Wat. Res. Vol. 34, No. 3, pp.

817±824, 2000
# 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
Printed in Great Britain
PII: S0043-1354(99)00224-9 0043-1354/00/$ - see front matter

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A DEMONSTRATION SCALING-UP OF THE DISSOLVED

AIR FLOTATION
YONG CHUNG*M, YOON CHAN CHOIM, YOON HO CHOI and HYUNG
SEOK KANG
Institute for Environmental Research, Yonsei University, 134 Shin-Chon Dong, Seo-Dae-Mun Ku,
Seoul 120-752, South Korea

(First received 1 May 1998; accepted in revised form 1 May 1999)

AbstractÐDissolved air ¯otation (DAF) is currently being received in much attention as an e€ective
process for solid±liquid separation in water technology. In this study, we scaled-up the DAF plant
from a pilot-scale (72 m3/day) to a full-scale (6000 m3/day) plant and the sand-¯oat type DAF was
used. The concept of maintaining equal surface loading rate into scaling-up of DAF was a proper
practice and strategy. In order to optimize the DAF plant, it was needed to determine the surface
loading rate and air dissolving tube pressure. The optimum conditions of surface loading rate and air
dissolving tube pressure were indicated in 7.5 m3/m2 day and 440 kPa from the pilot plant, respectively.
The removal eciency for TOC and UV254 from the full-scale plant was as satisfactory as those from
the pilot plant for the same surface loading rates. However, especially in ¯otation zone, the full-scale
plant performed a little bit poorer than the pilot-scale plant in turbidity and chlorophyll-a reduction:
because full-scale plant had long retention time and turbulent mixing condition during backwashing
time which might be brought about the breakage of fragile ¯ocs.
Performance comparisons between the full-scale DAF plant and the conventional plant located at the
city of Nam-Yang Ju in Korea are presented. DAF process showed higher eciency than the
conventional settling system improving the water quality in general, namely, turbidity, TOC, UV254, Fe
and Mn. We, therefore, conclude that DAF system should have substantial advantages over the
conventional settling process in drinking water treatment. # 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights
reserved

Key wordsÐdrinking water treatment, dissolved air ¯otation, scale-up, full-scale plant

