Thesis FINAL PDF

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BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN ELECTRICAL AN ELECTRONIC

ENGINEERING
AIRCRAFT FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM
Department of Electric and Electronic Engineering
Fareast International University (FIU)
House#50, Road#11, Block#C, Banani, Dhaka-1230, Bangladesh
January, 2018
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AIRCRAFT FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM
By
Sharmin Hoque Sompa
Taohidul Islam
Md. Salah Uddin Mamun
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN ELECTRICAL AN ELECTRONIC

ENGINEERING
Department of Electric and Electronic Engineering
Fareast International University (FIU)
House#50, Road#11, Block#C, Banani, Dhaka-1230, Bangladesh
January, 2018
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CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
This report is the result of a bachelor thesis in Fire Protection Engineering at Fareast
International University (FIU), Submitted by Sharmin Hoque Sompa ,Id No
16122013,Taohidul Islam ,Id No 16122009,Md. Salah Uddin Mamun ,Id No
16122014,has been found as satisfactory and partial fulfillment of the requirement for
the Degree of BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN ELECTRICAL AN ELECTRONIC
ENGINEERING on 05 January,2018
Board of Examiners:
1.
_______________________________________
Mr. Md. Salehin Ferdous (Supervisor) Chairman
Assistant Professor & Head,
Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department,
Fareast International University (FIU), Dhaka.
2.
________________________________________
Mr. G.M Hassan Ul Banna Member
Lecturer
3.
________________________________________
Mr. Shekh Istiak Ahmead Member
Lecturer
4.
________________________________________ Member
Ms. Homayra Alam
Teaching Assistant (TA)
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DECLARATION OF CANDIDATE
.
It is hereby declared that this thesis report or any part of it has not been submitted and will not
be submitted for the award of any other degree or diploma in this university or any other institute
or university.
___________________________________
Mr. Md. Salehin Ferdous (Supervisor)
Assistant Professor,
__________________________
Sharmin Hoque Sompa
Student No.: 16122013
Academic Year: 2014-15
Date: 08 January, 2018.
__________________________
Taohidul Islam
__________________________
Md. Salah Uddin Mamun
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Dedicated to my family and friends.
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Content
CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL…………………………………………………………………03
DECLARATION OD CANDIDATE……………………………………………………………04
ACKNOLEDGEMENT……………………………………………………………………………………11
Abbreviation …………………………..........................................................13
ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………………….14
CHAPTER1……………………………………………………………………………........14-16
1.1 Introduction and Background……………………………………………………….14
1.2 Fire detection and extinguisher zones…………………………………………..15
1.3 Many types of detectors………………………………………………………………..15
1.4 Objective………………………………………………………………………………………15
1.5 Disposition………………………………………………………………………………………15,16
1.6 Limitations…………………………………………………………………………………...16
2 CHAPTER2………………………………………………………………….17-17
2.1 Method…………………………………………………………………………………….17
2.2 Literature study…………………………………………………………………….17
2.3 Site visit…………………………………………………………………………………17
2.4 Mission and vision…………………………………………………………………17
CHAPTER3………………………………………………………………………18-18
3.1 Fire signatures……………………………………………………………………………18
3.2 Different fire signatures………………………………………. ………………………18
Chapter 4…………………………………………………………………………….19
Fire detection
Smoke Detectors…………………………………………………………………………..19-23
4.1.1 Ionization smoke detectors…………………………………………………………19
4.1.2 Light scattering optical smoke detectors………………………………………21
4.1.3 Light obscuration optical smoke detector………….......................................22
4.1.4 Aspirating smoke detection……………………………………………….……23, 24
4.2 Heat detectors…………………………………………………………………………24-25

4.2.1 Point heat detectors……………………………………………………………………....24
4.2.2 Line heat detector (LHD)……………………………………………………………….25
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4.3 Flame detectors…………………………………………………………………………….26
4.3.1 IR detectors………………………………………………………………………………….27
4.3.2 UV detectors………………………………………………………………………………….28
4.3.3 UV/IR-detectors……………………………………………………………………………28
4.4 Gas detectors………………………………………………………………………………………..28
Chapter 5……………………………………………………………………………...29
5.1 FIRE WARNING…………………………………………………………………………...…29
5.1.1Thermal Switch System…………………………………………………………………..29
5.1.2Continuous-Loop Systems………………………………………………………………31
5.1.3Fenwal System………………………………………………………………………………31, 32
5.1.4Kidde System………………………………………………………………………………………32
5.1.5Sensing Element…………………………………………………………………………………..33
5.1.6 Combination Fire and Overheat Warning……………………………………………33
5.1.7Temperature Trend Indication…………………………………………………………….34
5.1.8System Test………………………………………………………………………………………....34
5.1.9Fault Indication……………………………………………………………………………………34
5.1.10Dual-Loop Systems……………………………………………………………………………..35
5.1.11Automatic Self-Interrogation……………………………………………………………..35
5.1.12Support Tube Mounted Sensing Elements……………………………………………35
5.1.13Fire Detection Control Unit (Fire Detection Card)……………………………….36
5.1.14Pressure Type Sensor Responder Systems……………………………………...36
5.1.15Pneumatic Continuous-Loop Systems………………………………………………….36
5.1.16Averaging Function…………………………………………………………………………….37
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5.1.17Discrete Function……………………………………………………………………………37, 38
5.2Smoke Detectors……………………………………………………………………………39
5.2.1Light Refraction Type………………………………………………………………………….39
5.2.2Ionization Type……………………………………………………………………………………39
5.2.3Flame Detectors………………………………………………………………………….…..39
5.2.4Carbon Monoxide Detectors……………………………………………………….39, 40
5.3Extinguishing Agents and Portable Fire

Extinguishers……………………………………………………………………………………..41
5.3.1Halogenated Hydrocarbons……………………………………………………………...41
5.3.2Inert Cold Gases…………………………………………………………………………41, 42
5.3.3Dry Powders……………………………………………………………………………………42
5.3.4Water………………………………………………………………………………………………42
5.4.1Classes of Fires…………………………………………………………………42
5.4.2Principals of Extinguishing Fires………………………………………………………43
5.4.3Extinguishing Agents……………………………………………………………………….43
5.4.4Requirements for Overheat and Fire Protection Systems…………......43, 44
5.4.5Fire Zones………………………………………………………………………………….44, 45
5.4.6 Fire Detection System Maintenance…………………………………………………45
Chapter 6……………………………………………………………………………..46
Alarm systems……………………………………………………………………………………46
6.1 Conventional or addressable……………………………………………………….46
6.2 Analog and digital systems……………………………………………………………47
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Chapter 7………………………………………………………………………………………………………………48
7.1Fire detection and fire alarm systems in aircrafts………………………………..48
7.1.2 Detectors……………………………………………………………………………...49
7.1.2.1 Cabin and flight deck…………………………………………………………….49
7.1.2.2 Engine………………………………………………………………………………49
7.1.2.3 APU Fire Detection and Extinguishing System………………………………………53
7.1.2.4 Cargo compartment……………………………………………………………………….54
7.1.2.5 Wheel well………………………………………………………………………….54
7.1.2.6Lavatory Smoke Detectors………………………………………………………55
7.2 Alarm management……………………………………………………………………..56
Chapter 8……………………………………………………………………………..59
8.1 Standards and guidelines …………………………………………………………….59
8.1.1 ICAO……………………………………………………………………………………..59
8.1.2 FAA - Federal Aviation Administration…………………………………...59
8.1.3. FAR 25………………………………………………………………………………………59
8.2.4Fire extinguishers…………………………………………………………………………..60
8.2.5 Lavatory fire protection……………………………………………………………..61
8.2.6 Cargo or baggage compartments……………………………………………….61
8.2.7Cargo compartment classification………………………………………………62
8.2.8 Cargo or baggage compartment smoke or fire detection

systems………………………………………………………………………………………………63
8.2.9 Designated fire zones; regions included………………………………………64
8.2.10Firewalls………………………………………………………………………………..……………64
8.3. Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA)…………………………………………………...65
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8.4 Joint Aviation Requirements (JAR)……………………………………………………65
8.5 European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)……………………………………..65
8.6 AUBE – International Conference on Automatic Fire Detection…….66
8.6.1 AUBE ‘09– Session11– Fire detection in aircraft, special ………………………66
Chapter 9……………………………………………………………………………..68
9.1 Reflections of the making of this thesis…………………………………………68
9.2Discussion……………………………………………………………………………………..68
9.3 Further work………………………………………………………………………………..69
9.4 Conclusions……………………………………………………………………………………70
Reference……………………………………………………………...…………………...71, 72
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ACKNOLEDGEMENT
At first all we articulate our gratitude to almighty Allah to enable us to complete the thesis. This
report is the result of a bachelor thesis in Electric and Electronic Engineering at Fareast
International University. Many thanks to our supervisor Mr. Md. Salehin Ferdous, Assistant
Professor & Head of Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering, Fareast International
University, who has been with us in every step of the thesis and helped us to finally come up
with this complete thesis. We would like to thank you for encouraging our thesis paper and for
allowing us to start growing as a researcher. We also want to thank you for letting our defense
be an enjoyable moment and your brilliant comments and suggestions. We would like to thank
Ms. Salma Masuda Lisa, Former Lecturer & Course Coordinator, Mr. Shekh Istiak Ahmed,
Lecturer, Ms. Homayra Alam, Teaching Assistant (TA) Department of Electrical & Electronic
Engineering, Fareast International University, for their great effort and support in maintaining the
quality of the whole learning process at the department. We would also like to thank all the
faculty members of the university, especially the faculty members of Engineering, for the
guidance. In addition, we thank the departmental staffs for their continuous support. We also
want to wish our acknowledgement to the Saudi Arabian Airlines and civil aviation authority of
Bangladesh for their kind & honest help with providing necessary informative data & Fig to
analyze on this thesis. We also express our profound gratitude to all of our friends and well-
wishers for their constant encouragements and support during planning and implementation of
the research work.
At last we would like to thank the fire detection, many airlines for their sharing of useful
knowledge.
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List of figure
Figure1. Example of how ionization smoke detector works ……………………………………….21
Figure2. Example of how optical smoke detector works …………………………………………..22
Figure3. Example of how light obscuration detector works ……………………………………….23
Figure4. Example of how an aspirating system works……………………………………………..24
Figure5. Example of how an LHD cable is constructed ……………………………………………26
Figure6. Triple frequency IR flame detector…………………………………………………………27

Figure: 7Thermal switch fire circuit ……………………………………………………………………………...29
Figure: 8Thermocouple fire warning circuit…………………………………………………………..30
Figure: 09 Fenwal sensing element…………………………………………………………………..32
Figure: 10 Kidde continuous-loop systems…………………………………………………………..33

Figure: 11Continuous loop fire detection system test circuit………………………………………………34
Figure: 12Pneumatic dual fire/overheat detector assembly……………………………………......37
Figure: 13 Pneumatic pressure loop detector system………………………………………………38
Figure: 14 Aircraft detection system control module………………………………………………..38
Figure: 15 Infrared (IR) based optical flam detector………………………………………………...40
Figure 16: Overview of fire detection & protection placement in an aircraft………………………49
Figure17: Engine Fire Switches……………………………………………………………................50
Figure: 18. Fire switch…………………………………………………………………………50

Figure: 19. Engine fire switch circuit…………………………………………………………52
Figure: 20 P40 service and APU shutdown panel…………………………………………………...53
Figure: 21 Smoke detectors in Cargo Compartment………………………………………............54
Figure: 22. Lavatory smoke detector…………………………………………………………………55
Figure: 23 Lavatory smoke detector diagram………………………………………………56

