Cahiers d'Extrême-Asie

Two Recent Books on the Taoist 'Cultivation of Life' [Livia Kohn

(ed.), Taoist Meditation and Longevity Techniques; Yoshinobu
Sakade (ed.), Chūgoku kodai yōsei shisō no sōgōteki kenkyū]
Fabrizio Pregadio

Citer ce document / Cite this document :

Pregadio Fabrizio. Two Recent Books on the Taoist 'Cultivation of Life' [Livia Kohn (ed.), Taoist Meditation and Longevity
Techniques; Yoshinobu Sakade (ed.), Chūgoku kodai yōsei shisō no sōgōteki kenkyū]. In: Cahiers d'Extrême-Asie, vol. 5,
1989. Numéro spécial Etudes taoïstes II / Special Issue on Taoist Studies II en l'honneur de Maxime Kaltenmark. pp. 387-404;

https://www.persee.fr/doc/asie_0766-1177_1989_num_5_1_956

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 TWO RECENT BOOKS
ON THE TAOIST 'CULTIVATIONOF LIFE'*

Fabrizio Pregadio

Review article:

Taoist Meditation and Longevity Techniques. Ed. by Livia Kohn in cooperation with
Yoshinobu Sakade. Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, The University
of Michigan, 1989. (Michigan Monographs in Chinese Studies, 61). xii, 384
pp. N.p.
Chiigoku kodai yôsei shisô no sôgôteki kenkyû 43S"É"ft^^.S^O|fi-p"Kj9FS^
(Collected Studies on the Cultivation of Life in Ancient China). Ed. by Sakade
Yoshinobu S{f}##. Tokyo: Hirakawa Shuppansha ^FMftJKtt 1988. x, 805,
xx pp. Yen 15,000.

Articles published in the two reviewed volumes

Akahori Akira îfcM$B, "Drug Taking and Immortality," Kohn éd., pp. 73-98.
"Kanshoku-san to yôsei" B^k^it^^. (The 'Cold Food Powder'
and the Cultivation of Life), Sakade éd., pp. 116—143.
Asano Yuichi &Mfà— , "Resshi to shinsen, yôsei shisô" T^Jï^J h Ifftfl •
(Immortality and Cultivation of Life in the Lieh-tzu), Sakade éd.,
pp. 198-243.
Azuma Juji HilltZl, "Goshin-hen no naitan shisô" fiffJUflJ OfàfïMM (Internal
alchemy in the Wu-chen p'ien), Sakade éd., pp. 600-627. [English
summary in Taoist Resources 2.1 (1990): 97-98.]
Chiao Kuo-jui MM^ta (trans. Nara Yukihiro ^JsLfrilO, "Kikô yôsei-gaku to
inyô gakusetsu" il^ii^P b^M^Wi (The Cultivation of Life
through ch'i-kung and the theory of Yin and Yang), Sakade éd.,
pp. 64-79.
Despeux, Catherine, "Gymnastics: the Ancient Tradition," Kohn éd., pp.
225-261.

* Titles of texts in the Tao-tsang MM (Taoist Canon) are followed, where they first occur, by
the abbreviation 'TT' and the number assigned in the catalogue by Kristofer Schipper,
Concordance du Tao-tsang. Titres des ouvrages (Paris: Ecole Française d'Extrême-Orient, 1975). The
title of the Tûn-chi ch'i-ch'ien W&.+M (TT 1032) is abbreviated as 'YCCC
Cahiers d'Extrême- Asie 5 (1989-1990): 387-404
388 Fabrizio Pregadio

Engelhardt, Ute, "Qi for Life: Longevity in the Tang," Kohn éd., pp. 263-
296.
Fukui Fumimasa ig^Z&lJi, "Yôsei shisô ni kan suru O-Bei no kenkyu" H^.
©J^^BI^^ifc^O^F^u (European and American studies on the
Cultivation of Life), Sakade éd., pp. 628-645.
Harada Jirô IK 03111$, "Yôsei-setsu ni okeru 'sei' no gainen no tenkai" H^
fftiCJîttS Tfgj <DMit<OM^ (The concept of ching in the theory
of the Cultivation of Life and its development), Sakade éd., pp.
342-378.
Hiraki Kôhei 2F/fC02F, "Yôsei-ron ni okeru sôtaku-jutsu: Kei Ko no yôsei
shisô o megutte" #£!&£:&> tf 3 *@sëfl5—ffliOiÊH*ft<*o X
(The role of geomancy in the theory of the Cultivation of Life :
Hsi K'ang's ideas on the Cultivation of Life), Sakade éd., pp.
452-473.
Horiike Nobuo iSftil'fa^, "Kandai no shinsen yôsei-setsu, igaku to chishiki-
jin" g|ft©ip«IKlIl^£i& * lM££fclitfeÀ (The influence of the
intellectuals on the theory of Immortality and the Cultivation of Life,
and on medical thought in the Han dynasty), Sakade éd., pp.
296-321.
Igarashi Hitoshi 3£-f~JÉL— , "Isuraamu ni okeru yôsei-hô: sôrin no mai kara
sûfii senbu e" <i x 9~~ AJSLrfcjfrSg^g — ^^<DM^b^~ ? a ~~
J*g$|^\ (The methods of the Cultivation of Life in Islam : from the
Dance of the Mulberry to the Whirling of the Sufis), Sakade éd.,
pp. 751-766.
Ishida Hidemi HEH^SÏ, "Shôsoku ko" S,il# (A study on 'Breathing with
the Heels'), Sakade éd., pp. 80-115.
, "Body and Mind: the Chinese Perspective," Kohn éd., pp. 41-71.
Kaguraoka Masatoshi jff^pJU^c, "Hoboku-shi no yosei shiso"
éfe©2lS (The Cultivation of Life in the Pao-p'u tzu), Sakade éd.,
pp. 431-451.
Kohn, Livia, "Guarding the One: Concentrative Meditation in Taoism,"
Kohn éd., pp. 125-158.
, "Taoist Insight Meditation: the Tang Practice of Neiguan" Kohn
éd., pp. 193-224.
(trans. Myôjin Hiroshi §9#|^), "Dôka, Dôkyô no shimpi shugi
ni okeru eien no seimei" MM ' jH^Offi^iS^^o^t
(Eternal life in Taoist mysticism), Sakade éd., pp. 523-565.
Maeda Shigeki fjffl^lf, "Rô-shi chûkyô oboegaki" P^^-cf^J 9M (Notes on
the Lao-tzu chung-ching) , Sakade éd., pp. 474—502. [English summary
 The Cultivation of Life 389

in Taoist Resources 2.1 (1990): 98-99.]

