IAEA Guide to Individual Dose Assessment

International Atomic Energy Agency
ASSESSMENT OF OCCUPATIONAL
EXPOSURE DUE TO INTAKE OF
RADIONUCLIDES
Individual Dose Assessment

Individual Dose Assessment – Unit
Objectives
The objective of this unit is to provide an
overview of the use monitoring measurement to
assess the exposure from internally deposited
radionuclides. It includes a discussion of the use
of material and individual specific data to
improve dose estimates, and the role of task and
special monitoring in assessment of internal
exposure.
At the completion of the unit, the student should
understand the principles involved in dose
assessment, and how to apply these principles.
Individual Dose Assessment – Unit Outline
 Introduction
 Need for Monitoring
 Routine Monitoring Programme Design
 Methods of Measurement
 Monitoring Frequency
 Reference Levels
 Use of Material & Individual Specific Data
 Task Related Monitoring
 Special Monitoring
Introduction

Monitoring objective
 The general objective of operational

monitoring programmes is the assessment of
workplace conditions and individual
exposures
 The assessment of doses to workers routinely
or potentially exposed to radiation through
intakes of radioactive material constitutes an
integral part of any radiation protection
programme and helps to ensure acceptably
safe and satisfactory radiological conditions in
the workplace

Individual monitoring methods
Individual monitoring for intakes is done by:

 Direct methods
 Whole body counting
 Organ counting (e.g. thyroid or lung

monitoring)
 Indirect methods
 Analysis of samples of excreta
 Analysis of selected body fluids or tissues
 Personal air samplers is also used

Workplace monitoring
 Workplace monitoring is used in many

situations involving radionuclide exposure
 May be used to demonstrate satisfactory

working conditions or where individual
monitoring may not be sufficient
 May be appropriate when contamination levels

are low, for example in a research laboratory
using small quantities of radioactive tracers

Monitoring techniques for internal dose
estimation
Monitoring for radionuclide intake dose
estimation may include one or more techniques:
 Sequential measurement of radionuclides in
the whole body or in specific organs;
 Measurement of radionuclides in biological
samples such as excreta or breath;
 Measurement of radionuclides in physical
samples such as filters from personal or
fixed air samplers, or surface smears.
Determination of committed effective dose
 Measurements are used to determine intake

 The intake, multiplied by the dose coefficient,
gives an estimate of committed effective dose
 Dose coefficients have been calculated by the
ICRP and are given in the BSS
 In some situations, direct measurements may
be used to determine whole body or individual
organ dose rates directly

AMAD (activity median aerodynamic
diameter)
The aerodynamic diameter of an airborne particle

is the diameter that a sphere of unit density
would need to have in order to have the same
terminal velocity when settling in air as the
particle of interest.
The thermodynamic diameter is the diameter that
a sphere of unit density would need to have in
order to have the same diffusion coefficient in air
as the particle of interest.

DOSE COEFFICIENTS FOR SELECTED RADIONUCLIDES
Inhalation Ingestion
Radionuclide e(g)inh (Sv/Bq)
Type /form (a) f1 e(g)ing (Sv/Bq)
AMAD = 1μm AMAD = 5μm
H-3 HTO (c) 1.8 E-11(b) 1 1.8 E-11
OBT 4.1 E-11(b) 1 4.2 E-11
Gas 1.8 E-15(b)
C-14 Vapour 5.8 E-10(b) 1 5.8 E-10
CO2 6.2 E-12(b)
CO 8.0 E-13(b)
P-32 F 8.0 E-10 1.1 E-09 0.8 2.3 E-10
M 3.2 E-09 2.9 E-09
Fe-55 F 7.7 E-10 9.2 E-10 0.1 3.3 E-10
M 3.7 E-10 3.3 E-10
Fe-59 F 2.2 E-09 3.0 E-09 0.1 1.8 E-09
M 3.5 E-09 3.2 E-09
Co-60 M 9.6 E-09 7.1 E-09 0.1 3.4 E-09
S 2.9 E-08 1.7 E-08 0.05 2.5 E-09
Sr-85 F 3.9 E-10 5.6 E-10 0.3 5.6 E-10
S 7.7 E-10 6.4 E-10 0.01 3.3 E-10

