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Basics of Social Research Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches PDF
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BRIEF CONT ENT S
PARTTwo ConductingQuantitativeResearch
CHAPTERZ Survey Research
CHAPTER8 ExperimentalResearch
CHAPTER9 Nonreactive Researchand Secondary Analysis
CHAPTER1 o Analysisof Quantitative Data
vil
VIII CONT ENT S
C H A PT E R 5
Qualitativeand Quantitative C H A P TE R 9
S amp lin g 140 NonreactiveResearchand Secondary
Analysis 224
fntroduction 141
N o n p ro b a b i l i tyS a m p l i ng 141 fntroduction 225
C H A P TE R I O
C H AP T ER 7
Analysisof Quantitative
SurveyResearch 155
Data 247
l n tro d u c ti o n 167
fntroduction 248
The Logicof SurveyResearch ' r5 8
Dealingwith Data 248
Constructingthe Questionnaire 169
R esul tsw i th One V ari abl e 251
Typesof Surveys:Advantagesand
Resultswith Two Variables 257
Disadvantages 1 86
More Than Two Variables 263
lnterviewing 190
lnferentialStatistics 268
The EthicalSurvey 196
C oncl usi on 272
Conclusion 197
PART THREE
C H A PT E R 8
ExperimentalResearch 200 ii? ConductingQualitative
Research
Introduction 201
Random Assignment 2O2
ExperimentalDesignLogic 2O4 C H A P TE R I 1
fnternal and ExternalValidity 212 FieldResearch 275
PracticalConsiderations 219 fntroduction 27 5
C ON TEN TS rx
CHA P T E R I 2
PART Fo u R
Historical-comparative
Research iti\ Writinga Research Report
3O4
fntroduction 3O4 C H A P TE R 1 4
The Logicof Historical-Comparative \{riting the Research Report 343
Research iO5
Introduction 344
steps in a Historical-comparativeResearch
Project 31 0 The ResearchReport 344
Data and Evidencein Historical Conclusion 359
Context 312
comparative Research Glossary 36'l
317
Equivalencein Historical-Comparative Bibliography 377
Research 322
Ethics Name Index 391
325
Conclusion 325 Subject Index 3g3
CHAPTER
1
DoingSocialResearch
Introduction
Alternatives to Social Research
Authority
Tradition
C o m m o nSe n se
Me d i aMy th s
P e rs o n aEl x p eri ence
How ScienceWorks
Sc i e n c e
T h e S c i e n ti flCommuni
c ty
The Scientific
Methodand Attitude
JournalArticlesin Science
Steps in the ResearchProcess
Dimensionsof Research
Useof Research
Pu rp o s eo fa Study
T i m eD i me n s i on
i n R esearcn
D a taC o l l e c ti o n
Techni ques
Conclusion
PART ONE ,/ F OUND A TION S
they m us t wr it e s to ri e si n s h o rt ti m e p e ri o d s
rvith limited information and within editorial
ls Road Rage a Media Myth?
eLridelines.
Unfortunately, the media tend to perpetu-
ate the mlths of a culture. For example,the me- Americanshear a lot about road rage.Newsweekmag-
dia show that most people ivho receivewelfare azine,Timemagazine,and newspapersin most major
are Black (actually, most are White), that most c i t i e s h a v e c a r r i e d h e a d l i n e sa b o u t i t . L e a d i n gn a -
peoplewho are mentally ill are violent and dan- tional politicalofficialshave held public hearingson
gerous (only a small percentageactually are), it, and the federalgovernmentgives millionsof dot-
and that most peoplewho are elderlyare senile lars in grants to law enforcementand transportation
departmentsto reduceit. Today, even psychologists
and in nur s ing ho m e s (a ti n y rn i n o ri ty a re ).
specialize in thisdisorder.
AIso, massmedia "hype" can createa f-eelingthat
The term road rage first appearedin I 988, and
a major problem existswhen it may not (seeBox
by 1997, the print mediawere carryingover 4,000
Li). People are n-risledby i.isual imagesmore
articlesper year on it. Despitemediaattention about
easilythan other forms of "lying"; this means "aggressivedriving" and "anger behind the wheel,"
that storiesor stereotypesthat appear on film
there is no scientificevidencefor road rage.The term
and televisioncan havea porverful effecton peo- i s n o t p r e c i s e l yd e f i n e d a n d c a n r e f e r t o a n y t h i n g
ple. For example,television repeatecllvshorvs from gunshots from cars,use of hand gestures,run-
low-income,inner-city,AfrictrnAntericanr.outl-r ning bicyclistsoff the road,tailgating,and evenanger
using illegal drugs. Eventuallr.,nlost peol)lg o v e r a u t o r e p a i rb i l l s !A l l t h e d a t a o n c r a s h e sa n d a c -
"know" that urban Blacksuse illegalclrLres at a c i d e n t s s h o w d e c l i n e sd u r i n g t h e p e r i o d w h e n r o a d
higher rate than other groups in the Lrrritccl r a g e r e a c h e da n e p i d e m i c .
States,even though this notion is false. Perhapsmediareportsfueled perceptionsof road
Competing interestsuse the rnedia to rvin rage. After hearingor readingabout road rage and
public support.2Public relationscampaignstry havinga labelfor the behavior,people began to no-
to alter what the public thinks about scientific tice rude drivingbehaviorand engagedinselective ob-
findings, making it difficult for the public to servation. We will not know for sure until it is properry
judge researchfindings. For exarnple,a large s t u d i e d ,b u t t h e a m o u n to f s u c h b e h a v i o rm a y b e u n -
majority of scientific research supports the changed.lt may turn out that the nationalepidemic
global rvnrrnir-rgthesis (i.e., pollutants from in- of road rage is a widely held myth stimulatedby re-
dustrialization and massivedeforestationare ports in the massmedia.(For more information,see
raising the earth's temperatureand lvill cause Michael Fumento, "Road Rage versus Reality,"
drarnaticclimate changeand bring about envi- AtlanticMonthly[August 1 998].)
ronmental disasters).l'he scientificevidenceis
growing and getsstrongereachyear.l'he media
give equal attention to a few dissenterswho
question global r,r,arming,creating the impres-
si o n in t he public n ti n c l th a t " n o o n e re a l l y vironrnentalregulations,not to advanceknowr-
knows" or that scientistsare undecidedabout edge.
the issueof global warming. The rnedia sources Newspapersoffer l.roroscopes, ar.rdtelevi-
fail to mention that the dissentersrepresentless sion programsor nroviesreport on supertratural
th an 2 per c ento1' a l ls c i c rrti s tso ,r th l t rn o s td i s - powers, E,SP(extrasensoryperception), LIFC)s
sentingstudiesare paid for by heavilypolluting (uni denti fi ed fl ,vi ng obj ects), ancl angel s or
industries.The industriesalsospendmillions of ghosts.Althor-rghr.roscientifice".icience existsfor
dol l ar st o public iz eth e fi n d i n g s b e c a u s eth e i r such,betrveen2-5and -50percer-rt of the U.S.pub-
goalis to cleflectgrowing criticismand delayen- Iic acceptsthern astrue, anclthe percentage with
6 pA RToNE ,/ F o u N D A T to N s
:' _- --:
.I
C H A P T E R , / D O I N C S O C I A LR E S E A R C H
l. Research
is intrinsically
satisfying .l
and . Researchis part of a job and isjudgedby
judgmentsare by other sociologists. sponsorswho areoutsidethe discipline of
2. Research problemsand subjectsare selected sociology.
with a great dealof freedom. 2. Research problemsare "narrowlyconstrained"
3. Research isjudgedby absolutenormsof to the demandsof employerc or.,ponro.r.
scientificrigor,and the higheststandardsof 3. The rigorand standards ofscholarshipdepend
scholarship are sought. can be ,,quick
on the usesof results.Research
4. The primaryconcernis with the internallogic and dirty" or may matchhighscientific
and rigor of researchdesign. standards.
5. The drivinggoal is to contributeto basic, 4. The primaryconcernis with the abilityto
theoreticalknowledge. generalize
findingsto areasof interestto
sponsors.
5. Success comeswhenresultsappearin a
scholarly journaland havean impacton others 5. The drivinggoal is to havepracticalpayoffsor
in the scientific
community. usesfor results.
5. Successcomeswhenresultsare usedbv
sponsorsin decisionmaking.
Source:
Adapted
fromFreeman (1984:572-573\.
andRossi
tals, government, large nonprofit agencies) to lcy or program may conduct evaluation research
demonstrate the effectivenessof what they are for their own information or at the recuest of
doing. An evaluation researcherdoes noi use outside decision makers. The decision Luk..,
techniques different from those of other social may place limits on the research by fixing
researchers.The difFerencelies in the fact that boundaries on what can be studied and by de-
decision makers, who may not be researchers termining the outcome of interest. This often
themselves,define the scope and purpose of the createsethical dilemmas for a researcher.
research.Also, their objective is to use results in Ethical and political conflicts often arise in
a practical situation.S evaluation researchbecausepeople can have op-
Evaluation research questions might in- posing interests in the findings. The findings of
clude: Does a Socratic teaching technique researchcan affect who getsor keepsa job, it can
improve learning over lecturing? Does a law-en- build political popularity, or it may help pro-
forcement program of mandatory arrest reduce mote an alternative program. people who are
spouseabuse?Does a flextime program increase personally displeasedwith the findings may at-
employee productivity? Evaluation researchers tack the researcheror his or her methods.
measure the effectivenessof a program, policy, Evaluation research has severallimitations:
or way of doing something and often use several The reports ofresearch rarely go through a peer
researchtechniques (e.g.,survey and field). Ifit review process,raw data are rarely publicly avail-
can be used, the experimental technique is usu- able, and the focus is narrowed to select inputs
ally preferred. Practitioners involved with a pol- and outputs more than the full processbvwhich
14 P A RToN E ,/ F o u N D A T to N s
a l . R P - ^@
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F #
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i P
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wffililwwwwl&
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wffil#wwffilwff
Married in 1967 1987
Introduction
What ls Theory?
BlameAnalysis
The Parts of Theory
Conceots
Assumptions
Relationshios
The Aspects ofTheory
Directionof Theorizing
RangeofTheory
Levelsof Theory
Formsof Explanation
The Three Major Approaches to Social Science
PositivistApproach
InterpretiveApproach
CriticalApproach
The Dynamic Duo
Conclusion
I
24 PART ONE , / FO UNDATI O NS
Weber developedan ideal type of the concept used for a much broader range of specific time
bureaucracy. Many peopleuseWeber'sidealtype points and situations. More concrete concepts
(seeBox 2.I). lt distinguishesa bureaucracy are easy to recognize but apply to fewer situa-
from other organizationalforms (e.g.,social tions. The concepts skin pigmentation, casting a
movements,kingdoms,etc.).It alsoclarifiescrit- ballot in an election,and agebasedon the date on
icalfeaturesofa kind oforganizationthat people a birth certificateare lessabstract and more con-
once found nebulousand hard to think about. crete than the concepts racial group, democracy
No real-life organizationperfectlymatchesthe and maturity. Theories that use many abstract
ideal type, but the model helps us think about concepts can apply to a wider range of social
and studybureaucracy. phenomena than those with concrete concepts.
An example of a theoretical relationship is: In-
Scope. Conceptsvary by scope. Some are creasedsize createscentralization, which in turn
highly abstract,someareat a middle levelof ab- createsgreater formalization . Size,centralizatioi;
straction,and some areat a concretelevel (i.e., and formalization are very abstract concepts.
they are easyto directly experiencewith the They can refer to features of a group, organiza-
sensessuch as sight or touch). More abstract tion, or society. We can translate this to say that
conceptshavewider scope;that is, they can be as anorganization or group getsbigger, author-
ity and power relations within it become cen-
tralized and concentrated in a small elite. The
elite will tend to rely more on written policies,
rules, or laws to control and organize others in
the group or organization. When you think ex-
plicitly about the scope of concepts, you make a
theory stronger and will be able to communicate
r lt is a continuousorganization
governedby a sys- it more clearly to others.
tem of rules.
r Conductis governedby detached,impersonal Assumptions
rules.
r There is divisionof labor,in which differentof- Conceptscontain built-in assumptions,state-
fices are assigneddifferent spheresof compe- mentsaboutthe natureof thingsthat arenot ob-
tence. servable or testable. We accept them as a
I
necessary startingpoint. Conceptsand theories
Hierarchicalauthorityrelationsprevail;that is,
lowerofficesare undercontrolofhigherones. build on assumptionsabout the nature of hu-
man beings,socialreality, or a particular phe-
r Administrative actions,rules,and so on are in
nomenon.Assumptionsoften remainhiddenor
writingand maintainedin files.
unstated.Onewayfor a researcher to deepenhis
r Individuals do not own and cannotbuy or sell or her understanding of a concept is to identifr
their offices. which it is
the assumptionson based.
r Officialsreceivesalariesratherthan receivingdi- For example,the conceptbookassumesa
rect paymentfrom clientsin orderto ensureloy- systemof writing, peoplewho can read,and the
alty to the organization. existenceof paper.Without such assumptions
r Propertyof the organization
is separatefromper- the ideaof abook makeslittle sense.A socialsci-
sonalpropertyof officeholders. enceconcept,sueh as racialprejudice,restson
severalassumptions.Theseinclude peoplewho
Source:
Adapted
fromChafetz
(197872). make distinctionsamong individualsbasedon
their racialheritage,attachspecificmotivations
CHAPTER2 , / T H E O R YA N D S O C I A L R E S E A R C H 29
o fheoretical o iheoreticat
Middle-Range Middle-Range
Theory Theory
tion with Kalmijn's study of changing marriage in sociologyand briefly describesthe key con-
partner selection(seealso page40). ceptsand assumptions of each.
Sociology and other social scienceshave sev-
eral major theoretical frameworks.s The frame-
works are orientations or sweeping ways of Levelsof Theory
looking at the social world. They provide collec- Socialtheoriescan be divided into three broad
tions of assumptions, concepts, and forms of ex- groupingsby the levelof socialrealitywith which
planation. Frameworks include theories for they deal.Most of us devotethe majority of our
many substantiveareas(e.g.,theories of crime, time to thinking aboutthe micro leveloireality,
theories of the family, etc.). Thus, there can be a the individualswe seeand interactwith on a day-
structural functional theory, an exchange the- by-daybasis.Micro-leveltheorydealswith small
ory and a conflict theory of the family. Theories slicesof time, space,or numbersof people.The
within the same framework share assumptions conceptsareusuallynot very abstract.
and major concepts. Some frameworks are ori- Braseand fuchmond(2004)useda micro-
ented more to the micro level; others focus more leveltheory about doctor-patientinteractions
on macro-level phenomena (seeLevelsof The- and perceptions.The theorystatedthat physican
orynext). Box2.4 shows four major frameworks attire affectsdoctor-patientinteractions.It sug-
;,,.Kffi
Structural Functionalism Symboliclnteractionism
MajorConcepts. System,equilibrium,dysfunction, MajorConcepts. Sell reference
group,role-playing,
divisionof labor perception
KeyAssumptions. Societyis a systemof interde- KeyAssumptions.Peopletransmitand receivesvm-
pendentpartsthat is in equilibrium or balance. Over b o l i cc o mmuni cati on
w henthey soci al l yi nteract.
time,societyhasevolvedfrom a simpleto a complex Peoplecreateperceptions of eachotherand social
type,whichhashighlyspecialized parts.The partsof settings.Peoplelargelyact on their perceptions.
societyfulfilldifferentneedsor functionsof the social How peoplethink about themselves and othersis
system. A basicconsensus on valuesor a valuesvs- basedon theirinteractions.
tem holdssocietytogether.
Conflict Theory
ExchangeTheory (also RationalChoice)
Major Concepts. Power,exploitation,struggle,in-
MajorConcepts. Opportunities,rewards,approval, equality,alienation
balance,
credit
KeyAssumptions.Societyis madeup of groupsthat
KeyAssumptions.Humaninteractionsaresimilarto haveopposinginterests.Coercionand attemptsto
economictransactions.Peoplegive and receivere- gainpowerareever-presentaspectsof humanrela-
sources(symbolic,socialapproval,or material)and tions.Thosein powerattemptto hold on to their
try to maximize
their rewardswhileavoidingpain,ex- powerby spreadingmythsor by usingviolenceif
pense,and embarrassment. Exchange relationstend necessary.
to be balanced.
lfthey areunbalanced, personswith
creditcandominateothers.
34 P A RToNE ,/ F o u N D A T to N s
The temporal order condition means that a the effect. Most studies examine unidirectional
cause must come before an effect. This com- relations. More complex theories speci$r recip-
monsense assumption establishesthe direction rocal-effect causal relations-that is, a mutual
of causality: from the cause toward the effect. causal relationship or simultaneous causality.
You may ask, How can the cause come after For example, studying a lot causesa student to
what it is to affect?It cannot, but temporal order get good grades, but getting good grades also
is only one of the conditions needed for causal- motivates the student to continue to study. The-
ity. Temporal order is necessarybut not suffi- ories often have reciprocal or feedback relation-
cient to infer causality. Sometimes people make ships, but these are difficult to test. Some
the mistake of talking about "cause" on the basis researcherscall unidirectional relations nonre-
of temporal order alone. For example, a profes- cursive and reciprocal-effect relations recursive.
sional baseballplayer pitches no-hit gameswhen A researcher also needs an association for
he kisseshis wife just before a game. The kissing causality. Two phenomena are associatedif thei.
occurred before the no-hit games. Does that occur together in a patterned way or appear to
mean the kissing is the causeof the pitching per- act together. People sometimes confuse correla-
formance? It is very unlikely. As another exam- tion with association. Correlation has a specific
ple, race riots occurred in four separatecities in technical meaning, whereasassociationis a more
1968, one day after an intense wave of sunspots. generalidea. A correlation coefficient is a statisti-
The temporal ordering does not establish a cal measure that indicates the amount of associ-
causal link between sunspots and race riots. Af- ation, but there are many ways to measure
ter all, all prior human history occurred before association. Figure 2.2 shows 38 people from a
some specific event. The temporal order condi- lower-income neighborhood and 35 people from
tion simply eliminates from consideration po- an upper-income neighborhood. Canyou seean
tential causesthat occurred later in time. associationbetween race and income level?
It is not always easy to establish temporal More people mistake associationfor causal-
order. With cross-sectionalresearch,temporal ity than confuse it with temporal order. For ex-
order is triclcF. For example, a researcher finds ample, when I was in college,I got high gradeson
that people who have a lot ofeducation are also the exams I took on Fridays but low grades on
less prejudiced than others. Does more educa- those I took on Mondays. There was an associa-
tion causea reduction in prejudice? Or do highly tion between the day of the week and the exam
prejudiced people avoid education or lack the grade, but it did not mean that the day of the
motivation, self-discipline, and intelligence week causedthe exam grade. Instead, the reason
needed to succeedin school?Here is another ex- was that I worked 20 hours each weekend and
ample. The students who get high grades in my was very tired on Mondays. As another example,
classsay I am an excellent teacher. Does getting the number of children born in India increased
high gradesmake them happy, so theyreturn the until the late 1960s,then slowed in the 1970s.The
favor by saylng that I am an excellent teacher number of U.S.-made cars driven in the United
(i.e., high gradescausea positive evaluation)? Or Statesincreaseduntil the late 1960s,then slowed
am I doing a great job, so students study hard in the 1970s.The number of Indian children
and learn a lot, which the grades reflect (i.e., born and the number of U.S. cars driven are as-
their learning causesthem to get high grades)?It sociated:They vary together or increaseand de-
is a chicken-or-egg problem. To resolve it, a re- crease at the same time. Yet there is no causal
searcher needs to bring in other information or connection. By coincidence, the Indian govern-
design researchto test for the temporal order. ment instituted a birth control program that
Simple causal relations are unidirectional. slowed the number of births at the same time
operating in a single direction from the causeto that Americans were buying more imported cars.
CHAPTER2 , / THE O R YA N D S O C I A L R E S E A R C H 37
OO A
a
fifi ffAfi.H,
fii
o'
0
?*$
AI rC
m?3
(-) \ I J
rJl
io o
ffi,i.in
t
a?
O
i:njHi*i\q;i
l{lfifi nfi^q.B"qfr
o
Qr /l IV flqi
T.
t? t
.l iii lt
Ifa researchercannot find an association, a
v'fifr
f,fl
ognized cause is called a spurious relationship,
causal relationship is unlikely. This is why re- which is discussedin Chapter 4 (seeBox 2.5).
searchersattempt to find correlations and other Researcherscan observetemporal order and
measuresof association.Yet, a researchercan of- associations.They cannot observe the elimina-
ten find an associationwithout causality.The as- tion of alternatives. They can only demonstrate
sociation eliminates potential causesthat are not it indirectly. Eliminating alternatives is an ideal
associated, but it cannot definitely identify a because eliminating all possible alternatives is
cause.It is a necessarybut not a sufficient condi- impossible. A researchertries to eliminate major
tion. In other words, you need it for causality, alternative explanations in two ways: through
but it is not enough alone. built-in design controls and by measuring po-
An association does not have to be perfect tential hidden causes.Experimental researchers
(i.e., every time one variable is present, the other build controls into the study design itself to
also is) to show causality. In the example involv- eliminate alternative causes.They isolate an ex-
ing exam gradesand days of the week, there is an perimental situation from the influence of all
association if on 10 Fridays I got 7 As, 2 Bs, and variables except the main causalvariable.
1 C, whereas my exam grades on 10 Mondays Researchersalso tryto eliminate alternatives
were 6 Ds, 2 Cs, and 2 Bs. An association exists' by measuring possible alternative causes.This is
but the days ofthe week and the exam gradesare common in survey research and is called
not perfectly associated.The race and income- controlling for another variable. Researchersuse
level association shown in Figure 2.2 is also an statistical techniques to learn whether the causal
imperfect association. variable or something elseoperateson the effect
Eliminating alternatives means that a re- variable.
searcher interested in causality needs to show Causal explanations are usually in a linear
that the effect is due to the causal variable and form or state causeand effect in a straight line: A
not to something else. It is also called no spuri- causesB B causesC C causesD.
ousnessbecausean apparent causal relationship The study by Braseand Richmond (2004)
that is actually due to an alternative but unrec- on doctor-patient interactions discussedearlier
38 PART ONE / FO UNDATI O NS
old). Thus, later eventsflowed from an inter- In modern society,people spend time away
connectedprocessin which earlier stagesset a from small local settingsin school settings.In
course or direction that pointed to specific theseschoolsettings,especiallyin college,they
eventsin a later stage. meet other unmarried people.Educationis a
Additionally, structural explanationsare major socializationagentin modern society
usedin functionaltheory.6Functionaltheorists Increasingly,it affectsa person'sfuture earn-
explain an eventby locating it within a larger, ings, moral beliefs and values,and ways of
ongoing,balancedsocialsystem.They often use spendingleisuretime. This explainswhy there
biologicalmetaphors.Theseresearchers explain hasbeena trend in the United Statesfor people
somethingby identifying its function within a to marry lesswithin the samereligion and in-
larger systemor the need it firlfills for the sys- creasinglyto marry personswith a similar level
tem.Functionalexplanationsarein this form: "I of education.In traditional societies,the family
occursbecauseit servesneedsin the systemM." and religious organizationservedthe function
Theoristsassumethat a systemwill operateto of socializingpeopleto moral valuesand link-
stayin equilibrium and to continueovertime. A ing them to potential marriagepartnerswho
functionaltheoryof socialchangesaysthat, over held similar values.In modern society,educa-
time, a socialsystem,or society,movesthrough tional institutions largelyfulfill this function
developmentalstages,becoming increasingly for the socialsystem.
differentiatedand more complex. It evolvesa
specialized divisionoflabor anddevelopsgreater Interpretive Explanation The purposeof an
individualism. These developments create interpretiveexplanationis to fosterunderstand-
greaterefficiencyfor the systemasa whole.Spe- ing. The interpretive theorist attempts to dis-
cializationand individualism createtemporary coverthe meaningof an eventor practiceby
disruptions.Thetraditionalwaysof doingthings placingit within a specificsocialcontext.He or
weaken,but new social relations emerge.The shetries to comprehendor mentally graspthe
systemgenerates newwaysto fulfill functionsor operationof the socialworld, aswell asgeta feel
satisfyits needs. for somethingor to seethe world asanotherper-
Kalmijn (1991)useda functionalexplana- son does. Becauseeach person's subjective
tion to explain a shift in how people in the worldview shapeshow he or she acts,the re-
United Statesselectmarriagepartners.He relied searcherattemptsto discernothers' reasoning
on secularizationtheory, which holds that on- and view of things. The processis similar to
going historicalprocesses of industrialization decodinga text or work of literature.Meaning
and urbanizationshapethe developmentof so- comesfrom the context of a cultural symbol
ciety. During thesemodernizationprocesses, system.
peoplerely lesson traditional ways of doing Duneier's(1999)study of sidewalklife in
things. Religiousbeliefs and local community New York City discussedearlierin this chapter
ties weaken,as doesthe family's control over usedan interpretiveexplanation.An interpretive
young adults.Peopleno longer live their entire explanation is also illustrated by Edelman,
lives in small, homogeneouscommunities. Fuller, and Mara-Drita's(2001)study of how
Young adultsbecomemore independentfrom companiesadoptedpoliciesrelatedto diversity
their parentsand from the religious organiza- issuesin the early1990s-that is, affirmativeac-
tions that formerly playeda critical role in se- tion and equalopportunity. The authorsexam-
lectingmarriagepartners. inedwhat managerssaid,or their rhetoric,about
Societyhasa basicneedto organizethe way diversityconcerns.Rhetoricincludedvarious
peopleselectmarriagepartnersand find part- statementsaboutdiversitymadeby professiona
nerswith whom they sharefundamentalvalues. managers,businessschoolprofessors,and con-
CHAPTER2 , / T H E O R YA N D S O C I A L R E S E A R C H 4l
tions. Next, the researcher empiricallytestsout- view of social reality. This view holds that hu-
comespredictedby the principlein concreteset- man social life is based less on objective, hard,
tings usingvery precisemeasures.In this way, a factual reality than on the ideas,beliefs, and per-
generallaw or principlecoversmanyspecificsit- ceptions that people hold about reality. In other
uations.For example,a generalprinciple says words, people socially interact and respond
that when two socialgroupsare unequaland basedas much, if not more, on what theybilieve
competefor scarceresources,in-group feelings to be real than what is objectively real. This
and hostility toward the other groupsintensify, means that social scientistswill be able to under-
and the competinggroupsarelikely to engagein stand social life only if they study how people go
conflict. The principle appliesto sportsteams, about constructing social reality. As people grow
countries,ethnicgroups,families,and other so- up, interact, and live their daily lives, they con-
cial groupings.A researchermight deducethat tinuously create ideas, relationships, symbols,
in citieswith high levelsof interracialinequality, and roles that they consider to be meaningful or
when jobs becomemore scarceand therebyin- important. Theseinclude things such as intimate
creaseeconomic competition, eachgroup will emotional attachments, religious or moral
expressgreaterhostility about the other racial ideals,beliefs in patriotic values,racial-ethnic or
groups, and intergroup conflict (e.g., riots, gender differences, and artistic expressions.
demonstrations,violent attacks)will increase. Rarely do people relate to the objective facts of
The vast majority of positivist studiesare reality directly; instead, they do so through the
quantitative,and positivistsgenerallyseethe ex- filter of these socially constructed beliefs and
periment as the idealway to do research.posi- perceptions. What positivists and many people
tivist researchers also use other quantitative view to be objective facts (e.g., a person's
researchtechniques,suchassurveysor existing height), interpretive researcherssay are only at
statistics,but tend to seethem as approxima- the trivial surface level of social iife. Or, the
tions of the experimentfor situationswherean "facts" are images/categoriesthat humans cre-
experimentis impossible.Positivistresearchers ated (i.e., I am two meters tall) and we "forget,'
advocatevalue-freescience,seekprecisequanti- that people originated the images/categoriesbut
tative measures,test causaltheorieswith statis- now treat them as being separate from people
tics,and believein the importanceof replicating and objectively real.
studies. Interpretive researchersare skeptical ofthe
positivist attempts to produce precise quantita-
Interpretive Approach tive measures of objective facts. This is because
they view social reality as very fluid. For most
The interpretiveapproachis alsoscientific,but humans, social reality is largely the shifting per-
its seesthe idea of "scientific" differently from ceptions that they are constantly constructing,
positivism.Unlike thepositivistapproach,inter- testing, reinforcing, or changing and that have
pretive researchers saythat human sociallife is become embedded in social traditions or institu-
qualitativelydifferentfrom other thingsstudied tions. For this reason, interpretive researchers
by science.This meansthat socialscientistscan- tend to trust and favor qualitative data. Theybe-
not just borrow the principlesof sciencefrom lieve that qualitative data can more accurately
the natural sciences. Instead,they believeit is capture the fluid processesof social reality. In
necessary to createa specialtype ofscience,one addition, they favor interpretive over causal
basedon the uniqueness of humansandonethat forms of theory (see discussion earlier in this
canreallycapturehuman sociallife. chapter).