NOMENCLATURE ticed since the method is most versatile (George,

g gravity 1996). Air ¯otation can be carried out in one of
L length dimension two ways:
r ratio of model to prototype
SL surface loading rate (vol. ¯ow rate/area time) 1. Air is bubbled through the liquid containing sus-
T retention time pended matter to ¯oat the matter to the surface.
v ¯ow velocity From there, the matter is skimmed and removed.
V volume 2. The liquid is ®rst saturated with compressed air
Q ¯ow rate
r ¯uid density to dissolve the air into the liquid at high pressure
m dynamic viscosity of ¯uid in a saturation tank. Then the liquid containing
dissolved air is released into a ¯otation tank at a
lower pressure, generating micro-bubbles (10±
80 mm in diameter) that rise gently through the
INTRODUCTION liquid and carry the suspended matter to the sur-
face. The matter is then skimmed from the sur-
There are three methods widely used for separating face and removed.
suspended solids from a liquid. They are (1) gravity
separation(sedimentation), (2) ®ltration of small The latter technology is called dissolved air ¯o-
suspended solids and (3) air ¯otation. Among the tation (DAF) and is e€ective in separating very
three methods, air ¯otation is the most widely prac- small suspended particles that can not be separated
by ordinary air ¯otation and sedimentation
(Edzwald and Walsh, 1992; Edzwald, 1993).
*Author to whom all correspondence should be addressed. It has been reported that DAF is an e€ective
Fax: +822-392-0239; e-mail: ierychung@yumc.ac.kr alternative process to conventional sedimentation in
817
818 Yong Chung et al.
water containing low-density particles such as phy-
toplankton (Janssen, 1991; Edzwald and Walsh,
1992). Malley and Edzwald (1991) reported that
DAF produced signi®cantly lower residual turbidity
than conventional gravity sedimentation did, par-
ticularly at lower temperature.
Location of the full-scale DAF plant
Wha Do Water Treatment Plant in Nam-Yang
Ju has provided conventional water treatment pro-
cess for over 20 years. The main source of water
comes from Northern Han River, which ¯ows from
the northeast inland to the west seashore of the
Korean peninsula. The water qualities vary from
season to season. Sometimes, it is prone to bring
about algal blooms and ¯ash turbidity spikes
exceeding 100 NTU in heavy rainy seasons. The
conventional treatment process has unchanged from
the original design: coagulation, sedimentation,
slow-speed sand ®ltration and chlorination.
The conventional plant has historically performed
quite adequately. However, more recently, trends
have shown deterioration in the raw water quality
and manifested itself in a gradual increase in non-
point sources. The number of cafeÂs and restaurants
were a few hundreds in the 1980's, while the num-
bers have increased enormously during recent years;
nowadays 3670, and golf links under construction
are 15 at the vicinity of northern Han river. A sur-
vey shows that BOD of raw water was 1 ppm in
1990, 1.1 ppm during 1991±1992 and 1.4 ppm in
1996. People suspect that the increase in BOD levels
is related with those factors described above.
It was proved that the conventional plant has a
limitation in improving the performance, so the
DAF was adopted as the best process for updating
treated water quality and solving construction costs.
Scale-up strategy
Some laws of similitude for designing water treat-
ment plants are shown in Table 1. Reynolds num-
ber criterion and Froude number criterion can be
derived from the ¯uid dynamic similarity (Yu and
Lo, 1992). The others are based on model and pro-
totype having the same values of design parameters.
Hart and Gupta (1978) discussed the rational guide-
lines for designing studies to improve an existing
water and wastewater treatment unit con®guration
through the use of experimental analysis of a small-
scale model. They found that the law of equal
hydraulic retention time could get the best hydraulic
Table 1. Laws of similitude for scale-up
Law of simility Equation used
Reynolds similarity …Vr Lr rr †=mr ˆ 1
Froude similarity Vr =… gr Lr †1=2 ˆ 1
Equal hydraulic retention time Tr ˆ Vr =Qr ˆ 1
Equal over-¯ow rate Vr ˆ 1
similarity from the tracer data results for a proto-
type and model chlorine contact unit.
When considering the proper design and oper-
ation for a full-scale plant, sucient engineering of
a conceptual nature has to be performed on a pilot-
scale plant in order to establish the parameters.
However, it was important that the piloting con-
ditions re¯ected those in the full-scale plant, all of
the laws would not be used for scale-up strategy.
The success of a full-scale plant performance
depends heavily on the optimum design of the full-
scale plant. Also, it is very important to seek opti-
mum operating conditions. In this study, we tried
to assess the full-scale DAF performance by com-
paring treated water quality to the results of the
pilot-scale plant. If the treated water qualities
would di€er from each other, it would be regarded
as having some failures in the scale-up.
This article:
1. sets up a scale-up strategy for the designing of
full-scale DAF plant;
2. investigates the performance of water treatment
and obtains optimum operating conditions for
the pilot plant DAF; and
3. compares water treatment results between the
full-scale DAF and the conventional plant.
Water treatment procedure and plant compartments:
pilot-scale DAF
The schematic diagram of DAF plant is described
in Fig. 1. The raw water enters into the rapid mix-
ing tank and is mixed with the coagulant. Then the
water ¯ows through a two-stage ¯occulator, gradu-
ally building up the ¯ocks by gentle mixing during
the passage through the ¯occulator.
The DAF ¯otation tank had one vertical side,
which was constructed of clear acrylic to allow
visual observation of the ¯otation process. And the
tank had three compartments of sludge discharging
pipe, inner tank and ¯otation zone. The ¯occulated
water ¯owed from the bottom of the last ¯occula-
tion stage to the inlet distributor through a hydrau-
lic rotary joint by jet injection.
At the outlet of the distributor, pressurized water
with the dissolved air is added. At the air a pressure
pump to ADT recycles dissolved tube (ADT), a
small volume of the water is pre-clari®ed by dis-
solved air ¯otation where compressed air is added
from a compressor. Air is dissolved under pressure
Qr ˆ f …Lr † Remarks
Qr ˆ L r mr =rr ˆ 1
Qr ˆ …Lr †2:5 gr ˆ 1
Qr ˆ …Lr †3
Qr ˆ …Lr †2
 Practical scale-up of DAF system 819

