Let u = Cos𝜃 so that du = sin𝜃d𝜃 𝜀0
𝜋
𝜋
𝐶𝑜𝑠3 𝜃 3 (𝟏𝟐𝟎)𝟐
15 ∫03(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠2 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑑𝜃 = [−𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 + ] 𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 = = 19.09 Watts
3 𝟐 𝒙 (120𝜋)
0
𝜋
𝜋
𝐶𝑜𝑠3 ( ) 𝐶𝑜𝑠3 (0) Total power 𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝑧𝑎𝑣 x Area
=15 [−𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 3
] - [𝐶𝑜𝑠3 (0) + ] 𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 19.09 x 45 x 10−6
3 3 3
1 1
= 15 [− + ( )( )] - [−1 + ]
1 1 = 8.59 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 Watts
2 3 8 3
1 1 2
= 15 [− + ( )] - [− ]
2 24 3
5 Objective 5
= 15 x = 3.125 W
24 4)Describe the displacement current density of
parallel plate capacitor.
Example
In anon- magnetic medium, CAPACITANCE AND CAPACITOR
E = 4Sin (2𝝅 x 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝝎𝒕 − 𝟎. 𝟖𝜷𝒙) 𝒂𝒛 V/m. Find Capacitor – Is a devise that stores charges.
a)The above average power carried by the wave It consist of 2 conductors separated by afree space
if η = 9.87 x 𝟏𝟎𝟑 Ω called dielectrics
b)The total power crossing 100𝒄𝒎𝟐 at the plane Capacitance (C) is defined as the amount of
(2x + y) = 5 charge stored per unit voltage.
Sln 𝑸
C=
In free space, 𝑽
𝑬𝟐 𝒙𝟎 Or
a)Average power 𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 =
𝟐𝜼
(𝟒)𝟐 Capacitance is the ratio of the magnitude of the
𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 = = 8.10 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 Watts
𝟐 𝒙 (𝟗.𝟖𝟕 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟑 ) total charge on either conductor to the magnitude of
the potential difference between conductors.
b)Total power crossing the 100𝒄𝒎𝟐 at the plane The SI unit is Farads.
(2x + y) = 5 Consider two conductors embedded in a
Total power 𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝑧𝑎𝑣 x Area homogeneous dielectric in which conductor 𝑀2
𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 8.10 x 10−4 x A carries a total positive charge Q , and 𝑀1 carries an
2x + y 2x y
But the unit vector 𝑎𝑧 = = + equal negative charge. There are no other charges
√5 √5 √5
Hence, present and the total charge of the system is Zero
Hence picking in the direction of x
2
𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 8.10 x 10−4 x x 1.0−2
√5
= 7.24 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 Watts

Example
A plane wave 500 Hz and electric field of 150
V/m ,travels in the positive direction in an
infinite lossless medium having 𝜺𝒓 = 9, 𝝁𝒓 = 1,
and 𝝈 = 𝟎. Determine the average power.
Sln
1
The intrinsic impedance η = 120𝜋 x The opposite charged conductors 𝑀1 and 𝑀2
√𝝁𝒓 𝜀𝑟
1 surrounded by a uniform dielectric. The ratio of the
η = 120𝜋 x = 40𝜋
√1𝑥 9 magnitude of the charge on either conductor to the
and 𝐸0 = 150 V/m. magnitude of the potential difference between them
is the capacitance.
𝑬𝟐 𝒙𝟎
Average power 𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 =
𝟐𝜼
(𝟏𝟓𝟎)𝟐
When a dc voltage is applied between the 2
𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 = = 89.52 Watts conductors, a charge transfer occurs resulting into
𝟐 𝒙 (40𝜋)
positive (+ve) charge Q on one conductor and
Example negative (-ve) charge Q on the other conductor. An
The electric field intensity of the wave is given electric field will be formed from +ve Q to –ve Q
by which are perpendicular to conductor surface
E(z,t) = 120Sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒛) 𝒂𝒙 V/m (equipotential Surface)
Determine the total power passing Via
𝑸
rectangular area of side 45mm by 10mm in the C=
𝑽𝟏𝟐
z = o plane. Where C = Capacitance
Q = Charge
Sln V = Voltage
𝑬𝟐 𝒙𝟎
Average power 𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 =
𝟐𝜼
In free space ,the intrinsic impedence η = 1 We can apply the definition of capacitance to a
simple two-conductor system in which the

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conductors are identical. Infinite parallel planes Where C = Capacitance
with separation d .Choosing the lower conductor Q = Charge
plane at z = 0 and the upper one z = d. a uniform V = Voltage
sheet of surface ± 𝜌𝑠 on each conductor leads to
the uniform field. Example
From the parallel plate capacitor shown below.
𝜌𝑠
E= Find the capacitance
𝜖
Where 𝜖 = homogeneous dielectric
D=𝜖E
𝜌𝑠
Hence D = 𝜖 ( ) = 𝜌𝑠
𝜖

Sln
From Gauss Law
Q = ∫ 𝐷𝑑𝑠
Q = DA
DA = Q
𝜀𝐸𝐴 = Q
The charge on the lower plane must be positive, 𝑄
E = - 𝑎𝑦
since D is directed upward, and normal value of D. 𝜀𝐴
The negative sign shows that the fields lines are in
The potential difference between lower and upper
–ve A of y direction
plane is:
Potential difference (V)
1
𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 V = − ∫2 𝐸. 𝑑𝐿
𝑉0 = − ∫𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐸. 𝑑𝐿
𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝜌𝑠 𝜌𝑠
And DL in Gauss point form dL = 𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑉0 = − ∫𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 ( ) dz = d 1
𝜖 𝜖 V = − ∫2 𝐸. 𝑑𝐿
Since the total charge on either plane is infinite, the 𝑑 𝑄
capacitance is infinite. V = − ∫0 (− ) 𝑎𝑦 . 𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝜀𝐴
𝑄 𝑑 𝑄
Hence a more practical example is obtained by V = ∫0 𝑑𝑦 = [𝑦]𝑑0
𝜀𝐴 𝜀𝐴
considering planes each of area S, whose linear 𝑄𝑑
dimensions are much greater than their separation V=
𝜀𝐴
𝑸
d. The charge distribution are then almost uniform But capacitance (C) is C =
𝑽
at all points not adjacent to the edges and this latter Hence:
region contributes only a small percentage of the 𝑸 𝜺𝑨
total capacitance allowing us to write the familiar C = 𝑄𝑑 =
𝒅
𝜀𝐴
result.
Example
The charge Q = 𝜌𝑠 S A parallel plate capacitor has internal
And separation ‘d’ between plates. A dielectric slab
𝜌𝑠𝑑
𝑉0 =
𝜖
with 𝛆𝐫 of thickness ‘a’ is placed on the lower
𝑸 𝝆𝒔 𝐒 𝝐𝑺 plate of the capacitor. Show that the electric
Therefore : C = = 𝝆𝒔𝒅 =
𝑽
𝝐
𝒅 field intensity in the dielectric is:
Ф
Where a)𝐄𝟏 =
𝛆𝐫 𝐝−𝐚(𝛆𝐫 −𝟏)
S = Surface area (A) of the parallel plates
where Ф = potential difference between plates
D = Distance of separation
b) Electric field intensity in the air space is
𝜀 = Dielecric of material
𝐄𝐨 = 𝛆𝐫 𝐄𝟏
Now some books will mean surface area S as A
c)capacitance of the capacitor
So
𝑸 𝝐𝑺 𝛆𝟎 𝐀 𝛆𝐫
: C= = 𝐂𝐓 = [ 𝐚 𝐚 ]
𝑽 𝒅 𝐝 (𝟏− )𝛆𝐫 +
𝐝 𝐝
Or Sln
𝑸 𝝐𝑨
C= =
𝑽 𝒅

Steps in calculating capacitance

1)Choose an appropriate co-ordinate system for a

Ф
given geometry a)𝐄𝟏 =
𝛆𝐫 𝐝−𝐚(𝛆𝐫 −𝟏)
2)Assume +Q and –Q on the conductors
𝑄 where Ф = potential difference between
3)Find E from Q by Gauss law i.e E = 2 plates
4𝜋𝜀𝑅
1
3)Find 𝑽𝟏𝟐 = − ∫2 𝐸. 𝑑𝐿
𝑸 The normal of flux density 𝐷𝑚 across the boundary
Then Find C = are equal
𝑽𝟏𝟐
𝜀𝐸0 = 𝜀1 𝐸1

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𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐸0 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟1𝐸1
𝐸0 = 𝜀𝑟1 𝐸1 (this has solved part b of the Energy Stored in a capacitor
question) Work done = Energy stored
1
𝑉
Work done 𝑊𝐸 = ∫𝑉𝑜𝑙 𝜖𝐸 2 dv
2
E = and if V = Ф 1 𝑠 𝑑 𝜖𝜌2 1 𝜖𝜌2
𝑑 = ∫0 ∫0 2 𝑠 dz dS = 𝑠
Sd
Ф 2 𝜖 2 𝜖2
E=
𝑑 This can be manipulated and re-written as;
Ф1
Now 𝐸1 = and Ф1 = a𝐸1 ….. eqtn (i) 1 𝜖𝜌2
𝑠 1 𝜖𝑆 𝜌2 𝑠 𝑑 2
𝑎 𝑊𝐸 = Sd = .
Ф 2 𝜖2 2 𝑑 𝜖2
𝐸𝑜 = 0 and Ф0 = 𝐸0 (𝑑 − 𝑎) … eqtn (ii) But
𝑑−𝑎
𝝐𝑺 𝜌𝑠𝑑
Ф 𝑇 = Ф1 + Ф0 C= and 𝑽𝟎 =
𝒅 𝜖
Ф 𝑇 = a𝐸1 + 𝐸0 (𝑑 − 𝑎) 𝜌2 𝑠 𝑑 2
Ф = a𝐸1 +𝜀𝑟1 𝐸1 (𝑑 − 𝑎) So: 𝑽𝟎 2 =
𝜖2
Ф = 𝐸1 (𝑎 + 𝜀𝑟 (𝑑 − 𝑎) Thus ,
Ф = 𝐸1 (𝜀𝑟 𝑑 + 𝑎 − 𝜀𝑟 𝑎) 1 𝜖𝑆 𝜌2 𝑑 2 1
𝑊𝐸 = . 𝑠2 = 𝐶𝑽𝟎 2
Ф = 𝐸1 (𝜀𝑟 𝑑−𝜀𝑟 𝑎 + 𝑎) 2 𝑑 𝜖 2
This can also be
1 1 𝑄 2 1
Making 𝐸1 the subject 𝑊𝐸 = 𝐶𝑽𝟎 2 = ( )𝑽𝟎 = 𝑄𝑉
2 2 𝑉 2
Ф
𝐄𝟏 =
𝜀𝑟 𝑑−𝜀𝑟 𝑎+𝑎
Ф And
𝐄𝟏 = (and the answer follows) 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑦
𝛆𝐫 𝐝−𝐚(𝛆𝐫 −𝟏) Energy density =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

c)capacitance of the capacitor

Example
𝛆𝟎 𝐀 𝛆𝐫
𝐂𝐓 = [ 𝐚 𝐚]
A parallel capacitor with plate area 𝟓𝟎𝒎𝟐 and
𝐝 (𝟏− )𝛆𝐫 +
𝐝 𝐝 plate separation of 3mm has a voltage
𝟓𝟎𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝟏𝟎𝟑 t is applied to the plate assuming
Sln 𝝐 = 𝟐𝜺𝟎 . Calculate
𝜺𝑨 𝜀 𝜀 𝐴
C = = 0𝑟 a)the displacement current 𝑱𝒅
𝒅 𝒅
𝐂𝟎 =
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟0 𝐴
but 𝜀𝑟0 = 1 b)the conduction current 𝑰𝒄 if the area is
𝒅−𝒂
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟1 𝐴
𝟓. 𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒎𝟐 .
𝐂𝟏 = Sln
𝒂
𝐶𝑜 𝑥𝐶1 a)The displacement current 𝑱𝒅
Capacitance in series
𝐶𝑜 +𝐶1 𝑉 50𝑆𝑖𝑛 103 𝑡
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟0 𝐴 𝑥 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟1 𝐴 E= =
𝒂(𝒅−𝒂) 𝑑 3 𝑥 10−3
𝐂𝐓 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟0 𝐴 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟1 𝐴 But 𝐽𝑑 =
𝜖𝑑𝐸
+
𝒅−𝒂 𝒂 𝑑𝑡
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟0 𝐴 𝑥 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟1 𝐴
𝒂(𝒅−𝒂)
𝜖 = 2𝜀0
𝐂𝐓 = 𝑎(𝜀0 𝜀𝑟0 𝐴)+(𝑑−𝑎)(𝜀0𝜀𝑟1 𝐴) 2𝜀0 𝑑 50𝑆𝑖𝑛 103 𝑡
𝐽𝑑 = ( )𝑑𝑡
𝒂(𝒅−𝒂) 𝑑𝑡 3 𝑥 10−3
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟0 𝐴 𝑥 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟1 𝐴 2𝜀0 𝑥 50 𝑑 (𝑆𝑖𝑛 103 𝑡
𝐂𝐓 = 𝐽𝑑 = ( )
𝑎(𝜀0 𝜀𝑟0 𝐴)+(𝑑−𝑎)(𝜀0 𝜀𝑟1 𝐴) 3 𝑥 10−3 𝑑𝑡
Expanding the denominator and then simplifying 𝐽𝑑 = 33.33𝑥 10 𝜀0 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 103 t) I/𝒎𝟐
3
𝜀0 𝐴 𝜀𝑟1
𝐶𝑇 =
𝑎 +(𝑑−𝑎)𝜀𝑟1
And introducing d
b)the conduction current 𝑰𝒄 .
𝛆𝟎 𝐀 𝛆𝐫
𝐂𝐓 = [ 𝐚 𝐚 ] Sln
𝐝 (𝟏− )𝛆𝐫 + 𝑰
𝐝 𝐝
𝐽𝑑 = 𝒄
𝐴
Example 𝑰𝒄 = 𝐽𝑑 x A
Calculate the capacitance of a parallel plate 𝑰𝒄 = 𝐽𝑑 x A
capacitor having a mica dielectric, ∈𝒓 = 6, a = 33.33𝑥 100 𝜀0 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 103 t) x 𝟓. 𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒
plate area of 10 𝒊𝒏𝟐 , and separation of 0.01in. = 33.33𝑥 100 𝑥 8.854𝑥 10−12 𝑐𝑜𝑠 103 t x
Sln 5.0 x 10−4
The value of in = 0.0254 = 1.476 𝑥 10−7 𝑐𝑜𝑠 103 t A
Hence S = 10 x 0.02542 = 𝟔. 𝟒𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎𝟐
d = 0.01 x 0.0254 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 m
𝝐 = 𝝐𝑹 𝜺𝟎
and therefore
𝑸 𝝐𝑺 𝟔 𝒙 𝟖.𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝟔.𝟒𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
C = = =
𝑽 𝒅 𝟐.𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒

= 1.349 nF

46 | P a g e BY: ODIPO 0729692775

Example Let r = R1
𝑉 𝑉
A 50 voltage generator at 20MHz is connected to E = 𝑅2 = 𝑅2
the plate of air dielectric parallel plate capacitor 𝑟𝑙𝑛 𝑅1 𝑙𝑛
𝑅1 𝑅1
with plate area 𝟐. 𝟖𝒄𝒎𝟐 and the distance of 𝟔 𝑉 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟔
25 x 𝟏𝟎 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅2
separation 0.2mm. Find the maximum: 𝑅1 𝑙𝑛 𝑅1 𝑙𝑛
𝑅1 𝑅1
𝑹𝟐
a)the displacement current 𝑱𝒅 But : 𝑹𝟏 =
𝟐
b)the conduction current 𝑰𝒄 . 𝑹𝟐 = 2𝑹𝟏
𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟔
Sln 25 x 𝟏𝟎𝟔 = 2𝑅1 =
𝑅1 𝑙𝑛 𝑅1 𝑥 0.69
𝑅1
a) the displacement current 𝑱𝒅 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎 𝟔
𝑉 50𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑹𝟏 = = 0.0116
E= = −3
𝟐𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑥 0.69
𝑑 0.2 𝑥 10
𝑹𝟐 = 2𝑹𝟏 = 2 x 0.0116 = 0.0232
𝜖𝑑𝐸
But 𝐽𝑑 = b)capacitance of 10km length cable
𝑑𝑡
𝜖 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 Sln
But 𝜀𝑟 = 1 and 𝜖 = 𝜀0 Q = 𝑝𝐿
𝑑 50𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑸
𝐽𝑑 = 𝜀0 ( )𝑑𝑡 C=
𝑑𝑡 0.2 𝑥 10−3 𝑽
3 𝑝𝐿
𝐽𝑑 = 250𝑥 10 𝜀0 𝜔𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 C= 𝑝𝐿 𝑅2 permetre
𝑙𝑛
2𝜋𝜀 𝑅1
b)the conduction current 𝑰𝒄 . And L = 10km = 10000m
𝑰 Now for 10000m
𝐽𝑑 = 𝒄 𝑝
𝐴 C = 𝑝𝐿 𝐿 𝑅2 𝒙 𝑳
𝑰𝒄 = 𝐽𝑑 x A 2𝜋𝜀
𝑙𝑛
𝑅1
𝐼𝐶 = 250𝑥 103 𝜀0 𝜔 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 x A C=
2𝜋𝜀
𝒙𝑳=
2𝜋 𝑥 8.85 𝑥 10−12
𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑅2 0.0232
𝑙𝑛 ln( )
𝑅1 0.0116
But 𝝎 = 2𝝅f and f = 20MHz 5.5606 𝑥 10−7
C= = 8.058 𝑥 10−7 𝐹
𝐼𝑐 = 250𝑥 103 𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10−12 𝑥 20 𝑥 106 𝝅𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 x A ln(2)
𝐼𝑐 = 88.854 𝑥 10−12 𝝅𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 x (2.8 𝑥 10−4 )
𝐼𝑐 = 24.4 𝑥 10−12 𝝅 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 c)What is the energy stored in the 10km cable
Sln
2
Example 1
𝑊𝐸 = 𝐶𝑽𝟎 2 = ( )𝑽𝟎 = 𝑄𝑉
1 𝑄 1
Maximum potential difference between the 2 2 𝑉 2
1 1
inner and outer conductor sheet of a coaxial Energy = 𝐶𝑽𝟎 2 = 𝑥 8.058 𝑥 10−7 (𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 )2
2 2
cable is 200kV as shown in the figure below. = 16116J

Example
Determine the energy stored in an electric field
of a concentric spherical shell

Find for E = 25 x 𝟏𝟎𝟔

𝑹
a)𝑹𝟏 and 𝑹𝟐 if 𝑹𝟏 = 𝟐
𝟐
b)capacitance of 10km length cable
c)What is the energy stored in the 10km cable Sln
Sln 𝑅1
E = - ∇. 𝑉 V = − ∫𝑅2 𝐸. 𝑑𝐿
𝑝 1
E = 𝐿 𝑎𝑟 Energy stored or work done = 𝜀𝐸 2 𝑉
2𝜋𝜀𝑟 2
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑝 𝑄
V= − ∫𝑅2 𝐸. 𝑑𝐿 V
= − ∫𝑅2 𝐿 𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝐿 E=
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 2 𝑎𝑅
2𝜋𝜀𝑟 1 𝑅1
dL = 𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑟 = − ∫𝑅2 𝜀𝐸 2 𝑑𝑣
2
𝑅1 𝑝 1 𝑅1 𝑄
V = − ∫𝑅2 𝐿 𝑎𝑟 . 𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑟 = − ∫𝑅2 𝜀( )2 𝑑𝑣
2𝜋𝜀𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜀𝑅 2
𝑅1 𝑝𝐿 2
V = − ∫𝑅2 𝑑 dv = 4𝜋𝑅 𝑑𝑟
2𝜋𝜀𝑟 𝑟
𝑝𝐿 𝑅1 1 1 𝑅1 𝑄2
V= − ∫ 𝑑 = − ∫𝑅2 𝜀 (4𝜋𝜀𝑅 2 )2
𝑥 4𝜋𝑅2 𝑑𝑟
2𝜋𝜀 𝑅2 𝑟 𝑟 2
𝑝𝐿 𝑅1 1 𝑅1 𝑄2
V= − [ln 𝑟]𝑅2 = − ∫𝑅2 𝜀 𝑥 4𝜋𝑅2 𝑑𝑟
2𝜋𝜀 2 4 2 𝜋2 𝜀 2 𝑅 4
𝑝𝐿 𝑅2
V=− 𝑙𝑛 R=r
2𝜋𝜀 𝑅1
2𝜋𝜀𝑉 1 𝑄2 𝑅1 1
Making 𝑝𝐿 the subject : 𝑝𝐿 = =− ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑟
𝑙𝑛
𝑅2 2 4𝜋𝜀 𝑅2 𝑟 2
𝑅1 1 𝑄2 1
E in terms of V =−
2 4𝜋𝜀 [𝑅]𝑅1
𝑅2
2𝜋𝜀𝑉
𝑅2 1 𝑄2 1
𝑝𝐿 𝑙𝑛𝑅1 =−
E= = and 2 4𝜋𝜀 [𝑅1−𝑅2]
2𝜋𝜀𝑟 2𝜋𝜀𝑟

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 Example
Example Find the energy stored in a parallel plate
Find the energy stored in a system of 4 identical capacitor
capacitor Q = 2nC placed at the corners of a Sln
square side 1m.
Sln