Most researchers who use an interpretive Interpretive researchersare not likely to
approachadopt a versionofthe constructionist adopt a nomothetic approach,but insteadfavor
44 P A RToNE ,/ F o u N D A T ro N s
an idiographic form of explanation and use in- because it profoundly shapes much of human
ductive reasoning. Idiographic literally means action.
specific description and refers to explaining an The critical approach has an activist orien-
aspectof the social world by offering a highly de- tation and favors action research. Praxis is the
tailed picture or description of a specific social ultimate test of how good an explanation is in
setting, process, or t'?e of relationship. For ex- the critical approach. It is a blending of theory
ample, qualitative researchersdo not seereplica- and concrete action; theory informs one about
tion as the ultimate test of knowledge. Instead, the specific real-world actions one should take
they emphasize verstehenor empathetic under- to advancesocial change,and one usesthe expe-
standing. Verstehenis the desire of a researcher riencesofengaging in action for social changeto
to get inside the worldview of those he or she is reformulate the theory. All the approachesseea
studying and accurately represent how the peo- mutual relationship between abstract theory and
ple being studied seethe world, feel about it, and concrete empirical evidence, but the critical ap-
act. In other words, the best test of good social proach goesfurther and tries to dissolve the gap
knowledge is not replication but whether the re- between abstract theory and the empirical expe-
searcher can demonstrate that he or she really riences of using the theory to make changes in
captured the inner world and personal perspec- the world.
tive of the people studied.
deductive approach E n dn o t e s
empirical generalization
functionaltheory 1. SeeFelson(1991),FelsonandFelson(1993)'and
grounded theory Logan(1991)for a discussionof blameanalysis.
2. For more detaileddiscussionsof concepts,see
ideal type
Chafetz(1978:45-61),Hage(1972:9-85)' Kaplan
idiographic (1964'34-80), Mullins (197l:7-18), Reynolds
inductive approach (I97I), and Stinchcombe(1968,1973)'
macro-level theory 3. Turner (1980)discussed how sociologicalexpla-
meso-leveltheory nation and theorizingcan be conceptualizedas
micro-level theory translation.
negative relationship 4. Classificationsare discussedin Chafetz(1978:
nomothetic 63-73) andHage(1972).
paradigm 5. Introductions to alternativetheoreticalframe- &
positive relationship works and socialtheoriesare providedin Craib
praxis (1984), Phillips (1985:44-59),and Skidmore
prediction
(re7e).
6. An introductionto functionalexplanationcanbe
proposition
found in Chafea (I97 8:22-25).
replication
verstehen
TR3
Ethicsin SocialResearch
Introduction
Why Be Ethical?
ScientificMisconduct
Unethicalbut Legal
Power Relations
Ethical lssues Involving Research Participants
Originsof ResearchParticipantProtection
PhysicalHarm,Psychological
Abuse,and LegalJeopardy
Other Harmto Participants
Deception
InformedConsent
SpecialPopulations
and New Inequalities
Privacy,Anonymity,and Confidentiality
MandatedProtectionsof Research
Participants
Ethics and the Scientific Community
Ethics and the Sponsors of Research
Whistle-Blowing
Arrivingat Particular
Findings
Suppressing
Findings
Concealing
the TrueSponsor
Politics of Research
Value-Free and Objective Research
Conclusion
48 PART ONE / FO UNDATI O NS
calledscientificmisconduct;it includesresearch
fraud and plagiarism.Scientificmisconductoc_ r
FIcURE 3.1 TypoloryofLegaland
curs when a researcherfalsifiesor distorts the MoralActionsin Social
dataor the methodsof datacollection,or plagia_ Research
rizesthe work of others.It alsoincludessienifi_
cant, unjustified departuresfrom the genlraily ETHICAL
acceptedscientificpracticesfor doing and re_
porting on research. LEGAL Yes No
Research fraud occurswhen
a researcherfakesor inventsdatathat he or she Yes Moral and Legal Legalbut lmmoral
did not really collect, or fails to honestly and
No lllegal but Moral lmmoral and lllegal
firllyreport howhe or sheconducteda study.Al_
thoughrare,it is considereda veryseriousviola-
tion. The most famouscaseof researchfraud
was that of Sir Cyril Burt, the father of British clearly unethical according to standards ofpro_
educationalpsychology.Burt died in I97I asan fessional behavior.2 (SeeFigure 3.1 for relations
esteemedresearcherwho was famous for his between legal and moral actions.)
studieswith twins that showeda geneticbasisof
intelligence.In 1976,it was discoveredthat he
had falsifieddata and the namesof coauthors.
Unfortunately,the scientificcommunity had POWER RELATIONS
beenmisledfor nearly30years.More recently,a A professionalresearcherand the researchpar_
socialpsychologistwasdiscoveredto havefabri_ ticipantsor employee-assistants
cateddata for severalexperimentson sexbias are in a rela_
tionship of unequal power and trust. An
conductedat Harvard Universityin the tg9Os. experimenter,surveydirector,or researchinves_
Plagiarismoccurswhen a..raur.ir., ..steals,' the tigator haspower over participantsand assis_
ideasor writings of anotheror usesthem with_ tants,and in turn, theytrust his or herjudgment
out citing the source.plagiarismalso includes and authority. The researcher,scredeitials,
stealingthe work of anotherresearcher, an assis_ training, professionalrole, and the placeofsci_
tant, or a student,and misrepresentingit as encein modernsocietylegitimatethepowerand
one'sown. Theseareseriousbreachesof ethical make it into a form of expert authoiity. Some
standards.l ethical issuesinvolve an abuseof power and
trust. A researcher's authority to conductsocial
Unethicalbut Legal researchand to earn the trust of othersis ac_
companiedalwaysby an unyielding ethical re_
Behaviormay be unethicalbut legal (i.e.,not sponsibilityto guide,protect,and overseethe
breakany law). A plagiarismcaseillustratesthe interestsof the peoplebeingstudied.
distinction betweenlegal and ethicalbehavior. When looking for ethical guidance,re_
The AmericanSociologicalAssociationdocu_ searchers arenot alone.Theycanturn to a num_
mentedthat a 1988book without any footnotes ber of resources: professionalcolleagues, ethical
by a deanfrom EasternNew Mexico University advisorycommittees,institutionalreviewboards
containedlarge sectionsof a 197gdissertation or human subjectscommitteesat a collegeor in_
that a sociologyprofessorat Tufts University stitution (discussedlater), codesof ethicsbv
y9t.. Copyingthe dissertarionwasnot illegal;it professionalassociations (discussed later in this
did not violatecopyrightlaw becausethe sJcio- chapter),and writings on ethicsin research.The
ogist'sdissertationdid not havea copyrightfiled largerresearchcommunity firmly supportsand
with the U.S. government.Neverthii.ri it *u, upholds ethicalbehavior,evenif an-individual
PART ONE / F OUNDAT ION5
PhysicalHarm,Psychological
Abuse, tential psychologicalharm that researchpartici-
and Legalfeopardy pants experienced.Others believethat the ex-
treme stressand the risk of permanentharm
Socialresearchcan harm a researchparticipant
weretoo great.Suchan experimentcould not be
in severalways:physical,psychological, andlegal
conductedtodaybecauseof heightenedsensitiv-
harm, aswell asharm to a person'scareer)repu-
ity to the ethicalissuesinvolved.
tation, or income. Different typesof harm are
Socialresearchers havecreatedhigh levelsof
morelikely in othertypesof research(e.g.,in ex-
perimentsversus field research).It is a re- anxietyor discomfort.They haveexposedpar-
ticipantsto gruesomephotos; fuk"ly told male
searcher'sresponsibilityto be awareof all types
studentsthat they havestrongfeminineperson-
ofpotential harm and to takespecificactionsto
ality traits; falselytold studentsthat they have
minimize the risk to participantsat all times.
failed; createda situation of high fear (e.g.,
PhysicalHarm. Physicalharm is rare.Evenin smokeenteringa room in which the door is
biomedicalresearch, wherethe interventioninto locked); asked participantsto harm others;
a person'slife is much greater,3 to 5 percentof placedpeoplein situationswheretheyfacesocial
studiesinvolved any person who sufferedany pressureto denytheir convictions;and had par-
harm.6A straightforwardethicalprincipleis that ticipantslie, cheat,or steal.TResearchers who
researchers should never causephysicalharm. study helpingbehavioroften placeparticipants
An ethicalresearcher anticipatesrisksbeforebe- in emergencysituationsto seewhetherthey will
ginning a study,including basicsafetyconcerns lend assistance. For example,Piliavin and asso-
(e.g.,safebuildings,furniture, and equipment). ciates(1969)studiedhelpingbehaviorin sub-
This meansthat he or shescreensout high-risk ways by faking someone'scollapseonto the
subjects(thosewith heart conditions,mental floor. In the field experiment,the riders in the
breakdown,seizures,etc.) if great stressis in- subwaycarwereunawareof the experimentand
volvedand anticipatespossiblesourcesofinjury did not volunteerto participatein it.
or physicalattackson researchparticipantsor The only researchers who might evencon-
assistants.The researcheracceptsmoral and le- siderconductinga studythat purposelyinduces
gal responsibilityfor injury due to participation great stressor anxiety in researchparticipants
in researchandterminatesa projectimmediately arevery experiencedand take all necessary pre-
if he or she can no longer fully guaranteethe cautionsbeforeinducing anxietyor discomfort.
physicalsafetyof the people involved (seethe The researchers shouldconsultwith otherswho
Zimbardostudyin Box 3.1). have conducted similar studies and mental
healthprofessionals astheyplan the studn They
PsychologicalAbuse, Stress,or Lossof Self- should screenout high-riskpopulations(e.g.,
Esteem, The risk of physicalharm is rare,but thosewith emotionalproblemsor weakhearts),
socialresearchers can place peoplein highly and arrangefor emergenryinterventions or ter-
stressful,embarrassing,anxiety-producing,or mination of the researchif dangeroussituations
unpleasantsituations.Researchers want to learn arise.Theymust alwaysobtainwritten informed
about people'sresponses in real-life,high-anxi- consent(to be discussed)beforethe research
ety-producing situations,so they might place and debrief the people immediatelyafterward
peoplein realisticsituationsof psychological dis- (i.e.,explainany deceptionand what actually
comfort or stress.Is it unethicalto causedis- happenedin the study). Researchers should
comfort? The ethics of the famous Milgram nevercreateunnecessary stress(i.e.,beyondthe
obedience studyarestill debated(seeBox 3.1). minimal amountneededto createthe desiredef-
Some say that the precautionstaken and the fect) or stressthat lacksa very clear,legitimate
knowledgegainedoutweighedthe stressandpo- researchpurpose. Knowing what "minimal
PART ONE / F OUNDA IION5
one to participate in research,and do not lie to be best.When in doubt,it is bestto err in the di-
anyone unless it is necessaryand the only way to rectionof disclosingone'strue identity and pur-
accomplish a legitimate research purpose. The pose.Covertresearchremainscontroversial,and
people who participate in social researchshould many researchers feelthat all covertresearchis
explicitly agree to participate. A person's right unethical.Eventhosewho acceptcovertresearch
not to participate can be a critical issue when- asethicalin certainsituationssaythat it should
ever the researcherusesdeception, disguisesthe be usedonlywhen overt observationis impossi-
research.or usescovert researchmethods. ble. Wheneverpossible,the researchershould
Social researcherssometimes deceive or lie inform participantsof the observationimmedi-
to participants in field and experimental re- ately afterwardsand give them an opportunity
search. A researcher might misrepresent his or to expressconcerns.
her actions or true intentions for legitimate Deceptionand covertresearchmay increase
methodological reasons.For example, if partici- mistrustand qfnicismaswell asdiminish public
pants knewthe true purpose, theywould modifr respectfor socialresearch.Misrepresentationin
their behavior, making it impossible to learn of field researchis analogousto being an under-
their real behavior. Another situation occurs coveragentor governmentinformer in nonde-
when accessto a researchsite would be impossi- mocratic societies.The use of deceptionhas a
ble if the researchertold the truth. Deception is long-term negativeeffect.It increasesdistrust
never preferable if the researchercan accomplish among peoplewho are frequentlystudied and
the same thing without using deception. makesdoing socialresearchmore difficult in the
Experimental researchersoften deceivesub- long term.
jects to prevent them from learning the hypoth-
esisbeing tested and to reduce "reactive effects"
lnformed Consent
(seeChapter 8). Deception is acceptableonly if a
researcher can show that it has a clear, specific A fundamentalethicalprinciple of socialre-
methodological purpose, and even then, the re- searchis: Never coerceanyoneinto participat-
searcher should use it only to the minimal de- ing; participationmustbevoluntary at all times.
gree necessary.Researcherswho use deception Permissionaloneis not enough;peopleneedto
should always obtain informed consent, never know what they arebeingaskedto participatein
misrepresent risks, and always explain the actual sothat theycanmakean informeddecision.Par-
conditions to participants afterwards.You might ticipants can becomeawareof their rights and
ask, How can a researcherobtain prior informed what theyaregettinginvolvedin whenthey read
consent and still use deception? He or she can and sign a statementgiwng informedconsent-
describe the basic procedures involved and con- an agreementby participants stating they are
ceal only specific information about hlpotheses willing to be in a study and they know some-
being tested. thing aboutwhat the researchprocedurewill in-
Sometimes field researchersuse covert ob- volve.
servation to gain entry to field researchsettings. Governmentsvary in the requirement for
In studies of cults, small extremist political sects, informed consent.The U.S.federalgovernment
illegal or deviant behavior, or behavior in a large doesnot require informed consentin all re-
public area, it may be impossible to conduct re- searchinvolving human subjects.Nevertheless,
search if a researcher announces and discloses researchers shouldgetwritten informed consent
her or his true purpose. Ifa covert stance is not unlesstherearegoodreasonsfor not obtainingit
essential,a researchershould not use it. If he or (e.g.,covertfield research,
useofsecondarydata,
she does not know whether covert accessis nec- etc.) asjudgedby an institutional reviewboard
essary then a strategy of gradual disclosure may (IRB) (seethe laterdiscussion of IRBs).
CHAPT ER 3 ,/ E TH IC S IN SOC IA L R E S E A R C H 55
agencieswho makethe information public also sponsor'scriticism and hostility and releasethe
occurs.In 2004,leadingscientists,Nobel laure_ findings
over the sponsor,sobjections.Most re_
ates,leading medical experts,former federal
searchers preferthe first choice,sincethe second
agencydirectors,and universitychairsandpres_ one
mayscareawayfirturesponsors.
identssigneda statementvoicing .orr..r.r'orr.,
Socialresearchers sometimesself_censor or
the misuseof sciencebythe GeorgeW. Bushad_ delay
the releaseof findings.Theydo this to pro_
ministration.Major accusationiincluded su_ tect
the identity of informants,to maintain ac_
pressingresearchfindingsand stackingscientific
cessto a researchsite,to hold on to their iobs.or
advisorycommitteeswith ideologicallicommit_
to protect the pe.rconalsafetyof themselvesor
ted adyocatesrather than impaitial scientists. family
members.15 This is a lessdisturbingtype
Other complaintsincluded limiting the public of censorshipbecauseit is not imposed"bvan
releasestudieson auto-safteydata,negativedata orrtsidepower. It is done by someonewho is
about pharmaceuticals, and studiesin pollu_ close to the researchand who is knowledgeable
tion. Theseinvolvedindustriesthat were^major about
possibleconsequences. Researchersjroul_
political campaignsupportersof the administra_
de-rthe ultimateresponsibilityfor their research.
tion. Additional criticismsappearedover re_ Often,
they can draw on many different re_
moving a goyernmentfact sheetciting studies sources
but they facemanycompetingpressures,
that showedno relationshipbetweenabortions as
well.
and breastcancer,removingstudyresultsabout
positiveeffectsof condomusein pregnancypre_
vention, holding back information on poritirr. Concealing the True Sponsor
aspectsof stem cell research,and requiring re_ Is it ethicalto keepthe identity of a sponsorse_
searchersto revisetheir study findings on iurr_ cret?For example,an abortion clinic funds a
gersofarctic oil drilling and endangeiedspecies
study on membersof religiousgroupswho op_
so they would conform to the administraiion's pose
abortion, but it tells the researchernot to
political agenda.An independent2005surveyof revealto participantswfro is funding the study.
460 biologistswho worked for FisheriesSeryice The
researcher must balancethe ethilal rule that
found that about one-third said they were di_ it is usuallybestto reveala sponsor,sidentity to
rectedto suppressfindingsfor nonscientificrea_ participants
againstboth the sponsor,sdesirefor
sons or to inappropriately exclude or alter confidentialityand reducedcooperationby par_
technicalinformation from an official scientific ticipants
in the study.In generil, an ethiJ re_
document.In fune 2005,it wasdiscoveredthat a searcherwill t€ll subjectswho is sponsoringa
political appointeewithout scientific training
study unlessthere is a strong methodologilal
who hadpreviouslybeenan oil industrvlobbvist
for not doingso.When reportingor
waschargedwith editingofficialgovernmentre_ ,t.1r.o"lishing results,the ethicalmandateisvlrv de-,
iub_
ports to play down the researchfindings that
A researcher must alwaysrevealthe sponsorwho
documentedlinkagesbetweensuch emlssions provides
fundsfor a study.
and globalwarming.la
In sponsoredresearch,a researchercan ne_
gotiateconditionsfor releasingfindingsprior to
beginningthe study and sign a contraitio that POLITIC S OF R E S E A R C H
effect.It may be unwise to conduct the study Ethics largely addressmoral concerns and stan_
without sucha guarantee,althoughcompeting dards
ofprofessional conduct in research that
researchers who havefewerethicalscruplesmay are under the researcher'scontrol. political con_
do so.Alternatively,a researchercan aicept the cerns also afi[ectsocial research, but many are be_
64 P A RToNE / F o u N D AT ro N s
yond the control of researchers. The politics of want to protect or advancetheir political-
researchusuallyinvolveactionsby organizedad- financialposition, and fear socialresearcher
vocacygroups,powerful interestsin society, might yield findings showingthat their actions
governments,or politicianstrying to restrictor are harmful to the public or some sectorsof
control the direction of socialresearch.Histori- society.And third, somepeoplein societydo not
cally,the political influenceover socialresearch respectthe idealsof scienceto pursue truth/
has included preventingresearchers from con- knowledgeand insteadview scientificresearch
ducting a study,cutting off or redirectingfunds only ascoverfor advancingprivateintereists(see
for research,harassingindividual researchers, Box3.4).
censoringthe releaseof researchfindings, and
using socialresearchas a cover or guisefor
covertgovernmentintelligence/militaryactions.
vALUE-FREEAND OBJECTTVE ,
For example,U.S. Congressmemberstargeted
RESEARCH
and eliminatedfunding for researchprojects
that independentpanelsof scientistsrecom- You haveundoubtedlyheardabout"value-free"
mendedbecauseCongressdid not like the topics researchand the importanceof being "objec-
that would be studied,and politicallyappointed tive" in research.This is not assimpleat it might
officialsshiftedresearchfunds to suppoft more first appearfor severalreasons.First, there are
studieson topics consistentwith their political different meaningsof the terms valuefree and
viewswhile endingsupportfor studieson topics objective. Second,different approachesto social
that might contradicttheir views.A largecom- science(positivism,interpretative,critical) hold
panythreatenedan individual researcher with a different viewson the issue.And last. evenre-
lawsuitfor deliveringexperttestimonyin public searchers who agreethat socialresearchshould
aboutresearchfindingsthat revealedits pastbad be valuefreeand objectivedo not believethat it
conduct.Until about a decadeago,socialre- needsto be totally devoidof all values.
searchers who appearedto be independentwere Therearetwo basicwaysthe term valuefree
actuallyconductingcovertU.S.governmentin- is used:researchthat is free from any prior as-
telligenceactivities.l6 sumptions,theoreticalstand,or valueposition,
Most usesof political or financialinfluence and researchthat is conductedfree ofinfluence
to control socialresearchsharea desireto limit from an individual researcher's personalprejrr-
knowledgecreationor restrictthe autonomous dices/beliefs.Likewise,objectivecanmeanfocus-
scientific investigationof controversialtopics. ing only on what is externalor visible,or it can
Attempts at control seemmotivated by a fear mean following clearand publicly acceptedre-
that researchers might discoversomethingdam- searchproceduresand not haphazard,personal
aging if they have freedom of inquiry. This ones.
showsthat freescientificinquiry is connectedto The three approachesto socialsciencethat
fundamentalpolitical idealsof open public de- you readaboutin Chapter2 hold differentposi-
bate,democracy,and freedomof expression. tions on the importanceof value-free,objective
The attemptsto block and steersocialre- research.Positivismputs a high value on such
searchhavethreemain reasons.First,somepeo- research.An interpretiveapproachseriously
ple defendor advancepositionsand knowledge questionswhetherit is possible,sincehuman
that originatein deeplyheld ideological,politi- values/beliefs pervadeall aspectsof human ac-
cal, or religiousbeliefs,and fear that socialre- tivities,including research.Insteadof eliminat-
searchersmight produce knowledge that ing valuesand subjectivedimension,it suggests a
contradictsthem. Second,powerful interests relativiststance-no singlevaluepositionis bet-
CHAPT ER 3 / ETH IC S IN SOC IA L R E S E A R C H 65
ter than any other. A critical approach also ques_ or her own value position explicit, reflect care_
tions value-free research,but seesit often as a fully on reasonsfor doing a study and the proce_
sham. dures used,and communicate in a candid, clear
Value free means free of everyone's values manner exactly how the study was conducted. In
except those of science,and objectivemeans fol- this way, other researchersseethe role of a re_
lowing establishedrules or procedures that some searcher's values and judge for themselves
people created, without considering who they whether the values unfairly influenced a studv's
represent and how they created the rules. In findings.
other words, a critical approach seesall research Even highly positivist researcherswho ad_
ascontaining somevalues,so thosewho claim to vocate value-free and objective studies admit a
be value free are just hiding theirs. Those who limited place for some personal, moral values.
follow an interpretive and critical approach and Many hold that a researcher'spersonal, moral
reject value-free researchdo not embrace sloppy position can enter when it comes to decidine
and haphazard research, research procedures what topic to study and how to disseminati
that follow a particular researcher's.hi-r, o, u findings. Being value free and obiectir.e oniv
study that has a foregone conclusion and auto- refers to actually conducting the studr.. This
matically supports a specific value position. means that you can study the issuesvou believe
They believe that a researcher should make his to be important and after completing a study
66 PART oNE / FoUNDATToNS
lntroduction
Literature Review
Whereto FindResearchLiterature
How to Conduct a SystematicLiteratureReview
TakingNotes
Writing the Review
What a Cood ReviewLooksLike
Using the Internet for Social Research
Qualitative and Quantitative Orientations toward Research
Linearand NonlinearPaths
Preplannedand EmergentResearchQuestions
Qualitative Design lssues
The LanguageofCasesand Contexts
CroundedTheory
The Context ls Critical
The Caseand Process
Interpretation
Quantitative Design lssues
The Language ofVariablesand Hypotheses
CausalTheoryand Hypotheses
Aspectsof Explanation
Fromthe ResearchQuestionto Hypotheses
Conclusion
58
C HAPTER4 ,/ REVI EW I NGTHE SCHO LARLYLI TER A T U R E
A N D P L A N N I N GA S T U D Y 69
ASR Style
Peterand HannahBiickner.
Bearman, the Future:VirginityPledges
200.| . "Promising and FirstIntercourse."
American of
Journal 1
Sociologlr05:859-91 2.
APA Style
P.,and Biickner,
Bearman, the future:Virginitypledgesandfirst intercourse.
H. (2001). Promising Ameican
105, 859-912.
Joumalof Sociolog;r
Other Styles
Bearman, "Promising
P.,and H. Bi.ickner. the Future:VirginityPledgesand FirstIntercourse,"
American
Journal
1 06 (2001 ), 859-912.
of Sociologlr
Bearman,Peterand HannahBilckner, 200.l .
"Promisingthe future:Virginitypledgesandfirst Intercourse."Am.J. of Sociol.
106:859- 912.
Bearman,P.and Bijckner, H. (2001). "Promisingthe Future:VirginityPledges and FirstIntercourse."Anreri-
canJournalof Sociolog1 06 (January): 859-91 2.
Bearman,Peterand Hannah 200,|.
Biickner.
"Promisingthe future:Virginity pledgesand first Intercourse."AmericanJournalof Sociology106
$ ):8 59-9 12.
Bearman, P.and H. Bijckner.(2001 ). "Promisingthe future:Virginitypledgesandfirstintercourse."
American
Journalof Sociolog1 06, 859 -91 2.
PeterBearmanand HannahBtickner,"Promising the Future:VirginityPledgesand FirstIntercourse,"
American
'l 06, no. 4 (2001): 859-912.
Journalof Sociolog
reports,and booksto read.I found about 49 of though you may not use someand later erase
the 80 sourcesvaluable,and they appearin the them. Do not forgetanythingin a completebib-
bibliographyof the publishedarticle. liographiccitation,suchasa pagenumber or the
name of the secondauthor; you will regret it
ScholarlyBooks. Finding scholarlybooks on a later.It is far easierto erasea sourceyou do not
subjectcanbe difficult. The subjecttopicsof li- usethan to try to locatebibliographicinforma-
brary catalogsystemsareusuallyincompleteand tion laterfor a sourceyou discoverthat you need
too broad to be usefirl.Moreover,they list only or from which you forgot one detail.
booksthat arein a particularlibrary system,al- I recommendcreatingtwo kinds of Source
thoughyou maybe ableto searchother libraries Files,or dividea masterfile into two parts:Hatte
for interlibrary loan books. Libraries organize File and Potential File. The Have File is for
booksby call numbersbasedon subjectmatter. sourcesthat you havefound and for which you
Again,the subjectmatterclassifications may not havealreadytakencontentnotes.The Potentiaf
reflectthe subjectsof interestto you or all the File is for leadsand possiblenew sourcesthat
subjectsdiscussed in a book. Once you learnthe you haveyet to track down or read.You canadd
systemfor your library, you will find that most to the PotentialFile anytimeyou comeacrossa
bookson a topic will sharethe main partsof the new sourceor in the bibliographyof something
callnumber.In addition,librarianscanhelpyou you read.Towardthe end ofwriting a report,the
locatebooksfrom other libraries.For example, PotentialFile will disappearwhile the HaveFile
the Library of Congress National Union Catalog will becomeyour bibliography.
listsall booksin the U.S.Libraryof Congress. Li- Your note cardsor computerdocumentsgo
brarianshaveaccess to sourcesthat list booksat into the ContentFile.This file containssubstan-
other libraries,or you can use the Internet. tive information of interestfrom a source'usu-
There is no sure-fire way to locate relevant ally its major findings, detailsof methodology,
books.Usemultiple searchmethods,includinga definitionsofconcepts,or interestingquotes.If
look at journalsthat havebook reviewsand the you directlyquotefrom a sourceor want to take
bibliographiesof articles. some specificinformation from a source'you
needto record the specificpagenumber(s) on
which the quote appears.Link the files by
Taking Notes putting key sourceinformation, suchasauthor
As you gatherthe relevantresearchliterature, it is and date,on eachcontentfile.
easyto feel overwhelmedby the quantity of in-
formation,soyou needa systemfor takingnotes. What to Record. You will find it much easier
The old-fashionedapproachis to write notes to takeall noteson the sametlpe and sizeof pa-
onto indexcards.You thenshift andsortthenote per or card, rather than having somenoteson
cards,placethem in piles, and so forth as you sheetsofpapers,otherson cards,and so on. Re-
look for connectionsamongthem or developan searchers haveto decidewhat to recordaboutan
outline for a report or paper.This method still article,book, or othersource.It is betterto err in
works. Today,however,most peopleuseword- the directionof recordingtoo much ratherthan
processingsoftwareand gatherphotocopiesor too little. In general,record the hlpotheses
printed versionsof manyarticles. tested,how major conceptsweremeasured,the
As you discoversources,it is a good ideato main findings,the basicdesignof the research
createtvvokinds of files for your note cardsor the group or sampleused,and ideasfor future
computer documents: a Source File and a study(seeBox4.2).It is wiseto examinethe re-
ContentFile.Recordall the bibliographicinfor- port's bibliography and note sourcesthat you
mation for eachsourcein the SourceFile, even canadd to your search.