Masuo Shin'ichirô i^MW~'W, '"Chôsei kyûshi' no hôhô to sono keifu: Nihon
kodai no chishikisô ni okeru yôsei to yakubutsu" T^^^^J Ojj
mt^OThm— ftttftOtommK-SsttZZkeLhmo (The methods
of 'longevity' and their lineage: drugs and the Cultivation of
Life among the intellectuals of ancient Japan), Sakade éd., pp.
725-750.
Miura Kunio HïS^^, "Bunjin to yôsei: Riku Yû no baai"
QWbiî (Literati and Cultivation of Life: the case of Lu Yu),
Sakade éd., pp. 379-427.
, "The Revival of Qi: Qigong in Contemporary China," Kohn éd.,
pp. 331-362.
Nakajima Ryûzô ^HEili, "Gikyô ni mieru shippei, yôsei-kan no hito-soku-
men: Tei-i kyd to sono shûhen" W&^M.X-'b&M ' S^fell^-^M®
— r$§igggj t ^OMjA (Diseases and Cultivation of Life in the
apocryphal scriptures: the T'i-wei ching and its background), Sakade
éd., pp. 649-673. [The article concerns this and other T'ien-tai
scriptures.]
Ogata Tôru JzMWt, "Sankai-kyô no 'San-kyô' ni mieru yakubutsu to chiryô"
riil?gt^J <D TtU^J K&k.2>M%jkBWt (Drugs and medical
treatments in the Shan-ching section of the Shan-hai ching), Sakade éd.,
pp. 23-44.
Ônuma Tadahiro jzfêJ&ÏL, "Renkin-jutsu no genri" $L&'$s<DMM (The
principles of alchemy), Sakade éd., pp. 777-798. [The article concerns
European alchemy.]
Robinet, Isabelle, "Original Contributions of Neidan to Taoism and Chinese
Thought," Kohn éd., pp. 297-330.
, "Visualization and Ecstatic Flight in Shangqing Taoism," Kohn
éd., pp. 159-191.
Sakade Yoshinobu $lHii£#) "Zui-Tô jidai ni okeru fukutan to naikan to
naitan" WMfâftfc-$3}ft:Z>Mfïh?i%Lk.Hft (Ingestion of elixirs,
insight meditation, and internal alchemy in the Sui and T'ang
dynasties), Sakade éd., pp. 566-599.
, "Longevity Techniques in Japan: Ancient Sources and
Contemporary Studies," Kohn éd., pp. 1—40.
, "The present state of [Japanese] research on the Cultivation of
Life in ancient China" ^M^iX^.^^WM^<DMK tMM, Sakade
éd., pp. 3-20.
Sawada Takio #EH^S-^, "Sen-Shin Kan shoki yôsei shisô no shosô" -JcMM
390 Fabrizio Pregadio
ffi (Some aspects of the Cultivation of Life in
pre-Ch'in and early Han times), Sakade éd., pp. 244-273.
Shibata Kiyotsugu ^cEHtpNH, "Shûyô to yôsei: Chûgoku kodai shisô ni okeru
sono ittai-shô" j^Mt^^.— ^S^tiSS^-W^©^!^ (The
unitary nature of Self-Cultivation and Cultivation of Life in ancient
Chinese thought), Sakade éd., pp. 175-197.
Shima Hajime $}—, "Ryoshi-shunju no yôsei shisô to sono shûhen" f
<D^k£.&ML%:<£>Mjâ (The Cultivation of Life in the Lu-shih ch'un-
ch'iu and its background), Sakade éd., pp. 274-295.
Takahashi Yôichirô Btj^fftJt— j$, "Kodai Chûgoku ni okeru yôseijutsu-teki
'nioi' no hattan" ^*W&&ft%TÊk&MÏÏl TÂJ^J ©IS (The
origins of the use of 'smell' as a means of Cultivation of Life in
ancient China), Sakade éd., pp. 144-172. [English summary in
Taoist Resources 2.1 (1990) : 99-100.]
Tanaka Fumio H^^C^, "Gorin-kuji-hishaku to yôsei shisô"
£S^StH (The Gorin-kuji-hishaku and the Cultivation of Life,"
Sakade éd., pp. 674-698. [The article concerns this and other
Shingon jf|1I" scriptures.]