𝑉
E=
𝑑
𝑄1 1
V=
4𝜋𝜀|𝑟| W = ∫ 𝜀𝐸 2 𝑑𝑣
2
𝑄2 is taken as reference point 1 𝑉
𝑄 𝑄2 𝑄3
W = ∫ 𝜀( )2 𝑑𝑣
2 𝑑
V1= 1 + + 1 𝑣2
4𝜋𝜀|𝑟| 4𝜋𝜀|𝑟| 4𝜋𝜀|𝑟| W = 𝜀 2 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
1 1 1 2 𝑑
−9
V1 = 2𝑥10 [ + + ] But Volume V = A x d
4𝜋𝜀|1| 4𝜋𝜀|√2| 4𝜋𝜀|1|
1 𝑣2
2𝑥10−9 1 1 1 W = 𝜀 𝑥𝐴𝑥𝑑
V1 = [|1| + + |1|
] 2 𝑑2
4𝜋𝜀 |√2|
1 𝑣2 1 𝜀𝐴
1 1 1 W = 𝜀 𝑥 𝐴 = 𝑉2
V1 = 2𝑥10−9 𝑥 9𝑥109 [|1| + + |1|
] 2 𝑑 2 𝑑
|√2| But the capacitance of parallel plate capacitor is
1 𝜀𝐴
V1 = 18 [2 + ] = 48.73 C=
𝑑
|√2|

Energy Stored = 𝜀𝐸 2 𝑉
1 Hence
2 1 𝜀𝐴 1
Or W = 𝑉 2 = 𝑉 2𝐶
2 𝑑 2
1 1
Energy stored = 𝑄𝑉 = 𝑥2𝑥10−9 𝑥 48.73 But Q = CV
2 2 1
Hence we can have also W = 𝑄𝑉
= 48.73𝑥10−9 J 2

CYLINDRICAL CAPACITOR (CO-AXIAL

CABLE)
Example
The electric field between 2 concentric It consist of an inner radius ‘a’ and an outer radius
cylindrical conductors of radius r1 = 0.01m and ‘b’. the space between conductor is filled with
𝟏𝟎𝟔 electric field intensity (E ) and let L be the length
r2 = 0.05m is E = ( )𝐚𝐫 . Find the energy stored of the cable
𝐫
in 1m length. By applying Gauss law:
Sln Charge enclosed Q = ∫ 𝐷𝑑𝑠
1
Energy Stored = 𝜀𝐸 2 𝑉 Q = DA
2
DA = Q
𝑎 ∅=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋 But D = 𝜀𝐸
Q = ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 𝑝𝑣 𝑟 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
𝜀𝐸(2𝜋𝑟)𝐿 = Q
dv =𝜌𝑑𝑝𝑑∅𝑑𝑟 2𝜋𝑟𝐿𝜀𝐸 = Q
=𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑∅𝑑𝑧 E=
𝑄
𝑎𝑟
1 1 ∅=2𝜋 0.05 2𝜋𝜀𝑟𝐿
= ∫0 ∫0 ∫0.01 𝜀𝐸 2 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑∅𝑑𝑧 𝑏
2 V = − ∫𝑏 𝐸. 𝑑𝐿
1 1 0.05 𝟏𝟎𝟔 2
∅=2𝜋
= 𝜀 ∫0 ∫0 ∫0.01 (
) 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑∅𝑑𝑧 dL = 𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑟
2 𝐫
𝟏𝟐 𝑎 𝑄
1 1 ∅=2𝜋 0.05 𝟏𝟎 V = − ∫𝑏 𝑎 . 𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑟
= 𝜀 ∫0 ∫0 ∫0.01 𝒓𝟐 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑∅𝑑𝑧 2𝜋𝜀𝑟𝐿 𝑟
2 𝑎 𝑄
1 1 ∅=2𝜋 0.05 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐 V = − ∫𝑏 𝑑𝑟
= 𝜀 ∫0 ∫0 2𝜋𝜀𝑟𝐿
2
∫0.01 𝐫 𝑑𝑟𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
1 1 ∅=2𝜋 𝑄 𝑎 1
= 𝑥 1012 𝜀 ∫0 ∫0 [𝑙𝑛𝑟]𝟎.𝟎𝟓
0.01 𝑑∅𝑑𝑧 V=− ∫ 𝑑
2 2𝜋𝜀𝐿 𝑏 𝑟 𝑟
1 0.05 1 𝑄
= 𝑥 1012 𝜀𝑙𝑛 ∫ 2𝜋 dz V= − [ln 𝑟]𝑎𝑏
2 0.01 0 2𝜋𝜀𝑟𝐿
1 𝑄 𝑎
= 𝑥 1012 𝜀𝑙𝑛5 [2𝜋] [𝑧]𝟏0 V=− 𝑙𝑛
2 2𝜋𝜀𝐿 𝑏
12
= 𝜀𝜋 𝑥 𝑙𝑛5𝑥 10 To make it positive
𝑄 𝑏
V= 𝑙𝑛
2𝜋𝜀𝐿 𝑐
𝑸 𝑸
C= = 𝑄 𝑏
𝑽 𝑙𝑛
2𝜋𝜀𝐿 𝑐
2𝜋𝜀𝐿
C= 𝑏
𝑙𝑛
𝑐

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SPHERICAL CAPACITOR Sln
It consists of an inner conducting sphere of radius a) D
r = Ri and outer radius of r = R 0 𝑑𝐷
From ∇ × H =
𝑅1 𝑑𝑡
V = − ∫𝑅0 𝐸. 𝑑𝐿
𝑄 𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧
E= 𝑎𝑟
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 2 𝜕𝐻 𝑑𝐻 𝜕𝐻
̅ =|
∇×𝐻 |
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑅1 𝑄
V= − ∫𝑅2 𝑑𝑅 𝐻𝑥 𝐻𝑦 𝐻𝑧
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 2
2 1
NOTE 𝑅 when differentiated gives -
𝑅1
𝑅 𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧
𝑄
V=[ ] ̅=|
𝜕𝐻 𝑑𝐻 𝜕𝐻
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 𝑅9 ∇×𝐻 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑧 |
10
0 0 2Cos (10 𝑡 − 𝛽𝑥)
Example
What is the capacitance of the capacitor ∇×𝐻 ̅ = - 𝑑𝐻 𝑎𝑦 = 2𝛽Sin (1010 𝑡 − 𝛽𝑥) = 𝑑𝐷
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡
consisting of two parallel plates 0.30 by 0.3m D = ∫ 2𝛽𝑆𝑖𝑛(10)10 𝑡 − 𝛽𝑥)
separated by 0.005m in air as shown in the 2𝛽
=- 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (1010 𝑡 − 𝛽𝑥)𝑎𝑦 V/m
figure below . 1010

b)E
From D = 𝜖𝐸
𝐷 2𝛽
E= =- 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (1010 𝑡 − 𝛽𝑥)𝑎𝑦 V/m
𝜖 (1.2 𝑥 10−10 )1010
10
𝐸 = −1.67 𝛽𝐶𝑜𝑠 (10 𝑡 − 𝛽𝑥)𝑎𝑦 V/m

c)B
𝑑𝐵
a)What is the energy stored by the capacitor if it ∇ ×E= −
𝑑𝑡
is charged to potential of 500V
b)What is its energy density i)B
Sln 𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
a)What is the energy stored by the capacitor if it 𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
is charged to potential of 500V ∇ × E = | 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 |
Sln 𝑯𝒙 𝑯𝒚 𝑯𝒛
𝜺𝑨 𝜀 𝜀 𝐴
C = = 0𝑟
𝒅 𝒅
8.85 𝑥 10−12 𝑥 0.3 𝑥 0.3 𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
C = = 1.593 𝑥 10−10 𝐹 𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟓
Energy =
1
𝐶𝑽𝟎 2
1
= 𝑥 1.593 𝑥 10−10 (𝟓𝟎𝟎)2 = 𝛁 × E = | 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 |
2 2 10
1.99125 𝑥 10 J −5 𝟎 𝟎 2Cos (10 𝑡 − 𝛽𝑥)
𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝐵
∇×𝐸 =̅ 𝑎 =1.67 𝛽 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (1010 𝑡 − 𝛽𝑥) = -
𝑑𝑥 𝑧 𝑑𝑡
B = - ∫ 1.67 𝛽 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (1010 𝑡 − 𝛽𝑥)𝑑𝑡
b)What is its energy density B = 1.67𝑥 10−10 𝛽 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (1010 𝑡 − 𝛽𝑥)
Sln
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑦
Energy density = d) 𝜷
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
1.99125 𝑥 10−5 J From
Energy density =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 B = 𝜇𝐻
1.99125 𝑥 10−5 J
Energy density = Then
(0.30 𝑥0.3) 𝑥(0.005)
1.99125 𝑥 10−5 J
B = 𝜇(𝟐𝐂𝐨𝐬 (𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝒕 − 𝜷𝒙)
Energy density = = 0.04425 J/𝑚3 B = 3 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 (𝟐𝐂𝐨𝐬 (𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝒕 − 𝜷𝒙)
4.5 𝑥 10−4
B = 6 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝐂𝐨𝐬 (𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝒕 − 𝜷𝒙)𝒂𝒛

Comparing the two equations of B

We have
Example 6 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝐂𝐨𝐬 (𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝒕 − 𝜷𝒙)= 1.67𝑥 10−10 𝛽 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (1010 𝑡 − 𝛽𝑥)
Let 𝝁 = 3 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 H/m, 𝝐 = 1.2 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 F/m , and 1.67𝑥 10−10 𝛽 2 = 6 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟓
6 𝑥 10 −5
𝝈 = 0 everywhere. If H = 2Cos (𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝒕 − 𝜷𝒙)𝒂𝒛 𝛽2 =
1.67 𝑥 10−10
A/m, use Maxwell’s equation to obtain 6 𝑥 10 −5
expression for 𝛽=√ = ± 600 rad/m
1.67 𝑥 10−10
a)D
b)E
c) B
d) 𝜷

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Example = -1169 + j818
A 60 MHz uniform plane wave propagates in a
medium with 𝝐𝒓𝟏 = 20, 𝝁𝒓𝟏 = 1 and 𝝈𝟏 = 0.05 iii)Attenuation constant ∝
S/m. The amplitude of electric field intensity is Sln
20 V/m. Determine: (9mks) 1169 lagging
i) Angular frequency 𝝎
Angular Frequency 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋 x 6 x 106 =
3.77 x 108 Rad/s

ii)Complex Permittivity 𝜺̅
𝜎1 𝜎1 0.05 𝑥 ×36𝜋
= = = 0.75
𝜔𝜖 𝜔𝜖𝑟1 𝜖0 3.77 𝑥 108 𝑥 20𝑥 10−9
𝜖𝑟1 𝜎1
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜀̅ = (1 − 𝑗 )
𝜇𝑟1 𝜔𝜖𝑟1 𝜖0
20 𝑥 10−9
= (1 − 𝑗0.75)
36𝜋
= (17.68 – j1.33 ) x 10−11

̅
iii)Propagation Constant 𝒀

Sln
𝑌̅ = j𝜔 √𝜇0 𝜺̅

= j3.77 𝑥 108 √4𝜋𝑥10−7 (17.68 − 𝑗1.33)10−11

= j 5.62 + 1.54
= 1.54 + j5.62

iv)Intrinsic Impedance Ω

Sln
𝜇
Intrinsic Impedance Ω = √ ̅0
𝜺

4𝜋𝑥10−7 𝑥 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏
=√
𝟏𝟕.𝟔𝟖 – 𝒋𝟏.𝟑𝟑
= 84 + j23.1

Example
A 5GHz wave propagates in a medium
characterized by :
Permeability, 𝝁𝒓 = 2,
permittivity, 𝜺𝒓 = 20
Conductivity 𝝈 = 4.0 S/m.
The electric field intensity E in the region is
given by the expression
E = 0.2𝒆−𝒂𝒛 Cos (2𝝅𝒇𝒕 − 𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒛
Determine the: (7mks)
i)Complex permittivity 𝜺 ⃖
ω = 2πx 5x 109 = 31.41 x 109 rad/s
31.41 x 109 x 31.41 x 30−9
ω∈= = 8.33
36π
𝑗𝜔𝜀
The complex permittivity 𝜀⃖ = ∈ [1 − ]
𝜎
𝑗8.33
𝜀⃖ = ∈ [1 − ] = ∈ (1 − 𝑗2.1)
4
= ∈ (2.32 < −64.50

ii)Propagation constant 𝜸
Sln
Y = j𝜔 √𝜇𝜀
= j𝜔√𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑥 𝜇𝑟 𝑥𝜀𝑟 x √1 − 𝑗2.1
𝑗31.41 x 109
= x √2 𝑥 30 x √1 − 𝑗2.1
3 x 108
= j811√1 − 𝑗2.1
=(811<90)(1.76<55)
= 1427 < 145

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TOPIC 4 Transverse waves are waves in which the medium
particles are displaced perpendicular to the
PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC direction of wave-flow.
WAVES
Objectives 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔 (𝑽) 𝑽
Note, units of E = =
1)Explain terms used in electromagnetic waves 𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒅 (𝒎) 𝒎
𝑽
i)Plane waves 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑰 𝒎
And that of H = = 𝑨
ii)Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) wave 𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒎
𝒎
iii)Skin depth 𝑽
𝑽
𝒎
2)Describe properties of an electromagnetic Hence intrinsic impedance 𝛈 = 𝑨 = Ω
𝑨
𝒎
waves
𝝁𝟎
i)Velocity of propagation In free space 𝜼𝟎 = √ = 120𝝅 = 377 Ω
𝜺𝟎
ii)Intrinsic wave impedance
iii)Frequency
WAVE PROPAGATION
iv)Wavelength
Propagation – refers to any ways in which the
v)Attenuation
travels with respect to the direction
3)Analyse the properties of electromagnetic
With relation to propagation, we can distinguish
waves in various media
between:
i)Velocity of propagation
1)Transverse
ii)intrinsic wave impedance
ii)Longitudinal
iii)Frequency
1)Transverse waves – In which the direction of
iv)Wavelength
propagation of medium particle is perpendicular
v)Attenuation
to the direction of the generated wave
Wave characteristics in various media
i)Lossy media
ii)Lossless Media
iii)Free space
iv)Good conductors
4)Explain the principle of electromagnetic
shielding
5)Describe the skin effects in electromagnetic
waves Terms used in waves
a)The wavelength (λ)– is the distance covered by
Definition of wave the wave in one complete circle.
A wave is a source of energy which comes as a The symbol is a Greek letter known as Lambda (λ)
result of disturbance. b) Amplitude – The maximum distance from the
mean position
Plane waves c)Frequency (f) – The number of complete
Uniform plane waves are those, which the Electric oscillations in one second.
field E and Magnetic field H lie on the same plane. d)Periodic time (T) – Time taken for one complete
wave
Properties of plane waves
i)At each point , in the space, E and H are 2)Longitudinal: - Wave in which the direction of
perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation of medium particle is parallel to the
propagation. direction of the generated wave e.g sound wave.
ii) They travel with the velocity of light, i.e The
velocity of propagation in free space is
𝑣0 = 3.0 x 108 m/s
iii) E and H oscillates in phase and the ration of E
𝑬 𝝁
to H gives intrinsic impedance η= =√ In longitudinal, wavelength is the distance
𝑯 𝝐
Where: between two consecutive regions of rarefaction(R)
𝝁 = 𝝁𝒓 𝝁𝟎 or compression (C)
𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝝐 = 𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓

The symbol η is known as the characteristic

impedance of the medium.
iv)A plane wave is a transverse wave.

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WAVE EQUATION Solutions of wave Equation
The solution of any electromagnetic wave problem This area covers wave propagation in:
and the fundamental relationship that are to be i)In free space
certified have to be obtained from the four ii Conducting Media
Maxwell’s equation time varying field iii)Perfect dielectric
iv)Lossy dielectric
The following symbols are used :
1) 𝝐 = 𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 I)IN FREE SPACE
Where: a free space is a perfect dielectric containing no
𝜺𝟎 = Permittivity of free space (vacuum) charges and no conduction current
𝜺𝒓 = Permittivity of material In free space, 𝛔 = 0, and therefore no conduction
2) 𝝁 = 𝜇𝑟 𝜇0 current i.e Ic = Jc = 0
The field winding therefore becomes:
Where :
𝝁𝟎 = Permeability of free space 𝟏)𝛁 . 𝑫 = 𝟎
𝒅𝑩
𝝁𝒓 = Permeability of material 𝟐) 𝛁 × 𝑬 = − ….(ii)
𝒅𝒕
3) 𝝈 = conductivity 𝝐𝒅𝑬
𝟑) 𝛁 × 𝑯 = 𝟎 + …. (iii)
4) 𝜷 = Phase constant 𝒅𝒕
𝟒)𝛁 . 𝑩 = 𝟎
5) η = Intrinsic impedance
The equation in free space (vacuum) i.e there is no
6) 𝜹 = Skin depth
conduction current 𝐼𝑐 or 𝐽𝑐 since 𝜎 = 0
The auxiliary equations connecting D and E as
well as B and H are. Wave Equation for magnetic fields H
And flux density 𝛽 = 𝜇H …. (iii)
Note the following:
v) D = 𝜖𝑬 where 𝝐 = 𝝐𝑹 𝜺𝟎 Replacing equation iii into equation (ii)
vi) B = 𝜇H where 𝝁 = 𝝁𝑹 𝝁𝟎
𝒅𝜇H
vii) E = 𝜂𝑯 𝛁 ×𝑬= −
𝒅𝒕
Defining current density is: From equation (iii)
viii) J=𝜎E 𝝐𝒅𝑬
Defining current density in terms of the Volume 𝛁 ×𝑯= and curling both sides of the
𝒅𝒕
charge density 𝜌𝑣 is: equation
ix) J = 𝜌𝑣 V 𝝐𝒅 (𝛁 𝐱 𝑬)
𝛁 𝐱 (𝛁 × 𝑯) = ….. (iv)
𝒅𝒕
From vector equation, the curl of
The Maxwell’s equations for time- varying fields 𝛁 𝐱 (𝛁 × 𝑨) = 𝛁 . (𝛁𝑨) − 𝛁 𝟐 𝑨
are: 𝛁 𝐱 (𝛁 × 𝑨) = −𝛁 𝟐 𝑨
𝒅𝑩
𝟏) 𝛁 × 𝑬 = − (Faradays law)
𝒅𝒕 Similarly,
The curl of electric field (E) in a closed path is
∇ x ∇ × H = −∇ 2 H
equal to the time rate of change of magnetic flux. ϵd (∇ x E)
𝟐) 𝛁 × 𝑯 = 𝑱 +
𝒅𝑫
(Amperes circuital law in −∇ 2 H =
dt
𝒅𝒕 ϵd (∇ x E)
2
point form) ∇ H=- ….eqtn v
dt
The curl of magnetic field H , results into the dμH
From equation ∇ × E = −
conduction current 𝐽𝑐 and the displacement current dt

𝐽𝑑 =
𝒅𝑫 Replacing in equation (v)
𝒅𝒕
The remaining two equations are unchanged from 𝝐𝝁𝒅𝟐 𝑯
their non- Varying form. 𝛁𝟐𝑯=- (This is the equation for H field
𝒅𝒕𝟐
in free space)
𝟑)𝛁 . 𝑫 = 𝝆𝒗 (Gauss Law)
The divergence of electric flux D is a measure of its For Electric field E
distribution
Similarly:
𝒅𝜇H
𝟒)𝛁 . 𝑩 = 𝟎 (Gauss law ) 𝛁 ×𝑬= − eqtn (i)
𝒅𝒕
The divergence of magnetic flux is zero. i.e the
magnetic flux line do not diverge but would always And curling both sides
form a loop 𝜇𝑑(∇ x 𝐻)
∇ x (∇ × 𝐸) = ….. (ii)
𝑑𝑡
Similarly,
∇ x ∇ × E = −∇ 2 E
𝜇𝑑(∇ x 𝐻)
−∇ 2 E =
𝑑𝑡

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∇2E=−
𝜇𝑑(∇ x 𝐻)
….eqtn (iii) λ = cT
𝑑𝑡
Therefore:
And
𝝐𝝁𝒅𝟐 𝑬
From phase velocity,
𝛁𝟐𝑬=- (this the wave equation for E λ = cT
𝒅𝒕𝟐
field in free space) 2𝜋𝑓
λ = 𝑉𝑝 T = 𝑇
𝛽
1
Phase velocity or Velocity of propagation(𝑽𝒑 ) but T =
𝑓
Is the velocity at which a constant wave travel. Wavelength λ =
𝟐𝝅𝒇
𝒙
𝟏
=
𝟐𝝅
𝝎 𝜷 𝒇 𝜷
Phase velocity (𝑽𝒑 ) = …..eqtn 1
𝜷
Where 𝝎 = angular velocity 𝒄𝟐
e) Group velocity 𝑽𝒈 =
𝜷 = phase constant 𝑽𝒑
But 𝜷 = 𝝎√𝝁𝝐 …… eqtn 2 Example
Substituting equation 2 into equation 1 Given that: 𝛍𝟎 = 𝟒𝛑 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟕
𝝎 𝝎
𝑽𝒑 = = 𝛆𝟎 = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 , f = 50Hz
𝜷 𝝎√𝝁𝝐
𝝎 𝟏 Find the following :
𝑽𝒑 = = eqtn 3 a)Phase shift (𝜷)
𝝎√𝝁𝝐 √𝝁𝝐
b)Phase velocity (𝑉𝑝 )
But c)Group velocity(𝑉𝑔 )
𝝁 = 𝝁𝒓 𝝁𝟎 c)Intrinsic impedance (η)
𝑎𝑛𝑑 eqtn 4 c)wavelength (λ)
𝝐 = 𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓
Substituting the equation 4 into 3, we have Sln
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑽𝒑 = = × a)Phase shift (𝜷)
√𝝁𝝐 √ 𝝁𝒓 𝜺𝒓 √𝝁𝟎 𝜺𝟎
𝟏 𝛽 = 𝜔√𝜇0 𝜀0
But 𝒄 = = 3.0 x 𝟏𝟎𝟖 m/s
√𝝁𝟎 𝜺𝟎
= 2𝜋𝑓√ 4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10−12
Hence phase velocity or velocity of propagation = 3.313 x 10−8
𝟏 𝟏
𝑽𝒑 = = ×𝒄 b)Phase velocity (𝑉𝑝 )
√𝝁𝝐 √𝝁𝒓 𝜺𝒓
𝟏 𝒄 𝟏
𝑽𝒑 = = or Phase velocity 𝑽𝒑 =
√𝝁𝝐 √ 𝝁𝒓 𝜺𝒓 √𝝁𝟎 𝜺𝟎
𝝎 𝟏 𝟏
𝑽𝒑 = = =
𝜷 √𝝁𝝐 √4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10−12
Phase velocity( 𝑽𝒑 ), Wavelength λ and Phase =
𝟏
= 3.0 x 𝟏𝟎𝟖 m/s
𝟑.𝟑𝟑𝟓𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟗
constants ( 𝜷), Intrinsic impedance (η), in free
c)Group velocity(𝑉𝑔 )
space 𝑐2 (3.0 𝑥 108 )2
𝑉𝑔 = = = 3.0 x 108 m/s
𝑉𝑝 3.0 𝑥 108
Condition in free space:
𝝐 = 𝜺𝟎 c)Intrinsic impedance (η)
𝝁 = 𝝁𝟎
𝝁𝟎 𝟒𝛑 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟕
η=√ =√ = 377 Ω
𝜺𝟎 𝟖.𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐
So in free space
c)wavelength (λ)
a)Phase shift/ phase constant 𝜷 = 𝝎√𝝁𝟎 𝜺𝟎 𝑐 3.0 x 108
𝝎 𝝎 𝟏 Wavelength (λ) = = = 6.0 x 𝟏𝟎𝟔 m
b) Phase velocity 𝑽𝒑 = = = 𝑓 50
𝜷 𝝎√𝝁𝟎 𝜺𝟎 √𝝁𝟎 𝜺𝟎
i.e in free space II) CONDUCTING MEDIA
𝟏 𝟖
𝑽𝒑 = c = = 3.0 x 𝟏𝟎 m/s
√𝝁𝟎 𝜺𝟎
Wave equation in conducting media
𝝁𝟎
c)Intrinsic impedance η = √ = 120𝝅Ω A conducting media is one in which 𝜎 ≠ 0 and
𝜺𝟎
hence, conduction current exist as well as charge.
d)Wavelength λ
Consider the following equations
from the equation of velocity c = f λ 𝑑𝜇H
where c = velocity of light ∇ ×𝐸 = − eqtn (i)
𝑑𝑡
𝜖𝑑𝐸
λ = wavelength ∇ × 𝐻 = 𝜎𝐸 + eqtn (ii)
𝑑𝑡
f = frequency
1
and f = Wave Equation for E - fields in Conducting media
𝑇
𝑐
c = f λ or λ = or or λ = cT
𝑓
From equation (i), curling both sides
Therefore: 𝑑𝜇H
From phase velocity, ∇ ×𝐸 = − …. eqtn (i)
𝑑𝑡
𝜔 2𝜋𝑓
𝑉𝑝 = c = =
𝛽 𝛽 And curling both sides