Need for Monitoring

Designation of workplace areas
 Determination of the need for monitoring

begins with designation of workplace areas
 Supervised areas
 Controlled areas
 Area designation is based on knowledge of

workplace conditions and the potential for
worker exposure

Designation of workplace areas
 A worker should be enrolled in an internal

exposure monitoring programme when there
is a likelihood of an intake that exceeds a
predetermined level
 Guidance on the designation of areas is given

in the Guide on Occupational Exposure
 If operational procedures are set up to prevent

or reduce the possibility of intake, a controlled
area will, in general, need to be established

Establishing the need for monitoring
Individual or area monitoring need depends on:

 Amount of radioactive material present
 Radionuclide(s) involved
 Physical and chemical form
 Type of containment used
 Operations performed and
 General working conditions

Establishing the need for monitoring
Examples:
 Workers handling sealed sources, or unsealed

sources in reliable containment, may need to
be monitored for external exposure, but not
necessarily for internal exposure
 Workers handling radionuclides such as

tritium, I-125 or Pu-239 may need monitoring
for internal exposure, but not for external
exposure
To monitor or not to monitor?
 The decision to conduct intake monitoring may

not be simple
 Routine monitoring only for:
 Workers in controlled areas
 Contamination control and
 When significant intakes can be expected
 From experience, if a C.E.D. > 1 mSv is

unlikely,
 Individual monitoring may be unnecessary
 Workplace monitoring mayInternational

be inAtomic
order
Energy Agency
Situations that may call for monitoring
Some situations where routine individual

monitoring may be appropriate include:
 Handling of large quantities of gaseous or
volatile materials, e.g. 3H and its compounds
in;
 Large scale production processes
 Heavy water reactors and
 Luminizing;
 Processing of plutonium and other

transuranic elements;
 Mining, milling and processing of thorium ores

 Use of thorium and its compounds – can lead
to exposure from radioactive dusts, and
thoron (Rn-220) and its progeny);
 Mining, milling and refining of high grade
uranium ores;
 Processing of natural and slightly enriched
uranium, and reactor fuel fabrication;

 Bulk production of radioisotopes;

 Working in mines and other workplaces where
radon levels exceed a specified action level;
 Handling radiopharmaceuticals, such as I-131
for therapy, in large quantities;
 Reactor maintenance  exposure due to
fission and activation products

Individual vs. Workplace monitoring
 Individual monitoring may not be feasible for
some radionuclides because of:
 Radiation type(s) emitted and
 Detection sensitivity of monitoring
methods
 In such situations, reliance must be placed on
workplace monitoring
 However, for some radionuclides, e.g. 3H,
individual monitoring may be more sensitive
than workplace monitoring
Monitoring for new operations
 Individual monitoring is likely to be needed for

new operations
 As experience in the workplace is

accumulated, the need for routine individual
monitoring should be kept under review
 Workplace monitoring may be found to be

sufficient for radiological protection purposes

Routine Monitoring Programme
Design

Consider monitoring limitations
 Monitoring conducted on a fixed schedule for

selected workers is routine monitoring
 Internal exposure monitoring has several
limitations
 These limitations should be considered in the
design of an adequate monitoring programme
 Monitoring does not measure directly the
committed effective dose to the individual

Internal exposure monitoring limitations
 Monitoring does not measure directly the

committed effective dose to the individual
 Biokinetic models are needed to:
 determine activity in the body from excreta
sample activity levels,
 determine intake from body content,
 calculate the committed effective dose
from the estimated intake

Further internal monitoring limitations
Measurements may be subject to interference

from other radionuclides present in the body:
 Natural 40K present naturally
 Cs-137 from global fallout
 Uranium naturally present in the diet
 Radiopharmaceuticals administered for

diagnostic or therapeutic purposes

Interference from “background”
radionuclides
 Establish the radionuclide body content from
previous intakes
 Particularly important when the non-

occupational intakes are elevated, e.g. in
mining areas high domestic radon exposure
 Workers should have bioassay measurements

before working with radioactive materials to
establish a ‘background’ level.