Usami Kazuhiro ^p-fejlt— -flj, "Tô Chûjo kenkyû: ki oyobi yôsei no shisô kara
no apurôchi" HH+âfW^u— iSr/iÉ©Si)!)^O7 70P — ^ (A
study on Tung Chung-shu, from the point of view of his ideas on
ch'i and the Cultivation of Life), Sakade éd., pp. 322-341.
Yamada Toshiaki [ilfflflJB^, "Longevity Techniques and the Compilation of
the Lingbao wufuxu," Kohn éd., pp. 99—124.
"Shoki Reihô-kyô ni mieru yôsei shisô"
£§ (The Cultivation of Life in the early Ling-pao scriptures),
Sakade éd., pp. 503-522.
Yano Michio ^MiÉM, "Indo igaku no naka no yôsei-hô" -f V h'M
ft^fefe (The methods of the Cultivation of Life in Indian medicine),
Sakade éd., pp. 767-776.
Yoneda Kaisuke ^EflM^j "Chûgoku kodai isho chû no yakubutsu no bussan-
shiteki kôsatsu" 4IS"é"ftStf:'ttOli#;(D%^|ëËJ#^ (A study of
the areas of productions of drugs mentioned in early Chinese
medical texts), Sakade éd., pp. 45-63.
Yoritomi Motohiro MM^^z, "Mikkyô no shintai mandara-kan" ^#:O#fi
•ry/71 (The Body-Mandala in Tantric Buddhism), Sakade
éd., pp. 699-722.
 The Cultivation of Life 391
The two collections of essays reviewed here contribute to our understanding
of the vast range of texts and practices connected with the Taoist disciplines
of the Cultivation of Life {yang-sheng Jt^Ë). The contours, character and history
of this rich and multifaceted tradition are still far from clear. To begin with,
one is faced with an apparently chaotic array of techniques. Although many
are related to each other, only a clear discernment of their specific nature can
lead to an understanding of the tradition as a whole. As the yang-sheng sources
often consist of manuals outlining one or more practices, the main question
is the relationship of texts and techniques to the type of knowledge that they
reflect (this will be referred to in the present review as the level of doctrines) .
Moreover, although most disciplines for the Cultivation of Life place
themselves within Taoism, one must also consider their relation to other traditions,
especially Buddhism and medicine.
The volumes edited by Li via Kohn and by Sakade Yoshinobu i§jiJ##
provide several routes of access to this tradition. As stated in the book's preface,
the essays edited by Kohn are meant to fill a gap in the English-language
scholarship in an area dominated, at least until recently, by French and
Japanese studies. The contributions fulfill this goal and often exceed it. The articles
include both introductory outlines and studies on physiological practices,
meditation, and alchemy. Overall, there is a certain emphasis on longevity
which, although an important feature of some yang-sheng practices, is certainly
not the central element of them all.
The volume edited by Sakade Yoshinobu is the result of a two-year ( 1 985-
86) research project that involved about twenty-five scholars. Their main
purpose was to study medical and Taoist sources, but they investigated a wider
variety of topics, as shown by the articles by Masuo Shin'ichirô i|"IË#— ~J$ and
Tanaka Fumio EH ^^C M on various Japanese texts, by Yano Michio ^WMW-
on Indian medicine, by Igarashi Hitoshi 21 "HE, — on Sufism, and by Ônuma
Tadahiro ^clS^§i on European alchemy. The essays contributed by Nakajima
Ryuzo ffftllllli^j Yoritomi Motohiro MH^^ and Tanaka Fumio deal with
the Cultivation of Life in a Buddhist context. The volume is divided into five
sections: "Medicine, Pharmacology and the Cultivation of Life"; "Ancient
Chinese Thought and the Cultivation of Life"; "Taoism and the Cultivation
of Life"; "Buddhism and the Cultivation of Life"; and "The Cultivation of
Life in Japan, Islam, India and Europe."1
It would be impossible here to even summarize all of the forty-one studies in
the two books, dealing with subjects that range from the use of incense and
perfumes in the yang-sheng practices (Takahashi Yôichirô MMM~^M) to the areas
of production of minerals and plants (Yoneda Kaisuke /^EHt^^), from the
allusions to internal alchemy in the poetry of Lu Yu WtW- (Miura Kunio's Eîjlf
PUti contribution to Sakade's volume) to the pharmacological content of the
Shan-hai ching [U$5$S (Ôgata Tôru jzWîÈ.), from geomancy (Hiraki Kdhei

1) Other contributions to the project directed by Sakade have been published separately:
Emura et al. 1987; Mugitani et al. 1987; and Nakajima 1987.
 392 Fabrizio Pregadio

^/fvj^2?) to the contemporary Chinese tradition (Miura's article in Kohn's

volume, which also provides some information on recent yang-sheng studies in
China).2 In the following remarks, I will focus on articles of special relevance
to Taoist studies.
Both volumes open with a contribution by Sakade Yoshinobu, which presents
an overview of current Japanese research on the yang-sheng doctrines, practices
and texts. The Japanese article ("The present state of research on the
Cultivation of Life in ancient China") is translated in Kohn's book as the third and
final section of "Longevity Techniques in Japan: Ancient Sources and
Contemporary Studies." The two other sections of the English article deal with the
'Chapter on the Cultivation of Life' in the Ishinpô ϧjù^ (Essential Medical
Methods; A.D. 984), and with many other Japanese sources from the eleventh
to the nineteenth century. The review of modern studies on yang-sheng topics
usefully complements and updates previous essays on Taoist research in Japan.3
Among the several issues raised by Sakade, one is central to the study of the
yang-sheng tradition and Taoism as a whole, namely how does this tradition
relate to the thought reflected in the Lao-tzu ^f-J- and the Chuang-tzu ~$rf- (Kohn
éd., pp. 8-11; Sakade éd., pp. 23-25). In a debate on this question about
fifteen years ago, Fukunaga Mitsuji H/JC^b] and Mori Mikisaburô ^HfêfH
JU$ were among the scholars who maintained that the yang-sheng practices and
the so-called Lao-Chuang thought are irreconcilable. Sakade remarks however
that, in Japan, "the position that there is a strong fundamental difference
between Lao-Zhuang thought and the Taoist religion [Dôkyô :MMk in the
original Japanese].
developed." He mentions
. . became
in particular
more and the
more
works
tenuous
of Kagaas Eiji
Taoist
tïïM^îfn
scholarship
( 1 982—
83), who "interprets Lao-Zhuang thought as basically religious," and Aka-
zuka Kiyoshi ^^^ (1987), who "shows the degree to which the argumentation
of the texts of philosophical Taoism [Doha jUi?] is influenced by religious
experience." It may be added that the central role of the Lao-tzu and the
Chuang-tzu in the later yang-sheng sources — especially those of internal
alchemy— demonstrates the doctrinal and historical continuity of the yang-sheng
tradition, and breaks what Sakade calls "the spell that insisted on Lao-Zhuang
thought as a form of metaphysical philosophy."
In the volume edited by Sakade there are valuable contributions to the study
of this and related issues. Various early texts are reexamined in the light of

2) The second of Miura Kunio's contributions is a translation of his 1986 article.