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the full-scale DAF plant located in city of Nam-Yang Ju.

in the water and mixed with the ¯occulated raw discharge into a center clear-well, where there is an
water at the outlet of the distributor. e‚uent pipe.
The ¯ocks and suspended solids ¯oat to the sur- The full-scale plant has a suction hood for back-
face. The ¯oating scum or sludge accumulated on washing the sand ®lters. One sand-®lter section is
the water surface is scooped o€ by a sludge dischar- individually backwashed while the other sections
ging spiral scoop and discharged into the center continue to ®lter water. In case the turbidity of raw
sludge collector, where there is a sludge outlet to an water reveals average value, backwash water should
appropriate sludge treatment facility. The ¯otation be recycled back to the ¯otation tank, if not, it
tanks e‚uent ¯ows to sand ®lters and is discharged could be discharged. The whole system is controlled
to a chlorinating tank. automatically by the aid of equipped sensors for
water level, ¯ow rate, backwashing time, etc.
Di€erent parts of the full-scale plant in comparison
to the pilot-scale DAF
EXPERIMENTS
The full-scale plant di€ers from the pilot plant in
sand ®ltration and backwashing method. The bot- Table 2 shows the experimental conditions and speci®ca-
tom of the ¯otation tank is composed of multiple tions for the pilot and full-scale DAF plant. The pilot
plant has operated for 1 year and the full-scale plant was
sections of sand ®lter beds with individual clear tested for 4 months. Pilot tests include three stages of op-
wells. The outlets from the individual clear wells eration: (1) varying surface loading rates, in order to ®nd
optimum surface loading rates for removing turbidity, (2)
ADT pressure changing, also to ®nd optimum ADT press-
Table 2. Operation conditions and speci®cations for the pilot and ure, (3) compare the water treatment results obtained
full-scale DAF from the pilot-scale and the full-scale DAF. Then, the
whole process operation was adopted for the full-scale
Parameter Pilot plant Full-scale plant DAF operation. Finally, a comparison of the performance
between the full-scale DAF plant and the conventional
Flow rate ( m3/h) 2.0±3.5 250 plant was investigated.
Flotation tank capacity (m3) 0.7 21 As shown in Table 2, in order to ®nd optimum operat-
Flocculation tank capacity (m3) 0.25 64
ing conditions we varied ¯ow rate, which means the vari-
Flocculation time (min) 15 15
Impellor speed (rpm): ation of surface loading rates, ADT pressure for the pilot-
Tank 1 120 120 scale experiments. Jar testing started at the beginning of
Tank 2 60 60 pilot plant operations. PAC (poly-aluminum chloride) was
Tank 3 60 60 used for coagulant and no pH adjustment was carried out
ADT volume (l) 0.6 200 during operation. Optimum PAC dose was de®ned as
Retention time at ADT (s) 19 19 those produced low turbidity and UV254 by Jar-tests. An
ADT type packed type packed type PAC dose of 2 mg/l (as Al conc.) was most e€ective to
ADT pressure (kPa) 330±550 440
remove turbidity and UV254.
Sand ®lter surface area (m2) 1 84.9
Filter media depth (m) 0.3 0.3 Samples were taken periodically from the sampling
Recycle ratio (%) 30 30 point for raw water, after ¯otation and ®ltration. Analysis
PAC dose (Jar test result) 2 mg/l as Al 2 mg/las Al was made for turbidity, TOC, chlorophyll-a, UV254
according to Standard Methods. Turbidimeter was HACH
820 Yong Chung et al.
2100 N, TOC was analyzed with Shimadzu TOC 5000
analyzer. Iron and manganese were measured using an
atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Shimadzu, Japan).
RESULTS
Scale-up
Besides the scale-up strategy mentioned in Table
1, we tried an additional approach, that is: main-
taining equal surface loading rate during scale-up. It
is very important to get a laminar ¯ow for bubble
rising ¯ow in a ¯otation tank. The sudden change
of surface loading would lead a bad e€ect on
bubble ¯ow.
We applied the dimensions and the operating
parameters from a pilot plant to a full-scale plant
design keeping in geometrically similar. The law of
similitude and design results for di€erent units of