Interference from Radiopharmaceuticals
 Radiopharmaceuticals can interfere with

bioassays for some time after administration
 Duration of interference depends on:
 Properties of the agent administered and
 Radionuclides present at the workplace
 Request workers to report administration of

radiopharmaceuticals
 It can then be determined if adequate internal
monitoring can be performed
 The results of an individual monitoring

programme for the estimation of chronic
intakes might depend on the time at which the
monitoring is performed
 For certain radionuclides with a significant

early clearance component of excretion, there
may be a significant difference between
measurements taken before and after the
weekend

 For nuclides with long effective half-lives, the

amount present in the body and the amount
excreted depend on, and will increase with, the
number of years for which the worker has
been exposed
 In general, the retained activity from previous

years’ intakes should be taken to be part of the
background for the current year

Timing of measurements is important
 Results for the estimation of chronic intakes

can depend on when the monitoring is done
 If radionuclides have a significant early

clearance, difference between pre- and post-
weekend measurements may be significant
 These should be reviewed individually if

chronic exposure is possible

Timing of measurements is important
 If nuclides have long effective half-lives,

 Amount present in the body and
 Amount excreted
depend on the number of years for which the

worker has been exposed
 These amounts may increase with exposure
 Retained activity from previous years’ intakes
should generally be taken to be part of the
background for the current year
The analytical methods used for individual

monitoring sometimes do not have adequate
sensitivity to detect the activity levels of
interest

Air and surface monitoring
 Analytical methods may not have adequate

sensitivity
 A system of workplace and personnel

monitoring may be needed to determine
radionuclide intake quantities
 Fixed or personal air samplers (PASs) may

be used to determine the airborne
concentrations of radioactive material

Air and surface monitoring
 Air sampling results, together with standard or

site specific assumptions:
 Physical and chemical form of the material
 Breathing rate and
 Worker exposure time
to estimate inhalation intakes

 Surface monitoring may also indicate intake
potential or need for detailed area monitoring
 But, models for estimating intake from surface
contamination are particularly uncertain
Methods of Measurement

Direct vs. Indirect measurements
 Radionuclide intake can be determined by

either direct or indirect measurement methods
 Direct measurement of photons is also referred
to as body activity measurements, whole body
monitoring or whole body counting
 Indirect measurements include activity in either
biological or physical samples
 Each type has advantages and disadvantages
 The selection of over than another depends on
the nature of the radiation to be measured
Direct measurements
 Direct methods are useful only for those

radionuclides which emit photons:
 Of sufficient energy, and
 In sufficient numbers,
 To escape from the body and
 Be measured by an external detector
 Direct measurements are particularly useful

for fission and activation products

Direct measurements
 Radionuclides which do not emit energetic
photons (e.g. 3H, 14C, 90Sr-90Y) can usually be
measured only by indirect methods
 Pu-239 emits weak x-rays and may be
measured by either method
 Some higher energy beta emitters, e.g. 32P or
90Sr-90Y, can sometimes be measured ‘directly’
via the bremsstrahlung produced

 These measurements have a relatively high
minimum detectable activities and are not
usually employed for routine monitoring
Direct measurements
 Direct measurements:
 Rapid
 Convenient
 Can estimate activity in the whole body or
a defined part of the body
 Less dependent on biokinetic models than
indirect monitoring

Direct measurements
 May have greater calibration uncertainties,

especially for low energy photon emitters
 May require the worker to be removed from
work involving radiation exposure for the
period over which the retention characteristics
are measured
 Often need special, well shielded, and
expensive facilities and equipment.