C HAPTER4 ,/ REV I EW I NCTHE SCHO LARLYLI TER A T U R E
A N D P L A N N I N CA S T U D Y 79
NOTECARD(CONTENTF|LE)
Bearman
and Biickner200.1 Topics: Teenpregnancy& sexuality,
pledges,/promises,
virginity,first sexual
intercourse,
S. Baptists,identitymovement
Hypothesis
Adolescents will engagein behaviorthat adultsenjoy but that is forbiddento
thembasedon the amountof socialcontrolsthat constrainopportunities to en-
gagein forbiddenbehavior. Teensin nontraditionalfamilies
withgreaterfreedom
and lesssupervision aremorelikelyto engagein forbiddenbehavior(sex).Teens
in traditionalfamiliesand who are closerto their parentswilldelaysexualactiv-
ity. Teenscloselytied to "identitymovements" outsidethe familywillmodifybe-
haviorbasedon normsthe movements teach.
Method
Dataarefroma nationalhealthsurveyof U.S.teensin grades7-12 whowerein
pu bl i cor pr iv at es c hoolsin 1 9 9 4 -1 9 9 5 . A to ta l o f 9 0 ,0 00 studentsi n ' l 4l
schoolscompletedquestionnaires. A secondquestionnaire was completedby
20,000 of the 90,000 students.The questionnaire askedabout a pledge,im-
portanceof religion,and sexualactivity.
Findings
The study found a substantialdelay in the timing of first intercourseamont
pledgers.Yet, the effectof pledgingvariesby the age of the teen.In addition,
pledgingonlyworksin somesocialcontexts(i.e.,whereit is at leastpartiallya so-
cialnorm).Pledgers tend to be morereligious,lessdevelopedphysically,
andfrom
moretraditionalsocialandfamilybackgrounds.
82 PART ON E , / FO UNDATI O NS
sources of information. Many websites, home link indicator (usuallya button or a highlighted
pages, and other Internet resource pages have word or phrase).This connectspeopleto more
"hot links" that can call up information from re- information and provides"instant" accessto
lated sites or sources simply by clicking on the cross-referenced material. Links make embed-
C HA PTER4 / REVIE W I NCTHE SCHO LARLYLI TERA T U R E
A N D P L A N N I N CA S T U D Y 83
Contrary to popular belief, the Internet has not inal materials and read them for ideasor to build
made all information free and accessible to on them. Also, it is easyto copy, modifr, or dis-
everyone. Often, what is free is limited, and tort, then reproduce copies ofa source. For ex-
firller information is available only to those who ample, a person could alter a text passageor a
pay. In fact, because some libraries redirected photo image then create a new webpage to dis-
funds to buy computers for the Internet and cut seminate the falseinformation. This raisesissues
the purchasesfor books and paper copies ofdoc- about coplright protection and the authenticity
uments, the Internet's overall impact may have of source material.
actually reduced what is availablefor some users. There are few rules for locating the best sites
on the Internet-ones that have useful and
3. Finding sources on the Internet can be
truthful information. Sources that originate at
very difficult and time consuming. It is not easy
universities, research institutes, or government
to locate specific source materials. Also, different
agencies usually are more trustworthy for re-
"search engines" can produce very different re-
search purposes than ones that are individual
sults. It is wise to use multiple search engines
home pagesof unspecified origin or location, or
(e.g., Yahoo, Excite, and Google), since they
that a commercialorganization or a politicaliso-
work differently. Most search engines simply
cial issue advocacy group sponsors. In addition
look for specific words in a short description of
to moving or disappearing, many webpages or
the webpage.This description maynot revealthe
sourcesfail to provide complete information to
fiJl content of the source, just as a title does not
make citation easy.Better sourcesprovide fuller
frrlly tell what a book or article is about. In addi-
or more complete information about the author,
tion, search engines often come up with tens of
date, location, and so on.
thousands of sources,far too many for anyone to
As you prepare a review of the scholarly lit-
examine. The ones at the "top" may be there be-
erature and more narrowly focus a topic, you
causethey were recently added to the Internet or
should be thinking about how to design a study.
becausetheir short description had severalver-
The specifics of design can vary somewhat de-
sions of the searchword. The "best" or most rel-
pending on whether your study will primarily
evant source might be buried as the 150th item
employ a quantitative-deductive-positivist ap-
found in a search. Also, one must often wade
proach or a qualitative-inductive-interpretive/
through a lot of commercials and advertise-
critical approach. The two approacheshave a
ments to locate "real" information.
great deal in common and mutually comple-
4. Internet sources can be "unstable" and ment one another, but there severalplaceswhere
difficult to document. After one conducts a "branches in the path" of designing a study di-
searchon the Internet and locateswebpageswith verge depending on the approach you adopt.
information, it is important to note the specific
"address" (usually it starts http:i/) where it re-
sides.This addressrefers to an electronic file sit-
QUALITATIVE AND
ting in a computer somewhere. If the computer
QUANTITATIVE ORI ENTATION S
file is moved, it may not be at the same address
TOWARD RESEARCH
two months later. Unlike a journal article that
will be stored on a shelf or on microfiche in hun- Qualitative and quantitative researchdiffer in
dreds of libraries for many decadesto come and manyways,but they complementeachother,as
available for anyone to read, webpages can well. All socialresearcherssystematically collect
quickly vanish. This means it may not be possi- and anallze empirical data and carefirlly exam-
ble to check someone's web referenceseasily, ine the patternsin them to understandand ex-
verifr a quote in a document, or go back to orig- plain sociallife. One of the differencesbefiveen
CHAPTER4 / A N D P L A N N I N GA S T U D Y
R EVI EW I NCTHE SCHO LARLYLI T E R A T U R E 85
the two stylescomes from the nature of the data. other researchershave trod. Alternatively, it may
Soft data, in the form of impressions,words, sen- be a new path into unknown territory where few
tences, photos, symbols, and so forth, dictate others have gone, and without signsmarking the
different research strategies and data collection direction forward.
techniques thanhard data, inthe form of num- In general, quantitative researchersfollow a
bers. Another difference is that qualitative and more linear path than do qualitative researchers.
quantitative researchersoften hold different as- Alinear researchpath follows a fixed sequenceof
sumptions about social life and have different steps;it is like a staircaseleading in one clear di-
objectives. These differences can make tools rection. It is a way of thinking and a way of look-
used by the other sryle inappropriate or irrele- ing at issues-the direct, narrow, straight path
vant. People who judge qualitative research by that is most common in western European and
standards ofquantitative researchare often dis- North American culture.
appointed, and vice versa.It is best to appreciate Qualitative research is more nonlinear and
the strengths each style offers. cyclical. Rather than moving in a straight line, a
To appreciatethe strengths ofeach style, it is nonlineqr researchpath makes successivepasses
important to understand the distinct orienta- through steps,sometimes movingbackward and
tions of researchers.Qualitative researchersof- sidewaysbefore moving on. It is more of a spiral,
ten rely on interpretive or critical social science, moving slowly upward but not directly. With
follow a nonlinear researchpath, and speak a eachcycle or repetition, a researchercollectsnew
language of "casesand contexts." They empha- data and gains new insights.
size conducting detailed examinations of cases People who are used to the direct, linear ap-
that arise in the natural flow of social life. They proach maybe impatient with a lessdirect cycli-
usually try to present authentic interpretations cal path. From a strict linear perspective, a
that are sensitive to specific social-historical cyclical path looks inefficient and sloppy. But the
contexts. diffuse cyclical approach is not merely disorga-
Almost all quantitative researchersrely on a nized, undefined chaos.It can be highly effective
positivist approach to social science.They follow for creating a feeling for the whole, for grasping
a linear researchpath, speaka language of"vari- subtle shades of meaning, for pulling together
ables and hypotheses," and emphasize precisely divergent information, and for switching per-
measuring variables and testing hypothesesthat spectives.It is not an excuse for doing poor-
are linked to general causalexplanations. quality research,and it has its own discipline and
Researcherswho use one style alone do not rigor. It borrows devicesfrom the humanities
always communicate well with those using the (e.g., metaphor, analogy, theme, motif, and
other, but the languagesand orientations ofthe irony) and is oriented toward constructing
styles are mutually intelligible. It takes time and meaning. A cyclical path is suited for tasks such
effort to understand both srylesand to seehow astranslating languages,where delicate shadesof
they can be complementary. meaning, subtle connotations, or contextual dis-
tinctions can be important.
Linear and Nonlinear Paths
Preplanned and Emergent Research
Researchersfollow a path when conducting re-
search.The path is a metaphor for the sequence
Questions
of things to do: what is finished first or where a Your first stepwhen beginninga researchproj-
researcherhas been, and what comes next or ect is to selecta topic. There is no formula for
where he or she is going. The path may be well this task.Whetheryou are an experienced re-
worn and marked with signposts where many searcheror just beginning,the bestguideis to
86 PART o NE / FoUNDATI oNS
TA B T E 4. ' I QuantitativeReasearch
versusQualitativeResearch
Insteadof trying to convertsociallife into vari- car's license number before proceeding?After
ablesor numbers,qualitativeresearchers borrow radioing the car's location, does the officer ask
ideasfrom the peoplethey studyand placethem the motorist to get out of the car sometimes, but
within the contextof a natural setting.They ex- in others casually walk up to the car and talk to
aminemotifs,themes,distinctions,and ideasin- the seateddriver? When data collection and the_
steadofvariables,and they adopt the inductive orizing are interspersed, theoretical questions
approachof groundedtheory. arise that suggestfuture observations, so new
Somepeoplebelievethat qualitativedataare data are tailored to answer theoretical questions
"soft," intangible,and immaterial.Suchdataare that came from thinking about previorri dutu.
so fuzzy and elusivethat researchers cannot re-
ally capturethem. This is not necessarily the
case.Qualitativedata are empirical.They in- The Context ls Critical
volve documentingreal events,recordingwhat Qualitativeresearchers
emphasize
the social
peoplesay(with words,gestures, and tone),ob- contextfor understandingthe socialworld. They
servingspecificbehaviors,studyingwritten doc_ hold that the meaningof a socialactionor state_
uments,or examiningvisual images.Theseare ment depends,in an important way,on the con-
all concreteaspectsof the world. For example, text in which it appears.When a researcher
some qualitativeresearchers take and cloiely removesan event,socialaction, answerto a
scrutinizephotosor videotapes ofpeopleor so- question,or conversationfrom the socialcon_
cial events.This evidenceis just as "hird,, and text in which it appears,or ignoresthe context,
physicalasthat usedby quaniitativeresearchers socialmeaningand significancearedistorted.
to measureattitudes,social pressure,intelli_ Attention to socialcontext meansthat a
gence,and the like. qualitativeresearcher noteswhat camebeforeor
what surroundsthe focus of study. It also im_
Grounded Theory pliesthat the sameeventsor behaviorscanhave
different meaningsin different culturesor his_
A qualitativeresearcherdevelopstheory during torical eras.For example,insteadof ignoringthe
the datacollectionprocess.This more inductive context and counting votesacrosstime or cul_
method meansthat theory is built from dataor tures)a qualitativeresearcherasks:What does
groundedin the data.Moreover,conceptualiza- voting meanin the context?He
or shemay treat
tion and operationalizationoccur simultane- the samebehavior(e.g.,voting for presidential
a
ouslywith datacollectionand preliminarv dara candidate)differently depending
on the social
analysis.It makesqualitative iesearchflexible context in which it occurs. eualitative re-
and letsdataand theoryinteract.eualitative re- searchersplaceparts of sociallife into a larger
searchers remain open to the unexpected,are whole. Otherwise,the meaningof the part niay
willing to changethe direction or focusof a re- be lost. For example,it is hard to understand
searchproject, and may abandontheir original what a baseballgloveis without knowins some-
researchquestionin the middle of a project. thing about the gameof baseball.the r.,iholeof
A qualitativeresearcherbuilds theory by the game-innings, bats,curveballs,hits-gives
making comparisons.For example,when a re- meaningto eachpart, and eachpart without the
searcherobservesan event(e.g.,a police officer wholehaslittle meaninc.
confrontinga speeding motorist),he or sheim-
mediatelypondersquestionsand looks for sim-
ilaritiesand differences.
When watchinga police The Case and Process
officer stop a speeder,a qualitative researcher In quantitativeresearch,casesare usually
the
asksjDoesthe police officer alwaysradio in the sameasa unit of analysis,or the unit on which
variablesaremeasured(discussed tative researchergivesmeaningby rearranging,
later). Quan-
titativeresearchers typically measure examining,and discussingtextualor visualdata
variablesof
their hypotheses across many cases. in a way that conveysan authenticvoice,or that
For exam-
ple,ifa researcher conducts a survey of450remainstrue to the original understandingsof
indi-
viduals. each individual is a case or the peopleand situationsthat he or shestudied.
unit on
which he or she measures variables. QualitativeInsteadof relying on charts,statistics,and
researchers tend to use a "case-orientedap- displaysof numbers,qualitativeresearchers put
proach [that] placescases,not variables,center a greater emphasison interpreting the data.
stage"(Ragin,1992:5).They examinea wide va- Their data are often "richer" or more complex
riety ofaspectsofone or a fewcases. and full of meaning.The qualitativeresearcher
Their analy-
sesemphasize contingencies in "messy'' interpretsto "translate"or make the originally
natural
settings (i.e.,the co-occurrence of many gathereddata understandableto other people.
specific
factorsand eventsin oneplaceandtime). Expla- th" pro..tt of qualitativeinterpretationmoves '
nationsor interpretationsarecomplexand may through threestagesor levels.
be in the form of an unfoldingplot or a narrative A researcherbeginswith the point of view
story about particularpeopleor specificevents. of the peoplehe or sheis studying,and the re-
Rich detail and astuteinsight into the casesre- searcherwants to graspfully how they seethe
placethe sophisticatedstatisticalanalysisofpre- world, how they define situations,or what
cisemeasuresacrossa huge number of units or thingsmeanto them.Aflrst-orderinterpretation
casesfound in quantitativeresearch. containsthe inner motives,personalreasons
The passage and point of view of the peoplewho are being
of time is integralto qualitative
research.Qualitativeresearchers studiedin the originalcontext.As the researcher
look at the se-
quenceofeventsand pay attention discoversand documentsthis first-order inter-
to what hap-
pens first, second,third, and so pretation, he or sheremainsone stepremoved
on. Because
qualitative researchersexamine samecaseor
the from it. The researcher offersasecond-order in-
set of casesover time, they can seean issue terpretation,which is an acknowledgmentthat
evolve,a conflict emerge,or a socialrelationshiphowevermuch a researchertries to get very
develop.The researchercan detectprocessand closeand "under the skin" of thosehe or sheis
causalrelations. studying,a researcheris still "on the outside
In historicalresearch,the passage lookingin." In the second-order
of time interpretation
may involveyearsor decades. In field the researchertries to elicit an underlying co-
research'
the passageof time is shorter.Nevertheless, herenceor senseof overallmeaningin the data.
in
both, a researcher noteswhat is occurring To reach an understandingof what he or she
at dif-
ferent points in time and recognizesthat when seesor hears,a researcheroften placesthe data
somethingoccursis often important. into a context of the larger flow of eventsand
behaviors.A qualitativeresearcherwill often
moveto the third stepand link the understand-
Interpretation ing that he or sheachievedto larger concepts
Interpretationmeansto assignsignificance or a generalizations, or theories.The researchercan
coherentmeaning to something.Quantitative share this broader interpretationwith other
and qualitativeresearchers both interpret data, people who are unfamiliar with the original
but they do so in differentways.A quantitative data, the people and events studied,or the social
researchergivesmeaningby rearranging, exam- situations observed by the researcher.This level
ining, and discussingthe numbers by using of meaning translates the researcher's o$ryIun-
chartsand statisticsto explainhow patterns in derstanding in a way that communica-
facilitates
the datarelateto the researchquestion.A quali- tion with peoplewho aremore distantfrom the
L'\ T / IF It 5 L HOL ARL Y L IT ERA TU R E A N D P LA N N IN C
^ E V IEWII\., A S TU D Y 9l
trtrtrtrtr 1966
Thereare tive possiblehypotheses.
1976
@ under
Remain Twoof the originalfive hypotheses
"",*,
are rejected.
/ \Consideration
1986
,@ under
Remain Twohypothesesare rejected.
"";".,
Twonew onesare developed.
/ \Consideration
ME tr nt { 1996
*";"., ,@ under
Remain Threehypothesesare reiected.
A new one is developed.
/ \Consideration
mmK 2006
,";"., @ under
Remain One hypothesisis rejected.
/ \Consideration Twonew onesare develoPed.
K trt1ei
t1]l
In 2006,3 hypothesesare in contention,but from 1966 to 2006, 1t hypotheseswere considered,and ovel
time,8 of themwere reiectedin one or moretests.
tive evidenceis more significantbecausethe hy- For example,a man standson a streetcor-
pothesisbecomes"tarnished"or "soiled" if the ner with an umbrella and claims that his um-
evidencefailsto supportit. This is becausea hy- brella protectshim from falling elephants.His
pothesismakespredictions.Negativeand dis- hypothesisthat the umbrella provides protec-
confirming evidenceshowsthat the predictions tion hassupportingevidence.He hasnot had a
arewrong.Positiveor confirming evidencefor a singleelephantfall on him in all the time he has
hypothesisis lesscriticalbecausealternativehy- had his umbrellaopen.Yet, suchsupportiveev-
pothesesmay make the sameprediction' A re- idenceis weak;it alsois consistentwith an alter-
searcherwho finds confirming evidencefor a native hypothesis-that elephantsdo not fall
predictionmay not elevateoneexplanationover from the sky.Both predict that the man will be
its alternatives. safefrom falling elephants.Negativeevidence
C HAPTER4 ,/ REVI EW I NCTHE SCHO LARLYLI TER A T U R E
A N D P L A N N I N CA S T U D Y 95
for the hypothesis-the one elephantthat falls Many people find the null hypothesis to be
on him andhis umbrella,crushingboth-would confusing. Another way to think of it is that the
destroythe hypothesisfor good. scientific community is extremely cautious. It
Researcherstest hypothesesin two ways:a prefers to consider a causal relationship to be
straightforwardway and a null hypothesisway. false until mountains of evidence show it to be
Many quantitativeresearchers, especiallyexper- true. This is similar to the Anglo-American legal
imenters,framehlpothesesin termsof a null hy- idea of innocent until proved guilty. A re-
pothesisbasedon the logic of the disconfirming searcherassumes,or acts as if, the null hlpothe-
hypotheses. Theytesthypotheses by looking for sis is correct until reasonable doubt suggests
evidencethat will allow them to acceptor reiect otherwise. Researcherswho use null hlpotheses
the null hypothesis.Most peopletalk ibout a hy- generally use it with specific statistical tests (e.g.,
pothesisas a way to predict a relationship.The t-test or F-test). Thus, a researchermay saythere
null hypothesisdoesthe opposite.It predictsno is reasonabledoubt in a null hypotheiis ii a sta-
relationship.For example,Sarahbelievesthat tistical test suggeststhat the odds ofit being false
studentswho live on campusin dormitoriesget are 99 in 100. This is what a researcher means
highergradesthan studentswho live offcampus when he or she says that statistical tests allow
and commuteto college.Her null hlpothesisis him or her to "reject the null hypothesis at the
that there is no relationshipbetweenresidence .01 level of significance."
and grades.Researchers usethe null hypothesis
with a correspondingalternativehypothesisor
experimental hypothesis.The alternative hy- Aspects of Explanation
pothesissaysthat a relationshipexists.Sarah's Clarity ahout Units and Levels of Analysis. It
alternativehypothesisis that students'on-cam- is easy to become confused at first about the
pus residencehasa positiveeffecton grades. ideas of units and levels of analysis. Neverthe-
For most people,the null hypothesisap- less, they are important for clearly thinking
proachis a backwardway of hlpothesistesting. through and planning a research project. All
Null hypothesisthinking restson the assump- studies have both units and levels of analysis,but
tion that researchers try to discovera relation- few researchersexplicitly identiSr them as such.
ship,sohlpothesistestingshouldbe designedto The levels and units of analysis are restricted by
makefinding a relationshipmore demanding.A the topic and the researchquestion.
researcherwho usesthe null hypothesisap- A levelof analysisis the level of social reality
proachonly directlyteststhe null hlpothesis.If to which theoretical explanations refer. The level
evidencesupportsor leadsthe researcherto ac- of social realityvaries on a continuum from mi-
ceptthe null hypothesis,he or sheconcludesthat cro level (e.g., small groups or individual
the testedrelationshipdoesnot exist.This im- processes)to macro level (e.g., civilizations or
plies that the alternativehlpothesisis false.On structural aspectsofsociety). The level includes a
the other hand, if the researchercan find evi- mix of the number of people, the amount of
denceto rejectthe null hypothesis,then the al- space,the scope of the activity, and the lengh of
ternativehlpothesesremain a possibility. The time. For example, an extreme micro-level
researchercannotprove the alternative;rather, analysiscan involve a few secondsofinteraction
by testingthe null hypotheses,he or shekeeps between two people in the same small room. An
the alternativehypothesesin contention.When extreme macro-level analysiscan involve billions
null hypothesistesting is addedto confirming ofpeople on severalcontinents acrosscenturies.
evidence,the argumentfor an alterativehypoth- Most social researchusesa level of analysis that
esiscangrowstrongerovertime. lies between these extremes.
The level of analysisdelimits the kinds of hand,a studythat comparesthe amountsdiffer-
assumptions, concepts,and theoriesthat a re- ent collegesspendon their football programs
searcheruses.For example,I want to study the would usethe organization(the college)asthe
topic of datingamongcollegestudents.I usea unit of analysisbecausethe spendingby colleges
micro-levelanalysisand developan explana- is beingcomparedand eachcollege'sspendingis
tion that usesconceptssuch as interpersonal recorded.
contact,mutual friendships,and common in- Researchers useunits of analysisother than
terests.I think that studentsare likely to date individuals, groups,or ganizations,social cate-
someonewith whom they havehad personal gories,institutions,and societies.For example,a
contact in a class,sharefriends in common, researcherwants to determine whether the
and sharecommoninterests.The topic and fo- speeches oftwo candidates for presidentofthe
cus fit with a micro-level explanationbecause United Statescontain specificthemes.The re-
they aretargetedat the levelofface-to-facein- searcherusescontentanalysisand measuresthe
teraction amongindividuals.Another example themesin eachspeechof the candidates.Here,
topic is how inequalityaffectsthe forms of vio- the speechis the unit of analysis.Geographic
Ientbehaviorin a society.Here,I havechosena units of analysisare alsoused.A researcherin-
more macro-levelexplanationbecauseof the terestedin determiningwhethercitiesthat have
topic and the level of socialreality at which it a high number of teenagers alsohavea high rate
operates.I am interestedin the degreeof in- of vandalismwould use the city as the unit of
equality(e.g.,the distributionof wealth,prop- analysis.This is becausethe researcher measures
erty,income,and other resources) throughout the percentageofteenagersin eachcity and the
a societyand in patternsof societalviolence amount of vandalismfor eachcity.
(e.g.,aggression againstother societies,sexual The units of analysisdeterminehow a re-
assault,feudsbetweenfamilies).The topic and searchermeasures variablesor themes.Theyalso
research questionsuggest macro-levelconcepts correspondlooselyto the levelof analysisin an
and theories. explanation.Thus,social-psychological or micro
The unit of analysisrefersto the type of unit levelsof analysisfitwith the individual asa unit of
a researcheruseswhen measuring.Common analysis,whereasmacro levelsof analysisfit with
units in sociologyare the individual, the group the socialcategoryor institution asa unit. Theo-
(e.g.,family,friendshipgroup),the organization ries and explanationsat the micro level generally
(e.g.,corporation,university),the socialcate- refer to featuresof individuais or interactions
gory (e.8.,socialclass,gender,race),the social amongindividuals.Thoseat the macrolevelrefer
institution (e.g.,religion,education,the family), to socialforcesoperatingacrossa societyor rela-
and the society(e.g.,a nation,a tribe). Although tionsamongmajor partsof a societyasa whole.
the individual is the most commonly usedunit Researchers uselevelsand units of analysis
of analysis,it is by no meansthe only one.Dif- to designresearchprojects,and being awareof
ferenttheoriesemphasizeoneor anotherunit of them helpsresearchers avoid logicalerrors.For
analysis,and different researchtechniquesare example,a studythat examineswhethercolleges
associated with specificunits of analysis.For ex- in the North spendmore on their football pro-
ample,the individualis usuallytheunit of analy- gramsthan do collegesin the Southirnpliesthat
sisin surveyand experimentalresearch. a researcher gathersinformation on spendingby
As an example,the individual is the unit of collegeand the locationof eachcollege.The unit
analysisin a surveyin which 150 studentsare of analysis-the organizationor, specifically, the
askedto rate their favorite football player.The college-flows from the researchproblem and
individual is the unit becauseeach individual tells the researcherto collectdata from each
student'sresponseis recorded.On the other college.
LF TAPTER
4 ,/ REVI EW I NGTHE SCHO TARLYLI TE R A T U R E
A N D P L A N N I N GA S T U D Y
97
Researchers chooseamong different units to the unit on which you collect data (see
or levelsof analysisforuimila, tlpics orl"r.ur.f, A A\
Box
questions.For example,u ,.r."rih., could
con_
drrcta pioject on thJ topic of patriarcty
ana ,ri_ Eymple. Tomsville and foansvilleeach
olencewith societyasthe unit of arralysis have
fo. the about,45,000 peopleliving in tn.-. io_*itf.
researchquestion, ..Are patriarchai societies
u percentage of upper_income people.
more violent?"He or shewould collect lur 1tql
d.ataon Over half of the householdsin tn" to*"-i'uu.
societiesand classi$'eachsocietyby its degree
of family incomesof over $200,000.ffr" to*,
patriarchyand its levelof violence.On Jro
the"other mgtgr-ry. clelregisteredin it than any
hand,if the researchquestionwas,.Isthe 3: ::_.:
degree other town of its size.The town ofJoansville
of patriarchywithin u fu-ity urro.iutJ*iin has
rri_ many poor people.Half its households
ol.::: againsta spouse?,' ihe unit of anatysis live be_
couldbe the group or the family,u"a u rno..
_i_
cro level of analysiswould be appropriate.