full-scale plant are shown in Table 2.
As shown in Table 3, the retention time is not
the value of 1, but 0.67. It means that the retention
time for the two di€erent plants di€ers from each
other. Reducing retention time in the full-scale
plant is good for minimizing the tank volume and
saving construction costs. If the treated water qual-
ities reach unacceptable values, it would be some
failure in the design of the full-scale DAF.
Raw water quality
Some of the raw water quality data collected
during the study are given in Table 4. Although the
raw water turbidity ranged 3±64 NTU, the tests
were carried out under the same water qualities for
the pilot and full-scale DAF. The total organic car-
bon (TOC) had an average value of 1.45 mg/l.
These conditions, low TOC and very cold water,
made the upper area of Han River a good and con-
servative case for investigating ¯occulation. In cold
water, coagulants would be slower to react and
tend to produce small ¯oc particles.
Finding optimum surface loading rate for the pilot
plant
So many important operating parameters were
recognized for the DAF plant up to now, which
were ®nding optimum coagulation, ADT pressure
and determining types of DAF (circular or rec-
tangular), recycle ratios, surface loading rates, etc.
In this study, we focused on optimization of surface
loading rates and ADT pressure. Edzwald (1993)
reports that surface loading rates at full-scale DAF
plants typically range from 5 to 15 m3/m2 h, higher
Table 3. Design results of the full-scale DAF
Unit facility Law of similitude used
Rapid mixing tank Tr=1
Flocculation tank Tr=1
Flotation tank Tr=0.67, SL=1
than settling processes, particularly conventional
sedimentation.
Pilot testing was conducted at the surface loading
rates of 5, 7.5, 8.6 m3/m2 h. The results of removal
eciency in terms of turbidity, KMnO4 consump-
tion, UV254 are presented in Fig. 2. The turbidity
removal eciency change with the surface loading
rates is not appeared sharply as compared to
KMnO4 consumption and UV254 removal. From
this ®gure it is evident to note that the excellent
removal eciency is obtainable with a surface load-
ing rate of 7.5 m3/m2 h.
Surface loading rates and ADT pressure
In order to increase solid separation eciency,
small air bubbles should be formed, which relies
strongly on the proper design and operation of the
air dissolving tube (saturator). The theory of the
process of bubble formation is known as the free
energy variation due to the pressure drop. Higher
pressure produces smaller bubbles, but there is a
diminishing return in reducing the bubble size.
Above 500 kPa, increasing the ADT pressure has a
small e€ect on bubble size (De Rijk et al., 1994).
To ensure small bubbles, ADT gauge pressure of
400±600 kPa are recommended and under the this
condition 10±100 mm micro-bubbles are formed in
those pressure ranges (Edzwald and Walsh, 1992).
Figure 3 shows the relationship between the sur-
face loading rates and turbidity removal eciencies
with the ADT pressure. Successful performance was
consistently achieved at a surface loading rate of
7.5 m3/m2 h. When the surface loading rate is 5 m3/
m2 h, turbidity removal eciency is the most excel-
lent at an ADT pressure of 550 kPa, compared to
pressure at 330, 440 kPa. However, when the load-
ing rate increased to 7.5 m3/m2 h, the ADT pressure
of 440 kPa shows the most excellent performance.
And loading rate at 8.6 m3/m2 h, ADT pressure of
440 kPa has poorer turbidity removal than that of
330 and 550 kPa. From the previous experiment, it
was obtained that the optimum surface loading rate
is 7.5 m3/m2 h, so we determined the optimum oper-
ating condition for ADT pressure at 440 kPa.
Comparison of the pilot and full-scale DAF under the
same surface loading
The full-scale plant was monitored after the
period of the pilot plant tests, and had the same
surface loading. Conditions were set as close as
possible to the pilot plant except for retention time
at ¯otation tank. Results for chlorophyll-a re-
Design data
2m  3m  3.5m, t = 5 min 120 rpm
2 tank, 3m  3m  3.5m, t = 12 min, 60 rpm
2 tank b5.5 m  0.9 m, t = 9.5 min
 Practical scale-up of DAF system 821