Direct measurements – Qualitative
applications
 Useful in qualitative and quantitative

determinations of radionuclides
 Can assist in identifying the mode of intake by

determining the distribution of activity
 Sequential measurements can reveal activity

redistribution and give information about the
total body retention and biokinetics

Indirect measurements
 Generally interfere less with workers duties

 However, require access to a radiochemical
analytical laboratory
 Analytical laboratory may also be used for
measuring environmental samples
 Perform high level (e.g. reactor water
chemistry) and low level (e.g. bioassay or
environmental samples) work in separate
laboratories
Indirect measurements - Excreta
 Excreta measurements determine the rate of

loss of radioactive materials from the body by
a particular route
 Must be related to body content and intake by

a biokinetic model
 Radiochemical analyses  low detection

levels  sensitive detection of body activity

Indirect measurements – Air samples
 Can be difficult to interpret - air concentration

may not represent breathing zone
 Personal air sampler (PAS) placed on the
worker’s lapel or protective headgear can
collect more representative samples
 Sample comprising only a few particles still a
problem
 Air concentrations + breathing rates +
measured exposure times = estimated intake
Indirect measurements – Air samples
 Use of PASs only estimates intake

 Cannot be used to refine a dose estimate
based on individual retention characteristics
 PAS measurements cannot be repeated
 Can provide intake estimates for nuclides such
as 14C (particulate), 239Pu, 232Th and 235U, when
other methods may have sufficient sensitivity
 Interpretation depends on the dose coefficients
and the derived air concentration (DACs)
Particles size is important
100
 Particle size influences ET2
Regional deposition (%)

ET1
10
deposition of inhaled
Al
bb
particulates in the 1
BB
respiratory tract 0.1
0.01
0.1 1 10 100
AMAD (m)
 Correct interpretation of bioassay and dose

assessment depends on particle size data
 Determine airborne particle size distribution

using cascade impactors or other methods

Particles size is important
 Measurements should, at least, include the

concentration of the respirable fraction
 Some models for interpreting PAS results

discriminate against non-respirable particles
 Dose assessment improves with more site

and material specific information

Measurement detection limits
 Measurement methods have limits of detection

arising from:
 Naturally occurring radioactive materials
 Statistical fluctuations in counting rates,

and
 Factors related to sample preparation and
analysis
 Minimum significant activity (MSA) and
minimum detectable activity (MDA)will be
discussed in another unit
Monitoring Frequency

Individual monitoring frequency
 BSS:
“The nature, frequency and precision of
individual monitoring shall be determined
with consideration of the magnitude and
possible fluctuations of exposure levels
and the likelihood and magnitude of
potential exposures.”
 Characterize the workplace to determine the
appropriate frequency and type of monitoring!

 Identify radionuclides in use and determine

their chemical and physical forms
 Consider possible changes of these forms

under accident conditions;
e.g. the release of uranium hexafluoride into
the atmosphere results in the production of
HF and uranyl fluoride

 Chemical and physical forms (e.g. particle

size) determine material behaviour on intake
and biokinetics in the body
 These in turn determine the excretion routes

and rates, and hence the type of excreta
samples to be collected and their frequency

Proper frequency minimizes intake
uncertainty
 Set bioassay sampling schedules to minimize
intake estimate uncertainties due to the
unknown time of an intake, i.e.
 If acute intake occurs immediately after
previous assay,
 Assuming intake at the monitoring period
midpoint underestimates the intake

 Monitoring period should be short enough that
the underestimate  factor of 3

Determining the monitoring frequency
Monitoring period, ΔT, depends on:

 Radionuclide retention, R(t)
 Radionuclide clearance, E(t)
 Sensitivity of the measurement process, i.e
measurement MDA
 Acceptable uncertainty
 Committed effective dose, e(50)

Determining the monitoring frequency
 For in vivo measurements

e(50)  MDA/R(ΔT)  365/ΔT ≤ 1 mSv/year
 For in vitro measurements
e(50)  MDA/E(ΔT)  365/ΔT ≤ 1 mSv/year
 Maximum overestimation shouldn’t exceed 3