The
researcher could collectdataon Amiliesbymea_
suring the degreeof patriarchywithin diif"r.rrt
families and the level of violence
;;;;.."
spousesin thesefamilies.The sametopic Researchers havecriticizedthe famous studvSuicide
canbe ([1.897] I 95 t) by EmileDurkheimfor the
addressedwith different levels urrd .rrrit, eco'togi_
of
Tdy:.it
because patriarchycanbe a variablethat :allal|1c{?ftr:ating groupdataasthoughthey were
descrlbesan entiresociety,or it can describe individual-leveldata.In the study,Ouitt"i#-r_
so_ paredthe suicideratesof protestant
cial relationswithin one family. f*ewis., and Catiolic
,rio_ districtsin nineteenth_century
lencecanbe definedasgeneralbehavior westernfu.op" ana
acrossa explainedobserveddifferences
society,or as the interpersonalactions as due to differences
of one betweenpeople'sbeliefsandpracticesin
spousetoward the other. th"i*o r"_
ligions.He saidthat protestantshada
frighersuicide
rate than Catholicsbecausethey were
Failo:y, The ecological rniru iiJiuia_
lcological fallacy arises ualisticand had lower socialiniegration.Durkheim
trom a mismatchof units of analysis.It refers andearlyresearchers
to only hadartl OyairtriJ iin.u
a poor fit between the units for which peopletendedto residewith others
a re_ of th" ,rru ."_
has empirical evidenceand the units ligion,Durkheimusederoup_levelart,
:.ut.Jr:r- fi."., ,"gL.)
tor whlch he or shewantsto makestatements. for individuals
It
is due to imprecisereasoningurrag.rr"rJiri.rg Laterresearchers (van poppel and Day,1996)
beyondwhat the evidencewarrants.Ecological reexamined nineteenth_century suicideratesonly
fallacyoccurswhen a researchergathers with individual-level data thatihey air.ou"r"Jfo,
i^io u,
a higher or an aggregatedunit o? urrulvri, someareas.They comparedthe death
but recordsand
wants to make a statementabout a I'ower tookedat the officialreasonof death
or and religion,
disaggregated unit. It is a fallacybe.arrr" ,hat but their resultsdifferedfrom Or.ru,uirt.
np"prr_
happensin one unit of analysisioes ently,localofficialsat that time recorded
deaths'dif_
ut_uy,
hold for a differentunit of analysis.Th;r,
"oi ferently.for people of different ,"ligi;;;.
ii;;. i;y
searchergathersdata for large aggregates r"-.or+d "unspecified"as a reasonfor ae-atfr
(eg., far more
organizations,entire countries, often for Catholicsbecauseof a strongrnorriproii_
il." bition againstsuicideamongCatholil.
drawsconclusionsabout the behavior "i..iu"a Ou.kheim,s
oi i"ii_ largertheory may be correct,yet the
viduals from those data, he or she i, .o--it_ evidencehe
ting the ecologicalfallacy.you can avoid hadto test it wasweakbecausehe used
this dataaesre_
error by ensuringthat the unit of analySis gated at the group levelwhiletrying to
vou actionsof individuals. "*pt"iilti"
usein an explanationis the sameu, or rr.*.i*.
98 P A Rr oNE / F o u N D A rl o N S
low the poverty line. It also has fewer motorcy- the ecological fallacy or reductionism. :Ihey
cles registered in it than any other town its size. makea mistakeaboutthe dataappropriatefor a
But it is a fallacy to say,on the basis of this infor- researchquestion,or they may seriouslyover-
mation alone, that rich people are more likely to generalize from the data.
own motorcycles or that the evidence shows a You can make assumptionsabout units of
relationship between family income and motor- analysisother than the onesyou study empiri-
cycle ownership. The reason is that we do not cally.Thus, researchon individualsrestson as-
know which families in Tomsville or Joansville sumptions that individuals act within a set of
own motorcycles. We only know about the two socialinstitutions.Researchon socialinstitu-
variables-average incorne and number of mo- tions is basedon assumptionsabout individual
torcycles-for the towns as a whole. The unit of behavior.We know that many micro-levelunits
analysis for observing variables is the town as a form macro-levelunits. The dangeris that it is
whole. Perhaps all of the low- and middle-in- easyto slideinto usingthe causesor behaviorof
come families in Tomsville belong to a motorcy- micro units, such as individuals,to explainthe
cle club, and not a single upper-income family actions of macro units, such as social institu-
belongs. Or perhaps one rich family and five tions. What happensamong units at one level
poor ones in Joansville each own motorcycles. doesnot necessarilyhold for different units of
In order to make a statement about the relation- analysis.Sociologyis a disciplinethat restson
ship between famrly ownership of motorcycles the fundamentalbeliefthat a distinctlevelof so-
and family income, we have to collect informa- cial reality existsbeyond the individual. Expla-
tion on families, not on towns as a whole- nationsofthis levelrequiredataand theorythat
go beyond the individual alone. The causes
Reductionism. Another problem involving forces,structures,or processes that existamong
mismatched units of analysisand imprecise rea- macro units cannot be reduced to individual
soning about evidence is reductionism, also behavior.
calledthefallacy of nonequivalence(seeBox 4.8)'
This error occurs when a researcher explains Example. Why did World War I occur?You
macro-level events but has evidence only about may have heard that it was becausea Serbian
specific individuals. It occurs when a researcher shot an archdukein the AustroHungarianEm-
observesalower or disaggregatedunit of analysis pire in 1914.This is reductionism.Yes,the as-
but makes statements about the operations of sassination wasa factor,but the macro-political
higher or aggregatedanits.It is a mirror image of event between nations-w41-snnn6f be re-
the mismatch error in the ecological fallary. A duced to a specificact of one individual. If it
researcherwho has data on how individuals be- could, we could also saythat the war occurred
have but makes statements about the dynamics becausethe assassin's alarm clock worked and
of macro-level units is committing the error of wokehim up that morning. If it had not worked,
there would have been no assassination, so the
reductionism. It occurs becauseit is often easier
alarm clock caused the war! The event, World
to get data on concrete individuals. Also, the op-
erition of macro-level units is more abstract and War I, wasmuch more complexand wasdue to
nebulous. As with the ecological fallacy, you can many social,political, and economicforcesthat
avoid this error by ensuring that the unit of cametogetherat a point in history' The actions
analysis in your explanation is very close to the of specificindividualshad a role' but only a mi-
one for which you have evidence. nor one comparedto thesemacro forces'Indi-
Researchers who fail to think precisely viduals affect events, which eventually, in
about the units of analysisand those who do not combinationwith larger-scalesocialforcesand
couple data with the theory are likely to commit organizations,affectothers and move nations,
CHAPTER4 / REVI EW I NCTHE SCHO TARLYLI TE R A T U R E
A N D P L A N N I N CA S T U D Y
causeit ignores the root causes.The "drugs are treated differently because of it, such as having
the problem" argument is spurious becausethe different job opportunities and housing choices.
initial relationship between taking illegal drugs Discriminated-against people who are in some
and the problems is misleading. The emotional racial categories find limits in their housing
problems and community disorder are the true choices. This means they get separated or
and often unseen causalvariables. grouped together in undesirable areas. Poor
housing gets combined with unequal schooling,
Example 2. In the United States and Canada, such that the lowest-quality schools are located
we observe an empirical association between in areas with the least desirable housing. Since
students classifiedasbeing in a non-White racial the relationship between school quality and test
category and scoring lower academic tests scoresis very strong, students from families liv-
(compared to students classifedas in a White ing in lessdesirablehousing areaswith low-qual-
categor/). The relationship between racial classi- ity schools get lower test scores.
fication and test scores is illusionary, becausea We can now turn from the errors in causal
powerful and little-recognized variable is the explanation to avoid and more to other issues
true cause of both the racial classification and involving hlpotheses. Table 4.2 provides a re-
the test scores(seeFigure 4.4).In this case,the view of the major errors.
true causeoperates directly on the independent
variable (racial classification) but indirectly
From the Research Question to
through an intervening process on the depen-
dent variable (test scores).A beliefsystem that is
Hypotheses
basedon classifyingpeople asbelonging to racial It is difficult to move from a broad topic to hy-
groups and assigninggreat significanceto super- potheses,but the leap from a well-formulated
ficial physical appearance,such as skin color, is researchquestionto hypothesesis a short one.
the basis of what people call "race." Such a belief Hints about hlpothesesare embeddedwithin a
system also is the basis for prejudice and dis- goodresearchquestion.In addition,hlpotheses
criminatorybehavior. In such a situation, people are tentativeanswersto researchquestions(see
are seen as belonging to different races and Box4.10).
Real I
Cause Y
Segregated
housing
Societywideracist beliefs and Real
treatment of social categories Cause I Real
Cause
as if they had an
inherent-biologicalbasis
Y
Non-Whitesattend
lower-quality
schools
t02 PART O NE , / FO UNDATI O NS
Bad ResearchQuestions
Good ResearchQuestions
Not Enpirically Testable,N onscientifi ExploratoryQuestions
c euestions
r Shouldabortionbe legal? I Hasthe actualincidence of childabusechangedin
Wisconsin in the past l0 years?
r ls it rightto havecapitalpunishment?
Desciptive Questions
GeneralTopics,Not Research
euestions r ls childabuse,violentor sexual,morecommonin
I Treatmentof alcoholand drugabuse
familiesthat haveexperienced a divorcethan in
r Sexualityand aging intact,never-divorcedfamilies?
Setof Variables,Not euestions I Are the childrenraisedin poverty households
r Capitalpunishmentand racialdiscrimination more likelyto havemedical,learning,and social_
r Urbandecayandgangs emotionaladjustmentdifficulties
thannonpoverty
children?
Too Vague,Ambiguous
r Do policeaffectdelinquency? ExplanatoryQuestions
l Doesthe emotionalinstabilitycreatedby experi_
r What canbe doneto preventchildabuse?
encinga divorceincreasethe chancesthat di_
Needto Be StillMoreSpecific vorced parents will physically abuse their
r Hasthe incidence of childabuserisen? children?
r How does poverty affect children? r ls a lackof sufficentfunds for preventivetreat_
r What problemsdo childrenwho grow up in menta majorcauseof moreseriousmedicalprob_
poveftyexperience lemsamongchildrenraisedin familiesin poverty?
that othersdo not?
CH A PTER4 ,/ REVI EW I NGTHE SCHO LARLY
LI TERA T U R E
AND P L A N N I N CA S T U D Y I03
Examplesof QuantitativeStudies
(continued)
r0 5 PART ONE , / FO UNDATI O NS
TAB LE 4. 4 ( Co n ti n u e d )
science.The processis often deductive with a se- strengths and limitations of each. The ultimate
quence ofdiscrete stepsthat precede data collec- goal is to develop a better understanding and ex-
tion: Narrow the topic to a more focused planation of events in the social world. This
question, transform nebulous theoretical con- comes from an appreciation of the value that
cepts into more exact variables, and develop one each style has to offer.
or more hlpotheses to test. In actual practice, re-
searchersmove back and forth, but the general
processflows in a single, linear direction. In ad-
dition, quantitative researcherstake specialcare Key Terms
to avoid logicalerrorsin hypothesisdevelop-
ment and causalexplanation. abstract
Qualitative researchers follow a nonlinear alternative hypothesis
path and emphasizebecoming intimate with the attributes
details of a natural setting or a particular cul- citation
tural-historical context. They use fewer stan- dependentvariable
dardized procedures or explicit steps,and often ecologicalfallacy
devise on-the-spot techniques for one situation first-order interpretation
or study. Their language of casesand contexts hypothesis
directs them to conduct detailed investigations independentvariable
ofparticular casesor processesin their searchfor interveningvariable
authenticity. They rarely separateplanning and level of analysis
design decisions into a distinct pre-data collec- linear researchpath
tion stage,but continue to develop the studyde- literature review
sign throughout early data collection. The nonlinearresearchpath
inductive qualitative sryle encourages a slow, null hypothesis
flexible evolution toward a specific focus based reductionism
on a researcher's ongoing learning from the second-orderinterpretation
data. Grounded theory emerges from the re- spuriousness
searcher'scontinuous reflections on the data. third-order interpretation
Too often, the qualitative and quantitative unitof analysis
distinction is overdrawn and presented as a rigid universe
dichotomy. Adherents of one style of social re- variable
searchfrequently judge the other style on the ba-
sis of the assumptions and standards of their
own style.The quantitative researcherdemands Endnotes
to know the variables used and the hlpothesis
tested. The qualitative researcherbalks at turn- 1. For a discussionof the "logic of the disconfirm-
ing humanity into cold numbers. The challenge itg hypothesis,"see Singleton and associates
for the well-versed,prudent social researcheris (1988:456-460).
to understand and appreciate each sryle or ap- 2. SeeBailey(1987:43)for a discussion.
proach on its own terms, and to recognize the
t.
' lr
Qualitativeand
QuantitativeMeasurement
lntroduction
Why Measure?
Quantitative and Qualitative Measurement
Parts of the Measurement Process
QuantitativeConceptualization
and Operationalization
QualitativeConceptualization
and Operationalization
Reliability and Validity
and Validityin QuantitativeResearch
Reliability
and Validityin QualitativeResearch
Reliability
RelationshipbetweenReliability and Validity
Other Usesof the TermsReliableand Valid
A Guide to Quantitative Measurement
Levelsof Measurement
Scalesand Indexes
Measures:
Specialized
lndex Construction
The Puroose
Weighting
MissingData
Ratesand Standardization
Scales
The Purpose
Logicof Scaling
CommonlyUsedScales
Conclusion
CHAPTER5 / Q UALI TATI VEAND Q U A N T I T A T I V EM E A S U R E M E N T t09
difference is how the two styles make such link- definition.Aconceptualdefinitionis a definition
ages.Quantitative researcherscontemplate and in abstract,theoreticalterms. It refersto other
reflect on concepts before they gather any data. ideasor constructs.Thereis no magicalway to
They construct measurement techniques that turn a constructinto a preciseconceptualdefin-
bridge concepts and data. ition. It involvesthinking carefully,observing
Qualitative researchersalso reflect on ideas directly, consulting with others, reading what
before data collection, but they develop many, if othershavesaid,and trying possibledefinitions.
not most, of their concepts during data collec- How might I developa conceptualdefini-
tion. The qualitative researcherreexamines and tion of the constructprejudice?Whenbeginning
evaluatesthe data and concepts simultaneously to developa conceptualdefinition, researchers
and interactively. Researchers start gathering oftenrely on multiple sources-personalexperi-
data and creating ways to measure based what enceand deepthinking, discussionswith other
they encounter. As they gather data, they reflect people, and the existing scholarlyliterature. I
on the processand develop new ideas. might reflect on what I know about prejudice,
askotherswhat theythink aboutit, andgo theli-
.,,,|ffiM
brary and look up its many definitions.As I
P ARTS OF T HE M E A S U R E M EN T gather definitions, the core idea should eet
PR OC ESS clearer,but I havemany definitionsand need"to
sort them out. Most definitionsstatethat preju-
When a researcher measures,he or she links dice is an attitude about anothergroup and in-
a concept, idea, or constructl to a measure (i.e., volvesa prejudgment,or judgingprior to getting
a technique, a process, a procedure, etc.) by specificinformation.
which he or she can observethe idea empiricahy. As I think aboutthe construct,I noticethat
Quantitative researchersprimarily follow a de- all the definitions refer to prejudiceas an atti-
ductive route. They begin with the abstract idea, tude, and usually it is an attitude about the
follow with a measurement procedure, and end membersof another group. There are many
with empirical data that represent the ideas. forms of prejudice,but most arenegativeviews
Qualitative researchersprimarily follow an in- aboutpersonsofa differentracial-ethnicgroup.
ductive route. They begin with empirical data, Prejudicecould be about other kinds ofgroups
follow with abstract ideas, relate ideas and data, (e.g.,peopleof a religion,of a physicalstature,or
and end with a mixture of ideas and data. Actu- from a certainregion), but it is alwaysabout a
ally, the processis more interactive in both styles collectivityto which one doesnot belong.Many
of research. As a quantitative researcher devel- constructshavemultiple dimensionsor types,so
ops measures,the constructs become refined I shouldconsiderwhethertherecanbe different
and clearer, and as the researcher applies the typesof prejudice-racial prejudice,religious
measuresto gather data, he or she often adjusts prejudice,ageprejudice,genderprejudice,na-
the measurement technique. As a qualitative re- tion prejudice,and so forth.
searchergathersdata, he or she usessome preex- I alsoneedto considerthe units of analysis
isting ideas to assist in data collection, and will that bestfit my definition of the construct.piej-
then mix old with new ideas that are developed udiceis an attitude.Individualsholdandexpress
from the data. attitudes,but so might groups (e.g.,farnilies,
Both qualitative and quantitative researchers clubs,churches,companies,media outlets).I
use two processes:conceptualization and opera- needto decide,Do I want my definition of prej-
tionalization in measurement. Conceptualizati- udiceto includeonly the attitudesof individuals
on is the process of taking a construct and or shouldit includeattitudesheldby groups,or-
refining it by giving it a conceptual or theoretical ganizations,and institutions aswell?Can I say,
112 P A RTo N E ,/ F o u N D A T Io N s
F I G URE
IndependentVariable DependentVariable
Operational
Operationalization Operationalization Level
TestedEmoirical
Hypothesis l Empirical
Level
1.1 4 PART oN E , / FoUNDATI O NS
Quatitative and
conceptualization :1Hil::,:'Il1*".?'.",:l*5TJ:"?,::,'#:J
Operationalization searcheroperationaiizesby describing how
4 Conceptualization. The conceptualization specific observationsand thoughts about the
pro..ri in qualitativeresearchalsodiffers from data contributed to working ideasthat are the
ihat ln quantitativeresearch.Insteadof refining basisof conceptualdefinitions and theoretical
abstractideasinto theoreticaldefinitionsearlyin concepts.
the researchprocess,qualitativeresearchers re- Operationalizationinqualitativeresearchis
fine rudimentaty "*otking ideas" during the anafter-the-factdescriptionmorethanabefore-
datacollectionand analysisprocess.Conceptu- the-factpreplannedtechnique.Almost in a re-
alizationis a processof iorming coherenttheo- verseof the quantitativeprocess'datagathering
retical definiiions as one strugglesto "make occurswith or prior to full operationalization.
CHAPTER5 / Q UALI TATI VEAND Q U A N T I T A T I V EM E A S U R E M E N T I15
FI G U RE
Independent Dependent
_ _E1plrrgq!
_
VariableMeasure Association? VariableMeasure
relaxed,an{ sound warm and friendly asthev in- a hlpothesis-testingsituation. This takesmore
teract with people of their same or with people time and effort.
of a difFerent racial-ethnic group. Last, I creite The principle of usingpilot-testsextendsto
an experiment. I ask research participants to replicatingthe measuresother researchers have
read the grade transcripts, resumes, and inter- used.For example,I searchtheliteratureandfind
view reports on 30 applicants for five jobs- measuresof prejudicefrom pastresearch.I may
youth volunteer coordinator, office manager, want to build on and usea previousmeasureif it
janitor, clothing store clerk, and advertising ac- is a good one,citing the source,ofcourse.In ad_
count executive.The applicants have many qual- dition, I may want to add new indicators and
ifications, but I secretly manipulate their racial comparethemto thepreviousmeasure.
or ethnic group to seewhether a researchpartic-
ipant decides on the best applicant for the jobs Validity. Validity is an overusedterm. Some_
basedon an applicant'srace and ethnicity. times, it is usedto mean "true" or "correct.',
Multiple indicators let a researcher take Thereareseveralgeneraltypesofvalidity. Here,
measurementsfrom a wider range ofthe content we are concernedwith measurementvaliditv.
of a conceptual definition. Didrent aspectsof Therearealsoseveraltypesof measurement va-
the construct can be measured, each with its lidiry Nonmearot"merritypesof validityaredis-
own indicator. Also, one indicator (e.g., one cussed later.
question on a questionnaire) may be imperfect, When a researchersaysthat an indicator is
but several measures are less likely to have the valid, it is valid for a particularpurposeand def-
same (systematic) error. Multiple indiiator inition. The sameindicator canbe valid for one
measurestend to be more stable than measures purpose(i.e., a researchquestionwith units of
with one item. analysisand universe)but lessvalid or invalid
for others.For example,the measureof preju-
Use Pretests, Pilot Studies, and Replication. dicediscussed heremight bevalid for measuring
Reliability can be improved by using a pretest or prejudiceamong teachersbut invalid for mea-
pilot version of a measure first. Develop one or suringthe prejudiceofpolice officers.
more draft or preliminaryversions of a measure At its core, measurementvalidity refersto
and try them before applying the final version in how wellthe conceptual and operationaldefini-
.--*+rdtl!6*l|F
1 18 P A RToN E / F o u N D A T l o N s
tions meshwith eachother. The better the fit, ContentVatidity. Contentvalidity is a special
type offacevalidity' It addresses the question,Is
the greaterthe measurementvalidity.Validity is in a
** ntU content of a definition represented
moie difficult to achievethan reliabilrty'We ideas;it
measure? A conceptual definition holds
cannothaveabsoluteconfidenceaboutvalidity' Mea-
is a "space" containing ideas and concepts'
but somemeasuresaremorevalid than others'
The reasonwe canneverachieveabsolutevalid- ,or", ,horrld representall ideasor areasin the
ity is that constructsare abstractideas,whereas conceptual space. Content validity involves
indicatorsrefer to concreteobservation'This is threesteps.First, specifffi'rllythe entire content
the gapbefiveenour mental picturesabout the in a consiruct'sdefinition.Next, samplefrom all
world and the specificthingswe do at particular areasof the definition. Finally,developan indi-
times and places.Validity is part of a dynamic catorthat tapsall of the partsof the definition'
processthat growsby accumulatingevidence An exampleof contentvalidity is my defin-
overtime. Without it, all measurement becomes ition of feminismasa person'scommitmentto a
meaningless. setof beliefscreatingfull equalitybetweenmen
and women in areasof the arts,intellectualpur-
Three Types of M easurement Vali ility suits,family, work, politics, and authority rela-
tions. I createa measureof feminismin which I
FaceValidity. The easiestto achieveand the
asktwo surveyquestions:(1) Should men and
most basickind of validity is facet'alidity' lt is a
women get equil pay for equal work a1d !z)
judgment by the scientificcommunity that the uttd*omen sharehouseholdtasks?
Should
indlcator really measuresthe construct.It ad- -..t the
My measure low contentvaliditybecause
has
dresses the question,On the faceof it, do people questions ask only about pay and household
two
believethat the definition and method of mea-
tasks.They ignore the other areas(intellectual
surementfit? It is a consensusmethod' For ex- pursuits,politics,authority relations,and other
ample, few peoplewould accepta measureof
aspectsof work and family). For a content-valid
collige studentmath ability using a question *iatut., I must either expandthe m.easureor
that askedstudents:2 + 2 = ?This is not a valid
narrow the definition.
measureof college-level math ability on the face
of it. Recallthat in the scientificcommunity,as- CriterionValidity' Criterionvalidityusessome
pectsof researchare scrutinizedby others' See standardor criterion to indicatea constructac-
table 5.1 for a summaryof typesof measure- curately.The validity of an indicator is verified
ment validity. by comparingit with anothermeasureof the
sameconstructthat is widelyaccepted'Thereare
two subtypesof this kind ofvalidity.
ConcurrentValidity. To haveconcurrentvalid-
TA B LE 5. I Summaryof Measurement with a preex-
ity, anindicatormustbe associated
Validity Types isting indicator that is judged to be valid (i'e', it
hasfacevalidity). For example, you create a new
testto measure intelligence'For it to be concur-
rently valid, it shouldbe highly associated with
Face-in the judgmentof others
existingIQ tests (assuming the same definition
Content-captures the entiremeaning of inteiligenceis used).This meansthat most
Criterion-agrees with an externalsource people who score high on the old measure
r Concurrent-agreeswith a preexistingmeasure tnoUa alsoscorehigh on the new one,and vice
. Predictive-agreeswith future behavior
versa.The two measuresmay not be perfectly
associated,but if they measurethe sameor a
CHAPTER5 / Q UALI TATI VEA N D Q U A N T I T A T I V EM E A S U R E M E N T I I9
Adaptedfrom Babbie(2004:1a5)'
Source;
CHAPTER5 / Q UALI TATI VEAND Q U A N T I T A T I V EM E A S U R E M E N T 121
Nominal Yes
Ordinal Yes Yes
Interval Yes Yes Yes
Ratio Yes Yes Yes Yes
124 P A Rr oN E ,/ F o u N D A T Io N s
ample of arbitrary-not true-zeroes occurs Keep two things in mind. First, virtually
when measuring attitudes where numbers are every social phenomenoncan be measured.
assignedto statements (e.g., - 1 = disagree,0 = Someconstructscan be measureddirectly and
no opinion, +1 = agree).True zeroesexist for produceprecisenumericalvalues(e.g.,family
variables such as income, age,or years of educa- income).Other constructsrequire the use of
tion. Examples of the four levelsof measurement surrogatesor proxiesthat indirectly measurea
are shown in Table 5.3. variableand may not be asprecise(e.g.,predis-
position to commit a crime). Second,a lot can
be learnedfrom measuresused by other re-
Specialized Measures: Scales You arefortunateto havethe work of
searchers.
and Indexes thousandsofresearchers to draw on. It is not al-
Researchershave created thousands of different waysnecessaryto startfrom scratch.You canuse
scalesand indexes to measure social variables. a past scaleor index, or you can modif it for
For example, scalesand indexes have been de- your own purposes.
veloped to measure the degree of formalization
in bureaucratic organizations, the prestige ofoc- Indexesand Scales. You might find the terms
cupations, the adjustment of people to a mar- index andscaleconfusingbecausethey are often
riage, the intensity ofgroup interaction, the level usedinterchangeably.One researcher's scaleis
of social activity in a community, the degree to another'sindex.Both produceordinal- or inter-
which a state'ssexualassaultlaws reflect feminist val-levelmeasuresof a variable.To add to the
values, and the level of socioeconomic develop- confusion,scaleand index techniquescan be
ment of a nation. I cannot discussthe thousands combined in one measure.Scalesand indexes
of scalesand indexes. Instead, I will focus on give a researchermore information about vari-'
principles of scale and index construction and the qualityof
ablesand makeit possibleto assess
explore some major types. measurement.Scalesand indexesincreaserelia-
TOPTENGOLDMEDALWINNINGCOUNTRIES
AT THE2OOOOLYMPICS
IN SYDNEY
The RosenbergSelf-EsteemScale
All in all,I am inclinedto feelthat I ama failure:
1. Almostalwaystrue
2. Often true
3. Sometimes true
4. Seldomtrue
5. Nevertrue
Letsmembersknowwhat is expectedofthem I z 3 4 5
ls friendlyand approachable I 2 3 4 5
Treatsall unit members
as equals 1 2 3 4 5
ated with improving reliability and validiry. An Instead of scoring Likert items, as in the pre-
index uses multiple indicators, which improves vious example,the scores-2, -1,+t, +2 could
reliability. The use of multiple indicatois that be used. This scoring has an advantagein that a
measure several aspectsof a construct or opin- zeto implies neutrality or complete ambiguity,
lon rmproves content validity. Finally, the index whereas a high negative number means an atti-
scoresgive a more precise quantitative measure tude that opposes the opinion represented by a
of a person's opinion. For example, each per- high positive number.
son's opinion can be measured with a number The numbers assignedto the responsecate_
from l0 to 40, instead of in four categories: gories are arbitrary. Remember that the use of a
"strongly agree," "agree," "disagree,'; and zero does not give the scaleor index a ratio level
"strongly disagree." of measurement. Likert scalemeasuresare at the
't32 PART ONE , / FO UNDATI O NS
most threatening or most socially distant are at cially distant items will refuse the socially closer
one end, and those that might be least threaten- items (seeBox 5.6).
ing or socially intimate are at the other end. The Researchersusethe scalein severalways. For
logic of the scale assumesthat a person who re- example, people are given a seriesof statements:
firses contact or is uncomfortable with the so- People from Group X are entering your country,
Instructions
Results
t9?5.Qfirral
MeanScore &o**
.l
English 1.27 1.17 2
Scottish 1.69 2 1.22 6
lrish 1.93 3 1.14 I
French 2.04 4 1.20 4
Dutch 2.12 5 1.25 9
Swedish 2.44 6 1.21 5
Danis h 2.48 7 1.23 7
Norwegian 2.67 8 1.25 8
Cerman 2.89 9 1.27 10
Spanish 3.28 10 1.29 t.l
Italian 3.98 't1 1..19 3
Hi n du 4.35 12 1.95 23
Polish 4.57 13 1.30 12
Russian 4.57 14 1.33 13
.t5
NativeAmerican 4.65 1.44 16
Jewish 4.83. 16 1.42 15
Creek 4.89 17 r.38 14
Arab
.18
5.00. 2.21 24
Mexican 5.O2 19 1.56 'r8
BlackAmerican 5.10' 20 1.55 17
Chinese 5.28 21 1.68 20
japanese 5.30 22 1.62 19
Korean 5.55 23 1.72 21
Turk 5.80 24 1.77 22
CrandMean 3.82 1.43
'Slightchangein nameof group.
are in your town, work at your place of employ- feel uncomfortable with the relationship. People
ment, live in your neighborhood, become your may be asked to respond to all statements, or
personal friends, and marry your brother or sis- they may keep reading statements until they are
ter. People are askedwhether they feel comfort- not comfortable with a relationship. There is no
able with the statement or if the contact is set number of statements required; the number
acceptable.It is also possible to ask whether they usually rangesfrom five to nine. The measure of
CHAPTER5 , / Q UALI TATI V EA N D Q U A N T I T A T I V EM E A S U R E M E N T
I35
social distance can be used as either an indepen- to determine how a client perceives himself or
dent or a dependent variable. herself (seeBox 5.7).