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 𝜇𝑑(∇ x 𝐻)
∇ x (∇ × 𝐸) = ….. (ii)
𝑑𝑡
Attenuation constant ∝
Similarly,
When any wave propagates in the medium, it gets
∇ x ∇ × E = −∇ 2 E
𝜇𝑑(∇ x 𝐻) attenuated. The amplitude of the signal reduces.
−∇ 2 E = This is represented by an attenuation constant 𝜶
𝑑𝑡
𝜇𝑑(∇ x 𝐻)
∇2E=− ….eqtn (iii) Attenuation is measured in Neper per meter
𝑑𝑡
But from eqtn (ii) (Np/m)
𝜖𝑑𝐸 1 Np = 8.686 dB
∇ × 𝐻 = 𝜎𝐸 +
𝑑𝑡
2 𝜇𝑑 𝜖𝑑𝐸
∇ E=− [𝜎𝐸 + ] Derivation of equation of attenuation constant (
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
And ∝) in conducting media
𝜇𝜎𝑑𝐸 𝜖𝜇𝑑 2 𝐸
∇2E=− + (This is the equation wave
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 By considering the real part of equation (ix) above
equation for E fields in conducting media)
𝜶𝟐 − 𝜷𝟐 = −𝝎𝟐 𝝁𝝐 ……… eqtn (ix)
Wave equations for H fields in conducting media
And re-arranging and equating to zero (0)
𝜶𝟐 − 𝜷𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐 𝝁𝝐 = 0
Similarly, from equation (ii) 𝛚𝛍𝛔
𝜖𝑑𝐸 But the phase constant = , and hence replacing
∇ × 𝐻 = 𝜎𝐸 + eqtn (ii) 𝟐𝛂
𝑑𝑡 into the above equation
And curling both sides 𝛚𝛍𝛔
𝜖𝑑𝐸 𝜶𝟐 − ( )𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐 𝝁𝝐 = 0
𝟐𝛂
∇ × 𝐻 = 𝜎𝐸 + 𝝎𝟐 𝝁𝟐 𝝈𝟐
𝑑𝑡 𝟐
𝜶 − + 𝝎𝟐 𝝁𝝐 = 0
𝟒𝜶𝟐

∇ x (∇ × 𝐻) = 𝜎(∇ × 𝐸) +
𝜖𝑑 (∇ x 𝐸)
….. (iii) And multiplying all through by the denominator
𝜖𝑑 (∇ x 𝐸)
𝑑𝑡 𝟒𝜶𝟐 we have
−∇ 2 H = 𝜎(∇ × 𝐸) + 4𝛼 4 − 𝜔2 𝜇 2 𝜎 2 + 4𝛼 2 𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝜖𝑑 And re-arranging the equation to form quadratic,
−∇ 2 H = (∇ × 𝐸) [𝜎 + ] eqtn (iv)
𝑑𝑡
becomes
But
𝑑𝜇H 4𝛼 4 + 4𝛼 2 𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 − 𝜔2 𝜇 2 𝜎 2 = 0
∇ ×𝐸 = −
𝑑𝑡
And replacing into eqtn ( iv) And using the quadratic formula
2 𝑑𝜇H 𝜖𝑑
−∇ H = − [𝜎 + ] −𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝝁𝐇𝝈 𝝐𝝁𝒅𝟐 𝑯 2𝑎
𝛁𝟐𝐇= + (this is the wave −4𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 ±√(4𝜔2 𝜇𝜖)2 + 4(4)(𝜔2 𝜇 2 𝜎 2 )
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕𝟐
𝛼2 =
equation for H fields in conducting media) 2𝑥4
2 −4𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 ±√16𝜔4 𝜇 2 𝜖 2 + 16𝜔2 𝜇 2 𝜎 2
𝛼 =
8
Derivation of equation of Phase constant (𝜷) in −4𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 ±√16𝜔2 𝜇 2 (𝜔2 𝜖 2 + 𝜎 2 )
2
Conducting media 𝛼 =
8
−4𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 ± 4𝜔𝜇√(𝜔2 𝜖 2 + 𝜎 2 )
𝛼2 =
The a bove equations can be re-written as : 8
4(−𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 ± 𝜔𝜇)√(𝜔2 𝜖 2 + 𝜎 2 )
𝛁 𝟐 𝐄 = 𝜸𝟐 E 2
𝛼 =
8
𝛁 𝟐 𝐇 = 𝜸𝟐 H −𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 ± 𝜔𝜇√(𝜔2 𝜖 2 + 𝜎 2 )
2
Where 𝜸𝟐 = j𝝎𝝁(𝝈 + 𝒋𝝎𝝐) 𝛼 =
2
𝜸 = propagation constant By factorizing and dividing the root part by 𝜔2 𝜖 2 ,
𝜸 = ∝ + 𝜷𝒋 this can be re- written as
Where ∝ = attenuation constant in Nepas 𝜎2
−𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 ± 𝜔𝜇 √𝜔2 𝜖 2 (1 + 2 2 )
2 𝜔 𝜖
𝜷 = Phase constant in rad/seconds 𝛼 =
2
For uniform wave travelling in the direction 2 2
And finding the root of 𝜔 𝜖
𝜸𝟐 = j𝝎𝝁(𝝈 + 𝒋𝝎𝝐) −𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 ± 𝜔𝜇 𝑥 √𝜔2 𝜖 2 𝑥√(1 + 2 2 )
𝜎2
2 𝜔 𝜖
( ∝ + 𝜷𝒋)𝟐 = j𝝎𝝁(𝝈 + 𝒋𝝎𝝐) 𝛼 =
2
𝜶𝟐 + 2∝ 𝜷𝒋 − 𝜷𝟐 = j𝝎𝝁𝝈 − 𝝎𝟐 𝝁𝝐 This becomes
By equating the real part 𝜎2
−𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 ± 𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 √(1 + 2 2 )
𝜶𝟐 − 𝜷𝟐 = −𝝎𝟐 𝝁𝝐 ..….eqtn (ix) 2
𝛼 = 𝜔 𝜖
2
By equating the imaginary Part Re – arranging
2∝ 𝜷𝒋 = j𝝎𝝁𝝈 𝜎2
𝜔2 𝜇𝜖√(1 + 2 2 )−𝜔2 𝜇𝜖
And making the phase constant the subject 2
𝛼 = 𝜔 𝜖
𝑗𝜇𝜔𝜎 𝜔𝜇𝜎 2
Phase constant 𝛽 = =
2𝛼𝑗 2𝛼 𝜎2
𝜔 2 𝜇𝜖 √(1 + )−𝜔2 𝜇𝜖
𝝎𝝁𝝈
𝛼=√ 𝜔 2 𝜖2
2
Phase constant 𝜷 =
𝟐𝜶

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 iii) DIELECTRICS
2 𝜇𝜖[√(1 + 𝜎2
√𝜔 𝜔 2 𝜖2
)−1 ]
Loss-less or perfect dielectric media
𝛼=
2 A loss-less media is a medium in which
electromagnetic propagate without the loss of
Or power. A loss-less media is also known as perfect
dielectrics
𝝈𝟐
√(𝟏 + Condition for loss –less media
√𝝁𝝐[ 𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
)−𝟏 ]

Attenuation constant 𝜶 = 𝝎 𝜎=0

𝟐
∈ = 𝜀𝑟 𝜀𝑜
Or ∝ = 0 (no losses)
Attenuation constant Phase constant and Phase velocity in a loss less
𝝁𝝐 𝝈𝟐
media
∝= 𝝎√ [√(𝟏 + ) − 𝟏]
𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
a)Phase constant
From conducting media, the phase constant is
given by:
Phase constant 𝜷 or phase shift
Again the phase constant 𝜷 can be obtain in the 𝝁𝝐 𝝈𝟐
𝜷= 𝝎√ [√(𝟏 + ) + 𝟏]
similar manner as follows 𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐

By considering the real part of equation (ix) above But in loss-less media 𝜎 = 0

𝜶𝟐 − 𝜷𝟐 = −𝝎𝟐 𝝁𝝐 ……… eqtn (ix) 𝜷= 𝝎√ [√(𝟏 +

𝝁𝝐 𝟎
) + 𝟏]
𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
And making the phase constant the subject
𝝁𝝐
And re-arranging and equating to zero (0) 𝜷= 𝝎√ [√(𝟏) + 𝟏]
𝟐
𝜷𝟐 = 𝜶𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐 𝝁𝝐 eqtn (xi) 𝝁𝝐 𝝁𝝐
𝜷= 𝝎√ [𝟏 + 𝟏] = 𝝎√ [𝟐]
𝟐 𝟐
𝜎2
−𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 ± 𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 √(1 + ) 𝝁𝝐 𝝁𝝐
But 𝛼 2 = 𝜔 2 𝜖2 𝜷= 𝝎√ [𝟏 + 𝟏] = 𝝎√ [𝟐]
2 𝟐 𝟐

𝜷 = 𝝎√𝝁𝝐
Hence substituting into the eqtn (xi)
𝜎2
−𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 ± 𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 √(1 + 2 2 )
𝟐
𝜷 = + 𝝎𝟐 𝝁𝝐
𝜔 𝜖
b) Phase velocity or Velocity of propagation(𝑽𝒑 )
2
Having common denominator Is the velocity at which a constant wave travel?
𝝎
𝜎2
−𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 ± 𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 √(1 + 2 2 )+𝟐𝝎𝟐 𝝁𝝐 Phase velocity (𝑽𝒑 ) = ….. eqtn 1
𝟐 𝜔 𝜖 𝜷
𝜷 =
𝟐 Where 𝝎 = angular velocity
𝜎2
𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 √(1 + 2 2 ) + 𝝎𝟐 𝝁𝝐 𝜷 = phase constant
𝜷𝟐 = 𝜔 𝜖
But 𝜷 = 𝝎√𝝁𝝐 … eqtn 2
𝟐
And finding the square-root Substituting equation 2 into equation 1
𝝎 𝝎
2 𝜇𝜖 √(1 + 𝜎2 𝑽𝒑 = =
𝜔 )+𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 𝜷 𝝎√𝝁𝝐
𝛽=√ 𝜔 2 𝜖2
𝑽𝒑 =
𝝎 𝟏
= …..eqtn 3
2
𝝎√𝝁𝝐 √𝝁𝝐

2 𝜇𝜖[√(1 + 𝜎2 But
√𝜔 𝜔 2 𝜖2
)+1 ]
𝝁 = 𝝁𝒓 𝝁𝟎
𝛽=
2
𝑎𝑛𝑑 …..eqtn 4
Or 𝝐 = 𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓
𝟐
Substituting the equation 4 into 3, we have
√(𝟏 + 𝝈
√𝝁𝝐[ 𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
)+𝟏 ]
𝑽𝒑 =
𝟏
=
𝟏
×
𝟏

Phase constant 𝜷 = 𝝎 √𝝁𝝐 √ 𝝁𝒓 𝜺𝒓 √𝝁𝟎 𝜺𝟎

𝟐 𝟏
But 𝒄 = = 3.0 x 𝟏𝟎𝟖 m/s
√𝝁𝟎 𝜺𝟎
𝝁𝝐 𝝈𝟐 Hence phase velocity or velocity of propagation
𝜷= 𝝎√ [√(𝟏 + ) + 𝟏]
𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐 𝝎 𝟏 𝟏
𝑽𝒑 = = = ×𝒄
𝜷 √𝝁𝝐 √𝝁𝒓 𝜺𝒓
Phase constant 𝜷 – is measured in radian per 𝟏 𝒄 𝟏
metre (rad/m) 𝑽𝒑 = = or 𝑽𝒑 =
√𝝁𝝐 √ 𝝁𝒓 𝜺𝒓 √𝝁𝝐

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Intrinsic impedance η
𝜇 In good conductor, the propagation constant is
𝜂= √
𝜖 given by:
Where 𝝁 = 𝝁𝒓 𝝁𝟎 𝛾 = √𝑗𝜔𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜖)
𝑎𝑛𝑑 Re-arranging the terms
𝝐 = 𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓 𝑗𝜔𝜖
𝜇 𝝁𝒓 𝝁𝟎
𝛾 =√𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜎(1 + )
𝜎
𝜂 = √ =√
𝜖 𝜺𝒓 𝜺𝟎 Since 𝜎 ≫ 𝜔𝜖 (so much greater than..)
𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝒓 𝑗𝜔𝜖
=√ x√ We can ignore the imaginary part
𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓 𝜎

𝝁𝟎
𝛾 =√𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜎(1)
But √ = 120𝜋
𝜺𝟎 𝜸 =√𝒋𝝎𝝁𝝈
𝜂 = 120𝜋√
𝝁𝒓 𝜸 =√𝝎𝝁𝝈 x √𝒋
𝜺𝒓
But j = 1< 900
𝜸 =√𝝎𝝁𝝈 x √ 1 < 900
Example
𝜸 =√𝝎𝝁𝝈 x< 450
For plane wave travelling at 1MHz ,
propagating in fresh water and given that 𝜸 =√𝝎𝝁𝝈 x< 450
𝜺𝒓 = 81, 𝝁𝒓 = 1, and 𝝈 = 𝟎. Determine: 𝜸 =√𝝎𝝁𝝈 [𝒄𝒐𝒔450 + 𝒋𝑺𝒊𝒏450 ]
𝟏 𝟏
a) Wave number (phase shift) 𝜸 =√𝝎𝝁𝝈 [ + 𝒋 ]
√𝟐 √𝟐
b) Wavelength 𝟏
c) Phase velocity 𝜸 =√𝝎𝝁𝝈 [ (𝟏 + 𝒋)]
√𝟐
d) Intrinsic impedance But 𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇
Sln 𝟏
𝜸 =√𝟐𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈 [ (𝟏 + 𝒋)]
a)Wave number (phase shift) √𝟐
𝟏
𝛽 = 𝜔√𝜇𝜖 𝜸 =√𝟐 (√𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈) ( )[(𝟏 + 𝒋)]
√𝟐
𝛽 = 2𝜋𝑓√81 𝑥 8.854 𝑥10−12 𝑥 1𝑥4π x 10−7 𝜸 = √𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈 [(𝟏 + 𝒋)]
= 2𝜋 x106 √ 8.854 𝑥10−12 𝑥 4π x 10−7 x √𝟖𝟏
𝜸 = √𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈 + 𝒋√𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈
=2𝜋 x106 𝑥 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝟓𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 x 9
Rem
= 0.19 rads/s
𝜸 = ∝ + 𝒋𝜷 = √𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈 + 𝒋√𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈
b)Wavelength From here we can conclude that:
sln ∝ = 𝜷 = √𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈
2𝜋𝑓 1 2𝜋
Wavelength λ = 𝑥 =
𝛽 𝑓 𝛽
2𝜋 Attenuation constant ∝ = √𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈 Np/m
= = 33m
0.19
Phase constant 𝜷 = √𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈 Rad/m
c)Phase velocity
𝜔 2𝜋𝑓
𝑉𝑝 = =
𝛽 𝛽 In terms of angular velocity 𝝎
2𝜋 𝑥 1000000 7
𝑉𝑝 = = 3.3 𝑥 10 m/s The two can proven to be :
0.19
𝝎𝝁𝝈
∝=𝜷=√
𝟐
d)Intrinsic impedance

𝝁𝒓 Phase velocity or velocity of propagation in

𝜂 = 120𝜋√
𝜺𝒓 good conductor
𝝎 𝝎
𝟏 (𝑽𝒑 ) = = 𝝎𝝁𝝈
𝜂 = 120𝜋√ = 42Ω 𝜷
√
𝟖𝟏 𝟐

And squaring both sides:

Wave propagation in a good conductor 𝜔2 2𝜔2 2𝜔
(𝑽𝒑 )2 = 𝝎𝝁𝝈 = =
𝜔𝜇𝜎 𝜇𝜎
A practical or Good conductor is the material 𝟐

which has very high conductivity. Ie Copper , And finding the square – root
Aluminium etc 2𝜔
𝑽𝒑 = √
A good conductor is a medium in which 𝜇𝜎

electromagnetic waves propagate

Intrinsic impedance in good conductor
Condition Intrinsic impedance is given by in good conductor
𝜎 is given by:
≫1
𝜔𝜖
𝑗𝜔𝜇
Or 𝜂= √
𝜎+𝑗𝜔𝜖
𝜎 ≫ 𝜔𝜖
But in good conductor
Rem: 𝜸 = ∝ + 𝜷𝒋

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𝜎 ≫ 𝜔𝜖 From the expression of the skin depth, it is clear
Hence that skin depth ( 𝜹) is inversely proportiona to
𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝑗𝜔𝜇 square –root of frequency f.
𝜂= √ =√
𝜎+𝑗𝜔𝜖 𝜎

𝜔𝜇 The fields and currents may be considered as

=√ √𝒋 confined to a very thin layer near of the surface of a
𝜎
But conductor. This thin layer is nothing but the skin of
√𝒋 = √ 1 < 900 = < 450 the conductor, hence the effect is called the skin
effects.
𝜔𝜇
𝜂=√ [𝒄𝒐𝒔450 + 𝒋𝑺𝒊𝒏450 ] Exponential decay in the amplitudes of E and H
𝜎
fields entering in a good conductor
𝜔𝜇 𝟏
𝜂=√ [ (𝟏 + 𝒋)]
𝜎 √𝟐

𝜔𝜇
𝜂=√ [(𝟏 + 𝒋)]
2𝜎
Or
𝜋𝑓𝜇
𝜂=√ [(𝟏 + 𝒋)]
2𝜎
The interpretation here is that, in perfect dielectric,
i.e Zero conductivity, the intrinsic impedance angle
is zero.
For good conductors, the angle is 𝟒𝟓𝟎 . This
indicates that the H fields may lag E fields by at the
most 𝟒𝟓𝟎

Effects of Attenuation 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 (𝜶 )on the

Amplitude of E fields
From the figure above, it is clear that 1𝛿 distance,
Consider only the components of the electric field
amplitude reduces to 37% of its original value. For
Ex travelling in the z-direction. When it travels in
a good conductor, amplitude reduces to almost zero
agood conductor, the conductivity is very high
with 2𝛿 and 3𝛿 distance. Thus , uniform plane
and attenuation constant (𝛂) is also high. This can
waves cannot travel large distance through good
be written in phasor form as :
conductor.
𝐄𝐱 = 𝐄𝐦 𝐞−𝛂𝐳 𝐞−𝐣𝛃𝐳
This concept is used in shielding of conductors
In a co –axial cables, the inner conductor carries
When such a wave propagates in good conductor,
the signal while the outer is shielded which is made
there is a large attenuation of the amplitude as
up of a material having properties of good
shown below
conductor. So even if there is external interference,
its amplitude reduces to zero within a very short
distance due to the outer conductor. Hence the
signal carried by inner conductor is not
interfered by an external interference.

At z = 0, amplitude of the component Ex is Em .