 If exposure occurs at ΔT/2, this means;
R(1)/R(ΔT/2) ≤ 3
E(1)/E(ΔT/2) ≤ 3
Recommended maximum time intervals for
routine monitoring
In vitro measurements In vivo measurements
Isotope Type Urine (days) Whole Body (days) Thyroid (days)
3
H HTO 30 - -
14
C Organic 30 - -
Dioxide 180
32
P F 30 - -
35
S F 15 - -
36
Cl F 30 - -
51
Cr F (15) 15 -
54
Mn M - 90 -
59
Fe M - 90 -
57
Co S (180) 180 -
58
Co S (180) 180 -
60
Co S (180) 180 -
89
Sr F, S 60 -
90
Sr F, S 180 -
110m
Ag S - 180 -
125
I F (90) - 90
131
I F (15) - 15
137
Cs F (180) 180 -
147
Pm S 180 -
226
Ra M 180

Suggested maximum time intervals for
routine monitoring for uranium compounds
Material Type* Urine Faeces Lungs

(days) (days) (days)
Natural / Depleted U F and M 90
Uranium hexafluoride F 90
Uranium peroxide F 30
Uranium nitrate F 30
Ammonium diuranate F 30 - -
Uranium tetrafluoride M 90 180 180
Uranium trioxide M 90 180 180
Uranium octoxide S 90 180 180
Uranium dioxide S 90 180 180

Suggested maximum time intervals for
routine monitoring for actinide compounds
Isotope Type Urine Faeces Lungs

(days) (days) (days)
228
Th S 180 180 -
232
Th S 180 180 -
237
Np M 180 180 -
238
Pu S 180 365 -
239
Pu S 180 365 -
241
Am M 180 365 180
244
Cm M 180 365 -

Recommended monitoring interval
tolerances
Unreasonable to expect bioassay measurements
to be preformed on exact schedule
Monitoring interval - Days Tolerance - Days

15 2
30 4
60 7
90  14
180  30
365  30
Schedule to avoid missing an intake
 Schedule monitoring to ensure an intake

above a predetermined level is not ‘missed’
 Intake could be missed if,
 As a result of clearance,
 Body content or daily excretion
 Declines to a level below the minimum
significant activity of the measurement
 During the time between intake and
measurement
m(t) - Fraction of an intake in the body (direct

measurement) or being excreted from the body
for indirect measurement, depends on:
 Physical half-life
 Biokinetics of the radionuclide, and
 Is a function of the time since intake

 An intake I and the resulting committed

effective dose E(50) would be missed if,
I  m(t) is less than the MSA
 Monitoring frequency should be set so that

intakes corresponding to more than 5% of the
annual dose limit are not missed.

Monitoring frequency depends on sensitivity
 Monitoring frequency is largely driven by the

sensitivity of the measurement technique
 Measurement techniques should be as
sensitive as possible
 However, associated costs -
 Most sensitive techniques
 Frequent monitoring measurements
should be balanced against risk doses are
underestimated or missed
Additional methods for better sensitivity
 Measurement method and frequency should

detect intakes  a specified dose limit fraction
 Goal cannot be realized because:
 Lack of analytical sensitivity
 Unacceptably long counting times
 Short sampling intervals required for
excreta collection
 Additional methods – e.g. improved workplace
monitoring and personal air sampling - should
be used for adequate worker protection
Use of Reference Levels

Reference levels
 Reference levels are helpful in management of

operations
 Expressed in terms of measured quantities or
other quantities to which measured quantities
can be related
 If exceeded, take specified action or decision
 Reference levels usually based on committed
effective dose E(50) for radionuclide intake

Reference levels
 Appropriate dose limit fraction corresponding

to each reference level should be established
 Take other sources of exposure into account
 Recording Levels and Investigation Levels

relevant to internal contamination monitoring
for occupational exposures.