Figure: 24 Master Fire Warning Light (red) to the left and
Overheat/Fire Protection Panel to the right………………………………………..........................56
Figure25: Example of Cargo Fire Panel showing …………………………………………………..57
Figure: 26 Main wheels well fitted with APU Fire Control…………………………………………..58
Figure: 27. Snapshots from ―Burning Suitcase Video‖ from FAA (Behle) [9]……………...........67
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List of Table
Table1. Advantages and disadvantages of ionization smoke detectors………………………21
Table2. Advantages and disadvantages of light scattering optical smoke detectors………..22
Table3. Advantages and disadvantages of light obscuration optical smoke detectors……..23
Table4. Advantages and disadvantages of aspirating smoke detectors………………………24
Table5. Advantages and disadvantages of heat detectors……………………………………..25
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Abbreviation
NIST-National Institute of Standards and Technology
ICAO-The International Civil Aviation Organization
ICAO-The International Civil Aviation Organization
EWIS-Electrical Wiring Interconnection System
HVAC-Heating Ventilation and Air conditioning
ANSI -American National Standards Institute
ARGE -A Detection Technology Consortium
NFPA -National Fire Protection Association
FAA - Federal Aviation Administration
CSCP-Cabin system control panel
FAR-Federal Aviation Regulations
CMS -Central monitoring systems
CFR-Code of Federal Regulations
APD -Advanced Pneumatic Detector
CACP -Cabin area control panel
OEU -Overhead electronics unit
FMU-Engine fuel metering unit
RoR -Temperature Rate of Rise
RTI-Response Time Index
AS -Aerospace Standard
APU-Auxiliary power unit
EN-European Standard
LHD-Line Heat Detector
IR -Either infrared
ROR-Rate of Rise
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ABSTRACT
A proper fire detection and alarm system is an important part of the fire protection system to be
able to discover the presence of a fire in an early stage. Passenger carrying vehicles are highly
vulnerable, as passengers simply can’t evacuate to a safe location immediately. The need of a
detection and alarm system is to assure that the fire doesn’t go unnoticed by monitoring
different areas, both easy accessible but also out of sight areas, like engines and electrical
cabinets. Possible ways of detecting a fire is by knowing the signatures a fire emits. By knowing
these signatures and their presence in a typical compartment a suitable detector can be fitted.
Typical detectors that respond to these signatures are: smoke, heat, flame and gas detectors.
By considering the compartments they are fitted in, different ways of operation can be used. The
operational ways are: point, line, volume and aspirating detection. In aircrafts the fire protection
system is derived from different safety cultures where standards, guidelines and regulations
have set the demand. The aviation industry has for a long time focused on preventing onboard
fires. Standards and similar often include test methods for e.g. fire detectors. These can in many
cases be quite imprecise with the regards of where the detectors are placed. New test methods
for specific branches or compartments should be developed to assure the best functional
detection system.
Chapter 01
1.1 Introduction:
The aircraft fire protection system consists of the following separate subsystems:
Fire and overheat detection
Fire extinguishing
Three essentials needed for fire.
Fuel (combustible gas, liquid or solid)
Oxygen
Heat (to bring fuel to its ignition point)
Because fire is one of the most dangerous threats to an aircraft, the potential fire zones of
modern multiengine aircraft are protected by a fixed fire protection system. A fire zone is an
area, or region, of an aircraft designed by the manufacturer to require fire detection and/or fire
extinguishing equipment and a high degree of inherent fire resistance. The term ―fixed‖
describes a permanently installed system in contrast to any type of portable fire extinguishing
equipment, such as a hand-held Halon or water fire extinguisher. A complete fire protection
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system on modern aircraft, and on many older aircraft, includes a fire detection system and a
fire extinguishing system.
1.2 Fire detection and extinguisher zones
Typical zones on aircraft that have a fixed fire detection and fire extinguisher system are:
1. Engines and auxiliary power unit (APU)
2. Cargo and baggage compartments
3. Lavatories on transport aircraft
4. Electronic bays
5. Wheel wells
6. Bleed air ducts
1.3 Many types of detectors
To detect fires or overheat conditions, detectors are placed in the various zones to be
monitored. Fires are detected in reciprocating engine and small turboprop aircraft using one or
more of the following:
1. Overheat detectors
2. Rate-of-temperature-rise detectors
3. Flame detectors
4. Observation by crewmembers
1.4Objective
1) Detectors used in aircraft
2) Technical solutions for detection an alarm system designed.
3) Areas are detectors and fire alarm system placed.
4) Regulations, standards, guidelines and test methods exist for detection alarm system
in aircraft.
1.5 Disposition
Chapter 1: Introduction. This chapter gives an introduction of the chosen subject, Fire detection
zone, objective and limitation.
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Chapter 2: Method. This chapter describes how the work around the report has been made,
the decision to do a literature study, perform site visits and participating in mini seminars.
Chapter 3: Fire signatures. To get a better understanding for fire detection, this chapter gives
background information about fire signatures and other basic facts about different fires.
Chapter 4: Fire detection. This chapter investigates different fire detection methods, describes
their function and also some advantages and disadvantages are presented for the most relevant
detectors.
Chapter 5: Warning System. This chapter investigates different fire warning system. Describe
the classes of fire, fire zone, fire extinguishing agent.
Chapter 6: Alarm system. Alarm system is the connection between fire detection and fire
protection and here are some different alarm systems and their functionality described.
Chapter 7: Fire detection and fire alarm systems in aircrafts. This chapter’s focus lies on fire
detection and fire alarm management in common passenger aircrafts. Here is a system
overview, the placement of the detectors and the alarm management described.
Chapter 8: Standards and guidelines. Standards and guidelines are important to ensure the
safety when a train or aircraft is constructed and operated. This chapter gives an overview of
the standards and guidelines that exists today and some in a nearby future. Also interesting test
methods are described.
Chapter 9: Analysis. Here the result are analyzed, also an analysis of the report making and all
its chapters is made.
Chapter 10: Discussion. The result of the report is discussed and existing solutions, standards
and test methods are questioned. Also examples of further work are proposed.
Chapter 11: Conclusions. This chapter takes up the conclusions made, with respect to the
result presented in this report
1.6 Limitations
Due to the limitation of time, some things have not been investigated in this report. The
standards and guidelines for aircrafts are limited to the most relevant and those that have been
accessible. Standards and guidelines in this report are from USA, Europe and Sweden. This
report also delimits itself by looking into and describing the most common detection and alarm
systems. Aircrafts that have been investigated are the ones most accessible, where also a lot of
information has been available. Companies that have been contacted are vendors of fire
detection system, manufacturers of aircrafts, and airline operative companies.
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Chapter 02
2.1Method
This report has been made as a pilot study for the chosen subject. Below is a description how
the work has been structured.
2.2 Literature study

To start the bachelor thesis a lot of background material was collected and sorted in order of
relevance. Since this was part of a bigger project at SP a lot of background material was already
available, but a lot was also gathered from other sources.
2.3 Site visits

To get a better understanding in fire detection and how it functions in general in aircrafts, one
site visits were made. The site visit was made at Saudi Arabian Airlines where we were able to
look at the fire protection system of a Boeing 777-200 aircraft.
2.4 Mission and vision
The aim of this report is to investigate existing fire detection and fire alarm systems in
aircrafts. This is done in order to show useful and interesting solutions that could be
applied and implemented in the heavy duty vehicle industry. The aim is also to gather and
summarize the latest standards and guidelines within fire detection, aircraft industry to
ensure an adequate fire detection system and compare what is applied to today’s
aircrafts.
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Chapter 03
3.1 Fire signatures
Fire occurs when combining heat, fuel and oxygen. There are typically two types of fires,
flaming fires and smoldering fires. The reaction products often contain CO2, H2O, CO,
unburned hydrocarbons and soot. Flaming fires occur when the combustion of fuels takes place
in the gas phase, and therefore must all solid and liquid fuels first transform into the gas phase.
A smoldering fire on the other hand occurs when a porous fuel creates solid carbonaceous
compounds when pyrolysis and doesn't shrink away when it heats up. A smoldering fire can
translate into a flame fire if the ventilation is improved and opposite can a flame fire become a
smoldering fire as ventilation decreases. The combustion occurs in a reaction of the surface in a
solid phase, and this usually means that the fire doesn’t produce any flames. Typically materials
that can create a smoldering fire are paper, sawdust, cloths, leather, shipboard and expanded
plastics (Nilsson & Holmstedt, 2008) [3].
3.2 Different fire Signatures

When talking about fires, different fire signatures are used to identify the fire depending on the
criteria of the fire. Typically there are four ways to discover and identify a fire:
O Smoke
o Heat
o Flame
o Gas
The fire signatures can in turn be identified by different criteria. Smoke consists of soot particle
and the cleaner the combustion is; the less smoke is produced. Smoke can be identified visually
and is often the fastest way of identifying fire. Heat can both be noticeable by the much higher
temperature but also the rapid temperature rise or Rate-of-Rise (ROR). Flames produce light,
which emit radiation in a large wavelength area, and consists of ultraviolet (UV) light, visually
light and infrared (IR) light. Depending on the light of the surrounding, these can be more or less
easy to discover and the human eye has a limited wavelength that it can discover. When a fire
occurs there will always be a production of gases. The most common are CO and CO2 but
there could also be NOx and other gases and most of them are extremely toxic. These are
normally invisible and therefore very hard to discover for a human, but sometimes the sense of
smell can tell if there is gas in the air. Due to many different fire signatures, there are a lot of
ways to discover a fire, and with technology all these can be measured and therefore detected
when setting up boundary conditions based on what the normal conditions are.
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Chapter 04
4 Fire detection
As mentioned above a fire generates a lot of different signatures. Whether it is smoke, heat,
flame or gas there must be a suitable detector for all these signatures. There are mainly four
ways the detector can monitor possible fires:
o Point detection
o Line detection
o Volume detection
o Aspirating detection
Each type of detection can be configured in different ways, which in their turn can react on
typical fire signatures emitted by the fire.
o Smoke detection
o Heat detection
o Flame detection
o Gas detection
There are therefore a lot of ways a detector can indicate a fire, and next section focus on the
different types. Also advantages and disadvantages are given for each detector type used in
trains and aircrafts.
4.1 Smoke detectors

Smoke detector is the collective name and can in its turn be divided into subgroups in respect
of function as seen below.
o Ionization smoke detectors

o Light scattering optical smoke detectors
o Light obscuration optical smoke detectors
o Aspirating smoke detectors
These are designed to detect the particles or aerosols created by an incomplete combustion. It
is the far most used detector and has shown good performance in clean areas in the absence of
dust. This is because smoke detectors react on the concentration of particles in the air (Nilsson
& Holmstedt, 2008) [3].
4.1.1 Ionization smoke detectors

These function as a closed circuit where the detector transmits α-particles, which are ionized
in the air into positive ions and negative electrons. These are in their turn attracted to charged
metal plates inside the detector, and gives rise to a weak current in the circuit. When smoke
passes through the detector, the positive ions and negative electrons get stuck on the smoke
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particles, and due to the mass of the particles they will simply pass by the metal plates without
attaching to them. This will cause a decrease of voltage in the circuit and the detector will
activate at a fixed value of decrease (see Figure 2).
Figure 1. Example of how ionization smoke detector works (U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, 2012) [12]. Ionization smoke detectors are most sensitive for a high concentration of
particles created by an open flame due to burning of e.g. wood, or paper. For more
advantages/disadvantages see
Table 1.
Table 1. Advantages and disadvantages of ionization smoke detectors.