Table 4. Raw water quality

Items Units Range Average

Temperature 8C 4±13 7.5

pH ÿ 7.34±7.89 7.65
Turbidity NTU 2.58±62.6 4.1
UV254 abs./cm 0.17±0.074 0.075
KmnO4 consumption mg/l 2.32±8.36 3.31
Chlorophyll-a mg/l 2.83±23.55 7.08
Alkalinity mg/l 16.67±53.0 45.0
Mn mg/l 0.009±0.075 0.047
Fe mg/l 0.079±1.37 0.32
TOC mg/l 1.53±3.27 1.45

duction are shown in Fig. 4. It is clear that the full-
scale plant performance is not as good as that of
the pilot plant in ¯otation. After ¯otation, the aver-
age chlorophyll-a reduction is approximately 80%
(compared with the average value of 91% for the
pilot plant); interestingly, full-scale plant showed a
better performance for ®ltered water in chlorophyll-
a reduction.
It became possible to predict that the high values
for chlorophyll-a concentration in ¯otation tank for
the full-scale DAF were due to a higher chloro-
phyll-a concentration in raw water. If there were
any problems in treating chlorophyll-a and coagu-
lation conditions, it would probably indicate in-
adequate operation. Anyway, the results of
chlorophyll-a reduction will be carefully studied in
further research
A plot of the pilot plant and full-scale results for
turbidity reduction are presented in Fig. 5. During
the study period, the pilot and full-scale plants were
able to meet a turbidity limitation of 1 NTU (in
Korea). Overall, ®ltered water turbidity was 0.2±
0.3 NTU. However, it appeared that the full-scale
plant performed a little bit poorer than the pilot
plant in ¯oated water turbidity. Possible expla-
nations for this di€erence are: (1) the retention time
was longer than that of the pilot-scale plant; (2) at
the middle of the ¯otation tank in full-scale plants,
turbulent mixing conditions may occur when the
backwashing hood operated, or the backwash water
is redischarged to the ¯otation tank. If fragile ¯ocs
were prepared, the turbulent mixing would shear
the ¯oc particles, producing micrometer sized par-
ticles. This would yield poorer ¯otation perform-
ance compared to the pilot-scale DAF; (3) slight
deviations from the optimum steady state may have
occurred during the tests due to the full-scale DAF
runs at various operation conditions such as start-
up period, ®xing some parts of plant, adjusting
automatically operated parts). In further research, a
great deal of consideration is needed to ®nd an op-
timal backwashing time and backwash water dis-
charging method.
Schmidt et al. (1995) presented that they could
reduce raw water UV254 up to 20±30% by pre-ozo-
nation. Also, the DAF having a post-ozonation sys-
tem achieved average overall UV254 removal of
84%. Plummer et al. (1995) (Fig. 6) showed that
the removal of UV254 was expected to be about
50% and removal of DOC was 30 or 50%.
However, they were conducted under a bench-scale
experiment and used ferric chloride as a coagulant.