3) The section on the Ishinpo reproduces parts of Sakade 1986a. The section on the later
Japanese sources is excerpted from Sakade 1986b. On Taoist studies in Japan see also Sakai
and Noguchi 1979, and Kyodo 1985. A second review article in Sakade's volume (Fukui Fumi-
masa, "European and American studies on the Cultivation of Life") is largely a summary of
Baldrian-Hussein 1984. In his extremely useful survey of Japanese sources, Sakade states that
die Nihon-koku genzai-sho mokuroku H Jf-Wi&ÇsM- @ M (Catalogue of [Chinese] texts extant in
Japan; compiled in the late ninth century by Fujiwara no Sukeyo HHCfetë:) does not list Taoist
texts. The catalogue actually mentions many of them; see Nakamura 1983: 24, and the critical
edition by Yashima GenryO (1984).
 The Cultivation of Life 393
the yang-sheng tradition, in the essays by Shima Hajime % — on the Lu-shih
ch'un-ch'iu BJ3G#&fc; Asano Yûichi Ijêif^— on the Lieh-tzu ^IHP; Usami
Kazuhiro ^fe§|— W- on the Ch'un-ch'iu fan-lu #|^îï; Kaguraoka Masatoshi
f^PJUIIc on the Pao-p'u tzu Witt ; and Horiike Nobuo Wf&^Ë^, Sawada
Takio #E0^1!f§ and Shibata Kyotsugu ^EBfiflS on a wide variety of sources
(including the Ma-wang-tui ^3E^ documents, on which see Sawada, pp. 252-
260) . Their essays continue a trend well established by Japanese scholars. As
shown in these studies, the ways and degrees to which these and other texts
deal with the Cultivation of Life vary considerably but, as a whole, they are
far from reflecting views incompatible with those of the yang-sheng tradition.
As for the practices themselves, those most studied in the two volumes are
meditation, techniques concerned with the body, and alchemy. The Japanese
study by Yamada Toshiaki UJBBflJB^ ("The Cultivation of Life in the early
Ling-pao scriptures") examines the meditation methods described in a group of
texts that he regards as recording traditions of probable Later Han origin (p.
508) . Through a close analysis of the sources— primarily the T'ai-shang ling-pao
wu-fu hsu ~J£_tMM.lLffiFp (Prolegomena to the Five Talismans of the Highest
Sacred Treasure; TT 388) and the T'ai-shang tung-hsilan ling-pao ch'ih-shu yu-
chùeh miao-ching ^±Ml&3E9iifciE3itfcl&W (Wonderful Book Containing the
Jade Instructions on the Red Script of the Highest Sacred Treasure from the
'Cavern of Mysteries' ; TT 352) — Yamada isolates three fundamental practices
in the early Ling-pao Mlf tradition : (a) the meditation on the Authentic One
(chen-i flj — , also called shou-i ^f— or Guarding the One) ; (b) the absorption
of the ch'i M, (energy) emanating from the Five Directions ; and (c) the
meditation on the Five Viscera 5lfê. All these practices use as main supports the
visualization of divinities representing the Original Unity and its apparent
differentiation into spatio-temporal, 'external' and 'internal' aspects. Yamada
quotes relevant passages from these and other texts, finding (pp. 513, 514) a
substantial similarity among the early Ling-pao meditation methods and those
described in the Huang-t'ing ching stilts (Book of the Yellow Court) and in
some passages of the T'ai-p'ing ching ^^fg (Book of Great Peace).
In his English article ("Longevity Techniques and the Compilation of the
Lingbao wufuxu"), Yamada studies another set of early Ling-pao practices:
the ingestion of vegetable drugs and the methods for the expulsion of the
Three Corpses H/3, the "agents of human mortality." The relevant sections
take up a substantial part of the current Ling-pao wu-fu hsu and are related to
two masters, Lo-tzu-ch'ang ^-f^: and Hua-tzu-ch'i ^^-$3. The sections
associated with the former (supposed to have lived in Early Han times) are
deemed by Yamada to be the oldest in the text; they are derived from the
"Highest Prolegomena to the Sacred Treasure" HJfJ^ and the "Records
on Dietary Regulations" ^ffiflg^^zè: (pp. 103, 113). Those connected to
Hua-tzu-ch'i deal with the expulsion of the Three Corpses and appear to be
of a later date, as there is no mention of this master in Lu Hsiu-ching's pÉftiffp
catalogue of the Ling-pao canons. Yamada's understanding on these and
other points is remarkable, but he does not examine the generally accepted
394 Fabrizio Pregadio
opinion that, as the title also implies, the Ling-pao wu-fu hsu was built around
the Five Talismans themselves.4 Moreover, Yamada asserts that the dietetic
practices have no religious content, and suggests that "dietetics and the
meditation methods of energy [ch'i H,] ingestion were transmitted in two independent
traditions" (p. 120). This is debatable, both because the religious nature of
dietetic techniques has been amply prcved,5 and because the differences might
be of levels of practice rather than of actual traditions. Yamada maintains
that this is one instance in which the Ling-pao tradition has woven together
different currents within yang-sheng: "The integration of these different strands
of Chinese religion is the special accomplishment" of this school, as becomes
even clearer some time later with the inclusion of Buddhist elements in the
texts of the Ling-pao Canon proper.
In his study of the Lao-tzu chung-ching ^pffaii (Central Book of Lao-tzu;
TT 1170 and YCCC, ch. 18-19) Maeda Shigeki lufflUfêf takes a position
close to Yamada's on the similarity of meditation techniques in early texts.
Maeda first presents a review of the visualization practices described in the
Pao-p'u tzu, the Huang-t'ing ching, the Ling-pao wu-fu hsu and other works.6
Then he devotes several pages to the main gods that are specific objects of
meditation in the Lao-tzu chung-ching: the Great One ^c— (rather, what he
calls "the family of the Great One" as this god representing the primordial
Unity is visualized in multiple aspects and in various parts of the body), the
King Father of the East ^£5£ and the Queen Mother of the West Hïf,
and the Authentic Vermilion Child MA^^"- The Vermilion Child is the main
divinity of the Lao-tzu chung-ching, but also appears in both the Huang-t'ing
ching and the Ling-pao wu-fu hsu. Residing in the spleen— the center of the Five
Viscera and of the inner body — he represents the inner self of the adept; cos-
mologically, he corresponds on the interior plane to what Lao-chun ^H" is
in the macrocosm. Whereas Kristofer Schipper has tentatively dated the Lao-
tzu chung-ching to the third century A.D.,7 Maeda — who is aware of Schipper's
study — concludes his article by cautiously suggesting that although the text
may be based on traditions dating from that time, its final compilation
probably did not take place until about two centuries later.
The visualization methods described in the above-mentioned texts are
accompanied by a number of other practices. While the details (the names,
features, and placements of the various gods) are different, the practices are
all based on the same conception of the inner body, and are described in a
uniform language. Two articles deal with the concepts pertaining to the
inner body. Drawing on an impressive array of medical and Taoist texts,