Advantages Disadvantages
Very sensitive to small smoke particles
created Radioactive waste material
from e.g. flaming fires
Less sensitive to bigger particles created
Relatively cheap
from a smoldering fire
High false alarm rate due to cooking and/or
hot steam.
4.1.2 Light scattering optical smoke detectors

This detector type consists of a light source and a photocell positioned at an angle to each
other. In normal conditions the transmitted light passes into a ―light maze‖ which prevents the
reflection of light onto the receiver. In the event of fire, the passing of fumes through the
detector scatters the light onto the photocell and at a specific threshold value of light intensity
the detector activates (see Figure 3).
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Figure 2. Example of how optical smoke detector works (New York City Fire Department, 2012) [13].
Scattering smoke detectors are more sensitive to large particles formed by a smoldering fire.
They function best with brighter fumes since they reflect light better than darker fumes.
Advantages and disadvantages for this detector type are summarized in Table 2.
Table 2. Advantages and disadvantages of light scattering optical smoke detectors.
Sensitive to larger smoke particles created Less sensitive to smaller particles created
by from
a smoldering fire a flaming fire
Function best with brighter fumes Less sensitive to darker fumes
4.1.3 Light obscuration optical smoke detector

An obscuration detector consists of a transmitter (light source) that sends out infrared light and
a light sensitive receiver. The difference with the above mentioned optical smoke detector Fire
detection is that the incident light constantly affects the receiver. However when smoke enters
in between the transmitter and receiver there will be a decrease in intensity and at a certain
level of decrease the detector will activate (see Figure 4).
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Figure 3. Example of how light obscuration detector works (New York City Fire
Department, 2012) [13].
Light obscuration detectors activates on both bright and dark fumes since it doesn’t consider the
reflection of light. On the downside it requires a larger amount of particles in the fumes since it
measures the difference in light intensity. It also needs to be protected from other light sources
that might interfere with its functions. For more advantages/disadvantages see Table 3. This
detector type can be used both as a point or line detector, which can cover distances from 10 to
100 meters. The line type detector is ideal for long corridors and high atriums.
Table 3. Advantages and disadvantages of light obscuration optical smoke detectors.
Activates on both bright and dark fumes Requires a larger amount of smoke particles
Possibility to cover long distances Sensitive to other light sources
4.1.4 Aspirating smoke detection

This detector type often uses the same principles as a light scattering optical smoke detector.
The difference is that it is constantly drawing in air (hence aspirating) into the holes of a pipe
network as seen in Figure 5. This is done by the pressurization of a fan that is constantly
creating a negative pressure and transports the air to a filter where dust and other contaminants
are removed. The air then enters the detection chamber and uses light scattering technology,
often by a laser beam to detect the presence of very small amounts of smoke particles.
Because the laser light has a significantly higher intensity than other light sources, the reflection
of light from particles will also be much higher. Due to this lower concentrations of particles can
be detected. Detectors of this type are often fitted with a flow meter to ensure a constant suction
from the fan.
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Figure 4. Example of how an aspirating system works
The system as other smoke detection systems can be calibrated to detect smoke particles of
various sizes. This means that the system can be set to activate on the typical particle sizes
created by a fire. This makes the detector one of the fastest and it can activate on smoke
particles before they are visible to the human eye (Fire Safety Search) [14]. Advantages and
disadvantages for this detector can be seen in Table 4.
Table 4. Advantages and disadvantages of aspirating smoke detectors.
Can cover a large area Hard to determine the location of the fire
Clean installation Hard to tell if a hole is clogged
Low false alarm rate, when using a filter Transportation time for smoke
There are also variants where no pipe is connected to the chamber. This type only uses a fan to
draw in air to the detector chamber where often a normal smoke detector analyzes the
presence of smoke (see Figure 6). This type can be compared to an ordinary light scattering
detector but more protected from dust and other contaminants due to the protecting chamber.
4.2 Heat detectors
4.2.1 Point heat detectors

This system uses classical heat transfer analogy; heat is transported to colder areas and
spreads throughout different materials. In point heat detectors there are one or more thermal
elements, which are heated when hot fumes are passing the detector. These elements have a
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mass and a specific heat capacity, which results in a thermal inertia when heated. Thermal
inertia controls how fast a surface reaches a specific temperature and depending on the
material used it take different time. It is this technology that is used in heat detectors and the
inertia can be expressed with a RTI-value (Response Time Index) that is set experimentally
(Nilsson & Holmstedt, 2008) [3]. Heat detectors are normally divided into two main
classifications of operation: Fixed temperature, which will activate once the thermal element has
reached a specific temperature. This procedure is often slower due to heat exchange and heat
conduction. Temperature Rate of Rise (RoR), which will activate at a certain temperature
increase rate. This procedure will detect a fire faster than fixed temperature since temperature
rise per unit time is faster than achieving a fixed temperature. There are also detectors that
operate using a combination of fixed temperature and temperature rise. This combination has
the advantages of both detectors and has proven to be a more reliable detector (Nilsson &
Holmstedt, 2008) [3].
For more advantages/disadvantages see Table 5.
Table 5. Advantages and disadvantages of heat detectors.
Insensitive to disturbances from e.g. dust Long activation time in large areas
Good to detect high flames and intense Almost impossible to detect smoldering fires
heat due to the low temperature
Low false alarm rate
4.2.2 Line heat detector (LHD)

This detector uses a cable to detect heat anywhere along its length. There are many types of
cables to be used; one example is a gas filled pipe that reacts to the heat during a fire. The built
up pressure due to the fire makes the gas expand and activates the detector. This solution is
widely used in the aviation industry and goes under the name Advanced Pneumatic Detector
(APD). Widely used are also Line heat detectors using low resistance twisted wires, insulated
from each other by thermal polymers that are set to break down at a fixed temperature (see
Figure 7). The breaking of the polymers causes the wires to connect and activate the detector.
To determine where the fire is located a distance-locating module can be attached (Bukowski,
1987) [4].
25
Figure 5. Example of how an LHD cable is constructed
Newer technologies have also emerged on the market. One type uses fiber optics and consists
of glass fiber yarns and a laser that sends light through the fiber yarn. In the event of fire and/or
temperature rise small changes in the fibers causes a change in its refractive properties. This
change is noticed by a light receiver that activates the detector. Fire detection fiber optics can
be used to detect temperature changes along a loop up to several kilometers long. The exact
location of the temperature increase can also be located with good accuracy (Nilsson &
Holmstedt, 2008) [3].
4.3 Flame detectors

Characteristic for detectors of this type are that they oversee a specific volume, e.g. a room.
The fire signatures they react to are the radiation that is emitted from a visible flame. Either
infrared (IR), ultraviolet (UV) or a combination of both radiation types. Typical for flame
detectors according to Bukowski (1987) [4] are that they have the highest false alarm rate and
are the fastest ones to detect a fire. Due to the fast response time of a flame detector they are
widely used in high risk organizations, where very rapid fires and/or explosions may occur. For a
flame detector to function at its best they should be fitted in a large open area. This is because
the detector must ―see‖ the location and the fire. Corners and objects blocking the detector may
therefore interfere and stop the signatures needed for detection.
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4.3.1 IR detectors
These detectors basically consist of a lens and a filter to screen out unwanted wavelengths.
Depending on the type of lens and filter used they can be either single frequency detectors or
multi spectrum detectors. The single frequency detectors are designed to detect an increase of
light intensity at specific wavelengths. Typical in a fire situation is the combustion product,
carbon dioxide that emits radiation in the specific wavelengths where a detector would activate.
Also the produced carbon dioxide will absorb sunlight, which could interfere with the detector
and cause false alarms. The single frequency detector is also set to only detect radiation that
fluctuates between certain intervals typical for an open flame. This will exclude the activation of
radiation from e.g. radiators that doesn’t tend to fluctuate as much as an open flame. However it
might still according to Nilsson and Holmstedt (2008) [3] consider the fluctuation from the sun
reflecting in water as an open flame and cause false alarms. The multi spectrum detectors
operate in different wavelength intervals other than the single frequency detector. Typical for
this detector type is to compare different wavelengths, both Fire detection and fire alarm system
in aircraft from an open flame and from a radiating item. As the intensities in each wavelength
intervals are compared the detector can distinguish a fire from a radiating item. In figure 8 there
is an example of a triple frequency IR flame detector.
Figure 6. Triple frequency IR flame detector.
27
4.3.2 UV detectors
UV-detectors use the same principles as an IR detector by detecting radiation at specific
wavelengths. These wavelengths will be detected from the radiation emitted by free radicals that
are produced in all open source fires. The detector won’t activate due to sunlight since the
atmosphere absorbs much of the UV radiation in the specific wavelength intervals. Some
substances as toluene, acetone or ethanol, absorbs UV-radiation and might screen the incident
radiation. Even fumes produces by fires might screen the detector from UV radiation. This is
crucial in the placement of the detector (Nilsson & Holmstedt, 2008) [3].
4.3.3 UV/IR-detectors
These use both principles of the above explained detectors. To activate both mechanisms must
detect, therefore this detector reduces the amount of false alarms due to the redundancy.
4.4 Gas detectors

Gas detectors are mainly used to sense the presence of high concentrations of combustible
gases before a fire or explosion occurs. However they can be used to detect typical substances
produced from a fire such as carbon monoxides and hydrocarbons, but this requires that they
can detect very low concentrations. Gas detectors can be divided in three main classifications of
operation: Catalytic-, Electrochemical- and IR- gas detectors. These detectors are mainly fitted
in industries and are not that common in aviation won’t be considered in this report.
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Chapter 05
5.1 FIRE WARNING
Fire Detection/Overheat Systems
A fire detection system should signal the presence of a fire. Units of the system are installed in
locations where there are greater possibilities of a fire. Three detector system types in common
use are the thermal switch, thermocouple, and the continuous loop.
5.1.1Thermal Switch System
A number of detectors, or sensing devices, are available. Many older-model aircraft still
operating have some type of thermal switch system or thermocouple system. A thermal switch
system has one or more lights energized by the aircraft power system and thermal switches that
control operation of the light(s). These thermal switches are heat-sensitive units that complete
electrical circuits at a certain temperature. They are connected in parallel with each other but in
series with the indicator lights. [Figure 17-1] If the temperature rises above a set value in any
one section of the circuit, the thermal switch closes, completing the light circuit to indicate a fire
or overheat condition. No set number of thermal switches is required; the exact number is
usually determined by the aircraft manufacturer. On some installations, all the thermal detectors
are connected to one light; on others, there may be one thermal switch for each indicator light.
Figure: 7Thermal switch fire circuit
Some warning lights are push-to-test lights. The bulb is tested by pushing it in to check an
auxiliary test circuit. The circuit shown in Figure 7 includes a test relay. With the relay contact in
the position shown, there are two possible paths for current flow from the switches to the light.
This is an additional safety feature. Energizing the test relay completes a series circuit and
checks all the wiring and the light bulb. Also included in the circuit shown in Figure 17-1 is a
dimming relay. By energizing the dimming relay, the circuit is altered to include a resistor in
29
series with the light. In some installations, several circuits are wired through the dimming relay,
and all the warning lights may be dimmed at the same time.
Thermocouple System
The thermocouple fire warning system operates on an entirely different principle from the
thermal switch system. A thermocouple depends on the rate of temperature rise and does not
give a warning when an engine slowly overheats or a short circuit develops. The system
consists of a relay box, warning lights, and thermocouples. The wiring system of these units
may be divided into the following circuits:
1. Detector circuit
2. Alarm circuit
3. Test circuit
These circuits are shown in Figure 17-2. The relay box contains two relays, the sensitive relay
and the slave relay, and the thermal test unit. Such a box may contain from one to eight
identical circuits, depending on the number of potential fire zones. The relays control the
warning lights. In turn, the thermocouples control the operation of the relays. The circuit consists
of several thermocouples in series with each other and with the sensitive relay.
Figure: 8Thermocouple fire warning circuit
The thermocouple is constructed of two dissimilar metals, such as chrome and constantan. The
point at which these metals are joined and exposed to the heat of a fire is called a hot junction.
30
There is also a reference junction enclosed in a dead air space between two insulation blocks. A
metal cage surrounds the thermocouple to give mechanical protection without hindering the free
movement of air to the hot junction. If the temperature rises rapidly, the thermocouple produces
a voltage because of the temperature difference between the reference junction and the hot
junction. If both junctions are heated at the same rate, no voltage results. In the engine
compartment, there is a normal, gradual rise in temperature from engine operation; because it is
gradual, both junctions heat at the same rate and no warning signal is given. If there is a fire,
however, the hot junction heats more rapidly than the reference junction. The ensuing voltage
causes a current to flow within the detector circuit. Any time the current is greater than 4 mile
amperes (0.004 ampere), the sensitive relay closes. This completes a circuit from the aircraft
power system to the coil of the slave relay. The slave relay then closes and completes the
circuit to the warning light to give a visual fire warning. The total number of thermocouples used
in individual detector circuits depends on the size of the fire zones and the total circuit
resistance, which usually does not exceed 5 ohms.
As shown in Figure08, the circuit has two resistors. The resistor connected across the slave
relay terminals absorbs the coil’s self-induced voltage to prevent arcing across the points of the
sensitive relay. The contacts of the sensitive relay are so fragile that they burn, or weld, if arcing
is permitted. When the sensitive relay opens, the circuit to the slave relay is interrupted and the
magnetic field around its coil collapses. The coil then gets a voltage through self-induction but,
with the resistor across the coil terminals, there is a path for any current flow as a result of this
voltage eliminating arcing at the sensitive relay contacts.
5.1.2Continuous-Loop Systems
Transport aircraft almost exclusively use continuous thermal sensing elements for power plant
and wheel well protection. These systems offer superior detection performance and coverage,
and they have the proven ruggedness to survive in the harsh environment of modern turbofan
engines. A continuous-loop detector or sensing system permits more complete coverage of a
fire hazard area than any of the spot-type temperature detectors. Two widely used types of
continuous-loop systems are the thermistor type detectors, such as the Kidde and the Fenwal
systems, and the pneumatic pressure detector, such as the Lingberg system. (Lindberg system
is also known as Systron-Donner and, more recently, Meggitt Safety Systems.)
5.1.3Fenwal System
The Fenwal system uses a slender Inconel tube packed with thermally sensitive eutectic salt
and a nickel wire center conductor. [Figure09] Lengths of these sensing elements are
connected in series to a control unit. The elements may be of equal or varying length and of the
same or different temperature settings. The control unit, operating directly from the power
source, impresses a small voltage on the sensing elements. When an overheat condition occurs
at any point.
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Figure: 09 Fenwal sensing element
Along the element length, the resistance of the eutectic salt within the sensing element drops
sharply, causing current to flow between the outer sheath and the center conductor. This current
flow is sensed by the control unit, which produces a signal to actuate the output relay and
activate the alarms. When the fire has been extinguished or the critical temperature lowered
below the set point, the Fenwal system automatically returns to standby alert, ready to detect
any subsequent fire or overheat condition. The Fenwal system may be wired to employ a loop
circuit. In this case, should an open circuit occur, the system still signals fire or overheat. If
multiple open circuits occur, only that section between breaks becomes inoperative.
5.1.4Kidde System
In the Kidde continuous-loop system, two wires are imbedded in an Inconel tube filed with a
thermistor core material. [Figure 09] Two electrical conductors go through the length of the core.
One conductor has a ground connection to the tube, and the other conductor connects to the
fire detection control unit. As the temperature of the core increases, electrical resistance to the
ground decreases. The fire detection control unit monitors this resistance. If the resistance
decreases to the overheat set point, an overheat indication occurs in the flight deck. Typically, a
10-second time delay is incorporated for the overheat indication. If the resistance decreases
more to the fire set point, a fire warning occurs. When the fire or overheat condition is gone, the
resistance of the core material increases to the reset point and the flight deck indications
disappear. The rate of change of resistance identifies an electrical short or a fire. The resistance
decreases more quickly with an electrical short than with a fire. In some aircraft, in addition to
fire and overheat detection, the Kidde continuous-loop system can supply nacelle temperature
data to the airplane Condition monitoring function of the aircraft in flight monitoring system
(AIMS)
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5.1.5Sensing Element
The resistance of a sensor varies inversely as it is heated; as sensor temperature is increased,