At z = d, amplitude is Eme−αd. In distance z = d, the
amplitude gets reduced by factor e−αd .
1
-If we select d = , then the factor becomes e−1 =
α
0.368.
1
-Therefore over a distance d = , the amplitude of
α
the wave decreases to approximately 37% of the
original value. And this distance is known as skin
depth

Skin Depth ( 𝜹)
Skin depth – Refers to the distance through which Intrinsic impedance (η), Phase velocity( 𝑽𝒑 ),
the amplitude the travelling wave decreases to 37% Wavelength λ and Phase constants ( 𝜷)interms
of the original amplitude of Skin depth(𝜹)
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 1 1 √2
Skin Depth ( 𝜹) = = = 𝒎 1)Intrinsic impedance 𝜂 = [ +𝑗 ]= < 450 Ω
∝ 𝜷 √𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈 𝜎𝛿 𝜎𝛿 𝜎𝛿
66

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 𝟐 𝟐 −1
𝝎 𝝎 √𝟐(√𝝎) √𝟐(√𝝎) 𝝈𝟐 𝝈𝟐
2) Phase velocity𝑉𝑝 = = = = [ + 𝟏] = [1 − ]
𝜷 √𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈 √𝟐√𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈 √𝝎𝝁𝝈 𝟖𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐 𝟖𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
√𝟐𝝎 Hence
𝑉𝑝 = = 𝝎𝜹 m/s 𝝈𝟐
√𝝁𝝈
𝑉𝑃 = c[1 − ]
𝟖𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
𝟐𝝅 Which implies that the velocity of wave is less that
3)Wavelength (λ) = = 2𝝅𝜹 σ2
𝜷
that of velocity of light by a factor [1 − ]
8ω2 ϵ2
1
4)Phase constant 𝛽 =
𝛿 Intrinsic impedance 𝜼

Wave propagation in good dielectric(Practical 𝜇

dielectric) 𝜂= √
𝜖
Conditions:
Depth of penetration (Skin depth)
𝜎 ≪ 𝜔𝜖 The depth of penetration decreases with time in the
From conductor
𝝁𝝐 𝝈𝟐 It is also called skin depth.
𝜷= 𝝎√ [√(𝟏 + ) + 𝟏]
𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Applying Binomial expression for the above Skin Depth ( 𝜹) = = =
∝ 𝜷 √𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈
equation and neglecting higher orders
𝝈𝟐 Lossy Dielectric
𝟏 +
𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐 Is a medium in which an electromagnetic wave
And replacing above equation in ∝
losses power as it propagate due to poor condition
𝝁𝝐 𝝈𝟐
∝= 𝝎√ [√(𝟏 + ) − 𝟏] 𝜸 = propagation constant
𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
𝜸 = ∝ + 𝜷𝒋
𝝎 𝝁𝝐 𝝈𝟐
∝= √ 𝒙
𝝎 𝟐 𝟐𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
Attenuation constant
𝝈 𝝁
∝= √
𝟐 𝝐 𝝁𝝐 𝝈𝟐
∝= 𝝎√ [√(𝟏 + ) − 𝟏]
𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
Phase constant and phase velocity And phase constant
𝝈𝟐
Replacing 𝟏 + into the equation of 𝜷
𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
𝝁𝝐 𝝈𝟐 𝝁𝝐 𝝈𝟐
𝜷= 𝝎√ [𝟏 + + 𝟏] 𝜷= 𝝎√ [√(𝟏 + ) + 𝟏]
𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐 𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
𝝁𝝐 𝝈𝟐
𝜷= 𝝎√ [ + 𝟐]
𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
The conditions for Lossy medium is such that
𝝁𝝐 𝝈𝟐 + 𝟒𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
𝜷= 𝝎√ [ ] Conduction is not zero 𝛔 ≠ 𝟎
𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
Attenuation also is not Zero
𝝈𝟐
𝜷= 𝝎√𝝁𝝐 [ + 𝟏] This implies that in a lossy medium, the amplitude
𝟒𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
of the signal decays exponentially
𝝈𝟐
𝜷= 𝝎√𝝁𝝐 x √ +𝟏
𝟒𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
Finding the direction
𝝎 For any given function
Phase velocity 𝑉𝑃 =
𝜷 look for the section (𝜔𝑡 ± 𝛽𝑧)
𝝎
= if for the section 𝛽𝑧)
𝝈𝟐
𝝎√𝝁𝝐 𝐱 √ +𝟏 if : we have –z, then direction is taken as + z
𝟒𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
𝟏 If we have z, then direction is taken as -z
But speed of light c =
√𝝁𝝐
𝝎 𝟏 𝒄
𝑉𝑃 = = = …
𝜷 𝝈𝟐 𝟐
√𝝁𝝐 𝐱 √ 𝟐 𝟐 +𝟏 √ 𝝈 +𝟏
𝟒𝝎 𝝐 𝟒𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
Applying Binomial theorem to the denominator
1
𝝈𝟐 2 𝝈𝟐
[ + 𝟏] = [ + 𝟏]
𝟒𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐 𝟖𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
Hence
𝒄
𝑉𝑃 = 𝝈𝟐
[ 𝟐 𝟐 +𝟏]
𝟖𝝎 𝝐
Applying Binomial theorem,

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Example 𝝁𝒓
60𝛑= 120𝜋√
A plane wave is in anon-magnetic media has 𝜺𝒓

E = 50Sin(𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐭 + 2Z)𝐚𝐲 . Find 𝟏

0.5= √
a)Direction 𝜺𝒓

b)Wavelength λ 𝜀𝑟 = 4
c)frequency f
d) Permitivity 𝛆𝐫 c) 𝛚
e)H From 𝛽 = 𝜔 √𝜇𝜖 and But 𝜇𝑟 = 1
sln
𝛽 = 𝜔√𝜇0 𝜀0 x √𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟
Note 𝜇𝑟 = 1 (for non-magnetic media) Hence:
a)direction = -z 𝜔
1= x √4
𝟐𝝅 3.0 x 108
b) Wavelength λ = 2𝜔
𝜷 1=
3.0 x 108
but 𝛽 = 2
𝟐𝝅
𝜔 = 1.5 x 108 m/s
hence Wavelength λ = =𝝅
𝟐
d)E
c)frequency f
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 but 𝜔 = 108 from 𝜂 =
𝐸
𝐻
𝜔 108
f= = = 15 x 106 Hz E = −𝜂𝐻
2𝜋 2𝜋
E = −𝜂[0.1 Cos (ωt − z)a x + 0.5Sin(ωt − z)a y ]
d)Permitivity 𝛆𝐫 E = -60π [0.1 Cos (ωt − z)a x + 0.5Sin(ωt −
But 𝛽 = 𝜔√𝜇𝜖 z)a y ]
𝛽 = 𝜔√𝜇0 𝜀0 x √𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟 E = - 6𝛑𝐂𝐨𝐬 (𝛚𝐭 − 𝐳)𝐚𝐲 − 𝟑𝟎𝛑𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭 − 𝐳)𝐚𝐳
1
But 𝑐 = = 3.0 x 108 m/s
√𝜇0 𝜀0
Hence: Example
𝜔 A uniform plane wave is propagating in a
2= x √𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟
3.0 x 108 medium
108
2= x √𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟 But 𝜇𝑟 = 1 E = 2𝐞−∝𝐳 Sin(𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐭 -𝜷𝒛)𝐚𝐲 . If the medium is
3.0 x 108
2=
1
x √𝜀𝑟 characteristic by 𝛆𝐫 = 1 𝛍𝐫 = 20 and 𝛔 = 3. Find :
3 a)attenuation 𝜶
6 =√𝜀𝑟
b)Phase constant 𝜷
𝜀𝑟 = 62 = 36
c)H
Sln
e)H Inspection
𝐸
from 𝜂 = 𝜎
≫1
𝐻
𝜔𝜖
𝝁𝒓 3
𝜂 = 120𝜋√ = 3389.8
𝜺𝒓 108 𝑥 8.554 𝑥 10−12
3389.8 ≫ 1 (which is a good conductor)
𝟏
𝜂 = 120𝜋√ = 20𝜋 Ω For a good conductors
𝟑𝟔
𝐸 𝟓𝟎𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐭 + 𝟐𝐙)𝐚 𝐱 . 𝝎𝝁𝝈
H= = ∝=𝜷=√
𝜂 20𝜋 𝟐
−𝟐.𝟓𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐭 + 𝟐𝐙)𝐚 𝐱 .
H= 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒙 𝟒 𝝅 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒙 𝟐𝟎 𝒙 𝟑
𝝅 ∝=𝜷=√ = 61.4
𝟐
∝ = 61.4 Nepas
Example
In a loss -less media for which 𝛈 = 60𝛑
𝜷 = 61.4 rad/sec
𝛍𝐫 = 1
c)H
H = 0.1 Cos (𝛚𝐭 − 𝐳)𝐚𝐱 + 0.5Sin(𝛚𝐭 − 𝐳)𝐚𝐲 A/m.
Intrinsic impedance
Find:
𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝑗𝜔𝜇
a)direction 𝜂= √ =√
𝜎+𝑗𝜔𝜖 𝜎
b) 𝛆𝐫
𝜔𝜇
c) 𝛚 =√ √𝒋
𝜎
d)E
𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒙 𝟒 𝝅 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟕
sln =√ < 450
𝟑
a)direction = z
= (28.94) < 450
b) 𝛆𝐫 𝐸 −𝟐𝐞−∝𝐳 𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐭−𝛃𝐙)𝐚 𝐱 .
H= =
−𝜂 28.94

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 2𝜋
Example hence Wavelength λ = = 0.314m
20
An H fields in free space is given as H(x,t) =
10𝐂𝐨𝐬 (𝟏𝟎𝟖 t – 𝛃𝐱)𝐚𝐲 A/m. Find e)H
a)𝛃 𝐸 (𝟒𝟎 – 𝐣𝟑𝟎)𝐞−𝐣𝟐𝟎𝐳
c)𝛌 𝐇𝐬 = = = (0.11 – j0.08)𝐞−𝐣𝟐𝟎𝐳 𝐚𝐲
𝜂 377
c)E(x,t) at P(0.1,0.2,0.3) at t= 1ns
sln f) H(z,t) at P(6,-1,0.07) at t = 71 ps
Since uniform plane wave H(z,t) = Re [𝐄𝐬 𝒆𝒋𝝎𝒕 ]
𝛽 = 𝜔√𝜇𝜖 = [0.11𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧) + 0.08𝑆𝑖𝑛((𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧)]
But 𝜔 = 108 and since free space = [0.11𝐶𝑜𝑠(6.0 x 109 𝑥 71𝑥 10−12 − 20(0.7)) +
𝛽 = 𝜔√𝜇0 𝜀0 0.08𝑆𝑖𝑛(6.0 x 109 𝑥 71𝑥 10−12 − 20(0.7)]
Hence: = [0.11(0.562) − 0.08(0.827)]
108 = - 6.2 x 10−3 𝐚𝐲
𝛽= = 0.33 rad/m
3.0 x 108

Example
b)Wavelength Most microwave oven operate at 2.45 GHz.
2𝜋
Wavelength λ = Assume that 𝛔 = 𝟏. 𝟐 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟔 S/m and 𝛍𝐫 = 500 for
𝛽
but 𝛽 = 0.33 the stainless steel interior, fin the depth of
hence Wavelength λ =
2𝜋
= 18.9 m penetration
0.33
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
c) E(x,t) = - 𝜼H(x,t) Skin Depth ( 𝜹) = = =
∝ 𝜷 √𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈
E(x,t) = - 𝜂(10𝐶𝑜𝑠 (108 t – 𝛽𝑥) Skin Depth ( 𝜹) =
𝟏

E(x,t) = - 377x 10𝐶𝑜𝑠 (108 t – 𝛽𝑥) √𝝅(𝟐.𝟒𝟓 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟗 )𝒙 (𝟒𝝅𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟕 ) 𝒙1.2 𝑥 106

The direction of E will be −𝒂𝒛 since S= E x H, = 9.28 𝑥 10−6 m

where S is x-directed. Example
A good conductor is planar in form and carries
Ap P (0.1,0.2,0.3), x = 0.1, and t = 1ns a uniform plane wave that has a wavelength of
Then we have 0.3 mm and a velocity of 𝟑 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟓m/s. Assuming
E(x,t) = - 377x 10𝐶𝑜𝑠 (108 x 10−9 – (0.33)𝑥(0.1)) the conductor is non- magnetic, determine:
= - 3770𝐶𝑜𝑠 (10−1 – (0.033)) 𝒂𝒛 a)The frequency
= - 3770(cos 0.067) 𝒂𝒛 V/m b)Conductivity
sln
Example 𝑣 3.0 𝑥 105
a) Frequency f = = = 1GHz
In phasor form, the electric field intensity of a 𝜆 3 𝑥 10−4
uniform plane wave in free space is expressed as b) Conductivity
𝐄𝐬 = (40 – j30)𝐞−𝐣𝟐𝟎𝐳 𝐚𝐱 V/m . Find For agood conductor
𝟐𝝅
a) 𝛚 Wavelength (λ) = = 2𝝅𝜹
𝜷
b) 𝛃 𝝀 𝟏
𝜹= =
c) f 𝟐𝝅 √𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈
4𝜋 4𝜋
d) λ 𝜎= = = 1.1 𝑥 105 S/m
𝜆2 𝑓𝜇 (9 𝑥 10−8 )(109 )(4𝜋 𝑥10−7 )
e) H
f) H(z,t) at P(6,-1,0.07) at t = 71 ps
Example
A certain material has 𝛔 = 0 and 𝛜𝐑 = 1.
Sln
If H = 4 sin(𝟏𝟎𝟔 t – 0.01z)𝐚𝐲 A/m, make use of
a)𝝎
𝜔 Maxwell’s equation to find 𝛍𝐑 .
From the equation, in free space 𝛽 = 𝜔√𝜇𝜖 =
𝐶
𝜔 = 𝛽𝑐 = 3.0 x 108 x 20 = 6.0 x 109 rads/s Sln
dD
∇ ×H=
b)𝜷 dt

from the equation 𝛽 = 20 rads/m ax ay az

∂H dH ∂H
̅ =|
∇×H
c)f ∂x dy ∂z |
𝜔 6.0 x 109 Hx Hy Hz
f= = = 956 MHz
2𝜋 2𝜋

ax ay az
d)λ ∂H dH ∂H
Wavelength λ =
2𝜋 ̅ = | ∂x
∇×H dy ∂z |
𝛽
6
but 𝛽 = 20 0 4 sin(10 t – 0.01z)a y 0

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 ̅ = − 𝑑𝑯𝒚 ax ay az
∇×𝐻 𝑎𝑥 = 0.04 𝐶𝑜𝑠(106 𝑡 – 0.01𝑧)𝑎𝑥 =
𝑑𝑧 ∂H dH ∂H
̅ =|
∇×H ∂z |
𝑑𝑬
𝜖0 ∂x dy
𝑑𝑡
Hx Hy Hz
So
0.04 ax ay az
E=∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(106 𝑡 − 0.01𝑧)dt =
𝜖0 106 ∂H dH ∂H
̅=|
∇×H
0.04
𝑆𝑖𝑛(106 𝑡 – 0.01𝑧)𝑎𝑦 ∂x dy ∂z |
𝜖0 106 𝟗
0 𝟓𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝟏𝟎 𝐭 – 𝛃𝐳 0
Where the integration constant is Zero, since we 𝑑𝑯𝒚
assume no. dc fields present. Next ̅
∇×𝐻 = − 𝑎𝑥 = −5𝛽𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐭 – 𝛃𝐳)𝑎𝑥
𝑑𝑧
From 𝑑𝑬
𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝐻
=20 𝜖0
𝑑𝑡
∇ × E = − = - 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 So
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛 −5𝛽
𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
E=∫ 𝑆𝑖𝑛(109 𝑡−– 𝛃𝑧)dt =
20𝜖0
𝛁 × E = || 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 || 𝛽
𝐶𝑜𝑠(109 𝑡 – 𝛽𝑧)𝑎𝑦
0.04 6 𝜖0 (4 𝑥 109 )
𝟎 𝑆𝑖𝑛(10 𝑡 – 0.01𝑧) 𝟎 Where the integration constant is Zero, since we
𝜖0 106
𝑑𝑬𝒙 0.04(0.01) 6 assume no. dc fields present. Next
∇ ×E= 𝑎𝑦 = − 𝐶𝑜𝑠(10 𝑡 – 0.01𝑧)
𝑑𝑧 𝜖0 106 From
𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝐻
∇ × E = − = - 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟
So that 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0.04 (0.01)
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
H=∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(106 𝑡 − 0.01𝑧)𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑡= 𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟𝜖0 106
0.04 (0.01) 𝛁 × E = || 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 ||
𝑆𝑖𝑛(106 𝑡 – 0.01𝑧)𝑎𝑦 𝛽
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟𝜖0 1012 𝟎 9
𝐶𝑜𝑠(10 𝑡 – 𝛽𝑧) 𝟎
𝜖0 (4 𝑥 109 )
𝑑𝑬𝒙 𝛽2
The last quantity is required to maintain ∇ ×E= 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛(109 𝑡 – 𝛽𝑧) =
𝑑𝑧 𝜖0 (4 𝑥 109 )
consistentcy. 𝑑𝐻
By comparison of the two values of H - 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟
𝑑𝑡
0.04 (0.01) So that
=4
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟𝜖0 1012 𝛽2
(0.01)2 (9 𝑥 1016 ) H=∫ 𝑆𝑖𝑛(109 𝑡 – 𝛽𝑧)𝑑𝑡=
𝜇𝑟 = =9 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟𝜖0 (4 𝑥 109 )
1012 2
𝛽
𝑐𝑜𝑠(109 𝑡 – 𝛽𝑧)
Example 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝜖0 (4 𝑥 1018 )
The parallel plate transmission shown below has The last quantity is required to maintain
consistentcy.
dimensions b= 4 cm and d = 8mm, while the
By comparison of the two values of H
medium between plates is characterized by 𝛍𝐑 = 𝛽2
1 and 𝛜𝐑 = 20 and 𝛔 = 0 . =5
𝜇0 𝜖0 (4 𝑥 1018 )
𝛽= 14.9 rad/m

b)The displacement current 𝑱𝒅

sln
at z = 0 and 𝜎 = 0 we have
∇×𝐻 ̅ = 𝐽𝑑 = −5𝛽𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐭 – 𝛃𝐳)𝑎𝑥
= −74.5 𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐭 )𝑎𝑥 A/m

Example
A 150 MHz uniform plane wave in free space is
described as 𝐇𝐬 = (4 +j10)(2𝐚𝐱 + j𝐚𝐲 )𝐞−𝐣𝛃𝐳 A/m.
Neglect fields outside the dielectric. Given the Find numerical value for :
field a)𝛚
H = 5Cos(𝟏𝟎𝟗 t – 𝛃z)𝐚𝐲 A/m, use Maxwell’s b)𝛌
equations to help find: c)𝛃
d) Find H(z,t) at t= 1.5ns and z = 20cm
a)𝛃 Sln
b)the displacement current density a)𝝎
For plane wave 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋 𝑥 150 𝑥 106 =
dD 𝑑𝑬 3𝜋 𝑥 108 𝑠 −1
∇ ×H= =𝛜𝐑 𝜖0
dt 𝑑𝑡 b)λ
2𝜋𝑐 𝑐 3 𝑥 108
Wavelength λ = = = = 2m
𝜔 𝑓 1.5 𝑥 108

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c)𝜷
2𝜋 2𝜋 ii)Propagation constant 𝜸
From the equation, in free space 𝛽 = = =𝜋
𝜆 2
Sln
Y = j𝜔 √𝜇𝜀
d) Find H(z,t) at t= 1.5ns and z = 20cm
= j𝜔√𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑥 𝜇𝑟 𝑥𝜀𝑟 x √1 − 𝑗2.1
𝑗31.41 x 109
(Ref Page 183 of interactive electromagnetic = x √2 𝑥 30 x √1 − 𝑗2.1
3 x 108
solution) = j811√1 − 𝑗2.1
=(811<90)(1.76<55)
A 60 MHz uniform plane wave propagates in a = 1427 < 145
medium with 𝝐𝒓𝟏 = 20, 𝝁𝒓𝟏 = 1 and 𝝈𝟏 = 0.05 = -1169 + j818
S/m. The amplitude of electric field intensity is
20 V/m. Determine: (9mks) iii)Attenuation constant ∝
i) Angular frequency 𝝎 Sln
Angular Frequency 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋 x 6 x 106 1169 lagging
= 3.77 x 108 Rad/s

RALATIONSHIP BETWEEN E and V

ii)Complex Permittivity 𝜺̅ The potenstial between A and B is given by

𝜎1 𝜎1 0.05 𝑥 ×36𝜋 VAB = -VBA
= = = 0.75
𝜔𝜖 𝜔𝜖𝑟1 𝜖0 3.77 𝑥 108 𝑥 20𝑥 10−9
𝜖𝑟1 𝜎1
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜀̅ = (1 − 𝑗 ) VAB + VBA = 0
𝜇𝑟1 𝜔𝜖𝑟1 𝜖0
20 𝑥 10−9 But VAB = - ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝐿
= (1 − 𝑗0.75)
36𝜋
= (17.68 – j1.33 ) x 10−11
- ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝐿 = 0
̅
iii)Propagation Constant 𝒀 Applying Stoke’s Theorem

Sln ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝐿 =∫(𝐷 𝑥 𝐸)𝑑𝑠

𝑌̅ = j𝜔 √𝜇0 𝜺̅
∫(∇ 𝑥 𝐸)𝑑𝑠 = 0
= j3.77 𝑥 108 √4𝜋𝑥10−7 (17.68 − 𝑗1.33)10−11
= j 5.62 + 1.54 ds = 0
= 1.54 + j5.62 (∇ 𝑥 𝐸)𝑑𝑠 = 0
ds ≠ 0
iv)Intrinsic Impedance Ω ∇ 𝑥 𝐸 = 0 (Maxwell’s 2nd equation in point form)
Sln ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝐿 = 0 (Maxwell’s 2nd equation in integral
𝜇
equation)
Intrinsic Impedance Ω = √ ̅0
𝜺

4𝜋𝑥10−7 𝑥 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏
From the definition of potential different
=√ V = - ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝐿------ (i)
𝟏𝟕.𝟔𝟖 – 𝒋𝟏.𝟑𝟑
= 84 + j23.1
Differentiating the voltage from (i)
Example
𝑑𝑣
b) A 5GHz wave propagates in a medium = −𝐸
𝑑𝐿
characterized by : 𝑑
Permeability, 𝝁𝒓 = 2, But =∇
𝑑𝐿
permittivity, 𝜺𝒓 = 20
Conductivity 𝝈 = 4.0 S/m. But ∇𝑉 = −𝐸
The electric field intensity E in the region is
given by the expression E = - 𝛁𝑽
E = 0.2𝒆−𝒂𝒛 Cos (2𝝅𝒇𝒕 − 𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒛
Determine the: (7mks) NB the –ve sign indicates that the direction of E is
i)Complex permittivity 𝜺 ⃖ opposite that of V
ω = 2πx 5x 109 = 31.41 x 109 rad/s
31.41 x 109 x 31.41 x 30−9 As ∇ 𝑥 𝐸 = 0
ω∈= = 8.33
36π 𝛁 𝒙 (− 𝛁𝑽) = 0 By vector identity
𝑗𝜔𝜀
The complex permittivity 𝜀⃖ = ∈ [1 − ]
𝜎
𝑗8.33
𝜀⃖ = ∈ [1 − ] = ∈ (1 − 𝑗2.1)
4
= ∈ (2.32 < −64.50

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 It consists of a hollow metal case enclosed in a thin
Example glass tube, which acts as cathode. The Tungsten
The potential is in the form V = 𝟏𝟎𝒚𝟑 + 𝟐𝒙𝟐 . wire is stretched along the axis which acts as an
Find E at (10,0) and (14,16) anode insulated by ebonite plugs
sln -The tube is filled 90% argon and 10% pressure
-A fine tungsten is connected to battery positive via
E = - 𝛻𝑉 a resistor and other terminal to metallic tube.