4) See Kaltenmark 1982.

5) See Lévi 1983.
6) Maeda also touches on the relationship of the early meditation manuals with the ch'en-wei
||f# texts (pp. 478-79), examined more closely by Yamada Toshiaki in the second of his two
articles referred to above, and especially in one of his other studies (1984) on the Ling-pao wu-fu
hsu.
7) See Schipper 1979:77.
 The Cultivation of Life 395
Harada Jirô HCBneP ("The concept of ching in the theory of the Cultivation
of Life and its development") examines the terms for the basic constituents
of the macrocosm and the microcosm— ching M, ch'i ^,, and shen |f — and the
way ching is related in medical and Taoist texts to the other terms of the triad
as well as to the body. The English contribution by Ishida Hidemi SES^Jf
("Body and Mind: the Chinese Perspective") concerns a topic of great import
for the understanding of the yang-sheng doctrines. His arguments are, however,
not always easy to follow, partly because of the difficulty of rendering their
subtleties in a different language, and because of the nearly complete absence
of Chinese characters for the dozens of technical terms mentioned only in
translation. In a footnote (p. 41 n. 2) that I could not find in the original
Japanese version,8 the mind is defined as including "all conscious feeling,
thinking, and willing, the subconscious and the unconscious, and also the deep
underlying level of pure spiritual energy (spirit)." This resembles more closely
the modern meaning of 'mind' rather than the traditional Chinese concept
of hsin j(j>. According to the Kuan-tzu ^-jp, the Huai-nan tzu ^l^hf1 and other
texts, this mind pervades the entire body, literally being moved through it by
the "body fluids" (seiki or ching-ch'i 1^M. in the original Japanese) and the
blood. The main agents of its movement, as is better seen in the medical
classics, are the Will (shi or chih ~j£) and the Intention (i it). The mind usually
relates to the body by the focusing of the spirit (here meant as the conscious
aspect of the mind) over particular spots, thus creating sense perceptions. The
purpose of some yang-sheng practices is, instead, to make its flow within the
body as continuous and unobstructed as possible. This flow occurs through
the same channels and nodal points of the body that are acted upon in
acupuncture in order to allow the free circulation of ch'i .
Similar concepts underlie both the theories of classical medicine and, in
various ways, the techniques of breathing, ch'i-kung M,^J and tao-yin Ijli?!-9
Several articles in the two volumes are devoted to these practices and to the
conception of the cosmos and the human body on which they are based. Chiao
Kuo-jui's M^tfla study ("The Cultivation of Life through ch'i-kung and the
theory of Yin and Yang," translated into Japanese for Sakade's volume) makes
it clear that the basic concepts of ch'i-kung can be expressed in the formalized
language of the Five Phases (wu-hsing j&fj) and the finer subdivisions of the
of the spatio-temporal cycles in the standard Chinese cosmological theory. In
a very thorough three-part analysis, Ishida Hidemi's Japanese contribution
("A Study on 'Breathing with the Heels'") examines the practice hinted at

8) Ishida's study is a translation of parts of the second chapter (pp. 93-139) of his valuable
book on the body as seen in the medical and Taoist traditions (1987).
9) For the present purposes, 'classical medicine' refers to the type of medical theories found
in the texts of the Huang-ti nei-ching H'SfpJiiS (Inner Canon of the Yellow Emperor) corpus and
the healing methods derived from them— for example, acupuncture— as distinct from methods
based on ritual practices of any sort. For a detailed and reliable description of these theories
see the "Introductory Study" in Sivin 1987, in particular pp. 43-94 ("Theoretical Concepts"),
and 117-171 ("Contents of the Body").
 396 Fabrizio Pregadio