its resistance decreases. Each sensor is composed of two wires embedded in thermistor
material that is encased in a heavy wall Inconel tube for high strength at elevated temperatures.
The electrical connectors at each end of the sensor are ceramic insulated. The Inconel tubes
are shrouded in a perforated stainless steel tube and supported by Teflon-impregnated
asbestos bushings at intervals. The shroud protects the sensor from breakage due to vibration,
abrasion against airplane structure, and damage from maintenance activity. The resistance of a
sensor also varies inversely with its length, the increments of length being resistances in
parallel. The heating of a short length of sensor out of a given length requires that the short
length be heated above the temperature alarm point so the total resistance of the sensor
decreases to the alarm point. This characteristic permits integration of all temperatures
throughout the length of the installation rather than sensing only the highest local temperature.
The two wires encased within the hermitic material of each Inconel tube form a variable
resistance network between themselves, between the detector wire and the Inconel tube, and
between each adjacent incremental length of sensor. These variable resistance networks are
monitored by the application of 28 volts direct current (DC) to the detector wire from the detector
control unit.
Figure: 10 Kidde continuous-loop systems
5.1.6 Combination Fire and Overheat Warning
The analog signal from the thermistor-sensing element permits the control circuits to be
arranged to give a two-level response from the same sensing element loop. The first is an
overheat warning at a temperature level below the fire warning indicating a general engine
33
compartment temperature rise, such as would be caused by leakage of hot bleed air or
combustion gas into the engine compartment. It could also be an early warning of fire and would
alert the crew to appropriate action to reduce the engine compartment temperature. The
second-level response is at a level above that attainable by a leaking hot gas and is the fire
warning.
5.1.7Temperature Trend Indication: The analog signal produced by the sensing element loop
as its temperature changes is converted to signal suitable for flight deck display to indicate
engine bay temperature increases from normal. A comparison of the readings from each loop
system also provides a check on the condition of the fire detection system, because the two
loops should normally read alike.
5.1.8System Test
The integrity of the continuous-loop fire detection system may be tested by actuating a test
switch in the flight deck that switches one end of the sensing element loop from its control circuit
to a test circuit built into the control unit, which simulates the sensing element resistance change
due to fire. [Figure 17-5] If the sensing element loop is unbroken, the resistance detected by the
control circuit is that of the simulated fire, and the alarm is activated. The test demonstrates, in
addition to the continuity of the sensing element loop, the integrity of the alarm indicator circuit
and the proper functioning of the control circuits. The thematic properties of the sensing element
remain unchanged for the life of the element (no irreversible changes take place when heated);
the element functions properly as long as it is electrically connected to the control unit.
Figure: 11Continuous loop fire detection system test circuit
5.1.9Fault Indication
Provision is made in the control unit to output a fault signal which activates a fault indicator
whenever the short discriminator circuit detects a short in the sensing element loop. This is a
requirement for transport category aircraft because such a short disables the fire detection
system.
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5.1.10Dual-Loop Systems
Dual-loop systems are two complete basic fire detection systems with their output signals
connected so that both must signal to result in a fire warning. This arrangement, called AND
logic, results in greatly increased reliability against false fire warnings from any cause. Should
one of the two loops be found inoperative at the preflight integrity test, a cockpit selector switch
disconnects that loop and allows the signal from the other loop alone to activate the fire
warning. Since the single operative loop meets all fire detector requirements, the aircraft can be
safely dispatched and maintenance deferred to a more convenient time. However, should one of
the two loops become inoperative in flight and a fire subsequently occur, the fire signaling loop
activates a cockpit fault signal that alerts the flight crew to select single-loop operation to
confirm the possible occurrence of fire.
5.1.11Automatic Self-Interrogation
Dual-loop systems automatically perform the loop switching and decision-making function
required of the flight crew upon appearance of the fault indication in the cockpit, a function
called automatic self-interrogation. Automatic self-interrogation eliminates the fault indication
and assures the immediate appearance of the fire indication should fire occur while at least one
loop of the dual-loop system is operative. Should the control circuit from a single-loop signal fire,
the self-interrogation circuit automatically tests the functioning of the other loop. If it tests
operative, the circuit suppresses the fire signal because the operative loop would have signaled
if a fire existed. If, however, the other loop tests inoperative, the circuit outputs a fire signal. The
interrogation and decision takes place in milliseconds, so that no delay occurs if a fire actually
exists.
5.1.12Support Tube Mounted Sensing Elements
For those installations where it is desired to mount the sensing elements on the engine, and in
some cases, on the aircraft structure, the support tube mounted element solves the problem of
providing sufficient element support points and greatly facilitates the removal and reinstallation
of the sensing elements for engine or system maintenance. Most modern installations use the
support tube concept of mounting sensing elements for better maintainability, as well as
increased reliability. The sensing element is attached to a prevent stainless steel tube by closely
spaced clamps and bushings, where it is supported from vibration damage and protected from
pinching and excessive bending. The support tube-mounted elements can be furnished with
either single or dual sensing elements. Being prevents to the designed configuration assures its
installation in the aircraft precisely in its designed location, where it has the necessary clearance
to be free from the possibility of the elements chafing against engine or aircraft structure. The
assembly requires only a few attachment points and, should its removal for engine maintenance
be necessary, it is quickly and easily accomplished. Should the assembly require repair or
maintenance, it is easily replaced with another assembly, leaving the repair for the shop. Should
a sensing element be damaged, it is easily replaced in the assembly.
35
5.1.13Fire Detection Control Unit (Fire Detection Card)
The control unit for the simplest type of system typically contains the necessary electronic
resistance monitoring and alarm output circuits housed in a hermetically sealed aluminum case
fitted with a mounting bracket and electrical connector. For more sophisticated systems, control
modules are employed that contain removable control cards with circuitry for individual hazard
areas and/or unique functions. In the most advanced applications, the detection system circuitry
controls all aircraft fire protection functions, including fire detection and extinguishing for
engines, APUs, cargo bays, and bleed-air systems.
5.1.14Pressure Type Sensor Responder Systems
Some smaller turboprop aircraft are outfitted with pneumatic single point detectors. The design
of these detectors is based on the principles of gas laws. The sensing element consists of a
closed, helium-filled tube connected at one end to a responder assembly. As the element is
heated, the gas pressure inside the tube increases until the alarm threshold is reached. At this
point, an internal switch closes and reports an alarm to the cockpit. Continuous fault monitoring
is included. This type of sensor is designed as a single-sensor detection system and does not
require a control unit.
5.1.15Pneumatic Continuous-Loop Systems
The pneumatic continuous-loop systems are also known by their manufacturers’ names
Lindberg, Nystrom-Donner, and Meggitt Safety Systems. These systems are used for engine
fire detection of transport type aircraft and have the same function as the Kidde system;
however, they work on a different principle. They are typically used in a dual loop design to
increase reliability of the system. The pneumatic detector has two sensing functions. It responds
to an overall average temperature threshold and to a localized discrete temperature increase
caused by impinging flame or hot gasses. Both the average and discrete temperature are
factory set and are not field adjustable. Figure 12
36
Figure: 12Pneumatic dual fire/overheat detector assembly
5.1.16Averaging Function
The fire/overheat detector serves as a fixed-volume device filed with helium gas. The helium
gas pressure inside the detector increases in proportion to the absolute temperature and
operates a pressure diaphragm that closes an electrical contact, actuating the alarm circuit. The
pressure diaphragm within the responder assembly serves as one side of the electrical alarm
contact and is the only moving part in the detector. The alarm switch is preset at an average
temperature. Typical temperature ranges for average temperature settings are 200 °F (93 °C) to
850 °F (454 °C).
5.1.17Discrete Function
The fire/overheat detector’s sensor tube also contains a hydrogen-filed core material. [Figure
17-7] Large quantities of hydrogen gas are released from the detector core whenever a small
section of the tube is heated to the preset discrete temperature or higher. The core outgassing
increases the pressure inside the detector and actuates the alarm switch. Both the averaging
and discrete functions are reversible. When the sensor tube is cooled, the average gas pressure
is lowered and the discrete hydrogen gas returns to the core material. The reduction of internal
pressure allows the alarm switch to return to its normal position, opening the electrical alarm
circuit. Figure 17-8 shows a typical aircraft fire detection system in which a control module
monitors two loops of up to four pneumatic detectors each, connected in parallel. The control
module responds directly to an alarm condition and continuously monitors the wiring and
37
integrity of each loop. The normally open alarm switch closes upon an overheat or fire condition,
causing a short circuit between terminals A and C. During normal operation, a resistance value
is maintained across the terminals by a normally closed integrity switch. Loss of sensor gas
pressure opens the integrity switch, creating an open circuit across the terminals of the faulted
detector. In addition to the pressure-activated alarm switch, there is a second integrity switch in
the detector that is held closed by the averaging gas pressure at all temperatures down to –65
°F (–54 °C). If the detector should develop a leak, the loss of gas pressure would allow the
integrity switch to open and signal a lack of detector integrity. The system then does not operate
during test.
Figure: 13 Pneumatic pressure loop detector system
Figure: 14 Aircraft detection system control module
Smoke, Flame, and Carbon Monoxide Detection Systems
38
5.2Smoke Detectors
A smoke detection system monitors the lavatories and cargo baggage compartments for the
presence of smoke, which is indicative of a fire condition. Smoke detection instruments that
collect air for sampling are mounted in the compartments in strategic locations. A smoke
detection system is used where the type of fire anticipated is expected to generate a substantial
amount of smoke before temperature changes are sufficient to actuate a heat detection system.
Two common types used are light refraction and ionization.
5.2.1Light Refraction Type
The light refraction type of smoke detector contains a photoelectric cell that detects light
refracted by smoke particles. Smoke particles refract the light to the photoelectric cell and, when
it senses enough of this light; it creates an electrical current that sets off a light.
5.2.2Ionization Type
Some aircraft use an ionization type smoke detector. The system generates an alarm signal
(both horn and indicator) by detecting a change in ion density due to smoke in the cabin. The
system is connected to the 28 volt DC electrical power supplied from the aircraft. Alarm output
and sensor sensitive checks are performed simply with the test switch on the control panel.
5.2.3 Flame Detectors
Optical sensors, often referred to as flame detectors, are designed to alarm when they detect
the presence of prominent, specific radiation emissions from hydrocarbon flames. The two types
of optical sensors available are infrared (IR) and ultraviolet (UV), based on the specific
emission wavelengths that they are designed to detect. IR-based optical flame detectors are
used primarily on light turboprop aircraft and helicopter engines. These sensors have proven to
be very dependable and economical for these applications. When radiation emitted by the fire
crosses the airspace between the fire and the detector, it impinges on the detector front face
and window. The window allows a broad spectrum of radiation to pass into the detector where it
strikes the sensing device filter. The filter allows only radiation in a tight waveband centered on
4.3 micrometers in the IR band to pass on to the radiation-sensitive surface of the sensing
device. The radiation striking the sensing device minutely raises its temperature causing small
thermoelectric voltages to be generated. These voltages are fed to an amplifier whose output is
connected to various analytical electronic processing circuits. The processing electronics are
tailored exactly to the time signature of all known hydrocarbon flame sources and ignores false
alarm sources, such as incandescent lights and sunlight. Alarm sensitivity level is accurately
controlled by a digital circuit.
5.2.4Carbon Monoxide Detectors
Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless gas that is a byproduct of incomplete combustion. Its
presence in the breathing air of human beings can be deadly. To ensure crew and passenger
safety, carbon monoxide detectors are used in aircraft cabins and cockpits. They are most often
found on reciprocating engine aircraft with exhaust shroud heaters and on aircraft equipped with
39
a combustion heater. Turbine bleed air, when used for heating the cabin, is tapped off of the
engine upstream of the combustion chamber. Therefore, no threat of carbon monoxide
presence is posed. Carbon monoxide gas is found in varying degrees in all smoke and fumes of
burning carbonaceous substances. Exceedingly small amounts of the gas are dangerous if
inhaled. A concentration of as little as 2 parts in 10,000 may produce headache, mental
dullness, and physical lethargy within a few hours. Prolonged exposure or higher concentrations
may cause death. There are several types of carbon monoxide detectors. Electronic detectors
are common. Some are panel mounted and others are portable. Chemical color-change types
are also common. These are mostly portable. Some are simple buttons, cards, or badges that
have a chemical applied to the surface. Normally, the color of the chemical is tan. In the
presence of carbon monoxide, the chemical darkens to grey or even black. The transition time
required to change color is inversely related to the concentration of CO present. At 50 parts per
million, the indication is apparent within 15 to 30 minutes. A concentration of 100 parts per
million changes the color of the chemical in as little as 2–5 minutes. As concentration increases
or duration of exposure is prolonged, the color evolves from grey to dark grey to black.
Figure: 15 Infrared (IR) based optical flam detector
40
5.3Extinguishing Agents and Portable Fire
Extinguishers
There must be at least one hand held, portable fire extinguisher for use in the pilot compartment
that is located
within easy access of the pilot while seated. There must be at least one hand held fire
extinguisher located conveniently in the passenger compartment of each airplane
accommodating more than 6 and less than 30 passengers. Each extinguisher for use in a
personnel compartment must be designed to minimize the hazard of toxic gas concentrations.
The number of portable, hand held fire extinguishers for transport aircraft
is shown in below the chart.
Passenger capacity Number of extinguisher