Recording level
 Defined as “a level of dose, exposure or

intake specified by the regulatory authority at
or above which values of dose, exposure or
intake received by workers are to be entered
in their individual exposure records”
 Example - RL for a radionuclide intake set to

correspond to a committed effective dose of 1
mSv (0.001 Sv) from a year’s intakes

Recording level
 For N monitoring periods per year, the

recording level for intake of radionuclide j
in a monitoring period would be given by:
0.001
RLj 
Ne( g ) j

Investigation level
 Is “the value of a quantity such as effective

dose, intake or contamination per unit area or
volume at or above which an investigation
should be conducted”
 Investigation level for radionuclide intake - A
value of committed effective dose above which
monitoring results justify further investigation
 Set by management, depends on programme
objectives and type of investigation to be done

Investigation level
 For routine monitoring, the investigation level

for a radionuclide intake is set in relation to:
 Type and frequency of monitoring
 Expected level and variability of intakes
 Numerical value of the investigation level
depends on conditions in the workplace
 Investigation level may be set for;
 Individuals in a particular operation, or
 Individuals within a workplace without
reference to a particular operation
Investigation level – An example
 Routine operation with routine monitoring

 IL set at a committed effective dose of 5
mSv (0.005 Sv) from a year’s intakes
 For N monitoring periods per year, the IL
(in Bq) for the intake of any radionuclide j
in any monitoring period is:
0.005
IL j 
Ne( g ) j
where e(g)j is the dose coefficient for
inhalation or ingestion
Derived levels
 Measured quantities are radionuclide activities

in the body or excreta samples
 It is convenient to establish reference levels
for the measurement results themselves
 These are termed derived investigation levels
(DILs) and derived recording levels (DRLs)
 Measurement results that imply radionuclide
intakes or committed effective doses at the
corresponding reference levels
Derived levels
 Derived investigation and recording levels are

calculated separately for each radionuclide
 Specific to the radiochemical form in the
workplace
 Are a function of time since intake
 For the previous examples,
0.005
DIL j   m( t 0 )
Ne( g ) j

Derived recording level
 t0 (time elapsed between intake and bioassay)

is usually set as 365/2N days - assumes that
intake occurs at the mid-point of the
monitoring period, and
0.001
DRLj   m( t 0 )
Ne( g ) j

Derived levels
 Measurement result should always be

maintained in the radiation monitoring records
for the workplace and for the individual
 For worker exposure to external radiation or to

multiple radionuclides, management may need
to reduce the derived levels for individual
radionuclides appropriately.

Use of Material and Individual
Specific Data

Biokinetic models
 Biokinetic models for most radionuclides

 Developed by the ICRP
 Use reference parameter values
 Are based on Reference Man data, and
 Observed radionuclide behaviour in

humans and animals
 Have been developed for defined chemical
forms of radionuclides, and
 Are generally used for planning purposes
Biokinetic models
 Characterize particular workplace conditions

to determine forms actually present
 In some circumstances, the chemical or

physical forms of the radionuclides will not
correspond to the reference biokinetic models
 Then, material specific models may need to be

developed

Specific biokinetic models
 For small intakes are small, i.e. a few per cent

of the dose limit, reference models are
probably good enough
 If the intake estimate  1/4 dose limit, model
parameters for;
 Specific material(s), and
 Individual(s)
may be needed for better estimate of the
committed effective dose
Specific biokinetic models
 Specific models can be developed from

sequential direct and indirect measurements
of the exposed workers
 Analysis of workplace air and surface
contamination samples can also assist in the
interpretation of bioassay measurements
 Example - Measure 241Am/ 239,240Pu from direct
lung measurement of 241Am to assess
plutonium intakes or inhaled particle solubility

Need for specific information
 Common example – aerosol particle size a

worker would likely inhale differs significantly
from ICRP 5 μm AMAD default value
 Fractions of inhaled materials deposited in
various regions of the respiratory tract would
have to be determined from the ICRP
respiratory tract model, and
 An appropriate dose coefficient calculated