in the enigmatic passage of the Chuang-tzu: "The Realized Man breathes with
his heels, the common man breathes with his throat" fK.yK'£.Ê>£XM, ^Àè.
/im^-10 First Ishida examines various sources to show that the expression
chung-hsi HJH, is not mere metaphor, but signifies the circulation of one's breath
down to the heels between inhaling and exhaling (hsing-ch'i fj|R or 'circulating
the ch'i') . One of the texts analyzed is the famous 'Inscription on the circulation
of ch'i' fjM*=E-M§& dating from the fourth century B.C. Interestingly, Ishida
resorts to the Lao-tzu to explain some of its key terms. Next, he describes the
theory of respiration in classical Chinese medicine, showing how chung-hsi is
related to the later notion of the four ch'i-chieh HHf ('ch'i thoroughfares') in the
head, the chest, the abdomen, and the feet. In the third part he examines other
breathing techniques: in particular those expounded in the writings of the
patriarch of T'ien-t'ai ^cft Buddhism, Chih-i fëfë (538-597), and the Taoist
'embryonic breathing' (t'ai-hsi IfèJË.)-
The practice of tao-yin is studied by Catherine Despeux in her "Gymnastics:
the Ancient Tradition." She provides an overview of the sources from the
Han to the T'ang and an outline of the main aspects of the techniques:
positions of the body, movements, and breathing. The last is an essential feature
in tao-yin, since breath is, together with blood (hsueh jfil), the main agent of the
circulation of ch'i in the human body. In addition, Despeux calls attention
to several other points. Tao-yin is in part an heir to ancient exorcistic practices
(especially "shamanistic" dances) performed in order to expel noxious
influences. The Crane Dance fllf (conferring command over death, as Marcel
Granet has shown) and the bear- like Pace of Yii |S|^, for example, are related
to some tao-yin exercises (pp. 23 7-240). n Moreover, some of these exercises
are used for healing purposes as well as for the Cultivation of Life. One of the
main sources on tao-yin is in fact the Chu-ping yûan-hou lun WiffîWs&knû (Treatise
on the Origins and Symptoms of Diseases; A.D. 610), in which bodily
movements are prescribed to heal a variety of illnesses together with vegetable
drugs, acupuncture and moxibustion (pp. 236-237 and 244-245). Finally,
Despeux reminds us that "whenever they are arranged in a hierarchical
fashion, gymnastics rank rather on the low side of the scale" among the various
techniques for the Cultivation of Life (p. 245; see also pp. 258-259).
Ute Engelhardt's "Qi for Life: Longevity in the Tang" concerns two texts
dealing primarily with practices of absorbing ch'i: the Fu-ch'i ching-i lun flS^fjf
jtgjflj (Treatise on the Essential Meaning of the Ingestion of Ch'i; YCCC, ch.
57; TT 830 and 277, where it is split in two parts), and the She-yang chen-chung
fang M^fà^J] (Pillowbook of Methods for the Cultivation of Life; YCCC,
ch. 33; different version in TT 837). Their respective authors, Ssu-ma Ch'eng-
chen WJIiJlcfit (647-735) and Sun Ssu-mo $k}§*M (seventh century), are said
to have shared "a certain concern about the higher religious or spiritual
development of human beings" (p. 270). After useful summaries of both works,

10) Chuang-tzu, 15/6/6-7 in the edition- of the Harvard- Yenching Concordance.

1 1 ) On these and related points see also Harper 1985.
 The Cultivation of Life 397
Engelhardt compares the two texts, maintaining that, in doing so, "one can
understand the basic concerns and concepts of Taoist thought of the time"
(p. 290). She finds that Sun Ssu-mo, "the famous physician, places primary
emphasis on mental discipline," while Ssu-ma Ch'eng-chen, "the Taoist master,
concentrates most strongly on the medical and physical aspects of the
undertaking." In her opinion, the two texts therefore "show two fundamentally
different approaches to the techniques of nourishing life" (pp. 291 and 293).
This may simply reflect the necessity, felt by the respective authors, of
reminding their readers that yang-sheng includes aspects beyond medicine in one case,
and in the other that the body enjoys an important role in the practices.
The whole argument is, however, somewhat weakened by Engelhardt's remark
that Sun Ssu-mo's work "has come down to us only in fragments and with
numerous later interpolations and distortions. It is impossible to define the
main concerns of the original text conclusively" (p. 294).
Together with the details that they provide on techniques, the sources studied
by Despeux and Engelhardt present tao-yin and the absorption of ch'i within
a complex of other practices and rules, including some of a medical nature
and some of an ethical nature. These range from diet to the intake of medicines,
from ritual interdictions to the abstention from cereals, from the ingestion of
talismans to the meditation on the One, from propriety of language to the
healing of diseases. As far as the texts are concerned, this suggests that they
were, on the whole, introductory manuals for a beginning adept. The
techniques themselves, however, were probably used at later stages as well, due to
the benefits they afforded the adept whatever his main practice. The
associations of the yang-sheng tradition with medicine are not surprising; on the
contrary, I would suggest that it would be more interesting to pursue Henri
Maspero's line of enquiry and examine how the means and ends of the yang-
sheng disciplines (including internal alchemy) differ from those of the physicians,
especially in regard to the notions of the 'inner body.'12
Three articles in the volume edited by Livia Kohn deal specifically with
;

meditation practices. Isabelle Robinet, in "Visualization and Ecstatic Flight

in Shangqing Taoism," examines some methods adopted by this tradition,
which, as we know mainly through her own studies, accorded meditation an
especially high status. The source material she surveys has been treated in
more detail elsewhere,13 but some themes common to the Shang-ch'ing _hfpf
meditations are discussed very perceptively in the final part of the article : the
return to the original state through labyrinthine routes, the redoubling of
images with matching outer and inner counterparts, the opening of 'slots' into
the flow of common experience that grant the exit into sacred time and space,
and the resolution of duality into Oneness. The meditations themselves are
centered around visionary excursions to the far ends of the world, the Sun and
12) See "Les procédés de nourrir le principe vital dans la religion taoïste ancienne" (1937),
484-495 in Maspero 1971 (English trans., pp. 448-459).
13) Most of this study is a summary and a translation of chapters 8 and 9 in Robinet 1979.
The same material had been analyzed with more emphasis on the sources in Robinet 1976.
398 Fabrizio Pregadio