7 through 30 1
31 through 60 2
61 through 200 3
201 through 300 4
301 through 400 5
401 through 500 6
501 through 600 7
601 through 700 8
5.3.1Halogenated Hydrocarbons
For over 45 years, halogenated hydrocarbons (Halons) have been practically the only fre
extinguishing agents used in civil transport aircraft. However, Halon is an ozone depleting and
global warming chemical, and its production has been banned by international agreement.
Although Halon usage has been banned in some parts of the world, aviation has been granted
an exemption because of its unique operational and fire safety requirements. Halon has been
the fire extinguishing agent of choice in civil aviation because it is extremely effective on a per
unit weight basis over a wide range of aircraft environmental conditions. It is a clean agent (no
residue), electrically non conducting, and has relatively low toxicity. Two types of Halons are
employed in aviation: Halon 1301(CBrF3) a total flooding agent, and Halon 1211 (CBrClF2) a
streaming agent. Class A, B, or C fires are appropriately controlled with Halons. However, do
not use Halons on a class D fire. Halon agents may react vigorously with the burning metal.
NOTE: While Halons are still in service and are appropriate agents for these classes of fires, the
production of these ozone depleting agents has been restricted. Although not required, consider
replacing Halon extinguishers with Halon replacement extinguishers when discharged. Halon
replacement agents found to be compliant to date include the halocarbons HCFC Blend B,
HFC-227ea, and HFC-236fa.
5.3.2Inert Cold Gases
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an effective extinguishing agent. It is most often used in fire
extinguishers that are available on the ramp to flight fires on the exterior of the aircraft, such as
engine or APU fires. CO2 has been used for many years to extinguish flammable fluid fires and
41
fires involving electrical equipment. It is noncombustible and does not react with most
substances. It provides its own pressure for discharge from the storage vessel, except in
extremely cold climates where a booster charge of nitrogen may be added to winterize the
system. Normally, CO2 is a gas, but it is easily liquated by compression and cooling. After
liquefaction, CO2 remains in a closed container as both liquid and gas. When CO2 is then
discharged to the atmosphere, most of the liquid expands to gas. Heat absorbed by the gas
during vaporization cools the remaining liquid to –110 °F, and it becomes a finely divided
white solid, dry ice snow. Carbon dioxide is about 1½ times as heavy as air, which gives it the
ability to replace air above burning surfaces and maintain a smothering atmosphere. CO2 is
effective as an extinguishing agent primarily because it dilutes the air and reduces the oxygen
content so that combustion is no longer supported. Under certain conditions, some cooling
effect is also realized. CO2 is considered only mildly toxic, but it can cause unconsciousness
and death by suffocation if the victim is allowed to breathe CO2 in fire extinguishing
concentrations for 20 to 30 minutes. CO2 is not effective as an extinguishing agent on fires
involving chemicals containing their own oxygen supply, such as cellulose nitrate (used in some
aircraft paints). Also, fires involving magnesium and titanium cannot be extinguished by CO2.
5.3.3Dry Powders
Class A, B, or C fires can be controlled by dry chemical extinguishing agents. The only all purpose (Class
A,B,C rating) dry chemical powder extinguishers contain monoammonium phosphate. All other dry
chemical powders have a Class B, C U.S – UL fire rating only. Dry powder chemical extinguishers best
control classes A, B, and C fire but their use is limited due to residual residue and clean up after
deployment.
5.3.4Water
Class A type fires are best controlled with water by cooling the material below its ignition
temperature and soaking the material to prevent re-ignition.
Cockpit and Cabin Interiors
All materials used in the cockpit and cabin must conform to strict standards to prevent fire. In
case of a fire, several types of portable fire extinguishers are available to flight the fire. The most
common types are Halon 1211 and water.
5.4.1Classes of Fires: The following classes of fires that are likely to occur onboard
aircraft, as defined in the U.S. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Standard 10,
Standard for Portable Fire 4Extinguishers, 2007 Edition, are:
1. Class A—
Fires involving ordinary combustible materials, such as wood, cloth, paper, rubber, and
plastics.
2. Class B—
42
Fires involving flammable liquids, petroleum oils, greases, tars, oil-based paints,
lacquers, solvents, alcohols, and flammable gases.
3. Class C—
Fires involving energized electrical equipment in which the use of an extinguishing
media that is electrically nonconductive is important.
4. Class D—
Fires involving combustible metals, such as magnesium,titanium, zirconium, sodium,
lithium, and potassium.
5.4.2Principals of Extinguishing Fires:
 Cool the fuel below its ignition point

 Remove the oxygen supply
 Separate the fuel from the oxygen
5.4.3Extinguishing Agents:
 Class A:
Respond best to water or water type which lower the fuel below its ignition point.
 Class B:
Respond to carbon dioxide, halogenated hydrocarbons (halons) and dry
chemicals, all of which displace the oxygen supply making combustion impossible.
 Class C:
Respond best to carbon dioxide which displaces the oxygen.
Must have a non-metallic horn to prevent static electricity and transmission of
electricity to operator from the fire.
Halons or dry chemicals may be used but the disadvantage is the power
contamination which can lead to further damage of electrical components.
 Class D:
Responds best to dry powder which prevents oxidation and the resulting flame.
5.4.4Requirements for Overheat and Fire Protection Systems:
Fire protection systems on current-production aircraft do not rely on observation by crew

members as a primary method of fire detection. An ideal fire detector system includes as many
of the following features as possible:
43
 No false warnings under any flight or ground condition.
 Rapid indication of a fire and accurate location of the fire.
 Accurate indication that a fire is out.
 Indication that a fire has re-ignited.
 Continuous indication for duration of a fire.
 Means for electrically testing the detector system from the aircraft cockpit.
 Resists damage from exposure to oil, water, vibration, extreme temperatures, or
handling.
 Light in weight and easily adaptable to any mounting position.
 Circuitry that operates directly from the aircraft power system without inverters.
 Minimum electrical current requirements when not indicating a fire.
 Cockpit light that illuminates, indicating the location of the fire, and with an audible alarm
system.
 A separate detector system for each engine.
5.4.5Fire Zones
Power plant compartments are classified into zones based on the airflow through them.
1. Class A zone—
Area of heavy airflow past regular arrangements of similarly shaped obstructions. The power
section of a reciprocating engine is usually of this type.
2. Class B zone—
Area of heavy airflow past aerodynamically clean obstructions. Included in this type are
heat exchanger ducts, exhaust manifold shrouds, and areas where the inside of the
enclosing cowling or other closure is smooth, free of pockets, and adequately drained so
leaking flammables cannot puddle. Turbine engine compartments may be considered in
this class if engine surfaces are aerodynamically clean and all airframe structural
formers are covered by a fireproof liner to produce an aerodynamically clean enclosure
surface.
3. Class C zone—
Area of relatively low airflow. An engine accessory compartment separated from the
power section is an example of this type of zone.
4. Class D zone—
44
Area of very little or no airflow. These include wing compartments and wheel wells where
little ventilation is provided.
5. Class X zone—
Area of heavy airflow and of unusual construction, making uniform distribution of the
extinguishing agent very difficult. Areas containing deeply recessed spaces and pockets
between large structural formers are of this type. Tests indicate agent requirements to
be double those for Class A zones.
5.4.6 Fire Detection System Maintenance

Fire detector sensing elements are located in many high activity areas around aircraft
engines. Their location, together with their small size, increases the chance of damage
to the sensing elements during maintenance .an inspection and maintenance program
for all types of continuous-loop system should include the following visual check.
Sensing elements of a continuous-loop system should be inspected for the following.