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 7a)Describe electromagnetic shielding (2mks)

𝛻𝑉 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑣
-Electromagnetic shielding is a conductive barrier
= 30𝑦 2 that completely envelopes a device to protect it
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑣 from environmental interference.
= 4x
𝑑𝑥 -It blocks electromagnetic and electrostatics fields
𝛻𝑉 = 4x𝑎𝑥 + 30𝑦 2 𝑎𝑦 from interfering with other electronics devices and
E = -4x𝑎𝑥 − 30𝑦 2 𝑎𝑦 systems

At (10,0) b)A uniform wave propagating in free space

E = -4x𝑎𝑥 − 30𝑦 2 𝑎𝑦 strikes a lossy medium with a dielectric
E = -4(10)𝑎𝑥 − 30(0)2 𝑎𝑦 = -= -40𝑎𝑥 constants of 20 and conductivity of 0.8mS/m.
The frequency of the wave polarized in the x-
At (14,16) E direction is 200kHz. Determine the:
E= -4(14) − 30(16)2 = -= -7726 V/m i)Angular frequency, 𝝎 (2mks)
Sln
Example Angular Frequency 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋 x 200 x 103
𝟒 = 1.257 x 106 Rad/s
Let 𝜺 = 𝜺𝟎 and V = 𝟗𝟎𝒛𝟑 in the direction z = 0.
Obtain the expressions for : ii)Propagating constant , Y (2mks)
a)E Sln
b)D
𝑌̅ = j𝜔 √𝜇0 𝜺̅
c)𝝆𝒗
sln 𝑌̅ = j𝜔 √𝜇0 𝜺𝟎
𝜔 1.257 𝑥 106
=j = j = j4.19 x 10−3
𝑐 3 𝑥 108
𝟏 𝟏
𝑑𝑉 4
a)E = - 𝛻𝑉= 𝑎𝑧 = − 𝟗𝟎𝒛 𝑎𝑧 = -120𝒛 𝑎𝑧 V/m
𝟑 𝟑
𝑑𝑧 3 iii)Intrinsic impedance 𝜼 (2mks)
𝟏
b)D =𝜺𝟎 E = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓 𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 x 120𝒛𝟑 𝑎𝑧 Sln
𝟏
=1.06𝒛𝟑 𝑎𝑧 𝑛𝐶/𝑚2 𝜇 4𝜋𝑥10−7
Intrinsic Impedance Ω = √̅̅̅̅0 = √
𝜺𝟎 8.85𝑥10−12

𝑑𝐷 1 𝟐 =120𝜋Ω
c) 𝝆𝒗 = 𝜵. 𝑫 = =− (𝟏𝟐𝟎)𝜺𝟎 𝒛−𝟑 𝑎𝑧 iv)Phase velocity 𝑽𝒑 (2mks)
𝑑𝑧 3
−𝟐 𝜔 𝜔 1 1 𝑐
3 𝑉𝑝 = = = × =
= -354𝒛 𝑎𝑧 𝑃𝐶/𝑚
𝟑
𝛽 𝜔√𝜇𝜖 √𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟 √𝜇0 𝜀0 √𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟
𝛽 = is the real part of propagation constant 4.19 x
KNEC O/N 2022 10−3
𝜔 1.257 𝑥 106
di)Outline three types of radiations detected by 𝑉𝑝 = = = 3.0 x 108 m/s
𝛽 4.19 𝑥 10−3
electromagnetic detectors (3mks) Or
-Alpha radiations ∝ 𝜔 𝜔 1
𝑉𝑝 = = =
𝛽 𝜔√𝜇𝜖 √𝜇0 𝜀0
-beta radiations 𝛽 1 1
-Gamma radiations 𝛾 𝑉𝑝 = 𝑐 = =
√𝜇0 𝜀0 √4𝜋𝑥10−7 𝑥 8.85𝑥10−12
8
= 3.0 x 10 m/s
ii)With aid of a diagram, explain the
construction of Geiger-Muller counter detector c)Outline three sources of electromagnetic fields
in electromagnetics (5mks) (3mks)
Sln Sln
 Solar radiations – this is natural radiations
which originates from the sun
 Terrestial radiations – natural radiations
emmited from the earth surface
 Artificial radiations –Originating from remote
sensing devices

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ii)A conductor of length 10cm carries current of BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
2A in a vertical direction.A point P is placed 1m Conductors in static Electric field
away from the conductor in the x-direction. According to electrical properties, materials are
i)Sketch the arrangement (2mks) divided into three types:
Sln i)Conductors
ii)Semi-Conductors
iii)Insulators
if aconductor has positive (+ve) and negative (-ve)
charges, an eelcectric field will be set in
aconductor. The field exerts a force on the chargdes
and makes them move away from each other. There
movement will continue until all charges reaches
the conductor surface and redistribute themselves
in such amaneer that both charges of the field
iii)determine the angle between vertical axis and inside is Zero. i.e 𝜌 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 = 0
point P (2mks) Since the charge distribution on the surface of the
𝟏
𝜽 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 = 𝟖𝟒. 𝟐𝟒𝟎 conductor depends on the state of equilibrium only,
𝟎.𝟏
iii)Magnetic field at point P using Biot –Savart if there is no tangential component of electric field
law. (3mks) intensity (E). Under static condition.
Sln i)The field on a conductor surface is an
𝐵 equipotential surface since E = 0 inside the
H=
𝜇 conductor, the whole conductor are same
𝜇0 𝐼∆𝑙𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
B= electromotive potential.
4𝜋𝑟 2
4𝜋𝑥10−7 𝑥 2(0.1)𝑆𝑖𝑛84,29 ∮ 𝐸𝑑𝐿 = 𝐸𝑡 ∆𝜔 = 0
B= = 1.99 x 𝑥10−8
4𝜋(1)2 𝐸𝑡 = 0
H = 0.0155834 A/m Tangential component of E fields on conductor
surface is zero.
To find the normal components, construct a
Gaussioan surface with torque face in the space and
both face surfaces on the conductor where E = 0

∫ 𝐷𝑑𝑠 = Q enclosed
𝜀𝐸∆𝑠 = Q enclosed
𝜀𝐸∆𝑠 = 𝜌𝑠 ∆𝑠
𝜌𝑠
𝐸𝑛 =
𝜀
Therefore the boundary conditions for a conductor
are:
i)𝜌𝑣 = 0
ii)E = 0
iii) 𝐸𝑡 = 0
𝜌𝑠
iv) 𝐸𝑛 =
𝜀

NOTE: The charge will re-sight only on the

conductor surface and in the inside it will be zero.

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BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR 2)Boundary conditions at interface between 2
ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS dielectrics
Two di-electrics media with permittivity 𝜀1 and 𝜀2
1) Interface between two media are separated by a charge phase boundary . The
electric field intensity E in media 1 at 𝑝1 has
magnitude of 𝐸1 and makes an angle ∝1 with the
normal.

Consider a small path abcd such that the ab is in

media 2 and cd is in media 1 both being parallel to To obtain the tangential components we use E
the interface having a width ∆𝑤 𝑬𝟏 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟏 = 𝑬𝟐 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟐 ………… eqtn 1
∫𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑 𝐸𝑑𝐿 = 𝐸1 ∆𝑤 − 𝐸2 (−∆𝑤) = 0 To obtain the Normal components we use D
𝐸1 𝑡 = 𝐸2 𝑡 (Boundary condition is continuous) 𝑫𝟏 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜽𝟏 = 𝑫𝟏 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜽𝟐 ……….eqtn 2
i.e The tangential components of E fields is But D = 𝜺𝑬 ……. (iii)
continuous across the boundary /interface. Replacing eqtn (iii) into eqtn (ii)
We obtain
As D = 𝜺𝑬 then the tangential components of D 𝜺𝟏 𝑬𝟏 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜽𝟏 = 𝜺𝟏 𝑬𝟐 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜽𝟐 ….(iv)
will be given as: Dividing equation (i) by (iv)
𝑬𝟏 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟏 𝑬𝟐 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟐
𝐷1 t
=
𝐷2 𝑡
which can be said to be discontinuous =
𝜺𝟏 𝑬𝟏 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜽𝟏 𝜺𝟏 𝑬𝟐 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜽𝟐
𝜀1 𝜀2
across the boundary.
𝑻𝒂𝒏𝜽𝟏 𝑻𝒂𝒏𝜽𝟐
To find the relation of normal components of a = (this is the equation of refraction of
𝜺𝟏 𝜺𝟐
field at the boundary interface a Gaussian surface is electrostatic fields)
chosen in such away that the torqueface in media 1 From the diagram
and bottom face in media 2
𝐸2 = √𝐸2 2 𝑡 + 𝐸2 2 𝑛
-the face has an area ∆𝑠 and height ∆ℎ. Applying
Gauss theorem 𝐸2 = √(𝑬𝟐 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟐 )2 + (𝑬𝟐 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜽𝟐 )2
𝜺
∫𝑠 𝐷𝑑𝑠 = (𝐷1 𝑎𝑛1 + 𝐷2 𝑎𝑛2)∆𝑠 𝐸2 = √(𝑬𝟏 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟏 )2 + ( 𝟏 𝑬𝟏 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜽𝟏 )2
𝜺𝟐
Since : 𝑎𝑛1 = 𝑎𝑛2 𝜺𝟏
𝑎𝑛(𝐷1 − 𝐷2 )∆𝑠 = 𝜌𝑠 ∆𝑠 𝐸2 = 𝑬𝟏 √𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃1 + 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃1
𝜺𝟐
-and they are outward unit normal to media 2 and
1respectively. 3)Boundary conditions at the interface between
𝑎𝑛(𝐷1 − 𝐷2 ) = 𝜌𝑠 conductor and dielectric
The normal components of D is discontinuous We know that D and E are zero within the
across the surface where the surface charge exists. conductor. This implies that the tangential
The amount of discontinuity being equal to the components of E and D fields components must be
surface zero
𝐷𝑛 = 𝜀𝐸𝑛 = 𝜌𝑠 ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝐿 and D = 𝜺𝑬
When there is no surface :
∫ 𝐷𝑑𝑠 = Q enclosed
𝐷𝑛1 =𝐷𝑛2 therefore the boundary conditions are:
1: 𝐸1 𝑡 =𝐸2 𝑡 By Gauss law, it shows that D is normal to
2: 𝐷1𝑛 =𝐷2𝑛 𝜌𝑠
conductor surface and 𝐷𝑛 = 𝜌𝑠 and 𝐸𝑛 =
𝜀
-Boundary conditions for conductor free space is
valid for conductor dielectric i.e
i) 𝐸𝑡 = 0
ii) 𝐷𝑛 = 𝜌𝑠

65 | P a g e BY: ODIPO 0729692775

Example
A linear homogeneous isotopic dielectric
material has permittivity 𝜺𝒓 =1.8𝜺𝟎 and is
covering a space between z =0 and z = 1.4.
𝑽𝒆 = -4000z Volts in the material, Find :
i)Electric field intensity E
ii)Electric flux density D
iii)Polarization in the material
iv)Bound charge density in the material
Sln
Example
A boundary exists at z= 0 between 2 dielectric
𝜺𝒓𝟏 = 2.5 region z = 0 and 𝜺𝒓𝟐 = 4 region z> 0.
The field in region of 𝑬𝟏 = -30i + 50j + 70k V/m.
Find:
i)Normal components of 𝑬𝟏
ii)tangential component of 𝑬𝟏
iii)The angle ∝𝟏 ≤ 𝟗𝟎𝟎 between 𝑬𝟏 and the
Normal to the surface
iv)Normal component of 𝑫𝟐
v)Tangential component of 𝑫𝟐
vi) The angle ∝𝟐 between 𝑬𝟐 and the Normal to
the surface
Sln

i)E = −∆𝑽
𝑑𝑉
E=−
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉
− = - 4000
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉
E=− = -4000
𝑑𝑡
E = 4000
i)𝐸1 = -30i + 50j + 70k
ii) D = 𝜺𝑬 𝐸𝑛1 = 70 V/m
= 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 E
= 1.8 x 8.85 𝑥 10−12 x 4000 ii)E𝒕𝟏 = √302 + 502 = 58.31 V/m
= 6.372 𝑥 10−8 V/m
iii) ∝𝟏 ≤ 𝟗𝟎𝟎
iii) p = 𝒙𝒆𝜺𝟎 E 𝐸1 = √302 + 302 + 702 = 91.1
𝜀𝑟 = 1+𝑥𝑒
𝜀 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟
1.8 = 1 + xe
xe = 0.8
10−9
P = 0.8 x x 4000
36𝜋
Or 𝐸1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∝1 = 𝐸𝑛1 (Normal tangent)
P = 0.8 𝑥 8.85 𝑥 10−12 x 4000 = 28.29 𝑥 10−9 C/m 91.1𝐶𝑜𝑠∝1 70
=
91.1 91.1
−1 70
iv)𝝆𝒗 = ∆𝑫 ∝1 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 = 39.790
91.1
𝑑
= 𝐷
𝑑𝑧
𝑑 iv) 𝑫𝒏𝟏 = 𝑫𝒏𝟐
= 𝜺𝑬
𝑑𝑧 𝜺𝟏 𝜺𝒓 𝐸𝑛1 = 𝜺𝟐 𝜺𝒓 𝐸𝑛2
𝑑
= 𝒙 6.372 𝑥 10−8 𝑉/𝑚 = 0 2.5 x 70 = 4𝐸𝑛2
𝑑𝑧
𝐸𝑛2 = 43.75
And 𝐷𝑛2 = 1.55 𝑥10−9 V/m

Or
𝐷𝑛2 = 𝜀𝐸𝑛2 = 2.5 x 8.85 𝑥10−12 x 70
= 1.55 𝑥10−9 V/m
v)D𝒕𝟏 = DE𝒕𝟏
E𝒕𝟐 =E𝒕𝟏
= 4 x 8.85 𝑥10−12 𝑥 E𝒕𝟏
= 4 x 8.85 𝑥10−12 𝑥 58.31
= 2.064 𝑥1015

66 | P a g e BY: ODIPO 0729692775

𝑫𝟏 𝒕 𝑫𝟐 𝒕 boundary and the value of discontinuous is equal to
=
𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝟎
𝑫𝟐 𝒕
the surface current gain.
E𝒕𝟏 =
𝜺𝟎
𝑫𝟐 𝒕
58.31 =
𝜺𝟎
𝑫𝟐 𝒕 = 58.31 x 8.85 𝑥10−12
= 5.16 𝑥10−10 V/m

vi) 𝐸2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∝1 = 𝐸𝑛2

𝐸2 = √(58.31)2 + (43.75)2 = 72.9

72.9𝐶𝑜𝑠∝2 70
=
72.9 72.9
−1 70
∝2 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 = 16.2150
72.9

DRAW
From Maxwells’ equations
∫ 𝑩𝑑𝑠 = 0
∫(𝑩𝒏𝟏 − 𝐵𝑛2 )𝑑𝑠 = 0
ds ≠ 0
𝑩𝒏𝟏 − 𝐵𝑛2 = 0
𝑩𝒏𝟏 = 𝐵𝑛2
𝑫𝒏𝟏 = 𝐷𝑛2
𝑬𝒕𝟏 = 𝐸𝑡2

Normal components of magnetic flux density is

continuous across the boundary interface between
the two different media.
From B = ηH
𝜂1 𝐻𝑛1 = 𝜂2 𝐻𝑛2
And
𝐻𝑛1 𝜂2
=
𝐻𝑛2 𝜂1
Which implies that the normal component of
magnetic field intensity is discontinuous across the
boundary and the value of discontinuity across the
𝜂
boundary = 2
𝜂1
Refernece to the figure below

At the boundary, there exist a sheet current of

density K .
Applying Ampere law
∫ 𝐻𝑑𝑙 = I = k ∆𝐼

Considering closed path, abcda

(𝐻𝑡1 − 𝐻𝑡1 )∆𝐼 = k ∆𝐼
(𝐻𝑡1 − 𝐻𝑡1 = 𝑘

𝐵𝑡1 𝐵𝑡2
=
𝜂1 𝜂1

Which means that tangential components of a

magnetic field intensity is discontinuous across the

67 | P a g e BY: ODIPO 0729692775

ELECTROMAGNETIC
FIELD THEORY (EMFT)

AND

KNEC PAST PAPERS

Revision Questions
&
Answer

68 | P a g e BY: ODIPO 0729692775

ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY Similarly,
𝛻 𝑥 𝛻 × 𝐻 = −𝛻 2 𝐻
SECTION B −𝛻 2 𝐻 =
𝜖𝑑 (𝛻 𝑥 𝐸)
1:PROPERTIES OF UNIFORM PLANE 𝑑𝑡
𝜖𝑑 (𝛻 𝑥 𝐸)
WAVES 𝛻2𝐻=- ….eqtn v
𝑑𝑡
1a)State two properties of a uniform plane 𝑑𝜇𝐻
waves (2mks) From equation 𝛻 × 𝐸 = −
𝑑𝑡
i) They do not require material medium for Replacing in equation (v)
transmission
ii) They travel at the speed of light i.e. 3 × 108 ms-1 𝝐𝝁𝒅𝟐 𝑯
𝜵𝟐𝑯=- (This is the equation for H field
iii)They are transverse in Nature 𝒅𝒕𝟐
in free space)
iv) They carry no charge, hence not affected by
electric or magnetic fields
v) They undergo reflection, refraction and
ci)Derive a relationship for E and H
diffraction. Components for a uniform plane wave travelling
vi)Posses energy in different portion according to in x –direction (4mks)
the relation 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
vii) They obey the wave equation (v = λ f).

b)Using Maxwell’s equation, derive the wave

equation in free space for:
i)E (5mks)

sln
FromMmaxwell’s equation
𝑑𝜇𝐻
𝛻 ×𝐸 = − …. eqtn (i)
𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝜇𝐻
𝜵 ×𝑬= − eqtn (i)
𝒅𝒕

And curling both sides

𝜇𝑑(𝛻 𝑥 𝐻)
𝛻 𝑥 (𝛻 × 𝐸) = ….. (ii)
𝑑𝑡
Similarly,
𝛻 𝑥 𝛻 × 𝐸 = −𝛻 2 𝐸
𝜇𝑑(𝛻 𝑥 𝐻)
−𝛻 2 𝐸 =
𝑑𝑡
𝜇𝑑(𝛻 𝑥 𝐻) ii)ATEM wave has an electrical field intensity of
𝛻2𝐸=− ….eqtn (iii) 1𝝁𝑽/𝒎 and travels in a lossless media of relative
𝑑𝑡
And permittivity of 5. Determine the magnetic field
𝝐𝝁𝒅𝟐 𝑬 intensity (4mks)
𝜵𝟐𝑬=- (this the wave equation for E
𝒅𝒕𝟐
field in free space) Sln
𝑬
H=
𝜼
𝐸
ii)H (5mks) from 𝜂 =
𝐻
And flux density 𝛽 = 𝜇H …. (iii)
𝟏
𝜂 = 120𝜋√
𝜺𝒓
Replacing equation iii into equation (ii)
𝟏
𝜂 = 120𝜋√
𝟓
𝑑𝜇𝐻
𝛻 ×𝐸 = −
𝑑𝑡
From equation (iii) 2a)Distinguish between wave propagation and
𝜖𝑑𝐸 wave Polarization in electromagnetic field
𝛻 ×𝐻= and curling both sides of the
𝑑𝑡 (4mks)
equation Propagation – refers to any ways in which the
𝜖𝑑 (𝛻 𝑥 𝐸)
𝛻 𝑥 (𝛻 × 𝐻) = ….. (iv) travels with respect to the direction
𝑑𝑡
From vector equation, the curl of Polarization – Refers to the orientation of
𝛻 𝑥 (𝛻 × 𝐴) = 𝛻 . (𝛻𝐴) − 𝛻 2 𝐴 electromagnetic waves
𝛻 𝑥 (𝛻 × 𝐴) = −𝛻 2 𝐴

69 | P a g e
 b)For a wave propagating in a conducting ii) Phase Constant (1mk)
𝝎𝝁𝝈
media, show that: Phase constant 𝜷 = It is a factor through which a particular wave lags
𝟐𝜶
(7mks) or leads another wave
Sln
From wave equation b)Derive an expression for the phase velocity for
𝛻 2 𝐸 = 𝛾 2E a TEM in free space where 𝜺 ≠ 𝜺𝟎 and 𝝁 ≠ 𝝁𝟎
(4mks)
𝛻 2 𝐻 = 𝛾 2H
Where 𝛾 2 = j𝜔𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜖) Is the velocity at which a constant wave travel?
𝛾 = propagation constant 𝜔
Phase velocity (𝑉𝑝 ) = ….. eqtn 1
𝛾 = ∝ + 𝛽𝑗 𝛽