A researcher can use the Bogardus scale to To use the Semantic Differential, a re_
seehow distant people feel from one out-group searcherpresents subjectswith a list ofpaired
versus another. In addition to studying racial_ opposite adjectiveswith a continuum of 7 to I I
ethnic groups, it has been used to examine doc- points between them. The subjects mark the
tor-patient distance. For example, Gordon and spot on the continuum between the adiectives
associates(2004) found that college students re_ that expressestheir feelings. The adjectives can
ported different social distance toward people be very diverse and should be well mixed (e.g.,
with different disabilities. Over 95 pircent positive items should not be located mostly on
would be willing to be a friend with someone either the right or the left side). Studies of a wide
with arthritis, cancer, diabetes,or a heart condi- variety of adjectives in English found that they
tion. Fewer than 70 percent would ever consider fall into three major classesof meaning: evalua-
being a friend to someone with mental retarda- tion (good-b ad), potency (strong-weak), and ac_
tion. The social distance scale is a convenient tivity (active-passive). Of the three classes of
way to determine how close a respondent feels meaning, evaluation is usually the most signifi_
toward a social group. It has two potential limi- cant. The analysisof results is difficult, anda re_
tations. First, a researcherneedsto tailor the cat- searcherneeds to use statistical procedures to
egoriesto a specific out-group and social setting. analryzea subject's feelings toward the concept.
Second,it is not easyfor a researcherto compare Results from a Semantic Differential tell a
how a respondent feels toward several diffeient researcher how one person perceives different
.groups unless the respondent completes a simi- concepts or how different people view the same
lar social distance scalefor all out-groups at the concept. For example, political analysts might
. same time. Of course, how a respondent com- discover that young voters perceive their candi-
: pletes the scale
and the responde^nt'sactual be- date as traditional, weak, and slow, and as
havior in specific social situations may differ. halfiray between good and bad. Elderly voters
perceive the candidate as leaning to*u.d strong,
Semantic Differential. Semantic Differential fast, and good, and as halfi,,rraybetween tradi-
provides an indirect measure of how-a person tional and modern.
feels about a concept, object, or other person.
The technique measures subjective feelings to- Guttman Scaling. Guttman scaling, or cumu-
l,ward something by using adjectives.This is be- lative scaling, differs from the previous scalesor
causepeople communicate evaluations through indexes in that researchersuse it to evaluatedata
adjectives in spoken and written language. Be- after they are collected. This means that re-
causemost adjectiveshave polar opposites (e.g., searchersmust design a study with the Guttman
hght/darlt hard/soft, slow/fast), it usespolar op- scaling technique in mind.
posite adjectives to create a rating measure or Guttman scaling begins with measuring a
scale. The Semantic Differential captures the set of indicators or items. These can be ques-
connotations associatedwith whatever is being tionnaire items, votes, or observed characteris-
evaluated and provides an indirect measure of it. tics. Guttman scaling measures many different
The Semantic Differential has been used for phenomena (e.g.,patterns of crime or drug use,
many purposes. In marketing research, it tells characteristicsof societiesor organizations, vot-
how consumers feel about a product; political ing or political participation, psychological dis_
advisers use it to discover what voters think orders). The indicators are usuallymeasured in a
about a candidate or issue; and therapists use it simple yes/no or present/absentfashion. From 3
to 20 indicators can be used. The researcherse-
P A K I (J NL / IUUNUA IIUN>
Good Bad'
Beautiful uglv
Clean Dirty
Kind Cruel'
Rich Poor'
Honest Dishonest.
Pleasant Unpleasant.
Successful Unsuccessful
Reputable Disreputable
Safe Dangerous
Gentle Violent'
Feminine Masculine
Weak Powerful.
Passive Active-
Cautious Rash-
Soft Har.d
Weak Strong
M ild lntense
Delicate Ruggedi
.These
itemswerepresentedin reverseorder.
CH APTER5 / Q UALI TATI VEAND Q U A N T I T A T I V EM E A S U R E M E N T 137
lectsitemson the beliefthat thereis a logicalre- Once a set of items is measured,the re-
lationship among them. He or shethen places searcherconsidersall possiblecombinationsof
the resultsinto a Guttman scaleand determines responses for the items.For example,threeitems
whetherthe items form a pattern that corre- are measured:whether a child knows her age,
spondsto the relationship.(SeeBox 5.8 for an her telephonenumber,and threelocal elected
exampleof a studyusingGuttman scaling.) political officials.The little girl may know her
Crozat(1 998) examined publicresponses to various strations),but not all who acceptedmodestforms
formsof politicalprotest.He lookedat surveydata acceptedthe more intenseforms.In additionto
on the public'sacceptance of formsof protest in showingthe usefulness of the Cuttmanscale,Crozat
Creat Britain,Cermany,ltaly, Netherlands, and the also found that people in differentnationssaw
UnitedStatesin 1 97 4 and 1 9 9 0. Hefoundthat the protestsimilarilyand the degreeof Cuttmanscala-
patternof the public'sacceptance formeda Cuttman bility increasedover time. Thus,the pattern of ac-
scale.Thosewho acceptedmore intenseformsof ceptanceof protestactivitieswasCuttman"scalable"
protest (e.g.,strikesand sit-ins)almostalwaysac- in both time periods,but it morecloselyfollowedthe
ceptedmoremodestforms(e.g.,petitionsor demon- Cuttmanpatternin I 990 than1974.
FORMOF PROTEST
CuttmanPatterns
N N N N N
Y N N N N
N N N
Y N N
Y Y Y N
OtherPatterns
(examples
only)
N N Y N
N N
N N N
N N N
N N Y
138 pAR To N E ,/ F o u N D AT to N s
agebut no other answer,or all three,or only her tern. Alternative statistics to measure scalability
age and telephonenumber. In fact, for three have also been suggested.
items there are eight possiblecombinationsof
answersor patterns of responses,from not
knowinganythroughknowingall three.Thereis
a mathematicalway to computethe number of CONCLUSION
combinations(e.g.,23),but you canwrite down in this chapter,you learnedaboutthe principles
all the combinationsof yesor no for threeques- and processesof measurementin quantitative
tions and seethe eightpossibilities. and qualitativeresearch. All researchersconcep-
The logical relationship among items in tualize-or refine and clarify their ideas into
Guttman scalingis hierarchical.Most peopleor conceptualdefinitions.All researchers opera-
caseshaveor agreeto lower-orderitems.The tionalize-or developa set of techniquesor
smallernumberof casesthat havethe higher-or- processes that will link their conceptualdefini- ',
der itemsalsohavethe lower-orderones,but not tions to empiricalreality.Qualitativeand quan-
vice versa.In other words, the higher-order titative researchers differ in how they approach
itemsbuiid on the lower ones.The lower-order theseprocesses, however.The quantitativere-
items are necessary for the appearance of the searchertakesa more deductivepath, whereas
higher-orderitems. the qualitativeresearcher takesa more inductive
An applicationof Guttman scaling,known path.The goalremainsthe same:to establishun-
as scalogramanalysis,lets a researchertest ambiguouslinks betweena reseacher's abstract
whethera hierarchicalrelationshipexistsamong ideasand empiricaldata.
the items.For example,it is easierfor a child to You akolearnedabout the principlesof re-
know her agethan her telephonenumber,andto liability and validity. Reliabilityrefersto the de-
know her telephonenumber than the namesof pendabilityor consistenryof a measure;validity
politicalleaders.The itemsare caTled scalnble,
or refersto its truthfulness,or howwell a construct
capableof forming a Guttman scale,if a hierar- and data for it fit together. Quantitative and
chicalpatternexists. qualitativesrylesof researchsignificantly diverge
The patternsof responses can be divided in how they understandtheseprinciples.None-
into two groups:scaledand errors (or nonscal- theless,both quantitative and qualitative re-
able).The scaledpatternsfor the child'sknowl- searchers try to measurein a consistentway,and
edgeexamplewould be asfollows:not knowing both seeka tight fit betweenthe abstractideas
any item, knowing only age,knowing only age they use to understandsocialworld and what
plus phone number, knowing all three. Other occursin the actual,empirical socialworld. In
combinationsof answers(e.g.,knowing the po- addition, you sawhow quantitativeresearchers
litical leadersbut not her age)are possiblebut applythe principlesof measurementwhen they
arenonscalable. Ifa hierarchicalrelationshipex- createindexesand scales,and you read about
istsamongthe items,then most answersfit into somemajor scalesthey use.
the scalablepatterns. Beyondthe core ideasof reliability and va-
The strengthor degreeto which items can lidity, good measurementrequiresthat you cre-
be scaledis measuredwith statisticsthat mea- ate clear definitions for concepts,use multipie
sure whether the responsescan be reproduced indicators,and, asappropriate,weighand stan-
basedon a hierarchicalpattern.Most rangefrom dardizethe data.Theseprincipleshold acrossall
zero to 100percent.A scoreof zeroindicatesa fields of study (e.g.,family, criminology,in-
random pattern,or no hierarchicalpattern.A equality, race relations,etc.) and acrossthe
scoreof 100percentindicatesthat all responses many researchtechniques(e.g.,experiments,
to the answerfit the hierarchicalor scaledpat- surveys, etc.).
CHAPTER5 , / Q UALI TATI VEAND Q U A N T I T A T I V EM E A S U R E M E N T '. 3 9
lntroduction
Nonprobability Sampling
Haphazard, or Convenience
Accidental, Sampling
Quota Sampling
Sampling
or Judgmental
Purposive
SnowballSampling
DeviantCaseSampling
Sampling
Sequential
Probability Sampling
and SamplingFrames
Elements,
Populations,
Why Random?
Typesof ProbabilitySamples
HiddenPopulations
How LargeShoulda SampleBe?
DrawingInferences
Conclusion
r4 0
c HAPTER 6 , / Q UALIT A T I V EA N D Q U A N T T T A T T VS
EA M p L t N G l4l
F lG UR E 6 .1
& n # ffi.#fi_f
0
(-)
n @0
w.
tii
$?9 UN
f,'*liffifrH
!f
0
ii sWffi#
UN @
A@
v tEE
UI
Of 32 adultsand childrenin the streetscene,select1Ofor the sample:
0@o & o o o @
BWiffi hrhr?ffi
4 AdultMales 4 AdultFemales
A
U ! |, /
Tn
1 MateChitd 1 FemaleChild
Franklin D. Roosevelt. But the Literary Digest sample.For example,if conductinga telephone
was wrong; Franklin D. Roosevelt won by a survey,the researcherneedsto try to reachthe
Iandslide. specificsampledperson,by callingbackfour or
The prediction was wrong for several rea- five times,to getan accuraterandom sample.
sons, but the most important were mistakes in Random samplesare most likely to yield a
sampling. Although the magazine sampled a samplethat truly representsthe population. In
large number of people, its sampling frame did addition,random samplingletsa researcher sta-
not accurately represent the target population tistically calculatethe relationshipbetweenthe
(i.e., all voters). It excluded people without tele- sampleand the population-that is, the sizeof
phones or automobiles, a sizable percentage of the samplingerror. Anonstatisticaldefinition of
the population in 1936, during the worst of the the samplingerror is the deviationbetweensam-
Great Depression of the 1930s.The frame ex- ple resultsand a population parameterdue to
cluded as much as 65 percent of the population randomprocesses. i
and a segment of the voting population (lower Randomsamplingis basedon a greatdealof
income) that tended to favor Roosevelt. The sophisticated mathematics.This chapterfocuses
magazine had been accurate in earlier elections on the fundamentalsof how samplingw.orks,the
becausepeople with higher and lower incomes differencebetweengood and bad samples,how
did not differ in how they voted. Also, during to draw a sample,and basicprinciplesof sam-
earlier elections, before the Depression, more pling in socialresearch.This do.t ttot meanthat
lower-income people could afford to have tele- random samplingis unimportant. It is essenti4l
phones and automobiles. to first masterthe fundamentals.If you plan to
You can learn two important lessons from pursuea careerusing quantitativeresearch,you
the Literary Digest mistake. First, the sampling should get more statistical background than
frame is crucial. Second, the size of a sample is spacepermitshere.
lessimportant than whether or not it accurately
representsthe population. A representativesam-
Types of Probability Samples
ple of 2,500 can give more accurate predications
about the U.S. population than a nonrepresenta- SimpleRanilom. The simplerandomsampleis
tive sample of i million or 10 million. both the easiestrandom sampleto understand
and the one on which other typesare modeled.
In simplerandom sampling,a researcherdevel-
Why Random?
opsan accuratesamplingframe,selectselements
The area of applied mathematics called proba- from the samplingframe accordingto a mathe-
bility theory relies on random processes.The matically random procedure,then locatesthe
word random has a special meaning in mathe- exactelementthat wasselectedfor inclusion in
matics. It refers to a process that generatesa thesample.
mathematically random result; that is, the selec- After numberingall elementsin a sampling
tion process operatesin a truly random method frame.a researcherusesa list of random num-
(i.e., no pattern), and a researchercan calculate bers to decidewhich elementsto select.He or
the probability of outcomes. In a true random sheneedsasmanyrandom numbersasthereare
process, each element has an equal probability elementsto be sampled;for example,for a sam-
ofbeing selected. ple of 100, 100random numbersare needed.
Probability samples that rely on random The researchercangetrandom numbersfrom a
processesrequire more work than nonrandom random-number table,a tableof numberschosen
ones. A researchermust identifr specific sam- in a mathematically random way. Random-
pling elements (e.g., person) to include in the numbertablesareavailablein most statisticsand
c HAPTER 6 , / Q UALI TATTV E
A N D Q U A N T T T A T T VS
EA M p L t N C 149
Number of Samples
42 58 1
43 57 1
45 55 2
46 54 4
47 53 8
48 52 12 Number of red and white marblesthat were
49 5l 21 randomlydrawn from a jar of 5,000 marbles
50 50 31 with 1 00 drawn eachtime, repeated 1 30
51 49 20 times for'l 30 independentrandom samples.
52 48 IJ
53 47 9
54 46 5
55 45 2
.l
57 43
Total 'I 30
Numberof Samples
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
l8
17
16
'I 5
14
l3
12
1l
10
9
I
6
5
4
3
2
1
42 43 44 4s 46 47 48 49 50 5.1 52 s3 54 5s 56 57
Numberof RedMarblesin a SamPle
CHAPTER6 / Q UALI T A T I V EA N D Q U A N T I T A T I V ES A M P L I N G 15I
01 A br am s , J( M
. ) 21 Hjelmhaug, N. (M) Yes
02 Adams,H. (F) Yes(6) 22 H uang,J. (F) Yes Yes(1)
03 Anderson, H. (M) 23 lvono,V. (F)
04 Arminond,L. (M) 24 Jaquees, J. (M)
05 Boorstein, A. (M) 25 Johnson, A. (F)
05 B r eit s pr ec he r,P.(M)
Yes Yes(Z) 26 Kennedy, M. (F) Yes(2)
07 Brown,D. (F) 27 Koschoreck, L. (F)
08 Cattelino, J.(F) 28 Koykkar, J.(M)
09 Cidoni,S. (M) 29 Kozlowski, C. (F) Yes
10 Davis,L. (F) Yes Yes(8) 30 Laurent, J.(M) Yes(3)
I1 Droullard, C. (M) Yes 31 Lee,R.(F)
12 Durette,R.(F) s2 Lins,C. (M)
13 E ls nau,K .( F ) Yes 33 McKinnon, K. (F)
14 F alc oner T,. ( M ) Yes(9) 34 Mi n,H . (F) Yes Yes (4)
'l
5 Fuerstenberg, J. (M) 35 Moi ni A, . (F)
15 Fulton,P.(F) 36 Navarre, H. (M)
17 Cnewuc h, S .( F ) 37 O' S ul l i van,C . (M)
18 G r een,C. ( M ) 5TART, 38 oh,J. (M) Yes(5)
Yes(10) 39 Ol son,J.(M)
19 Coodwanda, T. (F) Yes 40 Ortizy Carcia,L. (F)
20 Harris,B. (M)
dom or systematic sampling. In stratified sam- supplemental information about strata is not a,-
pling, the researchercontrols the relative size of ways available.
each stratum, rather than letting random In general, stratified sampling produces
processescontrol it. This guaranteesrepresenta- samplesthat are more representativeof the pop-
tiveness or fixes the proportion of different ulation than simple random sampling if the stra-
strata within a sample. Of course, the necessary tum information is accurate. A simple example
154 P A RToNE / F o u N D Arl o N S
SAMPLE
OF l OOSTAFFOF GENEMLHOSPITAL,
STRATIFIED
BYPOSITION
Administrators t5 2.88 I 3 -2
Staffphysicians 25 4.81 2 5 -3
Internphysicians 25 4.81 6 5 +l
.t00
Registerednurses 19.23 22 19 +3
Nurseassistants 'r00 19.23 21 19 +2
Medicaltechnicians 75 14.42 9 14 +5
Orderlies 50 9.62 8 l0 -2
Clerks 75 14.42 5 14 +l
Maintenance
staff 30 s.77 3 6 -3
Cleaningstaff 25 4.81 3 5 -2
Total 520 100.00 100 100
.l
Randomly select3 of 5 administrators,
5 of 25 staffphysicians,
andso on.
Note:Traditionally,N symbolizes
the numberin the populationandn represents the numberin the sample.
Thesimplerandomsampleoverrepresents nurses,nursingassistants,andmedicaltechnicians,but underrepresents
administrators,staffphysicians,
maintenancestaff,andcleaningstaff.Thestratifiedsamplegivesan accuraterepresentation
of eachtype of position.
sampling frame for elements within each cluster individuals from Mapleville. First, he or she ran-
becomesmore manageable.A second advantage domly samples city blocks, then households
for geographically dispersed populations is that within blocks, then individuals within house-
elementswithin eachcluster are physically closer holds (seeBox 6.4). Although there is no accurate
to one another. This may produce a savings in list of all residentsofMapleville, there is an accu-
locating or reaching each element. rate list of blocks in the city. After selectinga ran-
A researcherdraws severalsamplesin stages dom sample of blocks, the researchercounts all
in cluster sampling. In a three-stagesample,stage households on the selectedblocks to create a
1 is random sampling of big clusters; stage 2 is sample frame for eachblock. He or she then uses
random sampling of small clusters within each the list of households to draw a random sample
selectedbig cluster; and the last stageis sampling at the stageof sampling households. Finally, the
of elements from within the sampled small clus- researcher chooses a specific individual within
ters. For example, a researcherwants a sample of each sampled household.
1s 5 PART ONE , / FO UNDATI O NS
" = Randomly
selected.
Operationalization
WhatYouActually
Observein the Data
Measures
and EmpiricalRelationshiPs
Measures
and
Empirical
Relationships
WhatYouActually
Observein the Data
164 P A RTo N E / F o u N D A T ro N s
lntroduction
ResearchQuestionsAppropriatefor a Survey
The Logic of Survey Research
What ls a SurveY?
Stepsin Conductinga SurveY
Constructing the Questionnaire
of Good QuestionWriting
Principles
AidingRespondent Recall
Categories
Typesof Questionsand Response
Open versusClosedQuestions
Wordinglssues
Designlssues
Questionnaire
Types of Surveys: Advantages and Disadvantages
Mail and Self-Administered
Questionnaires
Web Surveys
TelephoneInterviews
Interviews
Face-to-Face
Interviewing
The Roleof the Interviewer
Stagesof an Interview
TrainingInterviewers
lnterviewerBias
Computer-Assisted TelephoneInterviewing
The EthicalSurvey
Conclusion
166
CHAPT E R7 , / S U R V E YR E S E A R C H 16i
the respondent'sperspective in mind. Goodsur- For the generalpublic, this is the languageused
vey questionsgivethe researcher valid and reli- on televisionor in the newspaper(about an
able measures.They alsohelp respondentsfeel eighth-gradereading vocabulary). Survey re-
that theyunderstandthe questionand that their searchershave learnedthat somerespondents
answersare meaningful.Questionsthat do not may not understandbasicterminology.
meshwith a respondent'sviewpoint or that re-
spondentsfind confusingare not good mea- 2. Avoid ambiguity,confusion,and vagueness.
sures.A surveyresearchermust exerciseextra Ambiguity and vagueness plaguemost question
care if the respondentsare heterogeneous or writers. A researchermight make implicit as-
come from different life situationsthan his or sumptionswithout thinking of the respondents.
her own. For example,the question, "What is your in-
Researchers facea dilemma.Theywanteach come?"could meanweekly,monthly, or annual;
respondentto hear exactlythe samequestions, family or personal;beforetaxesor aftertaxes;for
but will the questionsbe equallyclear,relevant, this year or last year; from salaryor from all
and meaningful to all respondents?If respon- sources.The confusioncausesinconsistencies in
dentshave diversebackgroundsand framesof how different respondentsassignmeaningto
reference,the exactsamewording may not have and answerthe question.The researcherwho
the samemeaning.Yet,tailoring questionword- wantsbefore-taxannual family income for last
ing to eachrespondentmakescomparisonsal- yearmustexplicitlyaskfor it.]
most impossible.A researcher would not know Anothersourceof ambiguityisthe useof in-
whetherthe wording of the questionor the dif- definitewordsor responsecategories. For exam-
ferencesin respondentsaccountedfor different ple, an answerto the question,"Do you jog
answers. regularly?Yes- No ,,," hingeson the
Question writing is more of an art than a meaningof the word regulaily.Somerespon-
science.It takesskill,practice,patience,and cre- dentsmay defrneregulailyaseveryday,othersas
ativity. The principlesof questionwriting areil- once a week.To reducerespondentconfusion
lustrated in the following t2 things to avoid and get more information, be specific-ask
whenwriting surveyquestions.The list doesnot whethera personjogs"about oncea day,""a few
include everypossibleerror, only the more fre- times a week," "once a week," and so on. (See
quentproblems. Box 7.1on improving questions.)
3. Avoid emotionallanguage.Words haveim-
l. Avoid jargon, slang and abbreviations.Jar- plicit connotativeaswell as explicit denotative
gon and technicalterms come in many forms.
meanings.Wordswith strongemotionalconno-
Plumberstalk aboutsnakes,lawyers abouta con- tationscan color how respondentshearand an-
tract of uberrimafides, psychologists
about the swersurveyquestions.
Oedipuscompler.Slangis a kind ofjargon within
Use neutral language.Avoid words with
a subculture-for example,the homelesstalk
emotional"baggage,"becauserespondentsmay
abouta snowbirdandskiersabouta hotdog.Nso
reactto the emotionallyladenwordsratherthan
avoid abbreviations. NATO usually means
to the issue.For example,the question,"What
North Atlantic TreatyOrganization,but for a re-
do you think about a policy to pay murderous
spondent,it might mean somethingelse(Na-
terroristswho threatento stealthe freedomsof
tional Auto Tourist Organization, Native
peace-lovingpeople?"is frrll of emotionalwords
AlaskanTradeOrbit, or North African TeaOf- (murderous, freedoms,steal,andpeace).
fice).Avoid slangandjargonunlessa specialized
population is beingsurveyed.Targetthe vocab- 4. Avoidprestigebias.Titles or positionsin so-
ulary and grammarto the respondentssampled. ciety (e.g.,president,expert,etc.) carry prestige
CHAP T E R7 , / S U R V E YR E S E A R C H 17I
Do you exerciseor play What countsas exercise? Do you do any sportsor hobbies,
sportsregularly? _. physicalactivities,or exercise,
includingwalking,on a regularbasis?
What is the averagenumberof Doesmargarinecount The nextquestionisjust about
dayseachweekyouhavebutter? as butter? butter-not includingmargarine.
How manydaysa weekdo you have
butter?
[Followingquestionon eggs] How manyeggsis a serving? On dayswhenyou eat eggs,how
Whatis the numberof servings What is a typicalday? manyeggsdo you usuallyhave?
in a typicalday?
Responsesto PercentageAsking
Question for Clarification
question(% saying"yes")
Exercise 48% 60% s% o%
Butterquestion(% saying"none") s3 % 557" 18% 1s%
Eggquestion(% saying"one") 80% 33% 33% o%
Soarce:
Adaptedfrom Fowler(1992).
or status.Issueslinked to peoplewith high social Likewise,a questionsuch as, "Do you support
statuscan color how respondentshear and an- thepresident'spolicy regardingKosovo?"will be
swersurveyquestions.Avoid associating a state- answeredby respondentswho haveneverheard
ment with a prestigious person or group. of Kosovo on the basis of their view of the
Respondentsmay answeron the basisof their president.
feelingstoward the personor group ratherthan
addressingthe issue.For example,saying,"Most 5. Avoid double-barreled
questions.Make each
doctorssaythat cigarettesmokecauses lung dis- question about one and only one topic. A
easefor thoseneara smoker.Do you agree?"af- questionconsistsof two or more
double-barreled
fects people who want to agreewith doctors. questionsjoined together.It makesa respon-
172 pA RTT w o ,/ c o N D U c rrN c QU AN TtTA TIvE
R E S E A R cH
dent's answer ambiguous. For example, if asked, "should the mayor spendevenmore tax money
"Does this company have pension and health in- trying to keepthe streetsin top shape?"leadsre-
surance benefits?" a respondent at a company spondentsto disagree,whereas"Should the
with health insurance benefits only might an- mayor fix the pot-holed and dangerousstreets
swer either yes or no. The response has an am- in our city?"is loadedfor agreement.
biguous meaning, and the researchercannot be that are beyondre'
8. Avoid askingquestions
certain of the respondent's intention. A re-
spondents'capabilities.Asking somethingthat
searcherwho wants to ask about the joint occur-
few respondentsknow frustratesrespondents
rence of two things-for example, a company
and producespoor-quality responses. Respon-
with both health insurance and pension bene-
dentscannot alwaysrecallpast detailsand may
fits-should ask two separatequestions.
not know specificfactual information. For ex-
6. Do not confuse beliefs with reality. Do not ample,askingan adult,"How didyou feelabout
confuse what a respondent believes with what your brother when you were 6 years old?" is
you, the researcher, measures. A respondent probablyworthless.Askingrespondents to make
may think that a relationship existsbetween two a choice about somethingthey know nothing
variables but this is not an empirical measure- about (e.g.,a technicalissuein foreignaffairsor
ment of variables in a relationship. For example, an internalpolicy of an or ganization)may result
a researcher wants to find out if students rate in an answer,but one that is unreliable and
teachershigher who tell many jokes in class.The meaningless. When many respondentsare un-
two variablesare "teacher tells jokes" and "rating likely to know about an issue,use a firll-filter
the teacher." The wrongway to approach the is- questionform (to be discussed).
sue is to ask students, "Do you rate a teacher Phrasequestionsin the terms in which re-
higher if the teachertells many jokes?" This mea- spondentsthink. For example,few respondents
sures whether or not students believethat they will be able to answer,"Ho1v many gallonsof
rate teachers based on joke telling; it does not gasolinedid you buy lastyearfor your car?"Yet,
measure the empirical relationship. The correct respondentsmay be able to answera question
way is to ask two separate empirically based about gasolinepurchasesfor a typical week,
questions: "How do you rate this teacher?" and which the researchercan multiply by 52 to esti-
"How many jokes does the teacher tell in class?" mateannualpurchases.2
Then the researchercan examine answersto the
9. Avoid fake premises.Do not begin a ques-
two questions to determine if there is an associ- may
tion with a premisewith which respondents
ation between them. People's beliefs about a re- regardingit.
not agree,then ask about choices
lationship among variables are distinct from an with the premisewill
Respondents who disagree
actual empirical relationship.
be frustratedand not know how to answer.For
7. Avoid leading questions.Make respondents example,the question,"The.postoffice is open
feel that all responsesare legitimate. Do not let too many hours. Do you want it to open four
them become aware of an answer that the re- hourslater or closefour hours earliereachday?"
searcherwants. Aleading (or loaded) question rs leavesthosewho either opposethe premiseor
one that leads the respondent to choose one re- opposeboth alternativeswithout a meaningful
sponse over another by its wording. There are choice.
many kinds of leading questions. For example, A betterquestionexplicitlyasksthe respon-
the question, "You don't smoke, do you?" leads dent to assumea premiseis true, then asksfor a
respondents to state that they do not smoke. preference. For example,"Assumingthe postof-
Loaded questions can be stated to get either fice has to cut back its operatinghours, which
positive or negative answers. For example, would you find more convenient,openingfour
CHA P T E R7 , / s U R V E YR E S E A R C H ''7 3
hours later or closingfour hours earliereach place to go. For example, asking respondents,
day?"Answersto a hypotheticalsituationarenot "Are you working or unemployed?" leaves out
very reliable,but beingexplicitwill reducefrus- respondents who are not working but do not
tration. consider themselvesunemployed (e.g.,full-time
homemakers, people on vacation, students, peo-
10. Avoid askingqbout intentionsin the distant
ple with disabilities, retired people, etc.). A re-
future. Avoid asking people about what they searcherfirst thinks about what he or she wants
might do under hypotheticalcircumstances far to measure and then considers the circum-
in the future. Responsesare poor predictorsof
stancesof respondents. For example, when ask-
behaviorremovedfar from their current situa-
ing about a respondent's employrnent, does the
tion or far in the future. Questionssuch as,
researcherwant information on the primary job
"Suppitsea new grocerystoreopeneddown the
or on all jobs? On full-time work only or both
road in threeyears.Would you shop at it?" are
full- and part-time work? On jobs forpay only
usuallya wasteof time. It is better to askabout
or on unpaid or volunteer jobs as well?
current or recentattitudesand behavior.In gen-
Keep responsecategoriesbalanced.A caseof
eral,respondents answerspecific,concreteques-
unbalanced choices is the question, "What kind
tions that relate to their experiencesmore
ofjob is the mayor doing: outstanding, excellent,
reliably than they do those about abstractions
very good, or satisfactory?"Another type of un-
that arebeyondtheil immediateexperiences.
balanced question omits information-for ex-
II. Avoid doublenegatives.
Double negativesin ample, "Which of the five candidates running
ordinary languageare grammaticallyincorrect for mayor do you favor: Eugene Oswego or one
and confusing.For example,"I ain't got no job" of the others?" Researcherscan balance re-
logicallymeansthat the respondentdoeshavea sponsesby ofFering bipolar opposites. It is easy
job, but the secondnegativeis usedin this way to seethat the terms honesty and dishonestyhave
for emphasis.Suchblatant errors are rare, but different meanings and connotations. Asking re-
more subtle forms of the double negativeare spondents to rate whether a mayor is highly,
alsoconfusing.Theyarisewhenrespondentsare somewhat, or not very honestis not the siune as
askedto agreeor disagreewith a statement.For asking them to rate the mayor's level of
example, respondentswho disagreewith the dishonesty.Unless there is a specific purpose for
statement,"Studentsshould not be requiredto doing otherwise, it is better to offer respondents
takea comprehensive examto graduate"arelog- equal^polar opposites at each end of a contin-
ically stating a double negativebecausethey uum.r For example, "Do you think the mayor is:
disagreewith not doing something. very honest, somewhat honest, neither honest
nor dishonest, somewhat dishonest, or very dis-
12. Avoid oveilappingor unbalancedresponse honest?"(seeTable 7.1).
categories.
