Determining Compost Maturity

Incompletely decomposed compost may harm plants because it generates heat

when applied to the soil due to resumption of decomposition. Raw organic material that
has still high C/N ratio will cause N immobilization and cause temporary N deficiency in
growing plants. Also, phytotoxic compounds may be released which could adversely
affect plants. It has been suggested that the upper limit of C/N ratio of organic
materials for application to soil is 20. Immature cellulosic compost applied to paddy
soil can cause violent reduction releasing organic acids and toxins, which rice
seedlings cannot tolerate.
Several parameters available can be used as indicators of compost maturity.
These include temperature, odor, texture, C/N ratio, pH value, gas production, CEC,
level of ammonium, nitrate and immobilized nitrogen, total organic carbon, level of
hydrogen sulfide, polysaccharide analysis, adenosine triphosphate measurements,
chromatographic tests (after extraction of humic components), polymerization of humic
substances, hydrolase activity, respiratory activity test, behavior of earthworms, and
phytotoxicity test (germination and growth tests). These parameters/indicators of
compost maturity are listed in Table 9. Respirometry measures respiratory activity as
the compost matures through oxygen uptake or carbon dioxide emission as the
compost matures respiratory activity drops. Compost with a respirometer value of <
2.4 shows a low respiration, hence considered as mature while a value of 2.7 indicates
that the material is still highly degradable and
therefore not yet mature and will stunt plant growth if used.
Chemical changes also indicate degree of maturity of compost. Biochemical
components of organic materials generally undergo transformations into more stable
compounds. Total organic carbon and easily degradable components decrease. On
the other hand, nitrogen concentration increases thus narrowing the C/N ratio as the
compost ages.
For urban compost, organic matter/nitrogen (OM/N) ratio may also be used as an
indicator of maturity. Matured urban compost has an OM/ N ratio of < 50. The C/N
ratio of urban compost drops to a more or less stable ratio in 120 days. After 240
days, the C/N ratio no longer drops drastically from a C/N ratio of about 15. In Taiwan,
it has been found that the C/N of compost made up of chicken manure, swine manure,
soybean cake, and used mushroom growth medium decreased from 30 to 15. After
composting, it was found out that swine manure contained 2.8% N, 1.7% P2O5, 0.23%
K2O, 86% OM, 249 mg/kg Zn,
and 140 mg/kg Cu.
Tobacco leaves have a high content of nitrogen (3.50%), potassium (2.54%),
calcium (2.49%) and magnesium (1.02%) and low C/N ratio but have high nicotine
content. This high nicotine content decreases upon composting. In composting
corncob that has a high C/N ratio, total carbon and C/N ratio decrease but the bulk
density, water holding capacity, level of crude ash, and total nitrogen increase (Chung
et al. 1993).
As compost matures, the nitrate content increases. Harada et al. (1984) reported
that the nitrate in the water extract from composted cattle manure can be used as an
indicator of maturity, but not of swine and poultry manure. The nitrate is detected by
reacting the extract with a solution of diphenylamine dissolved in sulfuric acid
producing a blue color.
Organic matter has also been shown to decrease and stabilize as the compost
matures. It has been reported that swine manure and cattle manure take 3–4 weeks to
become stable while chicken manure takes

Table 9. Parameters/indicators of compost maturity.

Parameter Condition of Stability Fermentation condition

Temperature Stable
 pH Alkali (anaerobic, 55oC, 24h)
Microscopy
Direct count Biomass
Image analysis Biomass, residue
Microbes Decreases, stable (thermophilic) Composition
COD COD <700 mg/g dry compost
Soluble COD Stable
Soluble BOD Stable
C/N ratio < 20
Initial N/final N < 0.75
TOC/TON in aqueous 5–6
Immobilized nitrogen < 1.56% (dry weight basis)
ATP decrease, then stable
Ash increase, then stable
Microbial or enzyme activity
Respiration rate < 10 mg/g compost (7 days)
Color < 7.5 mg/g compost (7 days)
Odor darkish brown, 1<Y<13
Headspace gas earthy
NO2 -/NO3 - stable
Reductant nitrification start
Organic acid disappear
Sugar
Easy hydrolyze 30–50 mg glucosides/g weight Polysaccharides <
35%
Reducing sugar/total sugar I.D.* < 2.4 stable, while I.D. < 27 Total organic carbon-
soluble
sugar-fermentation Unstable time
Humic substances
Humic carbon/total carbon > 5%
Alkali soluble humic substance > 110 mg/g total organic substance Filter paper method
dark in center, light in surround
and irregular margin
UV spectrophotometry absorbance of alkali extract is
Gel chromatography stable, high molecular weight

Table 9. (Continued).