1 cracked or broken sections caused by crushing or squeezing between inspection
plates, cowl panels, or engine components.
2 Abrasion caused by rubbing of the elements on cowling, accessories, or structural

members.
3 pieces of safety wire, or other metal particles, that may short the spot-detector
terminals.
4 condition of rubber grommets in mounting clamps that may be softened from exposure
to oils or hardened from excessive heat.
5 dents and kinks in sensing element sections. Limits on the element diameter,
acceptable dents and kinks, and degree of smoothness of tubing contour are specified
by manufacturers. No attempt should be made to straighten any acceptable dent or kink,
since stresses may be set up that could causes tubing failure.
45
Chapter 06
Alarm systems
As mentioned in the previous section a detector simply detects the presence of a fire
condition. This would be useless anyone or anything notice it and take action. Alarm
systems can be designed in many ways; it can either give a signal by sound
(acoustical), by a flashing light (Optical) or an indication on a monitored control panel.
Alarm systems of today are often more flexible and customized. One example is a
module based system where it is possible for the customer to design and optimize the
system depending on the requirements. Modules can easily be changed and together
make up the entire fire protection system.
The core of an alarm system is the control unit containing all central functions for
detection, alarm, suppression and other vital functions. With a module based system
this can be done totally automatic; a detector activates, a signal is given to the alarm
system and suppression system, fire barriers automatically shut, the ventilation system
shuts down and fire ventilationkicks in (C. Nylander, personal communication,
September 18th, 2013) [32].
6.1 Conventional or addressable
In a conventional system all signals from detectors in a certain area represents the
alarm address. This means that the fire cannot be specifically located to a single
detector but simply an area of detectors. This may also mean that a suppression or
extinguisher system activates over the whole area instead of just above the fire source.
In an addressable system each detector has its own alarm address. This means that the
exact position of the activated detector can be determined. When connected to
suppression or extinguishing system only the fire in the affected zone will be
extinguished instead of the whole section (The Fire Safety Advice Center) [15].
46
6.2 Analog and digital systems
Analog and digital systems are always addressable. This is because either the detector
or control unit must interpret the incoming signals as a fire or not and take the right
actions. Analog systems are primarily used to prevent the rate of false alarms. There
are mainly two types of analog systems; the bulk of analog systems only use output
signals from the detector, representing the value of what is detected. These signals are
then interpreted by the control unit that decides whether there is a fire, fault or other. In
a more complex analog system each detector has its own computer that evaluates its
surrounding environment and decides whether there is a fire, fault or other. It may even
signal when the detector head is soiled and adjust its threshold activation level so a
constant sensitivity is maintained (The Fire Safety Advice Center) [15]. The analog
system incorporates a digital system. With a digital system it is possible to receive
output and input data of the systems functionality by downloading it from the control
unit. It in e.g. combined detectors. If the control unit is programmed with this information
it is according to C. Nylander (personal communication, September 18th, 2013) [32]
possible to replace a detector that malfunctions and the new one will automatically
adjust to the latest settings made in the control unit.
47
Chapter 07
7.1 Fire detection and fire alarm systems in aircrafts
An airplane is very exposed in the event of fire while in the air. It can’t simply stop, start
evacuating its passengers and wait for the fire brigade to extinguish the fire. This
demands highly reliable and redundant fire detection and extinguishing system. The
system must also be very sensitive, stable (free of false alarms) and able to withstand
extreme environment e.g. temperature, vibrations and high airflows (Cote et al., 2008)
[6].
Following section gives an example of a fire protection system in aircrafts. Information

concerning design and performance of these systems are mainly gathered from big
manufacturers of aircrafts such as Boeing and Airbus.
7.1.1 System
The aircraft fire detection system is designed to detect the above mentioned conditions.
When any of these conditions are sensed fire detection modules will provide an acoustic
or visual signal to flight deck and the fire protection panel.
The detection system is addressable and will indicate where a potential fire/overheat
has occurred. The system must also automatically reset to notify the flight crew when
the fire has been extinguished (Cote et al., 2008) [6].
The ―critical‖ zones in the fire protection system e.g. engines and cargo compartment
use detectors in a dual loop. In an event of fire both loops must indicate a fire and
supply a signal to flight deck. The purpose of having both loops indicate a fire is the
possibility of false alarms. According to P. Ekenbratt Ågren (personal communication,
September 9th, 2013) [36] it is not desirable to shut down an engine unnecessarily. In
the event of a failing loop, the system has a fault monitoring circuit which automatically
deselects that loop and the remaining loop functions as a single loop detector. There is
no signal to flight deck indicating a single loop fault but if both loops fail a fault light
illuminates and the system is inoperable (Smart cockpit) [16]. Other units such as the
Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) use a single loop also connected to a fault monitoring circuit,
if malfunctioning it signals inoperability. The extinguishing system is placed in the critical
zones and uses Halon gas as extinguishing agent.
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7.1.2 Detectors
The fire detection system consists of:
o Engine fire/overheat detection
o APU fire detection
o Wheel fire detection
o Cargo compartment smoke detection
o Lavatory smoke detection
An overview of the detector placement can be seen in Figure 21
Figure 16: Overview of fire detection & protection placement in an aircraft
7.1.2.1 Cabin and flight deck
There are no detectors in these areas. The reason is, according to P. Ekenbratt Ågren
(personal communication, September 9th, 2013) [36], that these areas always are
monitored by either passengers or crew. If the airplane is flying without any passengers
the cabin door is left open so the pilots have a clear view of the cabin.
7.1.2.2 Engine
Each engine contains four fire/overheat detector loops mounted in parallel and
connected to Advanced Pneumatic Detectors (APD) (4.2.2) in each end (see Figure 22).
These pressurized tubes sense an increased pressure due to temperature rise and give
a signal to the fire detection module in three cases:
o Overheat – at a predetermined pressure increase

o Fire – at higher pressure than overheat
o Fault – loss in or no pressure
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Figure17: Engine Fire Switches
The engine fire panel is in the flight deck on the P8 aisle stand. The engine fire panel
has a fire switch for each engine and a discharge light for each fire bottle. [Figure 7]
Figure :18. Fire switch
50
The engine fire switch has four functions:
 Gives an indication of an engine fire
 Stops the engine
 Isolates the engine from the airplane systems
 Controls the engine fire extinguishing system
The fire switch assembly incorporates a solenoid that locks the fire switch so that the
flight crew cannot pull it accidently. If an engine has a fire, the fire warning light comes
on and the solenoid energizes to release the switch. When the solenoid is energized,
the fire switch can be pulled.
When the fire detection system malfunctions or the solenoid is defective and the flight
crew wants to extinguish an engine fire, someone must push the fire override switch.
The fire override switch allows the fire switch to be pulled when the solenoid is not
energized. When the fire switch is pulled, the push-pull switch contacts operate
electrical circuits that stop the engine and isolate it from the airplane systems. With the
switch pulled, it can be rotated to left or right to a mechanical stop at the discharge
position. The rotary switch contacts close and operate the fire extinguishing system.
When the fire switch is pulled, the switch isolates the following aircraft systems from the
engine:
 Closes the fuel spar valve
 Deenergizes the engine fuel metering unit (FMU) cutoff solenoid
 Closes the engine hydraulic pump shutoff valve
 Depressurizes the engine driven hydraulic pump valve
 Closes the pressure regulator and shutoff valve
 Removes power from thrust reverser isolation valve
 Trips the generator field
 Trips the backup generator field [Figure 8]
51
Figure:19. Engine fire switch circuit
Engine Fire Operation
If an engine has a fire, the engine fire detection system gives a fire warning in the flight
deck. The engine fire warning lights come on to identify which fire switch to use to
extinguish the fire. The solenoid in the fire switch energizes and releases the switch so
that the fire switch can be pulled. If the solenoid does not energize, push the fire
override switch to release the fire switch manually. When the fire switch is pulled,
it stops the engine, and the fire switch isolates the engine from the airplane systems.
If the fire warnings do not go away when the switch is pulled, position the switch to the
DISCH 1 or DISCH 2 position, and hold the switch against the stop for one second. This
fires the squib in the fire extinguisher container and releases the fire extinguishing agent
into the engine nacelle. Ensure that the engine bottle discharge light comes on. If the
first bottle does not extinguish the fire, the switch must be placed to the other DISCH
position. This fires the squib for the other bottle.
7.1.2.3
APU Fire Detection and Extinguishing System
The APU fire protection system is similar in design to engine fire protection systems, but there
are some differences. The APU is often operated with no personnel in the flight 7.1.2.3 Auxiliary
Power Unit (APU)
52
Figure: 20 P40 service and APU shutdown panel
APU Fire Warning:
If there is an APU fire, the APU fire detection system gives fire warnings and automatically stops
the APU. The APU fire warning light comes on to identify the correct fire switch to use to
extinguish the fire. The fire switch solenoid releases the switch so that it can be pulled up. If the
APU is running, it stops when the fire switch is pulled. The fire switch isolates the APU from the
airplane systems.
Fire Bottle Discharge:
If the fire warnings do not go away with the switch out, put the switch to the left or right DISCH
position. Hold the switch against the discharge stop for one second. This fires the bottle squib
and releases the fire extinguishing agent into the APU compartment. Verify that the APU bottle
discharge light comes on. [Figure 2]
7.1.2.4 Cargo compartment
The cargo compartment smoke detection system gives warnings in the flight deck if
there is smoke in a cargo compartment. [Figure 17-18] Each compartment is equipped
with a smoke detector. The smoke detectors monitor air in the cargo compartments for
smoke. The fans bring air from the cargo compartment into the smoke detector. Before
the air goes in the smoke detector, in-line water separators remove condensation and
heaters increase the air temperature.
53
7.1.2.5 Wheel well
In the main wheel well a single fire detection loop using APD´s could be used. There are
also examples of LHD’s (4.2.2) or sensing elements consisting of a single strand of
nickel wire embedded in insulation. A current flows in the center wire, and the insulation
that is impregnated with a salt compound in a tube is electrically grounded. The LHD
functions by having a resistance inversely proportional to temperatures. This means
when the temperature in the wire increases its resistance decreases. The insulation
decomposes due to the temperature increase and a current flow between the outer
sheath and the center conductor. The current flow is sensed by the control unit, which
activates the alarm in flight deck (O. Andersson, personal communication, October 3rd,
2013) [37]. The front wheel well has no fire detection due to the absence of brakes and
lack of power transmission, causing less heat than the main wheels.
7.1.2.6Lavatory Smoke Detectors
Airplanes that have a passenger capacity of 20 or more are equipped with a smoke detector
system that monitors the lavatories for smoke. Smoke indications provide a warning light in the
cockpit or provide a warning light or audible warning at the lavatory and at flight attendant
stations that would be readily detected by a flight attendant. Each lavatory must have a built-in
fire extinguisher that discharges automatically. The smoke detector is located in the ceiling of
the lavatory. [figure 1]
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Figure: 22. Lavatory smoke detector
Lavatory Smoke Detector System
Refer to Figure 22. The lavatory smoke detector is powered by the 28-volt DC left/right main DC
bus. If there is smoke in the sensing chamber of the smoke detector, the alarm LED (red)
comes on. The timing circuit makes an intermittent ground. The warning horn and lavatory call
light operate intermittently. The smoke detection circuit makes a ground for the relay. The
energized relay makes a ground signal for the overhead electronics unit (OEU) in the central
monitoring systems (CMS). This interface gives these indications: lavatory master call light
flashes, cabin system control panel (CSCP) and cabin area control panel (CACP) pop-up
window shows, and the lavatory call chime operates. Push the lavatory call reset switch or the
smoke detector interrupt switch to cancel the smoke indications. If there is still smoke in the
lavatory, the alarm LED (red) stays on. All smoke indications go away automatically when the
smoke is gone.
55
Figure :23 Lavatory smoke detector diagram
7.2 Alarm management
All activated detectors give a signal, acoustic and optical, to flight deck and onto the fire
protection panel. An activated detector will first indicate on the Master Fire Warning
Light
The pilots are now aware of a fire or fault and it is now possible for the pilots to monitor
where the fire/overheat condition is located and activate the extinguishers.
Extinguisher’s may be armed and discharged in all compartments from the fire
protection panel except the lavatory waste bin which discharges automatically due to
high temperatures (Smart Cockpit) [16].
Figure: 24 Master Fire Warning Light (red) to the left and Overheat/Fire Protection Panel to the
right
If e.g. a fire occurs in one of the engines the detector send a signal to the fire protection
module, which in turn provides a signal to the fire protection panel and the Master Fire
Warning Light is illuminated (see Figure 26). This unlocks the affected engine’s Fire
Switch seen in Figure 24 and the pilots may now activate it by pulling the handle up.
56
When activated following happens: the engine stops because the fuel feed is shut off,
hydraulic fluids are shut off and the fire extinguishing system is armed. It is now
possible to manually discharge the Extinguisher bottles into the engine by rotating the
Fire Switch left or right (Smart Cockpit)[16]. Similar actions happen in the APU and the
cargo compartment with an occasional exception in the cargo compartment. Sometimes
aircrafts are fitted with two types of fire extinguisher bottles in the cargo compartment.
There is one primary and one secondary discharge of the extinguisher agent. The first is
manually controlled from the Cargo Fire Panel in flight deck (see Figure 27). When a fire
condition is detected the Master Fire Warning Light is illuminated followed by the Cargo
Fire Warning Lights on the Cargo Fire Panel. It is now possible to manually arm and
discharge forward and/or aft cargo compartment extinguishing bottles. The secondary
discharge is released slowly after a time delay. This is done to keep the correct
concentration of extinguishing agent for up to 180 minutes (Federal Aviation
Administration) [18]. In addition to the cargo compartments extinguishing system,
techniques like air starvation are often used (Cote et al., 2008) [6]. When the detection
systems activates, all ventilation to the compartment is sealed off. The fire will then
hopefully self-extinguish due to the lack of oxygen.
Figure25: Example of Cargo Fire Panel showing forward and aft Cargo Fire Warning Lights and
Bottle Discharge Light
(The Boeing 737 Technical Site) [19]
The main wheel well is often exposed to high temperatures due to hot brakes, hydraulic
pumps, engines for maneuver the landing gear and hot wheels at landing and takeoff.
Here there is no extinguishing system. In case of a fire the landing gears are according
to P. Ekenbratt Ågren (personal communication, September 9th, 2013) [36] simply
lowered to prevent an explosion of the wheels and also to blow out the fire with the high
wind speed. Also the entire well is covered in non-combustible grease that prevents vital
parts to ignite. During maintenance or on the ground it is according to O. Andersson
57
(personal communication, October 3rd, 2013) [37] common to keep the APU running to
provide power to vital functions. In the event of a fire the main wheel well has an APU
ground control that give external indications of an APU fire. A horn and a red light will
operate alternately at a one per second rate. It is possible for ground personnel to
discharge the halon bottles from here and into the APU (see Figure 28). In some
aircrafts it is possible for automatic discharge if there is an APU fire when on the ground
(Smart Cockpit) [20].
Figure: 26 Main wheels well fitted with APU Fire Control.
In the event of fire in the cabin or flight deck, necessary actions will be taken e.g.
portable Halon fire extinguishers.
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Chapter 08
Standards and guidelines