Make responsecategoriesor choices
mutually exclusive,exhaustive,and balanced.
Mutually exclusivemeans that responsecate- Aiding Respondent Recall
gories do not overlap. Overlappingcategories Recalling events accurately takes more time and
that are numerical ranges(e.g.,5-10, 10-20, effort than the five seconds that respondents
2O-30)canbe easilycorrected(e.g.,5-9, 10-19, have to answer survey questions. Also, one's
20-29).The ambiguousverbalchoiceis another ability to recall accurately declines over time.
type of overlappingresponsecategory-for ex- Studies in hospitalization and crime victimiza-
ample, "Ale you satisfiedwith your job or are tion show that although most respondents can
therethingsyou don't like about it?"Exhaustive recall significant events that occurred in the past
meansthat every respondenthas a choice-a severalweek, half are inaccurate a year later.
174 PART TW O / CO NDUCTI NG Q UANT I T A T I V ER E S E A R C H
1 . Jargon,slang,abbreviations Did you drown in brew until You were Lastnight,about how muchbeer did
totally blastedlast night? you drink?
6. Beliefsas real Do you think more educatedPeoPle What is your educationlevel?Do You
smokeless? smokecigarettes?
7. Leadingquestions Did you do your patriotic dutY and Did you vote in last month'smayoral
vote in the last electionfor maYor? election?
8. lssuesbeyond respondent Two yearsago, how manYhoursdid In the past two weeks,about how manY
capabilities you watch TV everymonth? hoursdo you think you watchedTV on
a typical day?
9. Falsepremises When did you stoP beatingYour Haveyou ever slapped,punched,or hit
girl/boyfriend? your girllboyfriend?
1 0. Distantfuture intentions After you graduatefrom college,get a Do you havedefiniteplansto put some
job, and are settled,will you investa moneyinto the stock marketwithin the
lot of moneyin the stock market? comingtwo months?
I 1. Doublenegatives Do you disagreewith those who do not There is a proposalto build a new city
wantto builda newcity swimming swimmingpool. Do you agreeor dis-
pool? agreewith the proposal?
responses
1 2. Unbalanced Did you find the serviceat our hotel to Pleaserate the serviceat our hotel:
be, Outstanding,Excellent,Superior,or Outstanding,Very Good,Adequate,or
Good? Poor.
'l Congres-
-Actualquestiontakenfrom a mailquestionnairethat wassentto me in May 998 by the NationalRepublican
question.
sionalCommittee.lt is alsoa double-barreled
C H A P T E R7 , / S U R V E YR T S E A R C H 175
LowThreat/Normative
+15 +17 +12
to vote
Registered
+39 +31 +36
Voted in primary
+19 +21 +.18
Haveown librarYcard
HighThreat
-32 -29 -32
Bankruptcy
-47 -46 -54
Drunkdriving
Standard Format
Hereis a questionabout an other country.Do you agreeor disagreewith this state-
ment?"The Russian leadersare basicallytrying to get alongwith America."
Quasi-Filter
Hereis a statementabout an other country:"The Russianleadersare basicallytrying
to get alongwith America."Do you agree,disagree,
or haveno opinionon that?
Full Filter
Hereisa statementaboutanothercountry.Not everyonehasan opinionon this.lf you
do not haveanopinion,just "TheRussian
sayso.Here'sthe statement: leadersareba-
sicallytryingto get alongwithAmerica."
Do you havean opinionon that?lf yes,.doyou
agreeor disagree?
'Volunteered
Source: AdaptedfromSchuman (1 981 :l 1 6-125\. Standardformatis fromFall
andPresser
.l
978; quasi-andfull-filterarefromFebruarv1977.
order items (e.g., from most favored to least ning to learn of them. For example,Smith
favored)? (1987) found large differences(e.9.,twice as
It is best to offer respondents explicit alter- much support) in U.S. surveyresponsesde-
natives. For example, instead of asking, "Do you pending on whether a question askedabout
agree or disagree with the statement, 'Men are spending"to help the poor" or "for welfare."
better suited to. . . .' " instead ask, "Do you think He suggestedthat the word welfarehas such
men are better suited, women are better suited, strong negativeconnotationsfor Americans
or both 4re equally suited?" Lesswell educated (lazypeople,wastefuland expensiveprograms)
respondents are more likely to agreewith a state- etc.)that it is bestto avoidit.
ment. whereas forced-choice alternatives en- Many respondents areconfusedbywords or
courage thought and avoid the response set their connotations.For example,respondents
bias-a tendency of some respondents to agree wereaskedwhethertheythoughttelevisionnews
and not really decide. was impartial. Researchers later learnedthat
Researcherscreate bias if question wording large numbersof respondentshad ignored the
gives respondents a reason for choosing one al- word impartial-a term the middle-class,edu-
ternative. For example, respondents were asked cated researchersassumedeveryonewould
whether they supported or opposed a law on en- know. Lessthan half the respondentshad inter-
ergy conservation. The results changedwhen re- preted the word as intendedwith its proper
spondents heard, "Do you support the law or do meaning.Over one-fourth ignoredit or had no
you oppose it becausethe law would be difficult idea of its meaning. Others gave it unusual
to enforce?" instead of simply, "Do you support meanings,and one-tenththought it wasdirectly
or oppose the law?" oppositeto its true meaning.Researchers need
It is better to ask respondents to choose to be cautious,becausesomewording effects
among alternatives by ranking instead of rating (e.g.,the differencebetweenforbid and not al-
items along an imaginary continuum. Respon- /orry)remain the samefor decades,while other
dents can rate several items equally high, but will effectsmay appear.g
place them in a hierarchy if askedto rank them.8
(about 100items) with the generalpublic, but not when the questionis by itself or beforea
responses drop significantlyfor longerquestion- questionabout fetus defects.A classicexample
naires.For highly educatedrespondentsand a of order effectsis presentedin Box 7.4.
salienttopic, using questionnaires of 15 pages Respondents may not perceiveeachissueof
may be possible.Face-to-face interviewslasting a surveyasisolatedand separate.They respond
an hour are not uncommon.In specialsitua- to surveyquestionsbasedon the setofissuesand
tions, face-to-faceinterviewsaslong asthreeto their order of presentationin a questionnaire
five hourshavebeenconducted. Previousquestionscan influence later onesin
two ways:through their content (i.e.,the issue)
Question Order or Sequence. A survey re- and through the respondent'sresponse.For ex-
searcherfacesthree questionsequenceissues: ample,a studentrespondentis asked,"Do you
organizationof the overallquestionnaire,ques- supportor favoran educationalcontribution for
tion order efiflects,
and contexteffects. students?"Answersvary dependingon the topib
of the precedingquestion.If it comes after,
Organizationof Questionnaire. In general,you "How much tuition doesthe averageU.S. stu-
shouldsequencequestionsto minimize the dis- dentpay?"respondentsinterpret"contribution"
comfort and confusionof respondents. A ques- to meansupportfor what studentswill pay.If it
tionnaire has opening, middle, and ending comesafter "How much doesthe Swedishgov-
questions.After an introduction explainingthe ernmentpayto students?"respondents interpret
survey, it is best to make opening questions it to mean a contribution that the government
pleasant,interesting,and easyto answerto help will pay. Responses can be also influencedby
a respondentfeel comfortableabout the ques- previousanswers,becausea respondenthaving
tionnaire. Avoid asking many boring back- akeadyansweredone part will assumeno over-
ground questionsor threateningquestionsfirst. lap. For example,a respondentis asked,"Howis
Organizequestionsinto common topics.Mix- your wife?"The next questionis, "How is your
ing questionson different topics causesconfu- family?"Most respondentswill assumethat the
sion. Orient respondentsby placing questions secondquestionmeansfamily membersother
on the sametopic together and introduce the than the wife becausethey alreadygavean an-
sectionwith a shortintroductorystatement(e.g., sweraboutthe wife.Il
"Now I would like to askyou questionsabout
housing").Make questiontopicsflow smoothly ContextEffecE. Researchers found powerful
and logically,and organizethem to assistre- contexteffectsin surveys.As a practicalmatter,
spondents'memory or comfort levels.Do not two thingscanbe doneregardingcontexteffects
end with highly threateningquestions,and al- Usea funnel sequence of questions-that is, ask
waysend with a "thank you." more generalquestionsbeforespecificones(e.g.,
askabout healthin generalbeforeaskingabout
Order Effects. Researchers are concernedthat specificdiseases). Or, divide the number of re-
the order in which they presentquestionsmay spondentsin half and give half of the questions
influencerespondentanswers.Such "order ef- in one order and the other half in the alternative
fects"appearto be strongestfor peoplewho lack order. then examinethe resultsto seewhether
strongviews,for lesseducatedrespondents, and questionorder mattered.If question order ef-
for older respondentsor thosewith memory fectsare found, which order tells you what the
loss.loFor example,support for an unmarried respondentsreallythink?The answeris that you
woman havingan abortion risesif the question cannotknow for sure.
is precededby a questionabout abortion being For example,a few yearsago,a classof my
acceptablewhen a fetushasseriousdefects,but studentsconducteda telephonesurveyon two
CHA P T E R7 , / S U R V E YR E S E A R C H It3
Question I
"Do you think that the United states shouldlet
communistnewspaperre-
portersfrom other countriescomein hereand sendbackto their papersthe
newsasthey seeit?"
Question 2
"Do you thinka CommunistcountrylikeRussiashourdlet American
newspaper
reporterscomein and sendbackto Americathe newsasthev seeit?"
PercentageSaying Yes
Yesto #1 Yesto #2
Heard First (CommunistReporter) (AmericanReporter)
#1 54% 7s%
#2 64% 82%
Source:
Adapted andpresser
fromSchuman (19gl:29).
topics:concernabout crime and attitudesto- lessimportant issue.By contrast, after they were
ward a new anti-drunk-driving law. A random asked about drunk driving and thought about
half of the respondentsheard questionsabout drunk driving as a crime, they may have ex_
the drunk-driving law first; the other half heard pressedlessconcern about crime in general.
about crime first. I examinedthe resultsto see Respondents answer all questions based on
whether there was any contextffict-a differ- a context ofpreceding questions and the inter_
enceby topic order. I found that respondents view setting. A researcher needs to remember
who were askedabout the drunk-driving law that the more ambiguous a question'smeaning,
first expressedlessfear about crime than did the stronger the context effects, because re-
those who were askedabout crime first. Like- spondents will draw on the context to interpret
wise,they were more supportiveof the drunk- and understand the question. previous ques_
driving law than were those who first heard tions on the same topic and heard just before a
about crime. The first topic createda context question can have a large context effect. For ex_
within which respondentsansweredquestions ample, Sudman and associates(1996:90_91)
on the secondtopic.After theywereaskedabout contrasted three ways of asking how much a re_
crime in general and thought about violent spondent followed politics. When they asked
crime,drunk driving may haveappearedto be a the questionalone,about 2l percentof iespon-
| 84 pA R TT w o / c o N D U c rtN c e u A N TtrA TtvER E sE A R cH
dents said they followed politics "now and a differentstylefrom the questions(e.g.,in a dif-
then" or "hardly at all." When they askedthe ferent color or font or in all capitals)to distin-
question after asking what the respondent's guishthem. This is so an interviewercan easily
electedrepresentative recentlydid, the percent-distinguishbetweenquestionsfor respondents
agewho said they did not follow nearly dou- and instructions intended for the interviewer
bled, going to 39 percent. The knowledge alone.
question about the representativemade many Layoutis crucialfor mail questionnaires be-
respondentsfeel that they did not really know causethereis no friendly interviewerto interact
much. When a questionabout the amount of with the respondent.Instead,the question-
"public relationswork" the electedrepresenta- naire'sappearance persuades the respondent.ln
tive provided to the areacamebetweenthe two mail surveys,includea polite,professionalcover
questions,29 percentofrespondentssaidthey letteron letterheadstationeryidentifyingthe re-
did not follow politics. This question gavere- searcherand offering a telephonenumber for
spondentsan excusefor not knowing the first questions.Detailsmatter. Respondentswill be
question-they could blame their representa- turned off if they receivea bulky brown enve-
tive for their ignorance.The contextofa ques- lope with bulk postageaddressedto Occupant
tion canmakea differenceand researchers needor if the questionnairedoesnot fit into the re-
to be awareof it at all times. turn envelope.Alwaysend with "Thank you for
your participation."Interviewersand question-
Format and Layout. Thereare two format or nairesshould leaverespondentswith a positive
layout issues:the overall physicallayout ofthe feelingabout the surveyand a sensethat their
questionnaireand the format of questionsand participationis appreciated.
responses. Questiondesignmatters.One study of col-
legestudentsaskedhow many hours they stud-
QuestionnaireLayout. Layout is important, ied per day. Some students saw five answer
whethera questionnaireis for an intervieweror choicesrangingfrom 0.5 hour to more than 2.5
for the respondent.Questionnairesshould be hours; others saw five answerchoicesranging
clear,neat,and easyto follow. Give eachques- from lessthan2.5hoursto morethan4.5hours.
tion a number and put identifying information Of studentswho sawthe first set,77 percentsaid
(e.g.,name of organization)on questionnaires. they studiedunder 2.5 hours versus31 percent
Nevercrampquestionstogetheror createa con- of thosereceivingthe secondset.When the mail
fusingappearance. A few centssavedin postage questionnaire and telephone interview were
or printing will ultimatelycostmore in termsof compared,58 percentof studentshearingthe
lower validity due to a lower responserateor of first set said under 2.5 hours, but there wasno
confusion of interviewersand respondents. changeamong those hearingthe secondset.
Make a coversheetor facesheetfor eachinter- More than differencesin responsecategories
view, for administrativeuse.Put the time and were involved, becausewhen students were
date of interview, the interviewer,the respon- askedabouthoursoftelevisionwatchingper day
dent identification number, and the inter- with similar responsecategories and then the a-
viewer'scommentsand observationson it. A ternativeresponsecategoriesmade no differ-
professional appearancewith high-quality ence.What canwe learnfrom this?Respondents
graphics,spacebetweenquestions,and goodlay- without clearanswerstend to rely on question-
out improves accuracyand completenessand naireresponsecategories for guidanceand more
helpsthe questionnaireflow. anonymous answeringformats tend to yield
Give interviewersor respondentsinstruc- morehonestresponses (seeDillman 2000:32-39
tions on the questionnaire.Print instructionsin for more details).
CHA P T E R7 , / S U R V E YR E S E A R C H I85
when askingabout how warm or cool they feel and statements(i.e., making eye contact,ex-
toward someone.A matrix question(or grid pressingsincerity,explainingthe samplingor
question)is a compactway to presenta seriesof survey,emphasizingimportance of the inter-
questionsusingthe sameresponsecategories. It view,clarifring promisesof confidentiality,etc.).
savesspaceand makesit easierfor the respon- Surveyresearcherscan also use alternativein-
dent or interviewerto note answersfor the same terviewers(i.e., different demographiccharac-
responsecategories. teristics,age,race,gender,or ethnicity), use
alternativeinterview methods(i.e., phone ver-
Nonresponse.Thefailureto getavalid response susface to face),or acceptalternativerespon-
from everysampledrespondentweakensa sur- dentsin a household.
vey. Have you everrefusedto answera survey? A critical areaof nonresponseor refusalto
In additionto researchsurveys,peopleareasked participateoccurswith the initial contactbe-
to respondto many requestsfrom charities, tweenan interviewerand a respondent.A face-
marketingfirms, candidatepolls, and so forth. to-face or telephoneinterview must overcome
Charitiesand marketingfirms getlow response resistanceand reassurerespondents.
rates, whereasgovernment organizationsget Research on the useof incentivesfound that
much higher cooperationrates.Nonresponse prepaidincentivesappearto increaserespon-
canbe a major problem for surveyresearchbe- dent cooperationin all typesofsurveys.Theydo
causeif a high proportion of the sampledre- not app€arto have negativeeffectson survey
spondentsdo not respond,researchers may not compositionor future participation.
be able to generalizeresults,especiallyif those There is a huge literature on ways to in-
who do not responddiffer from thosewho re- creaseresponseratesfor mail questionnaires
spond. (seeBox 7.6).13Heberleinand Baumgartner
Public cooperationin surveyresearchhas (1978,1981)reported71 factorsaffectingmail
declinedoverthepast20to 30yearsacrossmany questionnaireresponserates.
countries,with the Netherlandshavingthe high-
estrefusalrate,and with refusalratesashryh
30percentin the United States.l2 Thereis both^a TYPES OF SURVEYS:ADVANTAGES
growing group of "hard core" refusingpeople AND DISADVANTAGES
and a generaldeclinein participation because
Mail and Self-Administered
many people feel there are too many surveys.
Other reasonsfor refusalincludea fearof crime Questionnaires
and strangers,a more hecticlife-style,a lossof Advantages. Researchers can give question-
privacy,and a risingdistrustof authorityor gov- nairesdirectly to respondentsor mail them to
ernment.The misuseof the surveyto sellprod- respondentswho read instructionsand ques-
ucts or persuade people, poorly designed tions, then record their answers.This $pe of
questionnaires, and inadequateexplanationsof surveyis by far the cheapest,and it can be con-
surveysto respondentsalsoincreaserefusalsfor ductedby a singleresearcher. A researchercan
legitimatesurveys. sendquestionnaires to a wide geographicalarea.
Surveyresearcherscan improve eligibility The respondentcancompletethe questionnaire
ratesby careful respondentscreening,better when it is convenientand can checkpersonal
sample-framedefinition,andmultilingualinter- recordsif necessary.Mail questionnairesoffer
viewers.They can decreaserefusalsby sending anonl.rnityand avoidinterviewerbias.They can
letters in advanceof an interview, offering to be effective,and responseratesmay be high for
rescheduleinterviews, using small incentives an educatedtargetpopulation that hasa strong
(i.e.,smallgifts),adjustinginterviewerbehavior interestin the topic or the surveyorganization.
CHAPTER
7 ,/ SURVEY
RESEARCH 187
lssues
Administrative
Control
Research
No Yes Yes
Probespossible No
No Yes Yes
SpecificresPondent No
Yes Yes Yes
Questionsequence No
No Yes Yes
Onlyone resPondent No
No No Yes
Visualobservation No
with DifferentQuestions
Success
Sourcesof Bias
Advantages. Web-based surveys over the In- still learning what is most effective for web sur-
ternet or by e-mail are very fast and inexpensive. veys. It is best to provide screen-by-screenques-
They allow flexible design and can use visual im- tions and make an entire question visible on the
ages,or even audio or video in some Internet screen at one time in a consistent format tr-ith
versions. Despite great flexibility, the basic prin- drop-down boxes for answer choices.It is best to
ciples for question writing and for paper ques- include a progress indicator (as motivation),
tionnaire design generally apply. such as a clock or waving hand. Visual appear-
ance ofa screen,such as the range ofcolors and
Disadvantages. Web surveys have three areas fonts, should be kept simple for easyreadability
of concern: coverage, privacy and verification, and consistency.Be sure to provide very clear in-
and design issues.The first concern involves structions for all computer actions (e.g., use of
sampling and unequal Internet accessor use. drop-down screens)where they are needed and
Despite high coveragerates,older, less-educated, include "click here" instructions. Also, make it
lower-income, and more rural people are less easy for respondents to move back and forth
likely to have good Internet access.In addition, acrossquestions.Researchersusing web surverys
many people have multiple e-mail addresses, need to avoid technical glitches at the imple-
which limits using them for sampling purposes. mentation stageby repeatedpretesting, having a
Self-selection is a potential problem with web dedicated server,and obtaining sufficient broad-
surveys. For example, a marketing department band to handle high demand.
could get very distorted results ofthe population
of new car buyers. Perhaps half of the new car
Telephone Interviews
buyers for a model are over age 55, but 75 per-
cent of respondents to a web survey are under Advantages. The telephone interview is a pop-
age 32 and only 8 percent are over age 55. Not ular survey method becauseabout 95 percent of
only would the results be distorted by age but the population can be reached by telephone. An
the relatively small percentage of over-55 re- interviewer calls a respondent (usuallyat home),
spondents may not be representative of all over- asksquestions, and records answers.Researchers
55 potential new car buyers (e.g., they may be sample respondents from lists, telephone direc-
higher income or more educated). tories, or random digit dialing, and can quickly
A second concern is protecting respondent reach many people acrosslong distances.A staff
privacy and confidentiality. Researchersshould of interviewers can interview 1,500 respondents
encrl?t collected data, only use secure websites acrossa nation within a few days and, with sev-
and erasenonessentialrespondent identification eral callbacks, response rates can reach 90 per-
or linking information on a daily or weeklybasis. cent. Although this method is more expensive
They should develop a system of respondent than a mail questionnaire, the telephone inter-
verification to ensure that only the sampled re- view is a flexible method with most of the
spondent participates and does so only once. strengths of face-to-faceinterviews but for about
This may involve a system such as giving each halfthe cost. Interviewerscontrol the sequence
respondent a unique PIN number to accessthe of questionsand can usesome probes.A specific
questionnaire. respondent is chosen and is likely to answer all
A third concern involves the complexity of the questions alone. The researcherknows when
questionnaire design. Researchersneed to check the questions were answered and can use con-
and veriS' the compatibility of various web soft- tingency questions effectively, especiallywith
ware and hardware combinations for respon- computer-assistedtelephoneinterviewing (CATI)
dents using different computers. Researchersare (to be discussed).
190 pA R TT w o / c o N D U c l N G QU AN TtTA TIvE
R E S E A R cH
Disailvantages. Higher costand limited inter- roles,norms, and expectations. The interviewis
viewlengthareamongthe disadvantages of tele- a short-term,secondarysocialinteractionbe-
phone interviews.In addition, respondents tweentwo strangerswith the explicitpurposeof
without telephonesareimpossibleto reach,and one person'sobtaining specificinformation
the call may comeat an inconvenienttime. The from the other. The socialrolesarethoseof the
useof an interviewerreducesanonymityand in- interviewerand the intervieweeor respondent.
troducespotentialinterviewerbias.Open-ended Information is obtainedin a structuredconver-
questionsare difficult to use,and questionsre- sationin which the interviewerasksprearranged
quiring visual aids are impossible.Interviewers questionsand recordsanswers,and the respon-
can only note seriousdisruptions(e.g.,back- dent answers.It differsin severalwaysfrom or-
ground noise) and respondenttone of voice dinary conversation(seeTable7.5).
(e.g.,angeror flippancy)or hesitanry. An important problem for interviewersis
that many respondentsare unfamilar with the
surveyrespondents'role.As a result,they substi-
Face-to-FaceInterviews
tute anotherrole that may affecttheir responses.
Ailvantages. Face-to-faceinterviewshavethe Somebelievethe interview is an intimate con-
highestresponseratesand permit the longest versationor thearpysession,someseeit asa bu-
questionnaires.Interviewersalsocanobservethe reaucraticexercisein completing forms, some
surroundingsand canusenonverbalcommuni- viewit asa citizenreferendumon policy choices,
cationandvisualaids.Well-trainedinterviewers someview it as a testingsituation,and some
can askall typesof questions,can askcomplex considerit as a form of deceitin which inter-
questions,and canuseextensiveprobes. yiewersaretrying to trick or entraprespondents.
Evenin a well-designed, professionalsurvey,foi-
Disadvantages. High costis the biggestdisad- low-up researchfound that only about half the
vantageof face-to-faceinterviews.The training, respondentsunderstandquestionsexactlyasin-
travel, supervision,and personnelcostsfor in- tended by researchers.Respondentsreinter-
terviews can be high. Interviewer bias is also preted questionsto make them applicableto
$eatest in face-to-faceinterviews.The appear- their ideosynactic,personalsituationsor to
ance,tone of voice, question wording, and so makethem easyto answer.l6
forth of the interviewermay affectthe respon- The role ofinterviewersis difiicult. Theyob-
dent. In addition,interviewersupervisionis less tain cooperationand build rapport, yet remain
than for telephoneinterviews,which supervisors neutral and objective.They encroachon the re-
monitor bylisteningin ra spondents'time and privacy for information
that may not directly benefit the respondents.