Parameter Condition of Stability

Near infrared spectroscopy Correlating to total carbon, total

Cation exchange capacity
very slow, and stable Bioassay
Germination test
nitrogen, ash, cellulose, hemicellulose, CEC, and lignin
contents, and germination index
> 60 meq/100 g ash free matter Hydrolase Increase
G.I.** > 50

* I.D. = 3.166-(0.01 AGE) + (0.059 TOC) + (0.8322 PHs), = AGE =

Day of fermentation, TOC = Total organic carbon, PHs = Hot water soluble sugar.
** G.I. = Germination index.
Source: Yang 1997.

only 2 weeks, indicating that poultry wastes are more easily decomposed than cattle
and swine wastes. Changes in chemical composition slow down and level off in about
5 weeks. During composting of cattle wastes, the hemicellulose and cellulose content
decrease rapidly until after 5 weeks after which only slight change occur. Lignin
content increases gradually until composting ends.
For urban compost, the stabilization of polysaccharide content has been used as
an indicator of the composting progress. At the start of composting, the simple
polysaccharide content of urban waste is 20% of the total organic material. In 240
days, this drops from only 4–10%. Water-soluble sugars, consisting of mono- or
disaccharides, are degraded faster than the hydrolyzable sugars.
The ash content in relation to the total weight of the substrate also increases as the
compost matures.
 Stoffel et al. (1997) reported changes in the concentration of chemical elements
and volatile fatty acids as compost ages. In general, the concentration of C, N, P, K,
Ca, Mg, F, Cd, Cu, Mn, Pb, Ni, and Zn increases as the compost matures (Table 10).
The C/N ratio decreased from 32 to 21 but there were only slight changes in pH and
EC. On the other hand, concentration of acetic, propionic, isobutyric, butyric,
isovaleric, and valeric acids decrease drastically.
Harada (1995) summarized the various methods and indices for determining the
degree of maturity of composts. These include biological, physical, and chemical
estimations and estimations based on microbial activity and humic substances. These
were methods suggested by numerous investigators since the early 1970s to the
1990s.

A. Estimation based on microbial activity

1) Biochemical oxygen demand
2) Chemical oxygen demand
3) Enzymatic activity

B. Biological estimation
1) Germination test
2) Seeding experiment
3) Pollen tube culture

C. Physical estimation
1) Temperature in pile
2) Odor emission
3) Color change

D. Chemical estimation
1) C/N ratio of solid phase
2) C/N ratio of water extract
3) Ratio of reducing sugars to T-C
4) Detection of nitrate
5) Absence of ammonia
6) Gel chromatography of water extract
7) Cation-exchange capacity

E. Estimation based on humic substances

1) Circular paper chromatography test
2) Content of humic compounds

F. Synthetic estimation
1) Examination marks
2) Near infrared spectroscopy analysis

Table 10. Analysis of compost at varying maturities.

Characteristics Compost age 3 days 4

weeks 8 weeks Mature

% dry weight
C 37.1 39.1 35.7 34.3
N 1.15 1.23 1.20 1.60
P 0.24 0.29 0.27 0.32
K 0.28 0.30 0.31 0.31
Ca 2.04 2.18 2.37 3.10
Mg 0.20 0.23 0.27 0.32
Fe 0.77 0.92 0.98 1.15
ppm
 Based on the knowledge that certain organisms attack specific organic
substances, many investigators have isolated and made pure cultures of such
organisms to inoculate and speed up the decay of compost piles. In the Philippines,
Cuevas (1997) reported that inoculation of straw-based compost pile with the fungi
Trichoderma harzianum shortened the composting time to less than half of that of
traditional methods. The fungus is cultured in a medium of sawdust and leguminous
leaves and is broadcast over the layer of rice straw at a proportion of 1% of the
substrate or 1 kg of the activator per 100 kg of substrate. This fungus activator was
tested on various mixtures of organic materials and found that the maturing period
ranges from 22 to 42 days (Table 11).