the Moon, and the Dipper. Robinet is aware that all this "is essentially a
representation" (p. 190), a point that requires close attention in studies on
some yang-sheng disciplines. Since the meaning of the French word représentation
is difficult to convey in English, it is best to quote her remarks : "Taoist
meditation takes place in an intermediary world, in a world of images. . . This world
lies between the unfathomable hidden mystery and the world of animated
physical forms. It is not yet the realm of the unknowable. . . Nor is it any
longer the world of sensual and solidified realities" (p. 160). The focal images
of meditation hold, therefore, a double status : they are the highest form of
expression of the "hidden mystery" among those bound to language but are,
at the same time, temporary in their function of supports to approach it.
A deified Original Unity plays a similar role of heuristic support in the
practice of shou-i ^-^ ('Guarding the One'). Livia Kohn refers to a wide and
heterogeneous range of materials bearing on this subject in her "Guarding the
One: Concentrative Meditation in Taoism." She discusses the 'philosophical'
notion of the One and its image as a personified god (T'ai-i ;fc^), describes
the relevant meditation practices (sometimes concentrated on the multiple
aspects of the One, the Three Ones or Three-in-One H— ), and briefly outlines
the main points of each. She remarks (pp. 126 and 193) that the practice of
Guarding the One is closer to concentrative meditation than to insight
meditation (i.e., closer to samatha than to vipasyana).
Insight meditation is the theme of Kohn's second article, "Taoist Insight
Meditation: the Tang Practice of Neiguan." This study is based on a translation
of the anonymous Nei-kuan ching F*9Ht2 (Scripture on Inner Observation; TT
641 and YGCC, ch. 17), a short work that expounds the general principles
of meditative introspection. According to Kohn, this text and related sources
have links with the tradition of the Lao-tzu and the Chuang-tzu and also borrow
terminology (perhaps doctrines as well, though, I suggest, distinctions are not
always easily made here) from Buddhism. In a third essay, translated into
Japanese for Sakade's volume ("Eternal life in Taoist mysticism"), Kohn
reexamines the Nei-kuan ching and other texts — in particular the Hsi-sheng
ching Ë5#H (Book of the Western Ascension; TT 726 and 666)— and discusses
the doctrines of immortality that they expound.
The position of alchemy within the practices of the Cultivation of Life is
discussed in several articles in both volumes. Ishida Hidemi remarks in his
"Study on 'Breathing with the Heels'" (pp. 112-113) that the breathing
techniques paved the way for nei-tan p*gff (internal alchemy). This point is dealt
with in more detail by Sakade Yoshinobu in his "Ingestion of elixirs, insight
meditation, and internal alchemy in the Sui and T'ang dynasties." Sakade
argues that the shift from wai-tan fy\-f\ (external alchemy) to nei-tan cannot be
attributed entirely to the cases of elixir poisoning. He suggests that earlier yang-
sheng practices should also be considered: the compounding of the elixir in
one's inner body involves various techniques, one of which is insight
meditation. Sakade provides an overview of meditation techniques described in
various texts: Hsûn Yùeh's ^fô (148-209) Shen-chien E^g£, the T'ai-p'ing ching,
 The Cultivation of Life 399

the Huang-t'ing ching, T'ao Hung-ching's yfàfêhM Teng-chen yin-chueh H

(Secret Instructions for the Ascent to Perfection), as well the works of Chih-i
and two medical texts, the above-mentioned Chu-ping yuan-hou lun and Sun
Ssu-mo's Ch'ien-chin yao-fang ^^feU^ (Essential Methods Worth a Thousand
Pieces of Gold) . Sakade calls attention to two facts relevant for the study ol
nei-tan (pp. 586-588) : (1) The earliest occurrence of the term nei-tan is found
in a text by Chih-i's master, Hui-ssu MM (514-577); the fact that Mount
T'ien-t'ai was also a center of Taoist practice may help to explain the
similarities in the meditation techniques of the two traditions (but cf. pp. 164, 169, and
264 in this volume of Cahiers d'Extrême- Asie). (2) The earliest known reference
to a nei-tan practice is a passage (attributed to Su Yùan-lang M7tê$, a semi-
legendary character said to have lived at the end of the sixth century) , that
states that the essential alchemical method is the meditation on the pa-ching
Am ('eight effulgences', points of light in the inner body), rather than the
ingestion of elixirs.14
Sakade's study thus provides important material for the historical study of
the shift from wai-tan to nei-tan, but other aspects should not be neglected.
Isabelle Robinet and Michel Strickmann have shown that the earliest stages
of this shift may be observed in some texts of the original Shang-ch'ing
revelations (second half of the fourth century).15 Moreover, in his "Internal alchemy
in the Wu-chen p'ien fê1$M" Azuma Jûji HlfJÏZl calls attention to a passage
from the preface of this early Sung work (one of the main texts of the nei-tan
tradition) that enumerates and rejects a dozen different yang-sheng practices
(p. 609). Among the practices mentioned are breathing, meditation, and the
ingestion of elixirs, all important yang-sheng techniques. This and similar
statements may be read in two ways: while they are meant, on the one hand, to
promote the superiority of one teaching over others, they also imply that the
essence of a discipline does not lie in its practices.
This is even more true of the language which texts of different traditions,
including nei-tan, adopt in order to describe their practices and hint at the
doctrines. Isabelle Robinet ("Original Contributions of Neidan to Taoism and
Chinese Thought") maintains that the role of the intellect is the new element
brought by nei-tan into the yang-sheng tradition. Internal alchemy is partly the
heir of earlier yang-sheng practices, but it arose at a time when Taoism, faced
with Buddhism, "had not much of a path to offer to all those more given to
intellectual speculation, to all those for whom the ecstatic visions practiced
especially in the Shangqing tradition were not satisfactory" (p. 299). However,
she also points out that internal alchemy "employs many techniques in order
to use language and at the same time abuse it by overstepping it and twisting it
about" (p. 308). If this is true, then not much understanding of the alchemical
doctrines can be achieved by elaborating on the language of cosmology and
its 'philosophical' aspects. Robinet's approach can lead one to over-emphasize

14) On the 'eight effulgences' see Kaltenmark 1969.