8.1.1 ICAO
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) was founded in 1944 to promote
the safe and orderly development of international civil aviation. It’s a specialized agency
of the United Nations, and consists of 191 member countries. They create universally
accepted standards known as Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs). These
cover all technical and operational aspects of international civil aviation and consist of
annexes. There are 18 different annex (19 in November 2013), and Annex 8 is about
―Airworthiness of Aircrafts‖ that handles fire detection.
8.1.2 FAA - Federal Aviation Administration
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is part of U.S. Department of Transportation. FAA

creates Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs), which coordinates with the ICAO, and
these regulations are often used in many countries when building an aircraft since many
countries don't have their own standards.
8.2.3. FAR 25 — Airworthiness standards: Transport category airplanes
FARs are part of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) that consists of 50 titles. Title
14 is about Aeronautics and Space, and part 25 in title 14 handles airworthiness
standards of transport category airplanes. 14 CFR consists of subparts (A-I), which are
divided into sections.
These subparts are:

❏ Subpart A - General
❏ Subpart B - Flight
❏ Subpart C - Structure
❏ Subpart D - Design and Construction
❏ Subpart E - Powerplant
❏ Subpart F - Equipment
❏ Subpart G - Operating Limitations and Information
❏ Subpart H - Electrical Wiring Interconnection Systems (EWIS)
59
❏ Subpart I - Special Federal Aviation Regulations
(Source bulleted list: Federal Aviation Administration) [28])
Section Fire Protection under subpart D (Design and Construction) consists of §§

25.851 -
25.869 and section Powerplant Fire Protection under subpart E (Powerplant) consists
of §§
25.1181 - 25.1207 are all about fire protection and the most interesting sections are
summarized below. Parts of or whole sections below are quoted from U.S. Government
Printing Office (2013) [27] Code of Federal Regulations, title 14, sec. 25.851-25.1207.
A complete list of subparts and sections can be seen in Appendix C.
8.2.4Fire extinguishers
Hand fire extinguishers are required inside an airplane, and depending on the number
of passengers the minimum number of extinguishers varies. Number of extinguishers
needed can be visualized in Table 9, and the recommendation is to locate these easily
accessible and evenly distributed throughout the aircraft.
Table 9. Number of extinguishers depending on the passenger capacity.
Passenger capacity Number of extinguishers

7 through 30 1
31 through 60 2
61 through 200 3
201 through 300 4
301 through 400 5
401 through 500 6
501 through 600 7
601 through 700 8
There are also some additional requirements that need to be considered. For example,
a minimum of one hand fire extinguishers must be located in the cockpit area accessible
to the pilot. Also if a passenger aircraft’s cargo or baggage compartment are accessible
60
to crewmembers during flight, one hand fire extinguisher must be available here. If there
is a galley onboard, there must be an easily accessible hand fire extinguisher here that
could be located above or below the passenger compartment.
Each hand fire extinguisher must also be approved according to current standards. If
the passenger capacity is between 31 and 60, at least one hand fire extinguisher must
contain Halon 1211 (bromochlorodifluoromethane CBrC1 F2) or equivalent. If the
passenger capacity is more than 61, at least two is needed and must be located in the
passenger compartment Regarding the remaining hand fire extinguishers these must be
suitable for the typically fires that can occur where they are located, and if they are
intended for use in personnel compartments the spread of toxic gas concentration must
be minimized.
If a built-in fire extinguisher is provided, they must be installed so that there will be no
hazard to the passengers or crewmembers if discharged and no discharge should
cause structural damage. Still the capacity of the built-in fire extinguishing system must
be suitable for the compartment where it is used both considering ventilation and
volume of the compartment.
8.2.5Lavatory fire protection
Small airplanes don’t need fire protection in the lavatory. For airplanes with a minimum
capacity of 20 passenger there must be a smoke detector or equivalent installed in each
lavatory
that provides a warning light in the cockpit, but in some cases there should also be a
warning
light or audible warning in the passenger cabin if a flight attendant readily detects it.
Also each waste bin for e.g. towels, paper or waste located within the lavatory must be
equipped with a built-in fire extinguisher. If a fire occurs here, the extinguisher must be
designed to automatically discharge into the affected waste bin.
8.2.6Cargo or baggage compartments
Cargo and baggage compartments are complex areas because of the huge fire load
and the fact that most compartments are out of site for the staff when flying. There is
also a problem that the staff doesn’t know what all baggage contains. Each cargo or
baggage compartment must meet one of the A-E class requirements that are specified
below in § 25.857. And if there is some kind of heat source within the compartment, this
must be protected and insulated to prevent the cargo from ignite. Additionally, there
must be a flight test conducted to show that classifications in § 25.857 are held
regarding the accessibility of the compartment. Also that the entry quantities of
61
hazardous smoke or extinguishing agents must show compliance in compartments
occupied by crewmembers, passengers and in class C compartments concerning
dissipation of the extinguishing agent.
The flight tests above must show that no accidental operation of smoke or fire detectors
would occur in any compartment if a fire was to start in another compartment. This must
be held both during and after extinguishing, unless if the extinguishing system
simultaneously floods both the fire and the non-fire compartment.
8.2.7Cargo compartment classification
CFR 25.857 currently describes four classifications of cargo compartments. With the
exception
of class A compartments, they all require a fire detection system that will give a warning
to the
pilot or flight engineer station. Class A compartments are small compartments adjacent
to
occupied areas where a fire would be immediately discovered by a crewmember.
Definitions
for class A-E cargo or baggage compartment are listed below.
Class A
This is a compartment where:
o A possible fire can easily be discovered by a crewmember.
o The entire compartment is easily accessible during flight.
Class B
This is a compartment where:
o The crewmembers easily can reach the entire compartment with a hand held fire
extinguisher during flight.
o No hazardous amount of smoke, flames, or extinguishing agent can enter any

compartment occupied by the crew or the passengers when the access provisions are
being used.
o A separate approved fire detection system is located to give an early warning at the
pilot or flight engineer station.
Class C
62
This compartment does not meet the requirements for either Class A or B but where:
o An approved built-in fire extinguishing or suppression system controllable from the

cockpit is installed.
o It is possible to exclude hazardous quantities of smoke, flames, or extinguishing

agent, from passenger and crew compartments.
o It is possible to control the ventilation and drafts within the compartment in order to
confine the fire and to allow the extinguishing agent to control a possible fire within the
compartment.
Class D cargo compartments were removed from the CFR after an occurred accident.
This class formerly relied on passive oxygen starvation and that the compartment was
small and sealed enough not to threaten the airplane in the event of a fire. No fire
detection or suppression systems were required (Federal Aviation Administration) [28].
Class E
This compartment is applied for aircrafts only used for cargo carriage and where:
o It is possible for the flight crew to easily shut off the ventilating airflow to, or within
the crew compartment.
o It is possible to exclude hazardous quantities of smoke, flames, or extinguishing

agent,
from the flight crew compartment.
o The required crew emergency exits always are accessible during cargo loading.
8.2.8Cargo or baggage compartment smoke or fire detection systems
63
If a fire detection system is needed in the cargo compartment, it must provide a visual
indication to flight deck within one minute after the start of the fire. A fire must be
detected significantly below the temperature when the structural integrity of the airplane
is substantially decreased. It is essential to know if the detectors are working properly
during a flight, and therefore the crewmembers must be allowed to check each fire
detector circuit during flight. The standard also describes that the fire detection system
must be shown efficient enough for all approved conditions and operating
configurations. In addition, flight tests are required to demonstrate that the detection
system will respond to smoke or a smoke simulant in less than 1 minute (Blake, 2006)
[8].
8.2.9Designated fire zones; regions included

A fire zone in an aircraft is typically an area or a region designed to require fire detection
and/or fire extinguishing equipment and a high level of fire resistance. Typical fire zones
in an aircraft include the powerplant’s designated fire zones that are:
o The engine power section.

o The engine accessory section.
o The auxiliary power unit compartments.
o Fuel-burning heaters and other combustion equipment installation.
o The compressor and accessory sections of turbine engines.
o Combustor, turbine, and tailpipe sections of turbine engine installations that contain
lines or components carrying flammable fluids or gases.
(Source bulleted list: Federal Aviation Administration) [28])
8.2.10Firewalls
Firewalls are needed to prevent the spread of fire and other toxic fumes into the aircraft.
The
description in CFR 25.1191 says that: ―each engine, auxiliary power unit, fuel-burning
heater
and other combustion equipment intended for operation in flight, must be isolated from
the
64
rest of the airplane by firewalls, shrouds, or equivalent means. Each firewall and shroud
must be:‖
o Fireproof.
o Constructed so that no hazardous quantity of air, fluid, or flame can pass from the
compartment to other parts of the airplane.
O Constructed so that each opening is sealed with fireproof material. o Protected

against corrosion. (Source bulleted list: Federal Aviation Administration) [28
8.3. Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA)
The Joint Aviation Authorities started in 1970 and was an associated body of the
European
Civil Aviation Conference representing the civil aviation regulatory authorities. They
were
developing and implementing common regulatory standards and procedures but have
now
given the responsibility to EASA (8.4.2).
8.4 Joint Aviation Requirements (JAR)
The Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) was responsible for publishing regulations
governing the
operations, maintenance, licensing and certification/design standards for all classes of
aircraft.
These regulations were introduced to achieve common ground between the states
involved.
These regulations are known as Joint Aviation Requirements (JARs) (Skybrary, 2006)
[23].
8.5 European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)
The European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) is the centerpiece of the European
Union's
strategy for aviation safety. Their mission is to promote the highest common standards
65
of safety
and environmental protection in civil aviation. They started in 2003 and have now taken
over
the responsibility from JAA (European Aviation Safety Agency) [24].
8.6 AUBE – International Conference on Automatic Fire Detection
AUBE is an international conference on automatic fire detection. It’s held every 5th year
and the latest AUBE conference, the 14th, was held 2009 at the University of Duisburg-
Essen in Duisburg, Germany. The conference length is three days, and authors from all
over the world participate and present their reports, which then will be included in the
AUBE Papers that are printed. AUBE is organized by the Department of Communication
Systems (NTS) at the University of Duisburg-Essen. Cooperation partners are societies,
institutes, research foundations and companies within fire detection industry. Down
below are two interesting presentations summarized from AUBE ’09 session 11 that is
about fire detection in aircrafts.
8.6.1 AUBE ‘09 – Session 11 – Fire detection in aircraft, special applications