Table 11. Maturing period and composition of compost from different materials using rapid
composting technology.
Composition
Total Final
Materials pH of Maturing Total Total Phos- Total C/N (ratio) Mature Period
Carbon Nitrogen phorus Potass-
Compost (days) (%) (%) (%) ium (%)
A. Rice straw as 8.4 28 29.5 2.5 1.0 3.7 12:1
main substrate
Rice straw (3)
+ Ipil-ipil*
leaves (1)
Rice straw (3) 8.1 22 30.0 3.0 1.6 1.6 10:1
+ chicken
manure
(1)
Rice straw (3) 8 .1 22 30.0 2.6 3.5 3.6 12:1
+ chicken
manure** (1)
Rice straw (3) 6.8 1.0 1.0 1.1
+ chicken
manure
(1)
B. Grasses as main
substrate
Para grass (1) 7.2 35 31.0 2.1 0.3 1.0 15:1
+Manila
grass (1)
+ Imperata
(1) (cogon)
grass
+ Ipil-ipil
leaves
 (1)
Guinea grass (1) 7.1 32 45.5 2.5 0.1 2.3 18:1
+Para grass (1)
+ Baging ilog (1)
+ Imperata
(1) (cogon)
grass
Carabao grass (1) 7.4 32 36.0 4.0 1.0 4.5 9:1
+ Baging ilog (1)
+ Imperata (1)
(cogon) grass
and Napier
grass
C. Sugarcane bagasse as main substrate
Bagasse (2) 7.2 42 17.0 1.3 1.3 2.0 13:1
+ animal
manure (1)
Average 7.6 32. 31.4 2.6 1.3 2.7 13:1
2
*Ipil-ipil = Leucaena leucocephala (leguminous tree) (Ed.).
**Composted in farmer’s field, Majayjay, Laguna.
Source: Cuevas and Agarrado 1987.

Early Composting Technique

Widely diverse techniques and methods of composting have been developed and
practiced in various countries for over 50 years since the first systematic composting
of organic materials was demonstrated by Howard at Indore in India in 1924–1926.
The method became known as Indore method of composting. The organic materials
used were weeds, stalks, leaves, and prunings. The plant materials were mixed with
animal dung, soil, and wood ash with the woody materials not exceeding 10% of the
total plant residues. The mixture was placed as beddings of cattle overnight before
putting in the composting site. This process was done by either pit or heap method.
The pit was about 1-m depth, 2-m wide. It had unspecified length and protected
from rainfall by a shed. It was built in an elevated site near the cattle shed and water
source. The organic material was then stacked in the pit in 10- to 15- cm layers. Each
layer was spread with a slurry of
4.5 kg dung, 3.5 kg urine-earth mixture, and 4.5 kg inoculum from a 15-day old
composting pit. Sufficient water was sprinkled. The material was turned two times at
15-day interval and then 1 month later. The material was mixed thoroughly and
moistened at each turning.
In the heap method, the materials were piled above ground under a shed to a
dimension of about 2 m at the base, 1.5 m high and 2 m long. The first layer of the
heap was made up of high-carbon materials such as straw, sawdust, woodchips,
chopped corn stalks, and leaves. This layer was then followed by 10 cm of nitrogen-
rich materials like grass (or legume-like sun hemp) manure or digested sewage
sludge. The piling of the two layers was repeated until a height of 1.5 m was reached.
The pile was moistened, sometimes covered with soil or hay (or plastic) to retain heat
and turned at 6-week and later 12-week intervals. The composting time was for a few
months.
At about the same time, another method was developed at Bangalore in India,
called Bangalore method. The method used night soil and garbage and was suitable in
low rainfall areas but took longer due to the anaerobic condition.
The pit of unspecified dimensions was stacked with organic residues and night soil
alternately then covered with a 15- to 20-cm layer of refuse. The pit was left
undisturbed (without turning and watering) for 3 months. The piles subside and
decrease in volume as additional night soil and refuse were placed and covered with
mud or earth to prevent evaporation of water and infestation with flies.

The initial composting period was aerobic (8–10 days) then later became
anaerobic. Thus composting took 6–8 months to complete.