Need for specific information
 More specific information may also be needed

on the material solubility characteristics
 Can be obtained from experimental studies in
animals or by in vitro solubility studies
 Retrospective determination of particle
characteristics may be difficult
 Consideration should be given to obtaining
material specific information when setting up
worker monitoring programmes
Individual variability
 There are differences between individuals in

excretion rates and other biokinetic
parameters for the same intake
 Individual variability may be more significant
than the differences between generic and
individual specific biokinetic models
 Excreta sample collection periods should be
sufficiently long to reduce this variability, e.g.
24 hours for urine and 72 hours for faeces
 Use of individual specific model parameters
should be rare under routine circumstances.
Task Related Monitoring

Task related monitoring is,
 Not routine, i.e. it is not regularly scheduled

 Conducted to provide information about a
particular operation, and give a basis for
decisions on the conduct of the operation
 Useful when short term procedure conditions
would be unsatisfactory for long term use
 Usually conducted the same as routine
monitoring, unless the circumstances of the
operation dictate otherwise
Special Monitoring

Special monitoring
May be necessary as a result of;

 Known or suspected exposures
 An unusual incident,
e.g. loss of containment of radioactive
materials as indicated by an air or surface
sample, or
 Following an accident

Special monitoring
 Usually prompted by a result of a routine

bioassay measurement that exceeds the
derived investigation level
 It may also result from occasional samples

such as nose blows, swipes or other
monitoring.

Special monitoring
 Measurement techniques for special

monitoring usually the same as routine
measurement
 However, improved sensitivity or a faster

processing time may be needed
 Advise the laboratory that the sample analysis

or the direct measurement has priority over
routine measurements, and

Recommended methods for special
monitoring after inhalation
In vitro measurements In vivo measurements
nasal Urine Faeces Organ
Spot
Isotope NB EA 24 h 72 h WB Th
sample
3
H ** **
14
C ** ** *
32
P ** *
35
S ** *
51
Cr ** ** **
54
Mn ** ** ** **
59
Fe ** ** **
58, 60
Co ** ** ** **
90
Sr ** **
110m
Ag ** ** ** **
125, 131
I ** ** **
137
Cs ** ** * **
147
Pm ** **
226
Ra ** **
Legend ** Recommended * Supplementary
NB: Nose blow EA: Expired air WB: Whole body Th: Thyroid
In vivo
In vitro measurements
measurements
nasal Urine Faeces
Nose Spot
Isotope 24 h 72 h Lung
blow sample
Natural / Depleted U ** ** ** *
Uranium hexafluoride ** ** **
Uranium peroxide ** ** **
Uranium nitrate ** ** **
Ammonium diuranate ** ** **
Uranium tetrafluoride ** ** ** * *
Uranium trioxide ** ** ** * *
Uranium octoxide ** ** ** **
Uranium dioxide ** ** ** **

In vitro
In vivo
measurements
measurements
nasal Urine Faeces
Isotope NB EA 24 h 72 h Lung
228
Th ** ** ** **
232
Th ** * ** **
237
Np ** ** **
238
Pu ** ** **
239
Pu ** ** **
241
Am ** ** ** **
244
cm ** ** **
Legend NB: Nose blow EA: Expired air

Special monitoring
 The frequency of follow-up monitoring may be

changed
 Inform the laboratory that samples may have a
higher than normal level of activity
 The measurement technique can be tailored to
the special monitoring situation, and
 Necessary precautions may be taken to
prevent contamination of other samples

References
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS, INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC
ENERGY AGENCY, INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANISATION, OECD NUCLEAR ENERGY
AGENCY, PAN AMERICAN HEALTH ORGANIZATION, WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION,
International Basic Safety Standards for Protection against Ionizing Radiation and for the Safety of
Radiation Sources, Safety Series No. 115, IAEA, Vienna (1996).
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Occupational Radiation Protection, Safety Guide No.
RS-G-1.1, ISBN 92-0-102299-9 (1999).
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Assessment of Occupational Exposure Due to Intakes

of Radionuclides, Safety Guide No. RS-G-1.2, ISBN 92-0-101999-8 (1999).
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Direct Methods for Measuring Radionuclides in the
Human Body, Safety Series No. 114, IAEA, Vienna (1996).
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Indirect Methods for Assessing Intakes of