15) See Strickmann 1979: 169-178, and Robinet 1984: I, 176-180.
400 Fabrizio Pregadio
the role of "intellectual comprehension" in a doctrine that, as Robinet herself
writes referring to Tan-yang tzu f$W>°F (Ma Yu Jg|$£, 1123-1183) and Li
Tao-ch'un ^JUM (late thirteenth century), "is nothing but metaphors" and
ultimately requires its adepts to abandon them and return to "true emptiness"
(pp. 302, 321). The language of cosmology might better be considered, in both
the nei-tan and the wai-tan texts, as one of several possible modes of expressing
the doctrines that they reflect.
Akahori Akira ^fflBg emphasizes in his English contribution ("Drug Taking
and Immortality") the relationship of wai-tan (external alchemy) to medicine
and pharmacology: the compounding of the elixirs is seen as one example of the
general shift from the use of crude to compound drugs. In Akahori's words,
"from the third century onward, the cinnabar elixir [tan fY] became a
substitute for the crude drugs used during the Han. This may have to do with
the fact that people experimented with crude drugs and found that they did
not actually turn human beings into immortals" (pp. 90-92). Whether or not
things were that simple, a much more important element to consider is the
opus that the alchemist achieves using the base ingredients. As shown by some
of the oldest extant wai-tan sources (not referred to by Akahori, who draws
only on the alchemical texts and methods quoted or summarized in the Pao-p'u
tzu) , the central feature of the wai-tan practice consists of bringing the
ingredients back to their state of prima materia (ching fj|, or 'essence'). The whole
process, described in these texts with no reference whatsoever to cosmological
theories, is a support for contemplation and interiorization : the coagulation
of the pure essences of the ingredients in the crucible is analogous to the
formation of the Divine Embryo in the inner body of the nei-tan adept. This is
only one of the many common basic themes that unite wai-tan and nei-tan.
Whether explicitly or implicitly, the articles selected here for discussion
highlight several important points. As Robinet writes referring to the nei-tan
writings of Li Tao-ch'un, the practices are "only made for teaching purposes"
(p. 321). This brings us back to the question of the relationship between the
essential points of a discipline and its techniques. It further suggests that a
fruitful way to proceed is by keeping the levels of practice, language, and
doctrines distinct, observing their interaction in the respective disciplines.
It may thus become apparent that a central common feature is the doctrine
of the return to one's original nature, expressed in different ways and
approached by different practices. As a guideline for the study of the yang-sheng
tradition this allows one to consider the historical development of the yang-
sheng tradition and its various disciplines as a series of changes in technique
and language. The doctrinal level per se— the plane of knowledge to which
the various disciplines provide access — underwent no alteration. Within the
alchemical tradition, for example, a series of shifts takes place with the
inclusion of'wai-tan texts in the Shang-ch'ing corpus from the end of the fourth
century, the proliferation of texts based on the Chou-i ts'an-t'ung-ch'i M^^-MM
from the beginning of the T'ang (when the language of cosmology first appears
in the alchemical works), and the rise of the nei-tan discipline around the end
 The Cultivation of Life 401
of the same period. Beneath the different languages and methods, however,
one can detect the same central concern.
The notion of 'return' {fan 5g, huan M) is not only pertinent to internal
alchemy. In the wai-tan texts it is reflected in methods aimed at liberating the
pure essences of the ingredients (hence the term huan-tan Mff, 'Returned
Elixir', or better 'Elixir of Return'). The ingredients, the crucible, and the
other instruments used are, from this point of view, mere supports for the
practice. The same applies to the meditation techniques. Shou-i, for example, is a
general term defining both a condition and a practice in which the Tao is
preserved in its aspect of original and undifferentiated unity, before its
separation into the principles of Yin and Yang and into the Ten Thousand Things. As
a practice, 'Guarding the One' allows the adept to return to that primordial
condition, and preserve it. The same notion, alluded to in yet a different
language, is one of the basic doctrines underlying the classic texts of Taoism.
From this perspective, it may also be easier to ascertain what level of
practice is the object of the various disciplines within yang-sheng, a point bearing
on the study of their relationship to the medical traditions. Despeux's study
clearly shows that tao-yin should be placed, in an ideal classification of the
various yang-sheng techniques, in one of the earliest stages. It is certain that,
due to its therapeutic benefits, this practice reached beyond the circles of
initiated adepts; this may explain why its exercises are also recommended in
medical texts. This is not the case, as far as I know, in other disciplines. Methods
drawn from wai-tan alchemical texts, for example, may be quoted in the
pharmacopoeias— they are, in fact, since the Sung period — but they are stripped
of the framework necessary for them to be performed as part of a complete
alchemical practice.
Livia Kohn and Sakade Yoshinobu have accomplished a significant task
by making available these two collections of essays. Kohn's book as a whole
might have benefited by a greater editorial consistency, and by more attention
to details: for example a more liberal use of Chinese characters, especially
in quotations and footnotes. However, she is to be congratulated in many
ways, not least for having made the Japanese and French studies translated
into English accessible to a wider readership. The variety of contents make
Sakade's volume, like many Japanese works of its kind, into a treasure-house
for those who know what to look for in it. Both books add to our knowledge
of Taoism, and will be useful to students of Buddhism and of the history of
medicine as well.

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Baldrian-Hussein, Farzeen. 1984. Procédés secrets du Joyau magique. Traité
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Ishida Hidemi £j!B^Jt. 1987. Ki— Nagareru shintai it, — §!Ux £ #11 (Ch'i:
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