Fig. 2. The relation between surface loading rates and removal of turbidity, KMnO4 consumption,
UV254 reduction.
822 Yong Chung et al.
Fig. 3. Optimum air dissolving tube pressure is obtained at 440 kPa.
In this study, the pilot and full-scale DAF plants
achieved average overall UV254 removals of 25 and
32%, respectively. The full-scale plant revealed bet-
ter performance than the pilot-scale DAF. The
di€erence between our study result and Plummer's
result can be primarily attributed to di€erences in
experimental conditions such as apparatus capacity
(bench-scale), raw water quality (turbidity range:
1.2±1.4 NTU, UV254: 0.062±0.069 cmÿ1) and coagu-
lant, etc.
The results of TOC removals are shown in Fig. 7.
The TOC reduction follows very similarly the trend
observed for UV254 Ferguson et al. (1995) demon-
strated that the DAF combined with pre-ozonation
process could reduce the TOC about 30 and 36%
by direct ®ltration. Some of the other researchers
used di€erent coagulant, ¯occulation process, oper-
ation method; especially the shape of DAF was
Fig. 4. Comparison of the pilot and the full-scale plant for
removal of chlorophyll-a.
di€erent from each other. Then, it is dicult to
compare the experimental results directly.
Comparison of the DAF and the conventional plant
The water treatment plant in the City of Nam-
Yang Ju consists of two lines of DAF and conven-
tional process working parallel to each other. The
actual di€erences are in clari®cation only.
Sedimentation works with a steady capacity of
7000 m3/day and the DAF plant with 5000 m3/day.
A summary of the results for turbidity, KMnO4
consumption, UV254, TOC, Fe, Mn, chlorophyll-a
reduction for the full-scale DAF plant and the con-
ventional plant are presented in Tables 4 and 5.
During the study period, DAF and the convention-
al treatment plant were able to meet the turbidity
goal of 1 NTU in over all of the runs. Filtration
following ¯otation produced water with an average
turbidity of 0.2 NTU. Overall, ®ltered water turbid-
Fig. 5. Comparison of the pilot and the full-scale plant on
reduction of turbidity.
 Practical scale-up of DAF system
Fig. 6. Comparison of the pilot and the full-scale plant on reduction of UV254.
ity for CGS was 0.42 NTU higher than that of the
DAF.
Testing for TOC was performed a number of
times during operation. Treatment by DAF reduced
the TOC by a mean of 28% in ¯otation and 29%
in ®ltration. Treatment by conventional treatment
processes reduced the TOC by a mean of 18% in
sedimentation and 9% in slow speed sand ®ltration.
An increase of the TOC value occurred during sand
®ltration. Also, the TOC in the DAF e‚uent was
lower than that of the conventional sedimentation
e‚uent. For other data, such as reduction of
UV254, Fe, Mn, chlorophyll-a, the DAF plant
shows better performance than that of the conven-
tional plant.
Based on these results, the DAF system should
have substantial advantages over the conventional
process in all matters.
CONCLUSION
We scaled-up the DAF plant from a pilot-scale
(72 m3/day) to a full-scale (6000 m3/day) plant, and
the sand-¯oat type DAF was used. When consider-
ing the scale-up of DAF to full-scale, sucient con-
ceptual nature of engineering has to be performed
Fig. 7. Comparison of the pilot and the full-scale plant on removal of TOC.
823
on the pilot-scale in order to establish the par-
ameters applicable to the full-scale plant. The con-
cept of maintaining equal surface loading rate into
scaling-up of DAF was a proper practice and strat-
egy. The process of optimization for pilot-scale
DAF has been done as follows: surface loading
rate, air dissolving tube pressure. The ®ndings indi-
cated that optimum conditions of surface loading
rate and air dissolving tube pressure were 7.5 m3/m2
day and 440 kPa, respectively.
It was also found that the removal eciency for
turbidity, TOC and UV254 from the full-scale plant
was as good as those from the pilot plant for the
same surface loading rates. These results support
the availability of scaling-up in DAF.
Performance comparisons between the full-scale
DAF plant and the conventional plant located in
the city of Nam-Yang Ju are presented. Although
the DAF and the conventional plant seemed to
treat the water adequately, the DAF process
showed higher eciency of improving the water
quality in general, namely, turbidity, TOC, UV254,
Fe and Mn. We, therefore, conclude that DAF sys-
tem has substantial advantages over the convention-
al process in all matters.
824 Yong Chung et al.

Table 5. Water treatment results of the DAF and the conventional plant

Process

items raw after DAF sedimentation slow after Korean

water ¯otation sand-®lter sand ®lter chlorination Standard

Turbidity (NTU) 4.09 0.84 0.197 2.65 0.42 0.17 1<

KmnO4 consumption (mg/l) 3.37 1.99 1.57 2.84 3.22 1.47 10 <
TOC (mg/l) 1.34 0.96 0.95 1.11 1.23 1.45 ÿ
UV254 0.088 0.057 0.055 0.074 0.0697 0.057 ÿ
Fe (mg/l) 0.322 0.089 0.053 0.223 0.050 0.065 0.3 <
Mn (mg/l) 0.047 0.016 0.011 0.024 0.034 0.015 0.3 <
Chlorophyll-a (mg/l) 8.42 1.56 0.33 7.93 2.01 0.01 ÿ

AcknowledgementsÐThis research was supported by a
grant from the G7 project of ``Development of Advanced
Water Treatment Technologies Ð Advanced Disinfection
Techniques and Control for Disinfection by-Products''.
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