Where ∝ = attenuation constant in Nepas Where 𝜔 = angular velocity

𝛽 = Phase constant in rad/seconds 𝛽 = phase constant
For uniform wave travelling in the direction But 𝛽 = 𝜔 √𝜇𝜖 … eqtn 2
𝛾 2 = j𝜔𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜖) Substituting equation 2 into equation 1
𝜔 𝜔
( ∝ + 𝛽𝑗)2 = j𝜔𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜖) 𝑉𝑝 = =
𝛽 𝜔√𝜇𝜖
𝛼 2+ 2∝ 𝛽𝑗 − 𝛽 2 = j𝜔𝜇𝜎 − 𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 𝜔 1
𝑉𝑝 = = …..eqtn 3
By equating the real part 𝜔 √𝜇𝜖 √𝜇𝜖
𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 = −𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 ..….eqtn (ix)
By equating the imaginary Part Or
2∝ 𝛽𝑗 = j𝜔𝜇𝜎 In terms of velocity of light ‘c’
And making the phase constant the subject Since:
𝑗𝜇𝜔𝜎 𝜔𝜇𝜎 𝜇 = 𝜇𝑟 𝜇0
Phase constant 𝛽 = =
2𝛼𝑗 2𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 …..eqtn 4
𝜖 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟
𝜔𝜇𝜎
Phase constant 𝛽 = Substituting the equation 4 into 3, we have
2𝛼
1 1 1
𝑉𝑝 = = ×
√𝜇𝜖 √𝜇𝑟𝜀𝑟 √𝜇0 𝜀0
c)State: 1
i)two sources of Electromagnetic radiation (EM) But 𝑐 = = 3.0 x 108 m/s
√𝜇0 𝜀0
(2mks) Hence phase velocity or velocity of propagation
Sln 𝜔 1 1
i. Oscillation of electrical circuit – Radio waves 𝑉𝑝 = = = ×𝑐
𝛽 √𝜇𝜖 √𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟
ii. Sun/Fire/Tv remote – Infra red radiation 𝑉𝑝 =
1
=
𝑐
iii. Sun/mercury vapour lamp- UV light √𝜇𝜖 √𝜇𝑟𝜀𝑟
iv. X-ray tube … X-rays
v. Radioactive substance – Gamma rays c)State one application for each of the following
electromagnetic waves (4mks)
ii)one application for each of the following EM i)Visible light
radiations 1..Enable people and animals to see
I)X-rays (1mk) 2.Photosynthesis in plants
1.In medicine –To locate bone fracture or foreign objects 3.Used in LASER
(swallowed pins)
2.Cancer therapy
ii)Micro waves
3.Controlling pests and germs by radiation
4.Crystallogy-to detect flaws in metals
1.In microwave Oven to cook or warm food

II) Gamma –rays (1mk) 2.In RADAR communication (Locating the

1.Medicine-for sterilising medical equipment, positions of aeroplanes and ships)
killing cancerous growth 3.Communication in telephone and computer data
2.Industries –to detect flaws in metal
iii)Cosmic rays
3a) Define the following terms as used in wave
propagation
i) Attenuation Factor (1mk)
The amplitude of the signal reduces. iv)radio Waves
Is the decrease in the amplitude of an electric 1..Used in radio, TV and cellular mobile
wave communications.
2.Satellite imagery

70 | P a g e
4a)State three properties of electromagnetic ii)Distinguish between the following types of
waves (3mks) KNEC O/V 2018 media as used in wave propagation
Sln di)Lossless and Lossy media (2mks)
i) They do not require material medium for Sln
transmission A loss-less media is a medium in which
ii) They travel at the speed of light i.e. 3 × 108 ms-1 electromagnetic propagate without the loss of
iii)They are transverse in Nature power. A loss-less media is also known as perfect
iv) They carry no charge, hence not affected by dielectrics
electric or magnetic fields Condition for loss –less media
v) They undergo reflection, refraction and 𝜎=0
diffraction. ∈ = 𝜀𝑟 𝜀𝑜
vi)Posses energy in different portion according to ∝ = 0 (no losses)
the relation 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 A lossy media -
vii) They obey the wave equation (v = λ f). Is a medium in which electromagnetic wave losses
power as it propagate due to poor condition
b)For each of the following types of
electromagnetic (EM) waves, List one area of 𝛾 = propagation constant
applications (5mks) 𝛾 = ∝ + 𝛽𝑗
TYPE APPLICATION ii)free space and conducting media (2mks)
X-ray 1.In medicine –To locate A free space is a perfect dielectric containing no
bone fracture or foreign
objects (swallowed pins) charges and no conduction current
2.Cancer therapy In free space, 𝛔 = 0, and therefore no conduction
3.Controlling pests and current i.e Ic = Jc = 0
germs by radiation
A conducting media is one in which 𝜎 ≠ 0 and
4.Crystallogy-to detect flaws
in metals hence, conduction current exist as well as charge.
Infrared .Tv remote control Consider the following equations
1.In cooking, heating
and drying.

2.In green houses to 5) A plane wave is in anon-magnetic media has

grow crops E = 50Sin(𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐭 + 2Z)𝐚𝐲 . Find (8mks)
3.Ware fare and KNEC O/N 2018
burglar alarm system a)Direction
Gamma rays 1.Medicine-for direction = -z
sterilising medical
equipment, killing
cancerous growth b)Wavelength λ
2.Industries –to detect 𝟐𝝅
flaws in metal λ=
𝜷
Radio waves 1.Used in radio, TV but 𝛽 = 2
and cellular mobile 𝟐𝝅
hence Wavelength λ = =𝝅
communications. 𝟐
2.Satellite imagery
c)frequency f
Ultra Violet In medicine- to kill Sln
bacteria, skin 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 but 𝜔 = 108
treatment 𝜔 108
f= = = 15 x 106 Hz
2𝜋 2𝜋
Source of Vitamin D
6i)State two properties of an electromagnetic
ci)Define the term ‘ Skin-depth’ as used in an waves (2mks) KNEC J/J 2019
electromagnetic waves (1mks) KNECO/N 2018 Sln
– Refers to the distance through which the 1a)State two properties of a uniform plane waves
amplitude the travelling wave decreases to 37% of (2mks)
the original amplitude i) They do not require material medium for
transmission
ii) They travel at the speed of light i.e. 3 × 108 ms-1
iii)They are transverse in Nature

71 | P a g e
iv) They carry no charge, hence not affected by Determine (8mks)
electric or magnetic fields i)Velocity of propagation
v) They undergo reflection, refraction and Sln
1 1 1
diffraction. 𝑉𝑝 = = ×
√𝜇𝜖 √𝜇𝑟𝜀𝑟 √𝜇0 𝜀0
vi)Posses energy in different portion according to 1
the relation 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 But 𝑐 = = 3.0 x 108 m/s
√𝜇0 𝜀0
vii) They obey the wave equation (v = λ f).
1 𝑐 3.0 𝑥 108
𝑉𝑝 = = = = 1.225 x 108 𝑚/𝑠
√𝜇𝜖 √𝜇𝑟𝜀𝑟 √2 𝑥 3

ii)Explain the reason for using three

dimensional coordinates system in the analysis ii)Phase constant
of electromagnetic fields (4mks) Sln
𝜷 = 𝝎√𝝁𝝐

𝜷 = 𝝎√𝝁𝝐 = 2𝝅𝒇√𝜇0 𝝁𝒓 𝜀0 𝜺𝒓
= 2 x 𝝅 x 9.4 x 𝟏𝟎𝟗 √𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑥√𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟
= 2 x 𝜋 x 9.4 x
109 √ 4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10−12 𝑥√3𝑥2
= 6.564 x 10−7
bi)Define ‘Uniform plane wave’ as used in
electromagnetic fields (1mks) KNEC 2019 iii)Intrinsic impedance
Sln Sln
Uniform plane waves are those, which the Electric 𝜇 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟
η =√ = √ 𝑥√
field E and Magnetic field H lie on the same plane 𝜖 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟

4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 2
=√ x√
8.854 𝑥 10−12 3
ii)The equation of a wave a lossless medium is = 377 x 0.8165 = 307.8Ω
described by:
𝑬𝒚 (𝒙, 𝒕) = 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷𝒙)+ 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕 + 𝜷𝒙)
7a)Distinguish between linearly and Circularly
I)Obtain the expression for the wave in Positive
Polarized waves with reference to wave
direction
propagation (2mks) KNEC2022

Sln
Linearly polarized wave – A wave is said to be
linearly Polarized when at given point in the
medium, the electric field oscillates along a
straight line as a function of time
Occurs when electric fields moves in in line i.e
I)Determine the velocity either in x,y and z directions
Circularly polarized waves – A wave is said to be
Circularly Polarized if the tip of the electric field
have a circle as a function of time
Occurs when electric fields vector move in circle

b) A 60 MHz uniform plane wave propagates in

a medium with 𝝐𝒓𝟏 = 20, 𝝁𝒓𝟏 = 1 and 𝝈𝟏 = 0.05
S/m. The amplitude of electric field intensity is
20 V/m. Determine: (9mks)
i) Angular frequency 𝝎
III)Describe the wave at the instant when : Angular Frequency 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋 x 6 x 106
𝑪𝟏 = 𝑪𝟐 = 3.77 x 108 Rad/s

ii)Complex Permittivity 𝜺̅
𝜎1 𝜎1 0.05 𝑥 ×36𝜋
= = = 0.75
c) A 9.4 x 𝟏𝟎𝟗 Hz uniform plane wave is 𝜔𝜖 𝜔𝜖𝑟1 𝜖0 3.77 𝑥 108 𝑥 20𝑥 10−9
𝜖𝑟1 𝜎1
propagating in space where 𝝁𝒓 = 𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜺𝒓 =3. 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜀̅ = (1 − 𝑗 )
𝜇𝑟1 𝜔𝜖𝑟1 𝜖0

72 | P a g e
 20 𝑥 10−9 ii)Flux density B(r,t) due to a circular path
= (1 − 𝑗0.75)
36𝜋 r > 𝟎. 𝟐
= (17.68 – j1.33 ) x 10−11
Sln
Flux Density B(r,t)
̅
iii)Propagation Constant 𝒀 Using Strokes Theorem 𝛻 𝑥 𝐴 = B
Sln ∫𝑐 𝐴. 𝑑𝑙 = ∫𝑠 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠
𝑌̅ = j𝜔 √𝜇0 𝜺̅ = B.𝜋𝑅2
= 0.04 Sin 300t
= j3.77 𝑥 108 √4𝜋𝑥10−7 (17.68 − 𝑗1.33)10−11
= j 5.62 + 1.54 9a)Distinguish between skin effects and Skin
= 1.54 + j5.62 depth with reference to electromagnetic waves.
Skin effect – Is the tendency of current being
iv)Intrinsic Impedance Ω concentrated on the surface of the cylindrical
conductor
Sln
𝜇 Skin depth – refers to the distance a wave must
Intrinsic Impedance Ω = √ ̅0
𝜺 travel before its amplitude has to decay by a factor
1
4𝜋𝑥10−7 𝑥 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 . It’s the reciprocal of the decay constant 𝛽
=√ 𝑒
𝟏𝟕.𝟔𝟖 – 𝒋𝟏.𝟑𝟑
= 84 + j23.1
b) A 5GHz wave propagates in a medium
8a)Describe the significances of Boundary
characterized by :
Conditions in Electromagnetic analysis
Permeability, 𝝁𝒓 = 2,
(3mks) KNEC 2022
permittivity, 𝜺𝒓 = 20
i. Boundary conditions helps in describing
interfacial boundaries separating dis-similar Conductivity 𝝈 = 4.0 S/m.
conducting materials. The electric field intensity E in the region is
ii. They give restrictions on linearly and locality given by the expression
of materials to aid in Analysing basic wave E = 0.2𝒆−𝒂𝒛 Cos (2𝝅𝒇𝒕 − 𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒛
plane parameters (eg reflections) and Determine the: (7mks)
Matching such to a planar boundary isotopic i)Complex permittivity 𝜺 ⃖
medium. ω = 2πx 5x 109 = 31.41 x 109 rad/s
iii. For systematically be able to uniquely describe 31.41 x 109 x 31.41 x 30−9
ω∈= = 8.33
both electric and magnetic fields in dynamics 36π
𝑗𝜔𝜀
of electromagnetic fields. The complex permittivity 𝜀⃖ = ∈ [1 − ]
𝜎
𝑗8.33
𝜀⃖ = ∈ [1 − ] = ∈ (1 − 𝑗2.1)
4
b)A laminated cylindrical Core of diameter = ∈ (2.32 < −64.50
0.1m is uniformly wound and generates flux
𝟏 ii)Propagation constant 𝜸
density of magnitude B(t) = 𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒕).
𝝅 Sln
Determine The: (7mks) Y = j𝜔 √𝜇𝜀
= j𝜔√𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑥 𝜇𝑟 𝑥𝜀𝑟 x √1 − 𝑗2.1
i)Voltage per turn V
𝑗31.41 x 109
= x √2 𝑥 30 x √1 − 𝑗2.1
3 x 108
sln
𝑑∅ = j811√1 − 𝑗2.1
Voltage V = - E =
𝑑𝑡 =(811<90)(1.76<55)
But ∅ = BA , = 1427 < 145
𝑑𝐵𝐴
V= = -1169 + j818
𝑑𝑡
For Acylinder A = 𝜋𝑅2
𝑑∅ iii)Attenuation constant ∝
V= 𝜋𝑅2
𝑑𝑡 Sln
𝑑 1
= 𝜋𝑅2 ( 𝑆𝑖𝑛(300𝑡) 1169 lagging
𝑑𝑡 𝜋
2
= 300 𝑅 Cos 300t
= 300 x(0.05)2 Cos 300t V

73 | P a g e
c)The table 1 shows the characteristic of b)A uniform wave propagating in free space
difference media. Complete the table (6mks) strikes alossy medium with a dielectric constants
Media Lossy Lossless conductor of 20 and conductivity of 0.8mS/m. The
Conductivity 𝝈 frequency of the wave polarized in the x-
≠𝟎 direction is 200kHz. Determine the:
Permittivity 𝜺 𝟎 𝜺𝟏 i)Angular frequency, 𝝎 (2mks)
Permeability 𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝒓 Sln
Angular Frequency 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋 x 200 x 103
= 1.257 x 106 Rad/s
Sln

Media Lossy Lossless conductor ii)Propagating constant , Y (2mks)

Conductivity 𝝈≠𝟎 𝝈=𝟎 𝝈 ≈∝ Sln
Permittivity 𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓 𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓 𝝈 ≪ 𝝎𝜺 𝑌̅ = j𝜔 √𝜇0 𝜺̅
Permeability 𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝒓 𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝒓 𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝒓 𝑌̅ = j𝜔 √𝜇0 𝜺𝟎
𝜔 1.257 𝑥 106
=j = j = j4.19 x 10−3
𝑐 3 𝑥 108

iii)Intrinsic impedence 𝜼 (2mks)

Sln
di)Outline three types of radiations detected by
𝜇 4𝜋𝑥10−7
electromagnetic detectors KNEC O/N 2022 Intrinsic Impedance Ω = √̅̅̅̅0 = √
𝜺𝟎 8.85𝑥10−12
(3mks)
=120𝜋Ω
-Alpha radiations ∝
iv)Phase velocity 𝑽𝒑 (2mks)
-beta radiations 𝛽 𝜔 𝜔 1 1 𝑐
-Gamma radiations 𝛾 𝑉𝑝 = = = × =
𝛽 𝜔√𝜇𝜖 √𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟 √𝜇0 𝜀0 √𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟
𝛽 = is the real part of propagation constant 4.19 x
10−3
𝜔 1.257 𝑥 106
𝑉𝑝 = = = 3.0 x 108 m/s
𝛽 4.19 𝑥 10−3
ii)With aid of adiagram, explain the Or
𝜔 𝜔 1
construction of Geiger-muller counter detector 𝑉𝑝 = = =
𝛽 𝜔√𝜇𝜖 √𝜇0 𝜀0
in electromagneticics (5mks) 1 1
Sln 𝑉𝑝 = 𝑐 = =
√𝜇0 𝜀0 √4𝜋𝑥10−7 𝑥 8.85𝑥10−12
8
= 3.0 x 10 m/s

c)Outline three sources of electromagnetic fields

(3mks)
Sln
 Solar radiations – this is natural radiations
which originates from the sun
It consists of a hollow metal case enclosed in a thin
 Terrestial radiations – natural radiations
glass tube, which acts as cathode. The Tungsten
emmited from the earth surface
wire is stretched along the axis which acts as an
 Artificial radiations –Originating from remote
anode insulated by ebonite plugs
sensing devices
-The tube is filled 90% argon and 10% pressure
-A fine tungsten is connected to battery positive via
8.aA plane electromagnetic wave with peak
a resistor and other terminal to metallic tube. electric field intensity E = 16 V/m propagates in
a lossless medium with 𝝁𝒓 = 1 and 𝜺𝒓 = 3
7a)Describe electromagnetic shielding (2mks) KNEC APRIL 2023
KNEC O/N 2022 Determine the:
-Electromagnetic shielding is a conductive barrier i) velocity of propagation
that completely envelopes a device to protect it 𝜔 𝜔 1 1
𝑉𝑝 = = = 𝑥
𝛽 𝜔 √𝜇𝜖 √𝜇0 𝜀0 √𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟
from environmental interference. 1 1
-It blocks electromagnetic and electrostatics fields = x
√4𝜋𝑥10−7 𝑥 8.85𝑥10−12 √1 𝑥 3
from interfering with other electronics devices and = 1.73 x 108 m/s
systems

74 | P a g e
 ii) Characteristic impedance
𝜇 𝜇 𝜇 2:ELECTRODYNAMICS
Intrinsic Impedance 𝜂 = √ = √ 0 x √ 𝑟 1i)Find the expression for the force F between
𝜖 𝜀 𝜀 0 𝑟

4𝜋𝑥10−7 1
two point charges
=√ x √ = 217.6Ω Sln
8.85𝑥10−12 3

Let the two charges be 𝑄1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄2 and are at R

iii) Peak value of magnetic field distance apart
(6marks)
⃐|
|𝑬 𝟏𝟔
⃐ |= =
|𝑯 = 73.50 mA/m Force is directly proportion to the products of the
𝜂 𝟐𝟏𝟕.𝟔𝟔
charges and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them
b) An electric field strength of a uniform
electromagnetic waves is 1V/m. The frequency 𝑄1 𝑄2
F∝
of the wave is 300MHz. A copper plate of 𝑅2
intrinsic impedance 6.39 x 𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟐 Ω .Relative 𝑄1 𝑄2
permeability 𝝁𝒓 = 1 and conductivity and 𝝈 = 5.8 F=k N
𝑅2
x 𝟏𝟎𝟕 is placed normal to the direction of
propagation of the wave. 𝑄1 𝑄2
So F =
Determine the: 4𝜋𝜀𝑅 2
i)Electric field strength at the surface of the
1
plate Where : k =
2𝜂2 4𝜋𝜀
E= 𝜀 = Relative permitivity
𝜂1 + 𝜂2
2 𝑥 6.39 𝑥 10−3 𝜀 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟
=
377+ 6.39 𝑥 10−3 𝜀0 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
= 3.39 x 10−5
8.854 𝑥 10−12 or
𝜀𝑟 = relative permittivity
ii)Magnetic field strength at the surface of the
plate Where 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 are the positive or negative
𝐸
H= charge and R is the distance between them.
𝜂2
3.39 𝑥 𝑥 10−5
= b)a negative point charge of magnitude 2𝝁C is
6.39 𝑥 10−3
= 5.3 x 10−3 A/m situated in air at origin and two positive point
charges of magnitude 1 𝝁C each are at point
iii)Depth of wave penetration into the copper y = ± 2m
plate i)Sketch the arrangements of the charges
Sln
𝟐
Depth of penetration ( 𝜹) = √
𝝎𝝁𝝈

𝟐
=√
2𝜋𝑥 300 𝑥106 𝑥 4𝜋𝑥10−7 𝑥 5.8 𝑥107
−6
= 3.82 𝑥10 m

iv)conduction current density (8mrks)

J = 𝝈𝑬̅
J = 5.8 𝑥107 x 3.39 𝑥10−5 m
= 1965 A/𝒎𝟐
ii)determine the value of E and V at appoint 4m
from the origin on the x –axis (11mks)

75 | P a g e
2.The vector magnetic potential A, in the x- y bi)Given that surface charge density in a region
plane is given by is 𝝆𝒔 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙𝒚, Determine the surface charge
A = (𝒆𝒚 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒙)𝒂𝒙 + ( 1 + 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒙)𝒂𝒛 . integral ∫𝒔 𝝆𝒔 𝒅𝒔 over a region y ≤ 𝒙𝟐 , 0 ≤ 𝒙 < 𝟏
Given that the magnetic flux density
(3mks)
B = 𝛁 × 𝑨, determine the expression for B
(6mks)