Radionuclides Causing Occupational Exposure, Safety Guide, Safety Reports Series No. 18, ISBN 92-
0-100600-4 (2000).
INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIATION UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS, Direct Determination

of the Body Content Of Radionuclides, ICRU Report 69, Journal of the ICRU Volume 3, No 1, (2003).
INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION, Individual Monitoring for Internal

Exposure of Workers: Replacement of ICRP Publication 54, ICRP Publication 78, Annals of the ICRP
27(3-4), Pergamon Press, Oxford (1997).

References
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS, INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC
ENERGY AGENCY, INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANISATION, OECD NUCLEAR ENERGY
AGENCY, PAN AMERICAN HEALTH ORGANIZATION, WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION,
International Basic Safety Standards for Protection against Ionizing Radiation and for the Safety of
Radiation Sources, Safety Series No. 115, IAEA, Vienna (1996).
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Occupational Radiation Protection, Safety Guide No.
RS-G-1.1, ISBN 92-0-102299-9 (1999).
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Assessment of Occupational Exposure Due to Intakes

of Radionuclides, Safety Guide No. RS-G-1.2, ISBN 92-0-101999-8 (1999).
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Direct Methods for Measuring Radionuclides in the
Human Body, Safety Series No. 114, IAEA, Vienna (1996).
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Indirect Methods for Assessing Intakes of

Radionuclides Causing Occupational Exposure, Safety Guide, Safety Reports Series No. 18, ISBN 92-
0-100600-4 (2000).
INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIATION UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS, Direct Determination

of the Body Content Of Radionuclides, ICRU Report 69, Journal of the ICRU Volume 3, No 1, (2003).
INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION, Individual Monitoring for Internal

Exposure of Workers: Replacement of ICRP Publication 54, ICRP Publication 78, Annals of the ICRP
27(3-4), Pergamon Press, Oxford (1997).

IAEA Guide to Individual Dose Assessment

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International Atomic Energy Agency

Individual Dose Assessment

International Atomic Energy Agency

 The general objective of operational

International Atomic Energy Agency

Individual monitoring for intakes is done by:

 Organ counting (e.g. thyroid or lung

 Analysis of selected body fluids or tissues

 Personal air samplers is also used

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 Workplace monitoring is used in many

 May be used to demonstrate satisfactory

 May be appropriate when contamination levels

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 Measurements are used to determine intake

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The aerodynamic diameter of an airborne particle

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 Determination of the need for monitoring

 Area designation is based on knowledge of

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 A worker should be enrolled in an internal

 Guidance on the designation of areas is given

 If operational procedures are set up to prevent

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Individual or area monitoring need depends on:

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 Workers handling sealed sources, or unsealed

 Workers handling radionuclides such as

 The decision to conduct intake monitoring may

 Contamination control and

 When significant intakes can be expected

 From experience, if a C.E.D. > 1 mSv is

 Workplace monitoring mayInternational

Some situations where routine individual

 Heavy water reactors and

 Processing of plutonium and other

 Mining, milling and processing of thorium ores

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 Bulk production of radioisotopes;

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 Detection sensitivity of monitoring

 Individual monitoring is likely to be needed for

 As experience in the workplace is

 Workplace monitoring may be found to be

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 Monitoring conducted on a fixed schedule for

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 Monitoring does not measure directly the

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Measurements may be subject to interference

 Natural 40K present naturally

 Cs-137 from global fallout

 Uranium naturally present in the diet

 Radiopharmaceuticals administered for

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 Particularly important when the non-

 Workers should have bioassay measurements

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 Radiopharmaceuticals can interfere with