Presentation 1 – Behle 
This presentation is made by Kai Behle and the subject is Standardization of False
Alarm Rejection Capability Assessment‖. The presentation covers the harsh demands of
early fire
detection in cargo compartments in aircrafts there have been problems with false
alarms. The maximum allowed time to detect a fire is 60 seconds, but the amount of
smoke used when testing is not specified. The FAA has distributed a video in a policy
letter in 1997 due to a cargo compartment fire in an aircraft. Their intention was to
provide a visual guidance for smoke detection requirements but no physical data was
distributed and therefore the test is hard to reflect. Figure 32 shows a comparison of the
test at two different time intervals.
66
Figure: 27. Snapshots from”Burning Suitcase Video” from FAA (Behle) [9].
Since there is a very small amount of smoke produced in one minute, the high
sensitivity settings on the detectors have caused a high false alarm rate. To minimize
this, test scenarios have been built both at University of Duisburg and at Siemens
Aerospace in France, the latter also was the inventor of the test chamber for multi-
criteria smoke detector used in Airbus A380. Figure 33 gives an overview of the set up
test chamber.
67
Chapter 09
Analysis
9.1 Reflection of the making of this thesis.
In the making of this thesis a lot of background material was handed out from SP that
already
had been collected within the FFI project. At the beginning a lot of skimming through
information was done in order to build up a basic knowledge in the chosen subject. Due
to the large amount of information available, this was also confusing and everything
almost merged.
After a while, the decision of digging deeper into a specific subject was made to avoid
this and after that making the report step by step instead of first read all, and then write
the report. This lead to a very early personal communication with people within the
aircraft operation business, as well as pilots and technicians with valuable knowledge.
After gaining contact with these people, all experts in their area of operation, a couple of
study visits were completed in the airport for this research. To achieve more detailed
information about the difference of and the products of fire detection used in this report,
more study visits were desirable. The time spent at engineers of Saudi Arabian airlines
was highly appreciated and educative, and gave the opportunity to achieve valuable
information and knowledge. It has been good to have a company name and project
behind when contacting other companies for them to understand the importance of this
work. A hard work in the making of the report has been to sort out the relevance of the
gathered information since it today overflows with material due to e.g. Internet
publications. One more difficulty in gathering information is that most of the standards
are not freely accessed, which is also why only aviation regulations from the US are
taken into consideration in this report instead of the European regulations. This should
not be a concern though since they are basically identical. The achievement was to
have as much specific information about the given subject as possible and due to time
limit and accessibility, this report should be considered as a pilot study within the
subject.
9.2Discussion
Fire protection systems for aircrafts tend to differ quite a lot. They have both emerged
from quite different safety cultures, where more work seems to have been focused on
the aviation industry. This could be due to the high vulnerability for aircrafts, they don’t
have the same possibility to stop and evacuate safely for example. The trend is however
68
that more work is put into the safety systems, fire protection included A good example is
ARGE Guideline, which has developed certain test methods for smoke detection in
specific areas as passenger areas and technical compartments.
This report is meant to focus on existing detectors in aircrafts. But with newer
technologies emerging on the market recent reports and testing have been made. It
would be
of great interest to see how these new technologies are suitable in aircrafts or other
heavy duty vehicles. SP, Technical Research Institute of Sweden is part of a project for
fire
detection and fire alarm systems in heavy duty vehicles. Facts about fire detection and
fire
alarm system in aircrafts may well be useful in these types of vehicles. They may not
look that similar by first appearance but certain areas and compartments are quite alike:
e.g.
lavatories in aircrafts. Aviation industry has introduced different classifications for cargo
compartments. These include specific requirements regarding fire protection in each
class and they also include additional tests to verify the detection system. This is also
something that could be implemented in heavy duty vehicles. The existing solutions for
fire alarm systems seem to be very up to date and reliable. These are easier to test and
testing can be done on scene or at the manufacturer. Systems might even be applicable
in all types of vehicles and it’s just a matter of opinion and cost how we want the system
designed. Some vehicle operators might have different opinions concerning alarm
management; a text display with lots of information might be confusing while operating
the vehicle whereas some might find it necessary to make justified decisions.
9.3 Further work
Down below are a few areas of interest that could be suitable for further work in this subject.
How they choose to install and test fire detection and fire suppression systems and which
manufacturers of these system they choose. It would also be interesting to compare the
different manufacturers of fire detection and fire alarm systems and compare how their test
methods are designed and performed. By the use of different standards (EU and USA) a
comparison might show some differences. Problems with the above mentioned could be due to
patent and copyright protected material. These could in turn be compared to other vehicles such
as buses and heavy duty vehicles and similarities in areas, like cockpit, drivers cab, passenger
area, engine compartment, toilets and electrical cabinets could be evaluated.
69
9.4 Conclusions
some conclusions that can be made are that standards and guidelines for the aviation
industry
have been acknowledged for a long time and the safety requirements are high in
comparison
with other automotive business.
To summarize what’s been acknowledged by working on this thesis is that most of the
wanted
parts for a satisfactory fire protection system exists on the market. Detection types,
alarm
systems, regulations and test methods are already available at a certain point. It’s just a
matter of
learning from different branches and integrates them.
70
9.5 References
Literature
1. National Transportation Safety Board. (1983). Aircraft Accident Report. Washington
D.C., USA. United States Government.
2. Bukowski, R.W. (1987). Techniques for fire detection. Center for Fire Research
National Bureau of Standards.
3. Consilium Marine & Safety AB (2012). TS1000 Fire Protection Systems for Rolling
Stock Applications . Transport Safety Division.
4. Cote, A., Grant, C., Hall, J., Solomon, R. (2008). Fire Protection Handbook, 20th
edition. Quincy, Massachusetts, USA: National Fire protection Association, Volume II,
ISBN-10:0-87765-758-0.
5. Behle, K., Standardization of False Alarm Rejection Capability Assessment.

AUBE´09
06. Freiling, A. & Willenbrock, K. Studies on the Performance of Smoke Detectors and
their housing in an Aircraft Cargo Compartment Environment. AUBE´09 Session 11,
Presentation 02.
Webpages
07. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2012). Ionization Technology. Taken from
http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/sources/smoke_ion.html 15 October 2013.
08. New York City Fire Department (2012). Study material for the certificate of fitness
for:Inspection, cleaning & testing of smoke detectors S-78 (citywide) / F-78 (premises
related). Taken from
http://www.nyc.gov/html
/fdny/pdf/cof_study_material/s78_f78_st_mat.pdf 15
October 2013.
09. Fire Safety Search. Aspirating Smoke Detectors . Taken from

http://www.firesafetysearch.
com/products/fire-detectors/aspirating-smokedetectors/
20 September 2013 References 69
10. The Fire Safety Advice Center. Fire Alarm Systems. Taken from
http://www.firesafe.org.uk/fire-alarms/ 16 September 2013.
11. National Fire Protection Association. About NFPA. Taken from
http://www.nfpa.org/about-nfpa
24 October 2013.
71
12. European Aviation Safety Agency. More about EASA. Taken from
http://easa.europa.eu/more-about-EASA.php
14. http://okigihan.blogspot.com/2017/04/aircraft-fire-protection-system.html
15. http://www.sweethaven02.com/Aviation/MaintHandbook/ama_Ch17.pdf
16. https://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Aircraft_Fire_Detection_Systems
17. https://www.faa.gov/
72

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1

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN ELECTRICAL AN ELECTRONIC

AIRCRAFT FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM

Department of Electric and Electronic Engineering

Fareast International University (FIU)

House#50, Road#11, Block#C, Banani, Dhaka-1230, Bangladesh

AIRCRAFT FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN ELECTRICAL AN ELECTRONIC

Department of Electric and Electronic Engineering

Fareast International University (FIU)

House#50, Road#11, Block#C, Banani, Dhaka-1230, Bangladesh

4.2 Heat detectors…………………………………………………………………………24-25

4.4 Gas detectors………………………………………………………………………………………..28

5.1.1Thermal Switch System…………………………………………………………………..29

5.1.6 Combination Fire and Overheat Warning……………………………………………33

5.1.7Temperature Trend Indication…………………………………………………………….34

5.1.12Support Tube Mounted Sensing Elements……………………………………………35

5.1.13Fire Detection Control Unit (Fire Detection Card)……………………………….36

5.1.14Pressure Type Sensor Responder Systems……………………………………...36

5.1.15Pneumatic Continuous-Loop Systems………………………………………………….36

5.2.1Light Refraction Type………………………………………………………………………….39

5.2.4Carbon Monoxide Detectors……………………………………………………….39, 40

5.3Extinguishing Agents and Portable Fire

5.3.2Inert Cold Gases…………………………………………………………………………41, 42

5.4.2Principals of Extinguishing Fires………………………………………………………43

6.1 Conventional or addressable……………………………………………………….46

6.2 Analog and digital systems……………………………………………………………47

7.1Fire detection and fire alarm systems in aircrafts………………………………..48

7.1.2.1 Cabin and flight deck…………………………………………………………….49

7.1.2.3 APU Fire Detection and Extinguishing System………………………………………53

7.1.2.4 Cargo compartment……………………………………………………………………….54

7.1.2.5 Wheel well………………………………………………………………………….54

7.1.2.6Lavatory Smoke Detectors………………………………………………………55

7.2 Alarm management……………………………………………………………………..56

8.1.2 FAA - Federal Aviation Administration…………………………………...59

8.1.3. FAR 25………………………………………………………………………………………59

8.2.5 Lavatory fire protection……………………………………………………………..61

8.2.6 Cargo or baggage compartments……………………………………………….61

8.2.7Cargo compartment classification………………………………………………62

8.2.8 Cargo or baggage compartment smoke or fire detection

8.2.9 Designated fire zones; regions included………………………………………64

8.3. Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA)…………………………………………………...65

8.5 European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)……………………………………..65

8.6 AUBE – International Conference on Automatic Fire Detection…….66

8.6.1 AUBE ‘09– Session11– Fire detection in aircraft, special ………………………66

9.3 Further work………………………………………………………………………………..69

Figure2. Example of how optical smoke detector works …………………………………………..22

Figure3. Example of how light obscuration detector works ……………………………………….23

Figure4. Example of how an aspirating system works……………………………………………..24

Figure5. Example of how an LHD cable is constructed ……………………………………………26

Figure6. Triple frequency IR flame detector…………………………………………………………27

Figure: 8Thermocouple fire warning circuit…………………………………………………………..30

Figure: 09 Fenwal sensing element…………………………………………………………………..32

Figure: 10 Kidde continuous-loop systems…………………………………………………………..33

Figure: 12Pneumatic dual fire/overheat detector assembly……………………………………......37

Figure: 13 Pneumatic pressure loop detector system………………………………………………38

Figure: 14 Aircraft detection system control module………………………………………………..38

Figure: 15 Infrared (IR) based optical flam detector………………………………………………...40

Figure 16: Overview of fire detection & protection placement in an aircraft………………………49

Figure17: Engine Fire Switches……………………………………………………………................50

Figure: 18. Fire switch…………………………………………………………………………50

Figure: 21 Smoke detectors in Cargo Compartment………………………………………............54

Figure: 22. Lavatory smoke detector…………………………………………………………………55