They try to reduce embarrassment,fear, and
suspicionso that respondentsfeel comfortable
INTERVIEWING revealinginformation.Theymay explainthe na-
ture ofsurveyresearchor givehints aboutsocial
The Role of the Interviewer
rolesin an interview.Good interviewersmoni-
Interviewsto gatherinformation occur in many tor the paceand direction ofthe socialinterac-
settings.Surveyresearch interviewingis a speciar- tion as well as the content of answersand the
ized kind of interviewing.As with most inter- behaviorof respondents.
viewing,its goalis to obtain accurateinformation Surveyinterviewersarenonjudgmentaland
from anotherperson.ls do not revealtheir opinions,verballyor nonver-
The surveyinterviewis a socialrelationship. bally (e.g.,
by a look of shock).If a respondent
Like other socialrelationships,it involvessocial asksfor an interviewer'sopinion, he or shepo-
CHAP T E R7 , / S U R V E YR E S E A R C H 79I
.l
. Questionsand answersfrom eachparticipant I . Interviewerasksand respondentanswersmost
arerelatively
equallybalanced. of the time.
2. Thereis an openexchange
offeelingsand 2. Only the respondentrevealsfeelingsand
opinions. opinions.
3. Judgmentsarestatedandattemptsmadeto 3. lntervieweris nonjudgmental
and doesnot try
persuadethe other of a particularpointsof to changerespondent'sopinionsor beliefs.
view.
4. Interviewertries to obtain directanswersto
4. A personcan revealdeep innerfeelingsto gain specificquestions.
sympathyor as a therapeuticrelease.
5. lntervieweravoidsmakingritualresponses
that
arecommon(e.g.,"Uh huh,"
5. Ritualresponses influence
a respondent andalsoseeksgenuine
shakinghead,"Howareyou?""Fine"). answers,not ritualresponses.
6. The participantsexchangeinformationand 6. Respondentprovidesalmostall information.
correctthe factualerrorsthat thev are aware lnterviewerdoes not correcta respondent's
of. factual errors,
7. Topicsriseand fall and eitherpersoncan 7. Interviewercontrolsthe topic, direction,and
introducenewtopics.The focuscan shift pace.He or she keepsthe respondent"on task,"
directionsor digressto lessrelevantissues. and irrelevantdiversionsare contained.
8. The emotionaltone can shift from humor,to 8. Interviewerattemptsto maintaina consistently
joy, to affection,to sadness,
to anger,and so warmbut seriousand objectivetone
on. throughout.
9. Peoplecanevadeor ignorequestionsandgive 9. Respondent shouldnot evadequestions and
, flippantor noncommittal
answers. shouldgivetruthful,thoughtfulanswers.
Source:
AdaptedfromGorden(1 980:19-25) andSudman
andBradburn
(1983:5-l 0).
Interuiewer
Question: What is your occupation?
RespondentAnswerI workat GeneralMotors.
Probe:Whatis yourjob at GeneralMotors?What type of workdo you do there?
lnterviewer
Question: How long haveyou beenunemployed?
Respondent
Answer. A long time.
Probe:Couldyoutell me morespecifically
whenyour currentperiodof unemployment
began?
lntewiewer
Question: Considering the countryasa whole,do you thinkwewillhavegood
timesduringthe nextyear,or bad times,or what?
Intewiewer
Question: on a scaleof 1 to z, howdo you feelabout capitalpunishmentor
the deathpenalty,where1 is stronglyin favorof the deathpenalty,and z is stronglyop-
posedto it?
( Favor)1_ 2_ 3_ 4_ 5_ 6_ 7_ (Op p ose)
RespondentAnswer. About a 4. I think that all murderers,rapists,and violentcriminals
shouldget death,but I don't favorit for minorcrimeslikestealinga car.
viewersand extensivetraining.As with any em- guages spoken, and even the sound of their
ployment situation, adequatepay and good voice.
supervisionare important for consistenthigh- Professional interviewers will receive a two-
quality performance. Unfortunately, profes- week training course. It includes lectures and
sionalinterviewinghasnot alwayspaid well or reading, observation of expert interviewers,
providedregularemployment.In the past,inter- mock interviews in the office and in the field that
viewerswerelargelydrawn from a pool of mid- are recorded and critiqued, many practice inter-
dle-aged women willing to accept irregular views, and role-playing. The interviewers learn
part-time work. about survey research and the role ofthe inter-
Good interviewersarepleasant,honest,ac- viewer. They become familiar with the question-
curate,mature, responsible,moderatelyintelli- naire and the purpose ofquestions, although not
gent, stable, and motivated. They have a with the answersexpected.
nonthreateningappearance,have experience The importance of carefully selecting and
with many differenttypesof people,and possess training interviewers was evident during the
poiseand tact. Researchersmay considerinter- 2004 U.S. presidential election. Exit polls are
viewers'physicalappearance, age,race,sex,lan- quick, very short surveys conducted outside a
' l94 P A Rr rw o R E S E A R cH
,/ c o N D U c rl N c QU AN TITA TIvE
polling placefor peopleimmediatelyafter they not vary from what they would be if askedby
voted. On Election Day of 2004 exit polls any other interviewer.
showedcandidate|ohn Kerry well ahead,but Surveyresearchersknow that interviewer
after final voteswere countedhe lost to his op- expectations can createsignificantbias' Inter-
ponent, GeorgeW. Bush' A major causeof the viewers who expect difficult interviews have
mistakewasthat the researchorganization,paid them, and thosewho expectcertainanswersare
$10 million by six major newsorganizationsto more likely to getthem (seeBox 7.8).Properin-
conductthe exitpolls,hadhired manyyoungin- terviewerbehavior and exactquestionreading
experiencedinterviewersand gavethem only maybe difficult, but the issueis larger.
minimal training.Youngervoterstendedto sup- The socialsettingin which the interviewoc-
port iohn Kerry whereasolder voterstendedto curs can afflectanswers,including the presence
iupport GeorgeBush.Theyoung inexperienced of other people'For example,studentsanswer
interviewerswere lesssuccessfulin gaining co- differentlydependingon whetherthey areasked
operationfrom older votersand felt more com- questionsat home or at school.In general,sur-
fortablehandingthe questionnaireto someone iey researchers do not want otherspresentbe-
of a similar age.As a result,exit poll participants causethey may affectrespondentanswers'It
did not reflectthe compositionof all votersand may not alwaysmakea difference,however,es-
poll resultsshowedgreatersupport for Kerry p..lutty if the othersaresmallchildren.2O
- in-
ihan actuallyexistedamongall voters.le An interviewer'svisible characteristics,
cluding raceand gender,often affectinterviews
Although interviewerslargelywork alone,
andrespondentanswers,especially for questions
researchers use an interviewersupervisorin
aboutissuesrelatedto raceor gender. For exam-
large-scale surveyswith severalinterviewers.Su-
p.*itott are familiar with the area'assistwith ple, African American and Hispanic American
problems,overseethe interviewers,and ensure iespondentsexpressdifferent policy positions
ihat work is completedon time. For telephone otr t"..- or ethnic-relatedissuesdependingon
interviewing, this includes helping with calls, the apparentraceor ethnicityof the interviewer'
checkingwhin interviewersarrive and leave,and This occurs even with telephone interviews
monitoring interviewcalls.In face-to-face inter- when a respondenthas cluesabout the inter-
views,supervisorscheckto find out whether the viewer'sraceor ethnicity.In generafinterview-
interviewactuallytook place. This means calling ers of the sameethnic-racialgroup get more
back or sendinga confirmationpostcardto a accurateanswers.2lGenderalso affectsinter-
sampleof respondents. They can alsocheckthe viewsboth in terms of obvious issues,such as
responserate and incompletequestionnairesto sexualbehavior,aswell as support for gender-
seewhetherinterviewersareobtainingcoopera- related collective action or gender eqaality'z2
Surveyresearchers need to note the raceand
tion, and they may reinterviewa smallsubsam-
ple,analyzeanswers,or observeinterviewsto see genderof both interviewersand respondents'
whetherinterviewersareaccuratelyaskingques-
tions and recordinganswers. Computer-Assisted TelePhone
Interviewing
lnterviewer Bias Advancesin computer technologyand lower
Surveyresearchers proscribeinterviewerbehav- computerpriceshaveenabledprofessionalsur-
ior to reducebias. This goesbeyond reading vey researchorganizationsto install computer-
interviewing(CATD systems'23
osiirtedtelephone
eachquestionexactlyasworded.Ideally,the ac-
tions of a particular interviewerwill not affect With CATI, the interviewer sits in front of a
how a respondentanswers'and responseswill computer and makescalls' Wearing a headset
C H A P T E R7 , / S U R V E YR E 5 E A R C H r 95
Husbandbuysmostfurniture 89%
Husbanddoesnot buy mostfurniture 15%
LookedJewish
withJewish-sounding
name 11.7 5.8
LookedJewishonly 15.4 'r5.6
Non-Jewish
appearance 21.2 24.3
Non-Jewish
appearance
and
non-Jewish-sounding
name 19.5 21.4
and microphone, the interyiewer readsthe ques- for a specific respondent; interviewers do not
tions from a computer screenfor the specific re- have to turn pageslooking for the next question.
spondent who is called, then enters the answer In addition, the computer can check an answer
via the keyboard. Once he or she enters an an- immediately after the interviewer enters it. For
swer, the computer shows the next question on example, if an interviewer enters an answer that
the screen. is impossible or clearly an error (e.g., an H
Computer-assisted telephone interviewing instead of an M for "Male"), the computer will
speedsinterviewing and reduces interviewer er- request another answer. Innovations with com-
rors. It also eliminates the separatestep of enter- puters and web surveys also help to gather data
ing information into a computer and speeds on sensitiveissue(seeBox 7.9).
data processing.Of course, CATI requires an in- Severalcompanies have developed software
vestment in computer equipment and some programs for personal computers that help re-
knowledge of computers. The CATI system is searchers develop questionnaires and analyze
valuable for contingency questions becausethe survey data. They provide guides for writing
computer can show the questions appropriate questions, recording responses,analyzing data,
RESEARCH
196 PART TW O , / CO NDUCTI NC Q UAN T I T A T I V E
processof askingmany peoplethe sameques- Respondentswho are highly loyal to one brand of
tionsand examiningtheir answers. traditional carbonated sodascan answerthe ques-
try to minimize errors, tion easily.Other respondentsmust implicitly ad-
Surveyresearchers
dress the following questions to answer the
but surveydata often contain them. Errors in
question as it was asked: (a) What time period is
surveyscancompoundeachother.For example, involved-the past month, the past year, the last
errorscanarisein samplingframes,from nonre- 10 years?(b) What conditions count-at home,
sponse,from questionwording or order, and at restaurants, at sporting events?(c) Buying for
from interviewerbias.Do not let the existenceof oneself alone or for other family members? (d)
errors discourageyou from using the survey, What is a "soft drink"? Do lemonade, iced tea'
however.Instead'learn to be very carefulwhen mineral water, or fruit juices count? (e) Does
designingsurveyresearchand cautious about "usually" mean a brand purchased as 51 percent
generalizingfrom the resultsof surveys. or more of all soft drink purchases,or the brand
purchased more frequently than any other? Re-
spondents rarely stop and ask for clarification;
they make assumptions about what the researcher
Ke y T e r m s means.
z. See Dykema and Schaeffer (2000) and Sudman
closed-endedquestion and colleagues(1996:197--226).
computer-assisted telephone interviewing SeeOstrom and Gannon (1996).
(CATI) A
See Bradburn (1983), Bradburn and Sudman
context effect (1980), and Sudman and Bradburn (1983) on
contingency question threatening or sensitivequestions.Backstrom and
cover sheet Hursh-Cesar (1981:219) and Warwick and
Lininger ( 1975:150-151) provide useful sugges-
double-barreled question
tions as well.
floaters
5. On how "Who knows who lives here?" can be
frrll-filter question
complicated, seeMartin (1999) and Tourangeau
funnel sequence etal. (1997).
interview schedule 6. For a discussion of the "don't know," "nq opin-
matrix question ion," and middle positions in responsecategories,
open-endedquestion seeBackstrom and Hursh-Cesar ( I 98I : 148-149)'
order effects Bishop (1987), Bradburn and Sudman (1988:
partially open question 154), Brody (1986)' Converse and Presser
prestigebias (1956:35-37), Duncan and Stenbeck (1988)' and
probe Sudman and Bradburn ( 1983:140-14 1).
7. The disagree/agleeversusspecific alternativesde-
quasi-filter question
bate can be found in Bradburn and Sudman
responseset ( 1988:149-15 1), Converseand Presser( 1986:38-
social desirability bias
39), and Schuman and Pressertl98l:179-223)'
standard-format question 8. The ranking versusratings issueis discussedin Al-
threatening questions win and Krosnick ( 1985) and Krosnick and Alwin
wording effects (1988). Also see Backstrom and Hursh-Cesar
(1981:132-134) and Sudman and Bradburn
(1983:156-165)for formats of asking rating and
Endnotes ranking questions.
9. SeeFoddy ( I 993) and Presser( 1990).
1. Sudmanand Bradburn(1983:39)suggested that 10. Studies by Krosnick (1992) and Narayan and
evensimplequestions(e.g.,"What brand of soft Krosnick (1996) show that education reduces re-
drink do you usuallybuy?")cancauseproblems. sponse-order (primacy or recency) effects, but
CHAP T E R7 , / S U R V E YR E S E A R C H 199
lntroduction
QuestionsAppropriatefor an Experiment
Research
Random Assignment
Why RandomlYAssign?
How to RandomlYAssign
Matching Random
versus Assignment
200
CHAPTER8 , / E X P E R I M E N T AR
L ESEARCH 2OI
Random
Process
--+
RandomAssignment
-E_
V
+ ^dr| a
ExperimentalGrouP
Control GrouP
c H Ap rE RI / E X pE R TME N TA
R ELS E A R cH zOs
have all theseparts, and some have all seven cial behaviors, attitudes, feelings, or beliefs of
partsplus others.The following seven,to be dis- subjects that change in responseto a treatment.
cussedhere,makeup a true experiment: Dependent variables can be measured by paper-
and-pencil indicators, observation, interviews,
1. Treatmentor independentvariable or physiological responses (e.g., heartbeat or
2. Dependentvariable sweating palms).
3. Pretest Frequently, a researcher measures the de-
4. Posttest pendent variable more than once during an ex-
5. Experimentalgroup periment. The pretest is the measurement of the
6. Controlgroup dependent variable prior to introduction of the
7. Randomassignment treatment. The posttest is the measurement of
the dependent variable after the treatment has
In most experiments,a researchercreatesa been introduced into the experimental situation.
situation or entersinto an ongoingsituation, Experimental researchersoften divide sub-
then modifiesit. The treatment(or the stimulus jects into two or more groups for purposes of
or manipulation) is what the researchermodi- comparison. A simple experiment has two
fies.The term comesfrom medicine,in which a groups, only one of which receivesthe treat-
physician administersa treatment to patients; ment. The experimental group is the group that
the physicianintervenesin a physicalor psycho- receivesthe treatment or in which the treatment
logicalcondition to changeit. It is the indepen- is present. The group that does not receive the
dent variableor a combinationof independent treatment is called the control group. When the
variables.In earlierexamplesof measurement, a independent variable takes on many different
researcherdevelopeda measurementinstru- values, more than one experimental group is
inent or indicator (e.g.,a surveyquestion),then used.
appliedit to a personor case.In experiments,re- We can review the variables in the three ex-
searchers"measure"independentvariablesby periments used as examples in previous chap-
creatinga condition or situation.For example, ters. In Chapter 2 you read about an experiment
the independentvariableis "degreeof fear or by Brase and Richmond (200a) about doctor-
anxiety";the levelsarehigh fearandlow fear.In- patient interactions and perceptions. After ran-
steadof askingsubjectswhetherthey arefearful, dom assignment, subjects saw same- and oppo-
experimentersput subjectsinto either a high- site-gender models identified as being medical
fearo.-ra low-fearsituation.Theymeasurethe in- doctors but who wore either informal or for-
dependentvariableby manipulatingconditions mal/traditional attire (independent variable).
sothat somesubjectsfeela lot of fearand others The experimenters then measured the subjects'
feellittle. judgments about trust in the physican and the
Researchersgo to great lengths to create physician's abilities (dependent variable). In
treatments.Someareasminor asgivingdifFerent Goar and Sell's (2005) experiment about mixed
groupsof subjectsdifferentinstructions.Others race task groups described in Chapter 4, ran-
canbe ascomplexasputting subjectsinto situa- domly assigned three-person groups were told
tions with elaborateequipment,stagedphysical they were either to a complete complex task re-
settings,or contrivedsocialsituationsto manip- quiring diverse skills or not (independent vari-
ulate what the subjectsseeor feel. Researchers able). The experimenters measured the time it
want the treatmentto havean impact and pro- took the group to complete a task and involve-
ducespecificreactions,feelings,or behaviors. ment by group members of different races (de-
Dependentvariablesor outcomesin experi- pendent variable). In the study on college
mental researcharethe physicalconditions,so- women with tattoos discussed in Chapter 5 by
206 R E S E A R cH
P A RTT w o ,/ c o N D U c rl N c QU AN TITA TIvE
$ 2.zs
E 2.00
p r.zs
s 1.5 0
E
1.2 s
1.0 0
Fights Submits
victim Tries to Fight ofi the Rapist (Resistance)
* Sexschema
...1}.. Powerschema
Interaction ef[ectsare illustratedin Figure ing of the crime of rape (i.e.,the rape schema
8,2, which usesdata from a study by Ong and heldby eachsubject).Theresearchers found that
Ward (1999).As part of a study of 128female two rape schemascausedsubjectsto interpret
undergraduatesat the National University of yictim resistancein oppositewaysfor the pur-
Singapore,Ong and Ward measuredwhich of poseof assigningresponsibilityfor the crime.
two major wayssubjectsunderstoodthe crime Researchers discussfactorial designin a
of rape. Someof the women primarily under- shorthandway.A "two by threefactorialdesign"
stoodit assexand dueto the malesexdrive (sex is written 2 x 3.It meansthat there are two
schema);others understoodit as primarily an treatments,with two categories in one and three
act of male power and domination of a woman categoriesin the other. A 2 X 3 X 3 design
(powerschema).The researchers askedthe sub- meansthat there are three independentvari-
jectsto reada realisticscenarioaboutthe rapeof ables,one with two categoriesand two with
a collegestudent at their university. One ran- threecategorieseach.
domly selectedgroup ofsubjectsreada scenario The previouslydiscussedexperimentby
in which the victim tried to fight offthe rapist.In Hawkes,Seen,and Thorn (2004) on tattoos
the other set, shepassivelysubmitted.The re- amongcollegewomenuseda 3 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2
searchers next askedthe subjectsto evaluatethe factorialdesign.The firll study consideredfour
degreeto which the rapevictim wasat blameor independentvariables,onewith threecategories'
responsiblefor the rape. the rest havingtwo categories,and it had three
Resultsshowedthat the women who held measuresof the dependentvariable.The depen-
the sexschema(andwho alsotendedto embrace dent variable measuresincluded a Semantic
traditionalistgenderrole beliefs)more strongly Differentialmeasure(which containedthreedi-
blamedthe victim when sheresisted.Blamede- mensions). In addition, experimentershad
creasedif shesubmitted.Thewomenwho held a subjectscompletea Neosexismmeasure(an 1l-
power schema(and who alsotendedto be non- item, 5-point Likert Scalestatementssummed
traditionalists)werelesslikely to blamethe vic- into an index) and a measureof Feminismand
tim if shefought. They blamedher more if she Women's Movement Support (a l0-item, 5-
passivelysubmitted. Thus, the subjects' re- point Likert Scalesummedinto an index). The
sponsesto the victim's act of resistingthe attack experimentersmanipulated two independent
variedby, or interactedwith, their understand- variablesin the descriptionsofthe tattoo readby
2 12 P A RTT w o / c o N D U c rl N c QU AN rlrA Tl vER E S E A R cH
TABLE'8.2 SummaryofExperimental
Designswith
Notation
Classicalexperimental
design
* r3
Preexperimenta
I Designs
One-shotcasestudy o
One-grouppretest-posttest o o
Staticgroup comparison o
o
Quasi-Experi
mentalDesigns
Two-groupposttestonly
R -x o
o
Interruptedtime series oo o o x ooo
Equivalent
time series OX O X OXOXC
ox bo
\:\3 I:f
Latinsquaredesigns X"o
ox ao X"o
ox bo x-o
ox c o Xuo
ox c o X"o
ox ao Xoo
Solomonfour-groupdesign X o
o
X o
o
Factorial
designs
.qi; /Xt z1
22o
21
22o
o
o
port the number of subjects in each group dur- treatment. Researchers avoid it by isolating
ing pretests and posttests to detect this threat to groupsor havingsubjectspromisenot to reveal
internal validity. anythingto otherswho will becomesubjects.
For example,subjectsparticipatein a day-long
Statistical Regression, Statistical regressionis experimenton a new way to memorizewords.
not easy to grasp intuitively. It is a problem of During a break,treatment-groupsubjectstell
extreme values or a tendency for random errors thosein the control group aboutthe newwayto
to move group results toward the average.It can memorize,which control-groupsubjectsthen
occur in two ways. use.A researcherneedsoutsideinformation,
One situation arises when subjects are un- suchaspostexperimentinterviews,with subiects
usual with regard to the dependent variable. Be- to detectthis threat.
causethey begin as unusual or extreme, subjects
are unlikely to respond further in the same di- ExperimenterExpectancy. Although it is not
rection. For example, a researcherwants to see alwaysconsidereda traditional internal validity
whether violent films make people act violently. problem, the experimenter'sbehavior,too, can
He or she chooses a group of violent criminals threatencausallogic.3A researcher maythreaten
from a high-securityprison, givesthem a pretest, internal validiry not by purposefullyunethical
shows violent films, then administers a posttest. behavior but by indirectly communicating
To the researcher's shock, the prisoners are experimenter expectancy to subjects.Researchers
slightlyless violent after the film, whereasa con- may be highly committedto the hypothesisand
trol group of prisoners who did not seethe film indirectly communicatedesiredfindings to the
are slightly more violent than before. Because subjects.For example,a researcherstudiesthe
the violent criminals began at an extreme, it is effectsof memorizationtraining on student
unlikely that a treatment could make them more learningability, and also seesthe gradetran-
violent; by random chance alone, they appear scriptsof subjects.The researcherbelievesthat
lessextreme when measured a second timi.2 studentswith highergradestend to do better at
. A second situation involves a problem with the training and will learn more. Through eye
the measurement instrument. If many research contact,tone ofvoice,pauses,and othernonver_
participants score very high (at the ceiling) or bal communication, the researcheruncon-
very low (at the floor) on a variable, random sciouslytrains the studentswith higher grades
chance alone will produce a changebetween the more intensely;the researcher'snonverbalbe_
pretest and the posttest. For example, a re- havior is the oppositefor studentswith lower
searchergives 80 subjects a test, and 75 getper- grades.
fect scores.He or she then gives a treatmenl to Here is a way to detectexperimenterex_
raise scores. Becauseso many subjects already pectancy.A researcherhires assistantsand
had perfect scores,random errors will reduce the teachesthem experimentaltechniques.The as_
group averagebecausethose who got perfect sistantstrain subjectsandtesttheir learningabil-
scores can randomly move in only one direc- ity. The researchergives the assistantsfake
tion-to get some answerswrong. An examina- transcriptsand recordsshowingthat subjectsin
tion of scores on pretests will help researchers onegroup arehonor studentsand the othersare
detect this threat to internal validity. failing,althoughin factthe subjectsareidentical.
Experimenterexpectancyis presentif the fake
Diffusion of Treatment or Contamination. honor students,asa group,do much betterthan
Dffision of treatment is the threat that research the fakefailing students.
participants in different groups will communi- The double-blindexperimenris designedto
cate with each other and learn about the other's control researcher expectancy.In it, peoplewho
2 16 R E S E A R cH
P A RTT w o / c o N D U c rl N c QU A N TITA TIvE
havedirect contactwith subjectsdo not know contains the new drug. Only another person
the detailsof the hypothesisor the treatment.It who doesnot dealwith subjectsdirectly knows
is doubleblind becauseboth the subjectsand which coloredpill containsthe drug and it is he
thosein contactwith them areblind to detailsof or shewho examinesthe results.
the experiment(seeFigure8.3). For example,a
researcher wantsto seeif a new drug is effective. External Validity and Field
Using pills of three colors-green, yellow, and Experiments
pink-the researcherputs the new drug in the
yellowpill, puts an old &ug in the pink one,and Evenif an experimentereliminatesall concerns
makesthe greenpill aplacebo-afalsetreatment about internal validity, externalvalidity remains
that appearsto be real (e.g.,a sugarpill without a potentialproblem.Externalvalidityis the abil-
anyphysicaleffects).Assistants who givethe pills ity to generalizeexperimentalfindingsto eYents
and recordthe effectsdo not know which color and settingsoutsidethe experimentitself. If a *
qfrq
o0 o
7N
fififrfifrfifrfrfr
fr fr
SubiectsWho Are Blindto TrueHypothesis
o o o o
P q
Double-BlindExPeriment
o
Experimenter
q
.o o e o o
qfrq fififififrflfrfrm
oo
q Bq fr
SubjectsWho Are Blindto TrueHypothesis
c H Ap rE R8 ,/ E X pE R TME N TA
R ELS E A R cH 217
study lacks externalvalidity, its findings hold person encounters people who contradict the
true only in experiments,making them useless stereotype,especiallyifthe others are respected.
to both basicand appliedscience. They used both a laboratory experiment (with a
two-group, posttest-only design) and a field ex-
Reactivity. Researchparticipantsmight react periment. Past studies focused on out-group
differentlyin an experimentthan they would in stereot)?es, but the authors wanted to examine
real life becausethey know they are in a study; the hypothesis for an in-group, women. In the
this is calledreactivity.The Hawthorneffict is a laboratory experiment, experimenters randomly
specifickind of reactivity.4The name comes assignedfemale subjects to view either (1) a set
from a seriesof experimentsby Elton Mayo at photographs and biographies of 16 famous
the Hawthorne,Illinois, plant of Westinghouse women leadersor (2) photos and descriptions of
Electricduring the 1920sand 1930s.Researchers 16 flowers. The experimenters used deception
modified many aspectsof working conditions and told subjects the study was about testing
(e.g.,lighting, time for breaks,etc.) and mea- memory. The dependent variable was attitudes
sured productivity. They discoveredthat pro- and beliefs about women and was measured
ductivity roseaftereachmodification,no matter with a implicit Association Test (IAT). The re-
what it was.This curiousresultoccurredbecause sults showed that subjects associatedgendered
the workersdid not respondto the treatment first names (e.g.,|ohn vs. Emily) with leadership
but to the additional attention they received or follower traits (e.g., assertive and sympa-
from beingpart of the experimentand knowing thetic). A high IAT score indicated that a sub-
that they were being watched.Later research ject viewed women more than men as having
questionedwhetherthis occurred,but the name leadership more than supportive traits. The re-
is used for an effect from the attention of re- searchers also used a scale on beliefs about
searchers. A relatedeffectis the effectof some- women. They found support for the hypothesis
thing new,which maywearoffover time. that exposure to famous women in leadership
positions increased IAT scores,compared to ex-
Fielil Experiments. Sofar, this chapterhasfo- posure to neutral information about flowers.
cusedon experimentsconductedunderthe con- The field experiment had a pretest and a posttest
trolled conditionsof a laboratory.Experiments but no random assignment. Subjectswere fe-
are'alsoconductedin real-life or field settings males who attended two colleges in the same
wherea researcherhaslesscontrol over the ex- town. One was a coeducational college and the
perimental conditions.The amount of control other had all female students. Subjects were re-
varieson a continuum.At one end is the highly cruited from first-year classesat the beginning
controlled laboratory experiment,which takes of the academic year and completed the IAT
placein a specialized settingor laboratory at the measure, the beliefs about women scale, and a
oppositeendis thefield experimenr, which takes general campus questionnaire. The experi-
placein the'field'-in naturalsettingssuchasa menters documented that the all-female college
subwaycar, a liquor store,or a public sidewalk. had more females in administrative and faculty
Subjectsin field experimentsare usuallyun- leadership positions. Pretest IAT scores were
awarethat they are involved in an experiment very similar, with subjects from coeducational
and react in a natural way. For example,re- college having slightly lower scores.This helped
searchers havehad a confederatefakea heartat- the experimenters to check for possible selection
tack on a subwaycar to seehow the bystanders bias. Subjectswere contacted one year later and
react.5 asked to complete the same measuresas pre-
Dasguptaand Asgari (2004)testedthe hy- sented in the posttest. Experimenters watched
pothesisthat stereotypical beliefsweakenwhen a very carefully for experimental mortality since
2 18 pA RTT w o ,/ c o N D U c rtN c QU A N Tl rA rl vER E S E A R cH
P R AC TICAL CO NS I DE RA T ION S
of the situation affectedtheir behavior.Finalln
he or shecan explainthe importanceof not re-
Every research technique has informal tricks of vealing the true nature of the experiment to
the trade. These are pragmatic, commonsense other potentialparticipants.
ideasthat account for the difference between the
successfulresearchprojects of an experienced
researcher and the difficulties a novice re-
RESULTSOF EXPERIMENTAL
searcherfaces.Three are discussedhere.