2ii)Verify Gauss divergence Theorem for a

vector field
D = 𝝆𝟐 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝟐 ∅𝒂𝒆 + 𝒁𝑺𝒊𝒏∅𝒂∅ over any closed
surface bounded by 𝝆 = 𝟒, 0 ≤ 𝒁 ≤ 𝟏 (8mks)
Sln
1 𝑑 1 𝑑 𝑑
𝛻. 𝐷 = 𝜌(𝐴𝜌) + (𝐴Ф) + 𝜌(𝐴𝑧)
𝑝 𝑑𝑝 𝑝 𝑑Ф 𝑑Ф
1 𝑑 1 𝑑
𝛻. 𝐷 = 𝜌3 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 ∅𝑎𝑝 + 𝑍𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑎∅ + 0
𝑝 𝑑𝑝 𝑝 𝑑Ф
1 1
𝛻. 𝐷 = ( 3𝜌2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 ∅)𝑎𝑝 + (𝑍𝐶𝑜𝑠∅)𝑎∅ ii)Derive expression for the total force
𝑝 𝑝
𝑍𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ experienced by charged particle moving in a
= [3𝜌𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 ∅ + ] region of both electric and magnetic fields.
𝜌
Volume dv = 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑∅𝑑𝑧 (4mks)
1 ∅=2𝜋 4 𝑍𝐶𝑜𝑠∅
= ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 [3𝜌𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 ∅ + 𝜌
] 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
1 ∅=2𝜋 4 2 2
= ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 [3𝜌 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅ + 𝑍𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ ] 𝑑𝜌𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
1 ∅=2𝜋 3 3 4
= ∫0 ∫0 [ 𝜌 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 ∅ + 𝜌𝑍𝐶𝑜𝑠∅] 𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
3 0
1 ∅=2𝜋 3
= ∫0 ∫0 [4 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 ∅ + 4𝑍𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ − (0)] 𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
2 1
But 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅ = (1 + 𝐶𝑜2∅)
2
1 ∅=2𝜋 1
= ∫0 ∫0 [64 { (1 + 𝐶𝑜2∅)} + 4𝑍𝐶𝑜𝑠∅] 𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
2
1 1 2𝜋
= ∫0 [32 {∅ + 𝑆𝑖𝑛2∅)} + 4𝑍𝑆𝑖𝑛∅] 𝑑𝑧 c) A scalar quantity is given as V = 𝒙𝟐 𝒚 + 𝒙𝒚𝒛.
2 0
1 Determine its gradient (4mks)
= ∫0 32 {2𝜋)} + 4𝑍𝑆𝑖𝑛360 − (0) 𝑑𝑧
1
= ∫0 32 {2𝜋)} 𝑑𝑧
= [64𝜋𝑧]10
= 64𝜋(1) − 64𝜋(0) = 𝟔𝟒𝝅

Again
̅ . 𝒅𝒔̅ = (𝛁. 𝑨)𝒅𝒗
∮𝑫
(𝛁. 𝑫)𝒅𝒗 = ∮ 𝑫 ̅ . 𝒅𝒔̅
2 2
= 𝜌 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑎𝑝 +𝑍𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑎∅
1 ∅=2𝜋
= ∫0 ∫0 [𝜌2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 ∅𝑎𝑝 + 𝑍𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑎∅ ] 𝜌𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
1 ∅=2𝜋 3
= ∫0 ∫0 [𝜌 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 ∅𝑎𝑝
+ 𝜌𝑍𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑎∅ ] 𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
ds = 𝜌𝑑∅𝑑𝑧 For cylindrical
1 2ai)State two areas of application of magnetic
But 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 ∅ = (1 + 𝐶𝑜2∅) fields (2mks)
2
1 ∅=2𝜋 3 1
= ∫0 ∫0 [𝜌 { (1 + 𝐶𝑜2∅)} + 𝜌𝑍𝑖𝑛∅] 𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
2
1 2𝜋
3 1 1
= ∫0 [ 𝜌 𝑥 2 {∅ + 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛2∅)} + 𝜌𝑍(−𝐶𝑜𝑠∅] 𝑑𝑧
0
1 1 1
= ∫0 (𝜌3 𝑥 2 {2𝜋 + 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛2(2𝜋)} + 𝜌𝑍(−𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝜋) 𝑑𝑧
But 𝝆 = 4
1 1
= ∫0 (43 𝑥 {2𝜋 + (0)} + 𝜌𝑍(−1) − (−1)) 𝑑𝑧
2
1
== ∫0 {64𝜋)} 𝑑𝑧
= [64𝜋𝑧]10
= 64𝜋(1) − 64𝜋(0) = 𝟔𝟒𝝅

76 | P a g e
ii)Table 1 Shows analogy between electric and 3ai)State Gauss’ law of electrostatics
magnetic fields. Complete the table KNEC O/N 2018
LECTRIC FIELD MAGNETIC FIELD It state that the total Electric flux passing through
E = - 𝛁𝑽 an enclosed surface is equal to the total charge
enclosed by that surface.
𝝍 = ∫ 𝑫. 𝜹𝒔
ii)Using the law in a(i), derive Maxswell’s
∮ 𝑯. 𝒅𝒕 = 𝑰𝒆𝒏𝒄 equation in point form (8mks)
B = 𝝁𝑯 Sln
E=
𝑽 Ψ=∫ 𝐷 ̅ . 𝑑𝑠̅ = Q enclosed
𝑠
𝑰
Sln Q = ∫𝑣 𝑝𝑣 𝑑𝑣̅ = ∫𝑣 (𝛻. 𝐷) 𝑑𝑣
LECTRIC FIELD MAGNETIC FIELD
E = - 𝛻𝑉 H= −𝛻𝑉 And therefore
𝜑 = ∮ 𝐵ds ∫𝑣 𝑝𝑣 𝑑𝑣̅ = ∫𝑣 (𝛻. 𝐷) 𝑑𝑣
𝜓 = ∫ 𝐷. 𝛿𝑠
From which it can be observed that:
𝛻. 𝐷 = 𝑝𝑣 (this is known as Maxswell’s 1st
∮ 𝐷ds = Qencl ∮ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 equation in point or differential form)
D = 𝜀𝐸 B = 𝜂𝐻 Q=∫ 𝐷 ̅ . 𝑑𝑠̅, (this is known as Maxswell’s
𝑠
𝑉 equation in integral form).
E=
𝐼

b)The electric flux density in an electric field is

bi)State the Bio Savart’s law of magneto statics
given by
(2mks)
D = (2𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛)𝒂𝒛 + 4xy𝒂𝒚 + x𝒂𝒛 C/𝒎𝟐 . Determine
Sln the volume charge density at a point (-1,0,3)
The Biot-Savart Law states that: (4mks)
The magnetic field intensity d𝑯 ̅ produced at Sln
Volume charge density 𝑝𝑣 = ( . D)
appoint p due to differential current IdL is
𝑑 𝑑
1)Directly Proportional to the product of the 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝟐𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛
current I and differential length dL. 𝑑 𝑑
= 𝑑𝑦 . (𝑎𝑦 ) = 𝑑𝑦 . ( 4𝑥𝑦 )
2)The sine of the Angle between the element and
𝑑
𝑎𝑧 𝑑 𝑥
the line joining point P to the element
[(𝑑𝑧 ) ] [( 𝑑𝑧 ) ]
3)And inversely proportional to the square of the
= 0 + 4x + 0
distance R between point P and the element
And at point (-1,0,3)
𝑝𝑣 = 0 (-1) + 4(0) + 3(0) = 0

ci)State coulomb’s law of force

Sln
The law states that: The force between two point
charges is directly proportional to the product of
Charges𝑞1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞2 and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them.
𝑞1 𝑞2
So F∝
𝑟2
𝑞1 𝑞2
F=k N
𝑟2

ii)Two point charges 𝑸𝟏 = 𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 C and

𝑸𝟐 = 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 are spaced 10cm apart in
𝟐.𝟑𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟔
vacuum. Determine the:
ii)A radial field H = Cos∅𝒂∅ I)Force of attraction between the charges (4mks)
𝝆
Amperes/metre exists in free space. Determine Sln
𝑞1 𝑞2 4 𝑥 10 −5 𝑥 6 𝑥 10 −5
the magnetic flux (∅) crossing the surface 𝐹𝑞1𝑞2 = = 10−9
= ?N
𝝅 𝝅 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑟 2 4𝜋 𝑥 𝑥 (0.1)2
defined by − ≤ ∅ ≤ , 𝟎 ≤ 𝒁 ≤ 𝟏 metre. 36𝜋
𝟒 𝟒
(6mks)

77 | P a g e
 iii)Figure 3 shows a line charge distribution in
II)Force, if the charges are placed in kerosene of which a cylindrical charge tube oriented along
relative permittivity 𝜺𝒓 = 2 (4mks) the Z axis has a line charge density 𝝆𝟏 = 2Z, Z is
Sln the distance from bottom end of the tube.
𝑞1 𝑞2 4 𝑥 10 −5 𝑥 6 𝑥 10 −5 Determine the total charge contained (10mks)
𝐹𝑞1𝑞2 = = 10−9
= ?N
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑟 2 4𝜋 𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑥 (0.1)2
36𝜋

bi)State Stoke’s theorem (2mks)

it states the circulation of avector field A around a
closed path L is equal to the surface integral of the
curl of A over the open surface (S) bounded by by L
provided that A and curl of A are continuous
∮ 𝐴̅. 𝑑𝑙 ̅ = (𝛻. 𝐴)𝑑𝑠

c) A vector field is defined by:

𝟐𝒙 𝟐
𝑮= 𝟐 𝒂𝒙 + (𝒚 + 𝒁 + 𝟏𝟏)𝒂𝒚 + (5x - 𝒁 )𝒂𝒛
(𝟏+ 𝒚 )
ii)Figure 2 Shows a diagram of an elemental Determine the unit vector in the direction of
electric charge located in space, Using Vector G at a point (1, 2,-3) (6mks)
cylindrical co-ordinate system, write the
expressions for the surface area for the element

7a)State two equipment which use electrostatic

field in their operation (2mks) KNEC 2019

bi)State Coulomb’s law of electrostatics (2mks)

Sln
The force between two point charges is directly
proportional to the product of Charges𝑞1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞2
and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.
𝑞1 𝑞2
So F∝
𝑟2
𝑞1 𝑞2
F=k N
𝑟2

78 | P a g e
ii)A point charge 𝑸𝟏 = 2𝝁C is located at ii)Figure 5 Shows a cylindrical Gaussian surface
𝑷𝟏 (𝟑, 𝟕, −𝟒) in free space and a second point for magnetoststic field at the interface between
charge 𝑸𝟐 = -5𝝁C is at appoint 𝒑𝟐 (𝟐, 𝟒, −𝟏) . two different dielectrics of permittivity’s 𝝁𝟏
Determine the total elecytric field strength at and 𝝁𝟐 respectively. Using Gauss Law, show
appoint (12,15,18) due to both charges (8mks) that the normal component of the magnetic flux
Sln density B is continuous across the boundary
12 (6mks)
3
|𝑟 − 𝑟1 | = |(15) − ( 7 )|= √92 + 82 + 222
18 −4
=√629
12 2
|𝑟 − 𝑟2 | = |(15) − ( 4 )|= √102 + 112 + 192 =
18 −1
√582
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞2
E= 2 𝑎1 +
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 𝑎2 + ………+
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 𝑎𝑚 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
1 𝑞1 𝑞
E= [ 𝑎 + 22 𝑎2 ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 1 𝑟
1 2 𝑥 10−6 (9)𝑎𝑥 +(8)𝑎𝑦 +22𝑎𝑧
E= [ 2 𝑥 +
4𝜋𝜀0 (√629) √629
−5𝑥 10−6 (10)𝑎𝑥 +(11)𝑎𝑦 +19𝑎𝑧
2 𝑥 ]
(√582) √582
Factorizing 10−6 outside the bracket
2 (9)𝑎𝑥 +(8)𝑎𝑦 +22𝑎𝑧
𝐸 = 9 𝑥 10 9 𝑥 10−6 [ 2 𝑥 +
(√629) √629
−5 (10)𝑎𝑥 +(11)𝑎𝑦 +19𝑎𝑧
2 𝑥 ]
(√582) √582
9i)Define ‘dot-product’ as used in
(9)𝑎𝑥 +(8)𝑎𝑦 +22𝑎𝑧
E = 9 𝑥 10 3 [2 𝑥 3 + electromagnetic field theory KNEC 2020
(629)2
(10)𝑎𝑥 +(11)𝑎𝑦 +−19𝑎𝑧
−5𝑥 3 ]
(582)2
(18)𝑎𝑥 +(16)𝑎𝑦 +44𝑎𝑧 (−50)𝑎𝑥 +(−55)𝑎𝑦 +95𝑎𝑧 ii)Three electromagnetic field quantities are
E = 9 𝑥 10 3 [ + ] represented by:
15775.2 14040.5

E = 9 𝑥 10 3 [(0.00114)𝑎𝑥 + (0.0010)𝑎𝑦 + 0.0028𝑎𝑧 + M = 2𝒂𝒙 - 𝒂𝒛

N = 𝟐𝒂𝒙 -𝒂𝒚 + 2𝒂𝒛
(−0.0036)𝑎𝑥 + (−0.00392)𝑎𝑦 + 0.00677𝑎𝑧 ]
T = 𝟐𝒂𝒙 - 3𝒂𝒛 + 𝒂𝒛
E = 9 𝑥 10 3 [(−0.0025)𝑎𝑥 + (−0.0029)𝑎𝑦 + 0.0096𝑎𝑧 ]
Determine N(T × 𝑴)
E = [(−0.0225𝑎𝑥 − 0.0261𝑎𝑦 + 0.0864𝑎𝑧 ] kV/m
b)Explain three conditions that must be satisfied
in the application of Coulomb in electrostatics
8a)State Biot Savart Law (2mks) KNEC 2019 (3mks)

Sln
The Biot-Savart Law states that:
The magnetic field intensity d𝑯 ̅ produced at
appoint p due to differential current IdL is
1)Directly Proportional to the product of the
current I and differential length dL.
2)The sine of the Angle between the element and
the line joining point P to the element ci)State the divergence theorem (2mks)
3)And inversely proportional to the square of the
distance R between point P and the element

79 | P a g e
 iii)Show that the constant of discontinuity of
ii)A vector field in cylindrical co-ordinate normal component of magnetic field strength H
system across boundary in b(ii) is given by:
𝑯𝒙𝟐 𝝁𝒓𝟏
A = 30𝒍−𝟏 𝒂𝒙 - 2z𝒂𝒛 exist over the surface of the =
𝑯𝒙𝟏 𝝁𝒓𝟐
cylinder bounded l = 2, z = 0 and z = 5, Evaluate
both sides of the equation using divergence
theorem (10mks)

10)With reference to electrodynamic, define

each of the following terms and write their
mathematical expressions: (4mks)
KNEC 2022
i)Electric field Intensity E

Electric intensity E at a point is the force per unit

charge
𝐹
E=
𝑄
ii) Electric Flux Density D
Is total flux per unit surface area.
𝑸
Hence, D = C/𝒎𝟐
𝑺𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
10ai)Define the following terms as used in
magnetic fields (2mks) KNEC 2020 d) For a free space concentric spherical shells
i)Magnetic flux density with voltage 𝑽𝟏 = 0, at a radius
It is the magnetic flux per unit area 𝒓𝟏 = 0.2m and Voltages 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑽 at aradius
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 Ф (𝑊𝑏)
B= = 2 𝒓𝟐 = 4m . Determine the:
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑚 )
1)Electric field intensity E
Sln
ii)Magnetic field intensity 1 𝑑 𝑟 2𝑑
𝛻 2𝑉 = ( )=0
It is the measure of how strong or weak any 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
2
magnetic field is. Multiplying by 𝑟 all through
1 𝑑 𝑟 2𝑑
Or 𝑟2 𝑥 ( ) = 0 x 𝑟2
𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
The ability of magnetic field to magnetise a 𝑑 𝑟 2𝑑
material medium ( )=0
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
Integrating both side
𝑑 𝑟 2𝑑
∫ 𝑑𝑟 ( 𝑑𝑟 ) = ∫ 0
i)List three current distribution configuration in
𝑟 2 𝑑𝑣
a magnetic field. =A
𝑑𝑟
Dividing all through by 𝑟 2
𝑑𝑣 𝐴
=
𝑑𝑟 𝑟2
𝐴
So that : v=∫ 𝑑𝑟
𝑟2
𝐴
V=− +B ……… (i)
𝑟
ii)Write the expression for the boundary V = 0 when r = 0.2
condition for normal components of magnetic From the condition given:
flux density B between two different media of 𝐴
0=− +B …… eqtn (ii)
relative permeability 𝝁𝒓𝟏 and 𝝁𝒓𝟐 respectively in 0.2
a magnetic field. A = 0.2B
And
𝐴
B= …… eqtn (iii)
0.2
And replacing eqtn (iv) into (ii)
𝐴 𝐴
200 = − +
4 0.2

80 | P a g e
 𝐴 𝐴
200 = -
0.2 4
20𝐴 −𝐴 19𝐴 b)Figure 3 shows a point charge of 60𝝁𝑪 at point
200 = = (0.0.10)m. Determine the
4 4
800 = 19A
𝐴
B=
0.2
800
Replacing B = = 210.53
19 𝑥 0.2
Replacing equation into
𝐴
V=− +B
𝑟
800 800
V=− +
19𝑟 3.8
E = −∇𝑉
𝑑𝑣 800
= 𝑎𝑟 V/m
𝑑𝑟 19𝑟 2

ii)Electric flux density D

D = 𝜀𝐸 i)Charge density (3mks)
800 2
D= 2 𝜀 𝑎𝑟 V/𝑚
Sln
19𝑟
𝑄 60 𝑥10−6
Charge density 𝜌𝑠 = =
𝐴 𝜋(𝑟 2 )
11)A charge q = 5𝝁C is placed a distance a = 60 𝑥10−6
20cm from an infinite grounded conducting =
𝜋(102 )
plate. Determine the: (5mks) KNEC 2022 = 1.9 𝑥10−7 C/𝑚2
i)Force acting on the charge
Sln ii)Force on the charge due to a circle plate of
𝑞2
𝐹𝑞 = charge 600𝝅𝝁𝑪 at aradius 𝒓 ≤ 𝟏𝟎𝒎, z = 0m
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟)2
(5 𝑥 10−6 )2 (5mks)
𝐹𝑞 = = 5.625𝑁 Sln
4𝜋 𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10−12 𝑥 (0.2)2
In cylindrical form R = -𝑟𝑎𝑦 +10𝑟𝑎𝑧
𝑄1 𝑄2
F=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2
ii)Work required to remove the charge to infinity
Sln In differential form
∞ 𝑞2 2𝜋 10 (60𝑥 10−6 )𝜌𝑠 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑∅
Work W = ∫𝑎 4𝜋𝜀 (2𝑟)2 𝑑𝑟 F = ∫0 ∫0 10−6
3
0 4𝜋( )(𝑟 2 +100)2
36𝜋
−𝑞 2 1 ∞
= [ ] 2𝜋 10 (60𝑥 10−6 )(6𝑥 10−6 )(10𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑∅
16𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑎 F = ∫0 ∫0 10−6
3 𝑎𝑧
−𝑞 2 4𝜋( )(𝑟 2 +100)2
36𝜋
= 2𝜋 10 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑∅
16𝜋𝜀0 𝑎
F = 32.4 ∫0 ∫0 3 𝑎𝑧
(𝑟+100)2
q = 5𝝁C and a = 0.2 2𝜋
(5 𝑥 10−6 )2
F = 10.28 ∫0 𝑑∅ 𝑎𝑧
16𝜋 𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10−12 𝑥 0.2 = 10.28 Nm I opposite direction
= 0.281J

12a)Distinguish between electric and magnetic

dipoles with reference to electromagnetic field
KNEC O/N 2022 (2mks)
Sln
Electric dipoles-Deals with the separation of
positive and negative charges found in any
electromagnetic system eg a pair of electric
charges
Magnetic dipoles –deals with a closed circulation
of electric current system eg aclosed single loop of
a wire of constant through it.
c)State the Amperes Circuital law (2mks)
It states that the line integral of magnetic field
intensity around a closed path is equal to the
product of the magnetic permeability of that space
and the total current through the area bounded by
the path.

81 | P a g e
8)A conductor of length 10cm carries current of d)The electric field intensity of a uniform plan
2A in a vertical direction.A point P is placed 1m wave in free space is given by the expression
away from the conductor in the x-direction. E = 98Cos (𝝎𝒕 𝟖𝒛)
i)Sketch the arrangement (2mks) Determine:
KNEC O/N 2022 a)Wave frequency (2mks)
Sln

b)Wavelength (2mks)
iii)determine the angle between vertical axis and
point P (2mks)
𝟏
𝜽 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 = 𝟖𝟒. 𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝟎.𝟏
iii)Magnetic field at point P using Biot –Savart
law. (3mks)
Sln
𝐵
H=
𝜇
𝜇0 𝐼∆𝑙𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
B=
4𝜋𝑟 2
4𝜋𝑥10−7 𝑥 2(0.1)𝑆𝑖𝑛84,29
B= = 1.99 x 𝑥10−8
4𝜋(1)2
H = 0.0155834 A/m c)Electric field intensity (2mks)

9)Write the mathematical expressions of energy

density of KNEC O/N 2022
I)Electric field

iv)Average power density (2mks)

II)Magnetic fields

10a) State each of the following laws

KNEC APRIL 2023
i)Gauss law
It states that the total flux coming out of closed
surface is equal to the net change in the enclosed
c)Distinguish between velocity of wave surface.
propagation and wave length with reference to
electromagnetic waves. (2mks) ii)Ampere circuiting law (4marks)
KNEC O/N 2022 It states that the line integral of magnetic field
intensity H about any closed path is exactly equal
to the current enclosed by that path.

82 | P a g e
 =2 x8108
b)A point charge Q = 300nC is locate at appoint = 16216
𝑷𝟏 (2,0,3) in free space. Determine the electric
field intensity at appoint 𝑷𝟐 (0,1,2) (6marks) iv)Current density (10mrks)
ax ay az
∂H dH ∂H
̅ =|
∇×H ∂x dy ∂z |
Hx Hy Hz

ax ay az
∂H dH ∂H
̅=|
∇×H |
∂x dy ∂z
0 8108x 0
∂𝐻𝑦
J= 𝑎𝑧 = 8108𝑎𝑧
𝐹 ∂x
E=
𝑄
𝑞1 𝑞 𝑞2 c)Figure 1 shows a pot of the electric potential as
E= 𝑎 + 2 2 𝑎2 + ………+ 𝑎𝑚
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 1 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 afunction of distance X
1 𝑞 𝑞
E= [ 1 𝑎 + 22 𝑎2 ]
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 2 1
0 𝑟

0 2
|𝑟 − 𝑟1 |= |(1) − (0)|= √(−2)2 + 12 + −12 =√6
2 3

1 300 𝑥 10−9 (−2)𝑎𝑥 +(1)𝑎𝑦 +−𝑎𝑧

E= [ 2 𝑥 ]
4𝜋𝜀0 (√6) √6
−9
Factorizing 10 outside the bracket
9 −9 300 (−2)𝑎𝑥 +(1)𝑎𝑦 −1𝑎𝑧
𝐸 = 9 𝑥 10 𝑥 10 [ 2 𝑥 ]
(√6) √6
E = [(−368.8𝑎𝑥 + 184.4𝑎𝑦 − 184.4𝑎𝑧 ] MV/m

11a)State: KNEC APRIL 2023

i)Biot –savart law i)Determine the potential gradient from
It states that the magnetic field due to a tiny current I)0 -1 cm
𝒅𝑽
element at any point is proportional to the length of Electric field 𝑬 =
𝒅𝒙
current element, the sine of angle between the 𝒅𝑽
current direction and the line joining the current From 0 – 1, 𝑬 = = 25V/cm
𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝑽
element and the point and inversely proportional to II)1-4Cm, 𝑬 = =0
𝒅𝒙
the square of the distance between to current
element and the point. 𝒅𝑽
ii)Two areas of application of electromagnetic III)4 - 5cm, 𝑬 = = -25V/cm
𝒅𝒙
waves in medical fields (4mks)
-Imaging
-Sterilization ii)Sketch the graph of the corresponding
-Cancer treatment potential gradient as a function of distance, X
(6marks)
b)A magnetic material of susceptibility x = 2 has
a magnetic field density of 0.03T𝒙𝒅𝒚.
Determine the;
i)Relative permeability
𝜇𝑟 = λ + 1
=2+1=3
ii)Magnetic field intensity
𝑩
H=
𝝁
𝟎.𝟎𝟑
= = 8108x A/m
4𝜋𝑥10−7 𝑥 3
iii)Magnetization
M = λH

83 | P a g e
3:MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS 𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧
1.a)Write the word statements for each of the 𝜕𝐸 𝑑𝐸 𝜕𝐸
𝛻 × E = | 𝜕𝑥 |
Maxwell’s equations in time varying fields 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑧

(8mks) 𝐻𝑥 𝐻𝑦 𝐻𝑧
𝒅𝑩
5. 𝛁 × 𝑬 = − (Faradays law)
𝒅𝒕 𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧
The electromotive force around a closed path is 𝜕𝐸 𝑑𝐸 𝜕𝐸
equal to the time divergence of magnetic 𝛻 × E = | 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑧 |
displacement through any surface bounded by the 0 20 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 50𝑥) 𝑎𝑦 0
path. 𝑑
𝒅𝑫 = (0) – (0) + 20 Sin(𝜔𝑡 − 50𝑥) 𝑎𝑦
6. 𝛁 × 𝑯 = 𝑱 + (Amperes circuital 𝑑𝑥
𝒅𝒕
= -1000 Sin(𝜔𝑡 − 50𝑥) 𝑎𝑧
law in point form) 𝑑𝐵
The magneto motive force around a closed path is − =𝛻 ×E
𝑑𝑡
equal to the conduction current plus the time −
𝑑𝐵
= -1000 Sin(𝜔𝑡 − 50𝑥) 𝑎𝑧
derivative of electric displacement through any 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐵
closed surface bounded by the path = 1000 Sin(𝜔𝑡 − 50𝑥) 𝑎𝑧
𝑑𝑡
B = ∫ 1000 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 50𝑥) 𝑎𝑧
𝛁 . 𝑫 = 𝝆𝒗 (Maxwel’s First
7. 1000
Equation) B=− 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 − 50𝑥)
𝜔
The total electric displacement through any surface
enclosing a value is equal to the total charge within Therefor H
the volume. From B = 𝜇H
𝐵 1000
8. 𝛁 . 𝑩 = 𝟎 (Gauss law ) H= =− 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 − 50𝑥)
𝜇 𝜇𝜔
The net magnetic flux in a closed loop is zero
3a) State the two Maxwell’s equations in
2a)Write Maxwell’s for electrostatics fields in
Magneto-statics (4mks) KNEC O/N 2018
integral form (2mks)
𝒅𝑩 Sln
5) ∮ 𝑬. 𝒅𝑳 = ∫ . 𝒅𝑺 (Faraday’s law) In point form or differential form
𝒅𝒕
6) ∮ 𝑫. 𝒅𝒔 = ∫ 𝝆𝒗 𝐝𝐯 = Q (Gauss law for 𝑑𝐷
a)𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝐽 + (Amperes circuital law
𝑑𝑡
electric)
b)𝛻 . 𝐵 = 0 (Gauss law )
In integral form
b)In free space, E = 20cos(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟓𝟎𝒙)𝒂𝒚 𝑑𝐷
Volts/Metr. Determine: 1. ∮ 𝐻. 𝑑𝐿 = ∫ 𝐽𝑑𝑠 + . 𝑑𝑆
𝑑𝑡
i)Displacement current density Jd (6mks) 2. ∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠 = 0
Sln
Again from Ampere circuital law,
𝑑𝐷 b)In free space, electric flux density
We first find 𝐽𝑑 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐷 𝑑(𝜖𝐸) 𝑑(𝟐𝟎 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕−𝟓𝟎𝒙) 𝒂𝒚 𝑫= 𝑫𝒙 sin(𝝎𝒕 + 𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒚 . Use Maxwell’s
= = equations to show that the magnetic flux density
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= −𝟐𝟎𝛚 𝛆𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟓𝟎𝒙) 𝒂𝒚 is given by:

ii)Magnetic field strength H (5mks) 𝑫𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕+ 𝜷𝒛)

𝑩= (9mks)
𝜺𝒐 𝝎
Sln
Alternative 1 Sln
𝑑𝐵
E = 𝜂H ∇ ×E= −
𝑑𝑡
𝐸 20 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡−50𝑥) 𝑎𝑥 𝐷 𝑫𝒎𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒙
H= = E= =
𝜂 𝜂 𝜺𝒐 𝜺𝒐
i)B
𝐸 20 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡−50𝑥) 𝑎𝑥 𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
Hence H = =
𝜂 120𝜋
𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
Or ∇ × E = | 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 |
120
H= cos (𝜔𝑡 − 50𝑥)𝑎𝑥 𝑬𝒙 𝑬𝒚 𝑬𝒛
120𝜋

Alternative 2 𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
Use the point form of Faraday’s law and 𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
integration with respect to time to Find B and H 𝛁 × E = || 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 ||
𝑑𝐵 𝑫𝒎𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)
𝛻 ×E= − 𝟎 𝟎
𝑑𝑡 𝜺𝒐
i)B

84 | P a g e
 𝑑0 𝑑0 𝑑0
𝑫 𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)
𝑑 𝒎
𝜀 𝑑0 ii)State the Maxwell’s equation for time varying
=( - )𝑎𝑥 - ( - )𝑎𝑦 +( - fields in integral form (6mks)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥
𝑫 𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛) 𝒅𝑩
𝑑 𝒎
𝜀 1) ∮ 𝑬. 𝒅𝑳 = ∫ . 𝒅𝑺 (Faraday’s law)
)𝑎𝑧 𝒅𝒕
𝑑𝑦 𝒅𝑫
𝑫 𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛) 2) ∮ 𝑯. 𝒅𝑳 = ∫ 𝑱𝒅𝒔 + . 𝒅𝑺 (Ampere’s law)
𝑑 𝒎 𝒅𝒕
𝜺𝒐
= ( 0) + )𝑎𝑦 – 0 + 0 3) ∮ 𝑫. 𝒅𝒔 = ∫ 𝝆𝒗 𝐝𝐯 = Q (Gauss law for
𝑑𝑧
𝜷𝑫𝒎 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒙 electric)
=
𝜺𝒐 4) ∮ 𝑩. 𝒅𝒔 = 0 (Gauss law for Magnetic)
𝑑𝐵
Since : ∇ × E = −
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐵 𝜷𝑫𝒎 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒙
− =∇ ×E=
𝑑𝑡 𝜀
𝒅𝑩 𝜷𝑫𝒎 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒙 b)Figure 4 Shows a parallel plate capacitor
− =
𝒅𝒕 𝜺𝒐 connected to an alternating generator of Voltage
V volts. Redraw the circuit and indicate
Therefore displacement current 𝑰𝒅 and the capacitor
𝜷𝑫𝒎 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒚
B = −∫ 𝑑𝑡 current 𝑰𝒄 (2mks)
𝜺𝒐
−𝜷𝑫𝒎 𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒚
B=
𝜺𝒐 𝜔

c)From the Maxwells’s equations:

𝒅𝑩
𝛁 ×𝑬= −
𝒅𝒕
.
𝒅𝑫
𝛁 ×𝑯=𝑱+ , Derive the expressions for
𝒅𝒕
wave equation in E, in free space Using the
Vector Identity: 𝛁 𝐱 (𝛁 × 𝑨) = 𝛁 . (𝛁𝑨) − 𝛁 𝟐 𝑨
(8mks)
Sln
𝑑𝜇𝐻
𝛻 ×𝐸 = − eqtn (i)
𝑑𝑡
Sln
And curling both sides NOTE: After re-drawing the same circuit above,
𝜇𝑑(𝛻 𝑥 𝐻)
𝛻 𝑥 (𝛻 × 𝐸) = ….. (ii) then for:
𝑑𝑡
Similarly, Conduction current indicate 𝐼𝑐 along the
𝛻 𝑥 𝛻 × 𝐸 = −𝛻 2 𝐸 wire/conductor
𝜇𝑑(𝛻 𝑥 𝐻) Displacement current , indicate 𝐼𝑑 between the two
−𝛻 2 𝐸 = capacitor plates
𝑑𝑡
𝜇𝑑(𝛻 𝑥 𝐻)
𝛻2𝐸=− ….eqtn (iii)
𝑑𝑡
5.)Write Maxwell’s equations for the time
And
𝜖𝜇𝑑 2 𝐸
varying fields in free space KNEC 2020
𝛻2𝐸=- (this the wave equation for E Sln
𝑑𝑡 2
𝒅𝑩
field in free space) 5) 𝜵 × 𝑬 = − (Faradays law)
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝑫
4i)Distinguish between convection and 6) 𝜵 × 𝑯 = 𝑱 + (Amperes circuital law
𝒅𝒕
conduction currents in electromagnetic fields in point form)
theory (2mks)KNEC J/J 2019 7) 𝜵 . 𝑫 = 𝝆𝒗 (Maxwel’s First Equation)
8) 𝜵 . 𝑩 = 𝟎 (Gauss law )
𝑱𝒄 = Conduction current density which refers to
the amount of current (charge) flowing on the
surface of the conductor. ii)An electromagnetic field in free space has a
- It can also be referred to us the current in magnetic flux density
the conductors due to the flow of electrons 𝑩 = 𝑩𝒎 𝒆𝒋(𝝎+𝜷𝒛)
𝑱𝒅 = Displacement current or convectional Using Maxwell’s equations, show that
current i.e the current between two plates of a −𝝎𝑩𝒎 𝒆𝒋(𝝎+𝜷𝒛)
𝑬=
capacitor due to electric field 𝜷

Sln
𝑑𝐵
∇ ×E= −
𝑑𝑡

85 | P a g e
Starting with R.H.S
𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝐵𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ 𝛽𝑧) 𝑎𝑦
− =− = -j𝝎𝐵𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ 𝛽𝑧) 𝒂𝒚
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ 𝛽𝑧)
∇ × E = -j𝝎𝐵𝑚 𝑒 𝒂𝒚
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
∇ × E = | 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 |
𝑬𝒙 𝑬𝒚 𝑬𝒛

𝒅𝑬𝒛 𝒅𝑬𝒚 𝒅𝑬𝒛 𝒅𝑬𝒙 𝒅𝑬𝒚 𝒅𝑬𝒙

[𝒂𝒙 ( − ) − 𝒂𝒚 ( − ) + 𝒂𝒛 ( − )]
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚
𝒅𝑬𝒛 𝒅𝑬𝒙
Required = [𝒂𝒚 (− + )]
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒛
𝒅𝑬𝒛
But − =0 ii)Show that in a region where volume charge
𝒅𝒙
𝑑𝐵
𝒅𝑬𝒙
=− = −𝐣𝝎𝐵𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ 𝛽𝑧) 𝒂𝒚 density 𝒍𝒗 = 0, then
𝒅𝒛 𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝟐 𝑬𝒙 𝒅𝟐 𝑬𝒚 𝒅𝟐 𝑬𝒛
𝑬𝒙 = ∫ −𝐣𝝎𝐵𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ 𝛽𝑧) 𝒂𝒙 dz + + =𝟎
𝐣𝝎𝐵𝑚 𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒚𝟐 𝒅𝒛𝟐
B=− 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ 𝛽𝑧)
𝑗𝛽
𝝎𝐵𝑚
B=− 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ 𝛽𝑧)
𝛽

c)A plane electromagnetic wave having a

6ai)Write an expression for a pure progressive frequency of 10MHz travels through a lossless
wave (1mks) medium of relative permittivity 𝜺𝒓 and
permeability 𝝁𝒓 of 3 and 2 respectively.
Determine the:
i)Velocity of propagation
Sln
𝝎 𝝎 𝟏 𝟏 𝒄
𝑽𝒑 = = = × =
𝜷 𝝎√𝝁𝝐 √ 𝝁𝒓 𝜺𝒓 √𝝁𝟎 𝜺𝟎 √ 𝝁𝒓 𝜺 𝒓
𝟏 𝟖
But 𝒄 = = 3.0 x 𝟏𝟎 m/s
√𝝁𝟎 𝜺𝟎

𝒄 𝟑.𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟖
𝑽𝒑 = = = 1.225 𝑥 108 𝑚/𝑠
√𝝁𝒓 𝜺𝒓 √𝟐 𝒙𝟑
𝛜𝛍𝐝𝟐 𝐄
ii)Express the wave equation 𝛁 𝟐 𝐄 = - in
𝐝𝐭 𝟐
three dimension ii)Wavelength
Sln
From phase velocity,
λ = cT
2𝜋𝑓
λ = 𝑉𝑝 T = 𝑇
𝛽
1
but T =
𝑓
𝟐𝝅𝒇 𝟏 𝟐𝝅
bi)Draw a labelled diagram of a transverse Wavelength λ = 𝒙 =
𝜷 𝒇 𝜷
electromagnetic waves But 𝜷 = 𝝎√𝝁𝝐 =
= 2𝜋𝑓√ 4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10−12
= 2 x 𝝅 x 10 x 𝟏𝟎𝟔 √𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑥 √𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟
= 2𝜋 x 107 √ 4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10−12 𝑥√3𝑥2
=

iii)Intrinsic impedance of the medium

Sln
𝜇 𝜇 𝜇
η =√ = √ 0 𝑥 √ 𝑟
𝜖 𝜀 𝜀 0 𝑟

4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 2
=√ x√
8.854 𝑥 10−12 3
= 377 x 0.8165 = 307.8Ω

86 | P a g e
7a)State the Maxwells equations in the Write Maxwell’s equations in integral form
differential equations (4mks)KNEC2022 (4marks) KNEC APRIL 2023
Sln 𝒅𝑩
1) ∮ 𝑬. 𝒅𝑳 = ∫ . 𝒅𝑺 (Faraday’s law)
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝑫
i. 𝜵 ×𝑬= −
𝒅𝑩
(Faradays law) 2) ∮ 𝑯. 𝒅𝑳 = ∫ 𝑱𝒅𝒔 + . 𝒅𝑺 (Ampere’s law)
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝑫 3) ∮ 𝑫. 𝒅𝒔 = ∫ 𝝆𝒗 𝐝𝐯 = Q (Gauss law for
ii. 𝜵 ×𝑯=𝑱+ (Amperes circuital law
𝒅𝒕 electric)
in point form) 4) ∮ 𝑩. 𝒅𝒔 = 0 (Gauss law for Magnetic)
iii. 𝜵 . 𝑫 = 𝝆𝒗 (Maxwel’s First Equation)
iv. 𝜵 . 𝑩 = 𝟎 (Gauss law )
d)A magnetic material has a relative
permeability of 3.5. The material is placed in a
b)A perfectly dielectric medium has an electric
magnetic field of strength 10A/m.
field intensity given by E = E cos (𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛)𝒂𝒙
Determine the :
V/m i)Magnetic flux density
Determine: (6mks) Sln
i)The magnetic field intensity 𝑯𝒚 B =𝜇𝐻
Use the point form of Faraday’s law and integration = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝐻
with respect to time to Find B and H = 4𝜋 2 x 10−7 x 3.5 x 10
𝑑𝐵
∇ ×E= − = 140𝜋 2 x 10−7 Wb/𝑚2
𝑑𝑡
i)B
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛 ii)Magnetization
𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬 M = (𝜇𝑟 − 1)H
∇ × E = | 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 | = (3.5 – 1)x 10
𝑬𝒙 𝑬𝒚 𝑬𝒛 = 25 A/m
iii)Susceptibility (6marks)
𝑀 25
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛 𝑋𝑚 = = = 2.5
𝐻 10
𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
𝛁×E=| 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛
|
𝐄𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝟎 𝟎 4:ENERGY AND MOMENTUM IN THE
𝒅 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD
= (0) – (0) – (0- 𝑬𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝒂𝒚 + (0-
𝒅𝒛
𝒅
𝒅𝒚
𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) c)Derive Poynting’s equation for the total power
dissipated per unit volume in a wave (9mks)
= k Sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝒂𝒚
𝑑𝐵
− =∇ ×E Sln
𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝑩 From power density P = E x H
− = k Sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝒂𝒚 𝑬𝟐 𝒙𝟎
𝒅𝒕
𝑷𝒛 = 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝟐 (𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷𝒛)
𝜼
𝒅𝑩
= - k Sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝒂𝒚
𝒅𝒕 To find the time-average power density, we
integrate over one circle and divide by the periodic
B = ∫ − 𝐤 𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝒂𝒚 𝒅𝒕 time T =
1
𝑘 𝑓
B= 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 1 𝑇 𝐸2
𝜔 𝑃𝑧𝑎𝑣 = ∫0 𝑥0 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧)𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝜂
1 𝐸 2 𝑥0 𝑇 [1+𝐶𝑜𝑠2(𝜔𝑡−𝛽𝑧]
Therefor H = ∫0 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝜂 2
From B = 𝜇H 2
1 𝐸 𝑥0 𝑇
𝐵 𝑘
H = = 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) =
2𝑇 𝜂
∫0 [1 + 𝐶𝑜𝑠2(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧)] 𝑑𝑡
𝜇 𝜇𝜔

1 𝐸 2 𝑥0 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜔𝑡−2𝛽𝑧) 𝑇
ii)An expression for current density J = [𝑡 + ]
2𝑇 𝜂 2𝜔 0
Sln 𝐸2 𝑥0 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜔𝑡−2𝛽𝑧) 𝑇
= [𝑡 + ]
2𝑇𝜂 2𝜔 0
Again from Ampere circuital law, 𝐸 2 𝑥0 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜔𝑇−2𝛽𝑧) 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜔(0)−2𝛽𝑧)
We find 𝐽𝑑 =
𝑑𝐷 = [𝑇 + − ]
2𝑇𝜂 2𝜔 2𝜔
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐷 𝑑(𝜖𝐸) 𝑑( 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕−𝒌𝒛) 𝒂𝒚 𝐸 2 𝑥0 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2(2𝜋𝑓)𝑇−2𝛽𝑧) 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜔(0)−2𝛽𝑧)
= = = [𝑇 + − ]
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2𝑇𝜂 2𝜔 2𝜔
1
= −𝒌𝛚 𝛆𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝒂𝒚 But f = , so the equation becomes,
𝑇
𝐸 2 𝑥0 𝑆𝑖𝑛(4𝜋−2𝛽𝑧) 𝑆𝑖𝑛(−2𝛽𝑧)
= [𝑇 + − ]
2𝑇𝜂 2𝜔 2𝜔

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 𝐸 2 𝑥0 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝛽𝑧) 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝛽𝑧)
= [𝑇 − + ]
2𝑇𝜂 2𝜔 2𝜔 b)Figure 4 shows an electromagnetic wave
𝐸 2 𝑥0
= [𝑇] propagating across two media, The magnetic
2𝑇𝜂
field density of the wave is given by the
And Hence average power is given by: expression 𝑩𝟏 = (1.5𝒂𝒙 + 0.9𝒂𝒚 + 0.6𝒂𝒛 )
𝟏 𝑬𝟐 𝒙𝟎
𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 = W/𝑚2
𝟐 𝜼

If we were using root –mean-square value instead

1
of peak amplitudes, Then the factor would not be
2
present.

The average power flowing through any area S

normal to the Z-axis gives the Total power as :

𝑬𝟐 𝒙𝟎
𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 = SW
𝟐𝜼

ci) State pointing theorem (2mks)

It states that: The net power flowing out of a given
volume V is equal to the time rate of decrease in
the energy stored within volume V minus the Ohmic
Determine the:
power dissipated.
i)Expression for magnetic field intensity in plane
ii)Determine the power flow for a plane wave 1, 𝑯𝟏 in medium 1
𝟏
given that Total energy density equals (𝝐𝑬𝟐 +
𝟐
𝝁𝑯𝟐 ). (6mks)

ii)Angle of incident 𝜽𝟏 (3mks)

iii)Angle of reflection 𝜽𝟐 (3mks

8ai)Describe the energy conservation in

electromagnetic fields (2mks)
KNEC O/N 2022 9a) Explain ‘Poynting Vector’ as used in
electromagnetics (2mks) KNEC APRIL 2023
Sln
Poynting Vector is vector product of the electric
field and magnetic field and it represents the

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magnetic and direction of power flow in line
varying field
bi)Write the mathematical expression of
Poynting theorem
𝒅 𝜺𝑬𝟐 𝝁𝑯𝟐
∮𝒔 (𝑬𝒙 𝑯) . 𝒅𝒔 = - 𝒅𝒙 ∫𝒗 [ + ] 𝒅𝒗 − ∫𝒗 𝝈𝑬𝟐 𝒅𝒗
𝟐 𝟐
ii)Describe the theorem in b(i) (4mks)
-It Gives the relationship between the rate of
energy flow and the amplitude of electric and
magnetic fields.
-It states that the rate of energy dissipation in a
volume is equal to the sum of the rate at which the
energy stored in the volume is decreasing and the
rate at which the energy is entering.

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