RESEARCH:MAKING
COMPARISONS
Planning and Pilot-Tests
Comparisonis the key to all research.By care-
AII social research requires planning, and most fully examiningthe resultsof experimentalre-
quantitative researchersuse pilot-tests. During search,a researcher canlearn a greatdealabout
the planning phase of experimental research, a threats to internal validity, and whether the
researcherthinks of alternative explanations or treatmenthasan impact on the dependentvari-
threats to internal validity and how to avoid able. For example,in the Bond and Anderson
them. The researcher also develops a neat and (1987)experimenton deliveringbad news,dis-
well-organized system for recording data. In ad- cussedearlier,it took an averageof 89.6and73.I
dition, he or she devotes serious effort to pilot-secondsto deliverfavorableversus72.5or 747.2
testing any apparatus (e.g., computers, video secondsto deliverunfavorabletestscoresin pri-
cameras,tape recorders, etc.) that will be used invateor public settings,respectively.A compari-
the treatment situation, and he or she must train son showsthat deliveringbad newsin public
and pilot-test confederates.After the pilot-tests,takesthe longest,whereasgood newstakesa bit
the researchershould interview the pilot subjects longerin private.
to uncoyer aspectsof the experiment that need A more complexillustration of such com-
refinement. parisonsis shownin Figure8.4on the resultsof
t' a seriesof fiveweight-lossexperimentsusingthe
Instructions to Subjects classicalexperimentaldesign.In the example,
the 30 researchparticipantsin the experimental
Most experimentsinvolvegivinginstructionsto group at Enrique'sSlim Clinic lost an averageof
subjectsto set the stage.A researchershould 50 pounds,whereasthe 30 in the control group
word instructions carefully and follow a pre- did not losea singlepound. Only one person
pared script so that all subjectshear the same dropped out during the experiment.Susan's
thing. This ensuresreliability. The instructions ScientificDiet Planhad equallydramaticresults,
are also important in creatinga realisticcover but 11peoplein her experimentalgroupdropped
storywhendeceptionis used. out. This suggests a problem with experimental
mortality. Peoplein the experimentalgroup at
Postexperiment Interview Carl's Calorie Counterslost 8 pounds, com-
paredto 2 poundsfor the control group,but the
At the end of an experiment,the researcher control group and the experimentalgroup be-
should interview subjects,for three reasons. gan with an averageof 31 pounds differencein
First,ifdeceptionwasused,the researcher needs weight. This suggestsa problem with selection
to debrieftheresearchparticipants,tellingthem bias.Natalie'sNutrition Centerhad no experi-
the true purposeof the experimentand answer- mentalmortality or selectionbiasproblems,but
ing questions.Second,he or shecan learnwhat those in the experimentalgroup lost no more
the subjectsthought and how their definitions weight than those in the control group. It ap-
220 PART TWO / CO NDUCTI NC Q UANTI TATI V ER E S E A R C H
weight-Loss
FI c u RE 8 .4 comparisonsof Results,classicalExperimentalDesign,
Experiments
N atal i e' s
Enrique's
N utri ti on C enter
SlimClinic
Pretest Posttest
Pretest Posttest
Experimental 1e0(30) 188(2e)
Experimental 1e0(30) 14o(2e)
ControlgrouP 1e2(2e) 190(28)
ControlgrouP lse (30) 18e(30)
Pauline's
Susan'sScientific
PoundsOff
Diet Plan
Pretest Posttest
Pretest Posttest
Experimental leo (30) 1s8(30)
Experimental 1e0(30) 141(1e)
18e(28) ControlgrouP 1e1(2e) lse (28)
Controlgroup 1se(30)
Carl'sCalorie
Counters
Pretest Posttest
Experimental 150(30) 1s2(2e)
ControlgrouP 1el (2e) 18e(2e)
pears that the treatment was not effective' the maturation, history, or diffirsion of treat-
Fauhne'sPoundsOffalso avoidedselectionbias ment effectsmay haveoccurred.Thus,the treat-
and experimentalmortality problems.Peoplein ment at Enrique'sSlim Ctinic appearsto be the
her experimentalgroup lost 32 pounds,but-so mosteflectiveone.SeeBox 8.2for a practicalap-
that
did thosein the control group'This suggests plicationof comparingexperimentalresults'
DEPENDENT
VARIABLE:
PERCENTAGE
WHO OBEYTHELAW
ir..l.i.t
t&,1li a:,,n,::
Experimental
(citation) 6.7% 5 1% 29% 45
Control (no citation) 13j% 3s % 17% 98
Total 11.1% 40% 21% 143
The resultsallow us to comparerates of illegal the citationcampaign, but were unableto do so.
sellingactivitybeforeand after citationsplusmedia Sinceoutletsthat did not receivethe treatment(i.e.,
campaign(ltretestand posttestmeasures)and to a citationfor lawviolation)probablylearnedaboutit
compareoutletsthat receivedcitations(experimental from othersin the samebusiness, a formof diffusion
group)with thosethat did not receivecitationsand of the treatmertcould be operating.Third, the re-
only hadmediaexposure(control group).We seethat searchers report that they beganwith I 55 outlets,
the citationsand campaigndid not stop the illegal but studiedonly 143 becauseI 2 outletswent out
activity, but it had some effect. The impact was of business duringthe study.Theauthorsnotedthat
greateron outlets that experienceddirect punish- none of the outlets that stoppedsellingalcohol
ment.In addition,by addinga laterfollow-up(Time closeddueto newlawenforcement, but ifthose out-
2), we see how the law-enforcement impactslowly lets that receivedcitationshad more problemsand
decayedover time.As frequentlyhappensin a nat- were more likelyto go out of business,it suggests
uralexperiment, internalvalidityis threatened:First, experimental mortality.The experimentersdid not
the pretest measureshowsa differencein the two mentionany externaleventsin New Orleansthat
setsof outlets,with outletsthat receivedthe treat- happenedduringthe time of the study (e.g.,a publi-
mentshowinghigherratesof illegalbehavior;this is cizedeventsuchasunderagedrinkerdyingof alcohol
potentialselection bias.Second,the mediacampaign poisoningfrom overdrinking).Researchers needto
occurredfor alloutlets,so the treatmentis reallya cr- be awareof potentialexternaleventswhena study
tation plusthe mediacampaign. The authorsnoted continuesfor a long time and considerpossible
that they hadintendedto comparethe NewOrleans historyfficts.
areawith anotherareawith neitherthe medianor
lntroduction
Nonreactive Measurement
The Logicof NonreactiveResearch
Observation
or Unobtrusive
Varietiesof Nonreactive
and Documentation
Recording
Content AnalYsis
What ls ContentAnalYsis?
TopicsAppropriatefor ContentAnalysis
Measurement and Coding
Coding,ValiditY,and ReliabilitY
Howto ConductContentAnalysisResearch
lnferences
Existing Statistics/Documents and Secondary Analysis
AppropriateToPics
SocialIndicators
LocatingData
Limitations
lssuesof Inference and Theory Testing
lnferencesfrom NonreactiveData
EthicalConcerns
Conclusion
224
CHAPTER9 , / NO NREACT I V ER E S E A R C H
A N D S E C O N D A R YA N A L Y S I S Z2S
given week? What percentage of all characters words or phrases, and puts the text into a form
are they, or in what percentage of programs do that computers can read.4
they appear? Manifest coding is highly reliable because
the phrase or word either is or is not present.
Direction. Direction is noting the direction of Unfortunately, manifest coding does not take
messagesin the content along some continuum the connotations of words or phrases into ac-
(e.g., positive or negative, supporting or op- count. The same word can take on different
posed). For example, a researcherdevisesa list of meanings depending on the context. The possi-
ways an elderly television character can act. bilitythat there are multiple meanings of aword
Some are positive (e.g., friendly, wise, consider- limits the measurement validity of manifest
ate) and some are negative (e.g., nasty, dull, coding.
selfish). For example, I read a book with a red cover
that is a real red herring. Unfortunately, its pub-
Intensity. Intensity is the strength or power of a lisher drowned in red ink because the editor
messagein a direction. For example, the charac- could not deal with the redtapethatoccurs when
teristic of forgetfulness can be minor (e.g., not a book is redhot. The book has a story about a
remembering to take your keys when leaving red fire truckthat stops at redlights only after the
home, taking time to recall the name of someone leavesturn red.Thereis also a group of Redswho
you have not seen in years) or major (e.g., not carry red flags to the little red schoolhouse. They
remembering your name, not recognizing your are opposed by red-blooded redneckswho eatred
children). meat and honor the red, white, and blue. The
main character is a red-nosed matador who fights
Space. A researchercan record the sizeof a text redfoxes,not bulls, with his redcape. Red-lipped
messageor the amount of spaceor volume allo- little Red Riding Hood is also in the book. She
cated to it. Spacein written text is measured by develops red eyesand becomes red-faced. after
counting words, sentences,paragraphs, or space eating a lot of redpeppets in the redhghtdistrict.
on a page (e.g.,squareinches).For video or au- She is given a redbackside by her angry mother,
dio text, space can be measured by the amount aredhead.
of time allocated. For example, a TV character In the study of gender stereot)?es in films in
may be present for a few secondsor continu- 2002, Lauzen and Dozier (2005) largely used
ously in every sceneof a two-hour program. manifest coding. Coders coded eachcharacter in
a film as male or female, the estimated age of
each character in one of7 categories,the occu-
Coding, Validity, and Reliability
pation ofeach character, and whether a charac-
Manifest Coiling. Coding the visible, surface ter was formally appointed to provide guidance
content in a text is calTedmanifestcoding. For ex- or direction in a group or informally emgered in
ample, a researchercounts the number of times su-cha function.
a phrase or word (e.g., red) appears in written
text, or whether,a specific action (e.g.,a kiss) ap- Latent Coiling. A researcher asing latent cod-
pears in a photograph or yideo scene.The coa- ing (also called semantic analysis) looks for the
ing system lists terms or actions that are then underlying, implicit meaning in the content of a
located in text. A researchercan use a computer text. For example, a researcher reads an entire
program to search for words or phrases in text paragraph and decideswhether it contains erotic
and have a computer do the counting work. To themes or a romantic mood. The researcher's
do this, he or shelearns about the computer pro- coding system has general rules to guide his or
gram, develops a comprehensive list of relevant her interpretation of the text and for determin-
2 3O pA RTT wo / c o N D U c rtN G e u A N T trA TtvER E S E A R cH
ing whether particular themesor moods are cent of.80 or better is generallyrequired,al-
present. though.70maybe acceptable for exploratoryre-
Latent codingtendsto be lessreliablethan search.When the codingprocessstretchesovera
manifestcoding.It dependson a coder'sknowl- considerabletime period (e.g.,more than three
edgeof languageand socialmeaning.sTraining, months),the researcher alsochecksreliabilityby
practice,and written rules improve reliabiliry having eachcoderindependentlycodesamples
but still it is difficult to consistentlyidentify of text that were previouslycoded.He or she
themes,moods,and the like. Yet, the validity of then checksto seelghetherthe codingis stableor
latentcodingcanexceedthat of manifestcoding changing.For example,six hours of television
becausepeoplecommunicatemeaningin many episodesare codedin April and codedagainin
implicit waysthat dependon context,not just in )uly without the coderslooking at their original
specificwords. codingdecisions.Largedeviationsin codingne-
A researchercan useboth manifestand Ia- cessitate retrainingand codingthe text a second
tent coding.Ifthe two approachesagree,the fi- time.
nal result is strengthened;if they disagree,the In the studyof the 100most popularU.S.
researchermay want to reexaminethe opera- films of 2002byLauzenandDozier(2005),three
tional and theoreticaldefinitions. graduatestudentsworked ascoders.During an
initial training period they studied the coding
IntercoderReliability. Content analysisoften systemandvariabledefinitions.Next,the coders
involvescoding information from a very large practicedby codingindependentof.oneanother
number of units. A researchproject might in- severalfilms that were not in the study then
volveobservingthe contentin dozensof books, comparingand discussingresults.For codingof
hundredsof hours of televisionprogramming, study films, 10 percentof all films were double
or thousandsof newspaperarticles.In addition codedto calculateintercoderreliability mea-
to coding the information personally,a re- sures.Intercorderreliability measureswere cal-
searchermayhire assistants to helpwith the cod- culatedfor eachvariable.For the genderof the
ing. He or sheteachescodersthe codingsystem major characterin the film it was.99,for occu-
and trains them to fill out a recordingsheet. pation of the chactersit was.91,and for the age
Codersshouldunderstandthe variables,follow of charactersit was.88.
the codingsystem,and askabout ambiguities.A
researcher recordsall decisionshe or shemakes ContentAnnlysiswithVisual Material. Using
about how to treat a new specificcoding situa- content analysisto study visual "text," such as
tion after codingbeginsso that he or shecanbe photographs, paintings, statues, buildings,
consistent. clothing,andvideosand film, is difficult. It com-
A researcherwho usesseveralcodersmust municatesmessages or emotionalcontent indi-
alwayscheckfor consistencyacrosscoders.He rectlythrough images,qrnbols, and metaphors
or she doesthis by askingcodersto codethe Moreover,visual imagesoften contain mixed
sametext independentlyand then checkingfor messages at multiple levelsof meaning.
consistenryacrosscoders.The researchermea- To conductcontent analysison visualtext,
suresintercoderreliabilitywith a statisticalcoef- the researchermust "read" the meaning(s
ficientthat tellsthe degreeof consistencyamong within visualtext. He or shemust interpretsigns
coders.The coefficientis alwaysreportedwith and discoverthe meaningsattachedto syrnbolic
the resultsofcontent analysisresearch. Thereare images.Such"reading" is not mechanical(i.e.,
severalintercoderreliabilitymeasures that range imageX alwaysmeansG); it dependsheavilyon
from 0 to 1, with 1.0 signifying perfect agree- the cultural contextbecausethe meaningof an
ment among coders.An interreliability coeffi- imageis culturebound. For example,a red light
9 / N ON R EA C T IVREES EA R CAHN D S E C ON D A RAYN A LY S IS
CHA P T ER 23I
does not inevitablymean "stop"; it means "stop" and dress) in the photographs and the recurrent
onlyln cultures where people have given it that use of major syrnbols, such as the Statute of Lib-
meaning. People construct cultural meanings efty or the U.S. flag, communicated messages.
that they attach to syrnbolic images, and the Chavez argued that magazine covers are a
meanings can changeover time. Some meanings site, or location, where cultural meaning is cre-
are clearer and more firmly attached to s).rnbols ated. Visual images on magazine covers have
and imagesthan others. multiple levels of meaning, and viewers con-
Most people share a common meaning for struct specific meanings as they read the image
key symbols of the dominant culture, but some and use their cultural knowledge. Collectively,
people mayread a qnnbol differently. For exam- the covers convey a worldview and expressmes-
ple, one group of people may "read" a national sagesabout a nation and its people. For example,
flag to mean patriotism, duty to nation, and a magazine cover that displayed the icon of the
honor of tradition. For others, the same flag Statute of Liberty as strong and full of compas-
evokes fear, and they read it to indicate govern- sion (message:welcome immigrants) was altered
ment oppression, abuse of power, and military to have strong Asian facial features (message:
aggressio4.A researcherpursuing the content Asian immigrants distorted the national culture
analysisof imagesneedsto be aware of divergent and altered the nation's racial make-up), or
readings of symbols for people in different holding a large stop sign (message:go away im-
situations or who may have diverse beliefs and migrants). Chavez (2001: a$ observedthat "im-
experiences. ages on magazines both refer to, and in the
Sociopolitical groups may invent or con- process,help to structure and construct contem-
struct new symbols with attached meanings porary'American' identity." (SeeBox 9.3 for an-
(e.g., a pink triangle came to mean gay pride). other content analysisexample.)
They may wrestle for control of the meaning of
major existing symbols. For example, some peo-
How to Conduct Content Analysis
ple want to assigna Christian religious meaning
to the Christmas tree; others want it to represent
Research
a celebration of tradition and familyvalues with- QuestionFormulntion As in most research,
out specific religious conten| others seeits ori- content analysisresearchers begin with a re-
gins as an anti-Christian pagan symbol; and still searchquestion.When the questioninvolves
others want it to mean a festive holiday season variablesthat are messages or syrnbols,content
for commercial reasons. Becauseimages have analysismay be appropriate.For example,I
symbolic content with complex, multilayer want to study how newspapers covera political
meaning, researchersoften combine qualitative campaign.My construct"coverage"includesthe
judgments about the images with quantitative amountof coverage, the prominenceof the cov-
data in content analysis. erage,and whetherthe coveragefavorsone can-
For example, Chavez (2001) conducted a didateoveranother.I could surveypeopleabout
content analysisof the coversof major U.S. mag- what theythink of the newspapercoverage, but a
azines that dealt with the issue of immigration better strategyis to examinethe newspapers di-
into the United States.Looking at the covers of rectlyusingcontentanalysis.
10 magazinesfrom the mid-1970s to the mid-
1990s,he classified the covers as having one of Units of Analysis. A researcher decideson the
three major messages:affirmative, alarmist, or units of analysis(i.e.,the amount of text that is
neutral or balanced. Beyond his classification assigneda code).For example,for a political
and identifring trends in messages,he noted campaign,eachissue(or day) of a newspaperis
how the mix of people (i.e., race, gender, age, the unit of analysis.
232 PART TWO / CO NDUCTI NG Q UANTI TA T I V ER E S E A R C H
Time 1-7,1985
January pP.2-3 000001 No
Time p. 4, bottom 000002 No
Time p. 4, top 000003 Yes- 1 0001
a
Time March'f
-7,zOOs p p .2-5 002101 Y es-l 0 0454
Time p. 5, right 002102 No
c o l u mn
Time p . 6 ,l eft 002103 No
column
Tine p .7 002't04 No
o
Mqgazine
Blank Example
ProfessorNeuman,SociologyDepartment
Coder:
Minority/MajorityCroup Representation project
in Newsmagazines
ARTICLE
#_ MACAZTNE: DATE: SIZE:_ col.in.
Totalnumberof peoplenamed_ Numberof Photos
No. peoplewith significant
roles:_ ArticleTopic:
Person_: Race:_ Cender:_ Leader?:_ Field?_ Rating:_
Person_: Race:_ Gender:_ Leader?:_ Field?_ Rating:_
Person_: Race:_ Cender:_ Leader?:_ Field?_ Rating:_
Person_: Race:_ Cender:_ Leader?:_ Field?_ Rating:_
Pe r s on' : Rac e :_ C e n d e r:_ Leader?:_ Field?_ Rating:_
Person_: Race:_ Cender:_ Leader?: Field?_ Rating:_
Person_: Race:_ Gender:_ Leader?:_ Field?_ Rating:_
Person_: Race:_ Cender:_ Leader?:_ Field?_ Rating:_
of information is recorded for each recording utesto read and codean article.This doesnot
unit, more than one sheetof paper can be used. include samplingor locating magazinearticles.
When planning a project, researcherscalculate With approximately1,400articles,that is 350
the work required. For example, during my pi- hours of coding,not countingtime to verifi. the
lot-test, I find that it takes an averageof tS min_ accnracyof coding.Because350 hours is atout
236 P A Rr r wo R E S E A R cH
/ c o N D U c rl N c QU A N T ITA TIvE
unit of analysiswas the censustract. Downey health and nutrition, public safety,education
testedcompetingmodels of environmentalin- and training, worh income,cultureand leisure,
equalitp (1) racistsiting poliry: toxic siteswere socialmobilig, and public parricipation.
placedin Black residentialareas,(2) economic A more specificexampleof a socialindica_
inequality:low-incomepeoplewho are dispro- tor is the FBI'suniform crime index.It indicates
portionatelyBlackmove into areasnear toxic the amount of crime in U.S.society.Socialindi-
sitesbecausethey find low-cost housingthere, catorscanmeasurenegativeaspectsof sociallife,
and (3) residentialsegregation: Whites move suchasthe infant mortality rate (the deathrate
into specificareasand keepout non-Whites.He of infants during the first year of life) or alco-
found greatestsupport for the residentialsegre- holism, or they can indicatepositive aspects,
gation model. Paradoxically,it meant that such as job satisfactionor the percentae of
Blackswerelesslikely thanWhitesto live closeto housingunits with indoor plumbing. Socialin_
a toxic pollution site. This was becauseWhites dicatorsoften inyolve implicit valuejudgments
had obtainedhousing near the factorieswhere (e.g.,which crimes are seriousor what consti-
they worked and kept Blacksfrom moving in tutesa good quality of life).
but those factorieswere the maior sourcei of
toxic pqllution.
Locating Data
acted,and the like. Here are three examplesof Large-scaledata collection is expensive and
politicalinformationpublicationsfor the United difficult. The cost and time required for a major
States: national surveythat usesrigorous techniques are
prohibitive for most researchers. Fortunately,
Almanacof AmericanPoliticsis a biannual the organization, preservation, and dissemina-
publicationthat includesphotographsanda tion of major survey data sets have improved.
short biographyof U.S. governmentoffi- Today, there are archives ofpast surveysthat are
cials. Committee appointments, voting open to researchers.
records,and similar information are pro- The Inter-University Consortium for Polit-
vided for membersof Congressand leaders ical and Social Research(ICPSR) at the Univer-
in the executivebranch. sity of Michigan is the world's major archive of
America Votes:A Handbookof Contempo- social sciencedata. Over 17,000 survey research
and related sets of information are stored and
raryAmericanElectionStatisticscontainsde-
tailed.voting information by county for made available to researchers at modest costs.
most statewideand national offices. Pri- Other centers hold survey data in the United
mary electionresultsare includeddown to Statesand other nations.lo
A widely used source of survey data for the
the countylevel.
United Statesis the GeneralSocialSurvey (GSS),
Vital StatisticsonAmericanPoliticsprovides which has been conducted annually in most
dozensof tableson political behavior,such years by the National Opinion ResearchCenter
as the campaignspendingof everycandi- at the University of Chicago. In recent years, it
date for Congress,their primary and final has covered other nations as well. The data are
votes,ideologicalratingsby variouspolitical made publicly availablefor secondaryanalysisat
': organizations,and a summary of voter reg-
a low cost (seeBox 9.6).
istrationregulationsby state.
Categoriesof Nonemployed/FullyUtilized
Unemployedpeople Peoplewho meetthreeconditions:lacka payingjob outsidethe home,are
to find work,can beginwork immediately
takingactivemeasures if it is of-
fered.
Involuntarypart-timeworkers Peoplewith a job, but workirregularlyor fewerhoursthanthey areableand
willing.
workers
Discouraged Peopleableto workandwho activelysoughtit for sometime,but beingun-
ableto find it, havegivenup looking.
Other nonworking Thosenot workingbecausethey are retired,on vacation,temporarilylaid
off,semidisabled, homemakers, full-timestudents,or in the processof mov-
ing.
Transitionalself-employed Self-employed who are not workingfull time becausethey arejust starting
a businessor are goingthroughbankruptcy.
Underemployed Persons with a temporaryfull-timejob for whichthey areseriouslyoverqual-
ified.Theyseeka permanent job in whichthey canfullyapplytheirskillsand
experience.
Another validity problem ariseswhen offi- bery arrestsas a proxy. But the measureis not
cial statisticsarea surrogateor proxy for a con- entirelyvalid becausemanyrobberiesarenot re-
struct in which a researcheris really interested' ported to the police,and reportedrobberiesdo
This is necessary becausethe researchercannot not alwaysresultin an arrest.
collectoriginaldata.For example,the researcher A third validity problem arisesbecausethe
wants to know how many people have been researcher lackscontrol overhow information is
robbed,sohe or sheusespolicestatisticson rob- collected.All information, eventhat in official
CHAPTER9 , / NO NREACTI VERESEARCH
A N D S E C O N D A R YA N A L Y S I S 243
An androgynous first nameis one that canbe for ei- rare (about 3 percent)and that there has been a
ther a girl or boy without clearlymarkingthe child's very slight historicaltrend toward androgyny,but
gender.Somearguethat the feministmovementde- onlyin veryrecentyears.ln addition,parentsgivean-
creasedgendermarkingin a child'snameas part of drogynousnamesto girls more than to boys' and
its broadersocietalinfluenceto reducegenderdis- gendersegregation in namingis unstable(i.e.,a name
tinctionsandinequality.Othersobservethat gender tends to lose its androgynousmeaningover time).
remains the single-most predominant featureof nam- The authorsnoted that the way parentsnam€chil-
ing in most societies. Evenwhen racial groupsor so- drenmimicsa patternof collectivebehaviorfoundto
cial classesinventdistinctivenew first names,the operatein anotherresearcharea:theracialsegrega
genderdistinctionsare retained. tion of neighborhoods. Changein residenceis un-
Lieberson and colleagues (2000) examined ex- equal among races with less movementby the
isting statisticaldata in the form of computerized dominantgroup;the lesspowerfulgroup movesto
recordsfromthe birth certificates of 1 1 millionbirths occupyareasthat the dominantgroup has aban
of Whitechildrenin the stateof lllinoisfrom 1 91 5 to doned;and integrationis unstable,with new segre
1 989. Theyfoundthat androgynous first namesare gationreappearing aftersometime.
CHA P T ER
9 ,/ N ON R EA C T IVRESEARC
E H
A N D S E C O N D A R YA N A L Y S I S 245
(1984'1985)
sec- 4' StoneandWeber (L992)andWeber
interest. Although existing statisticsand r"*-uti""a computerizedcontentanalysis
tech-
are low-cost research tecn-
ondarydataanalysis niques.
and
;i.que;, the researcherlacks control over' 5' S". end."n (1981:58-66)for a discussion
ofreli-
substantialknowledge oi, int a"o collection in content analysis
uUifiy. Coai"g categorization
Drocess. This introducesa potentialsourceot er- is discussed in Holsti (1969:94-126)'
'rors about which researchers need to be espe- in
6. A dir.or.io.t of socialindicatorscanbe found
(1966)' Duncan
ciallyvigilant and cautious' Carley(1981).Also seeBauer
(1981)'Land
i" ire next chapter,we move from design- 098i:233-235),Justerand Land
Gilmartin (1980)'
ing researchprojectsand collectingdata-toana- itssz),and Rossiand
yearbook are alsoproduced;
liins. datu.The'analysis techniquesapply to the 7' iufu"y
"o"-n"glish
aboutin the previ- fo, .lu*pt", itatistiches Iahrbuchfor the Federal
Jrru"iituti". data you learned de la
have seenhow to move n prrUti.'of Cermany'AnnuaireStatistique
o.r, .haptets.So far, you Year Book Australia for Aus-,
measures' Francefor France,
from a iopic, to a research design-and Denmark's Statiskisk Ti Arsoversrgt'
how to tralia, and
to collectingdata. Next, you will le-arn of its yearbook
you about iupunp.oa"..s an Englishversion
look at dataand see what they can tell .uU.a tn. Statistical of
Handbook lapan'
question' gov-
a hypothesisor research 8. Guidesexistfor the publicationsofvarious
example' the Guide to British
".rr-.ntr-for
Ciuun*r"t publications, Australian OfficialPub-
Ke y T e r m s irotlonr, atd lrish Official Publications'Similar
publications existfor mostnations'
accretion measures 9. 3eeChurchilt(1983:140-167) andStewart(1984)
coding for listsof businessinformationsources'
include
coding system 10. dift* *q"t u.S. archivesof surveydata
ttr. Natio"a Opinion Research Center' University
content analYsis
Univer-
erosion measures of Chi.ugo, the SurveyResearchCenter'
of C"alifornia-Berkeley; the Behavioral. Sci-
fallacy of misplacedconcreteness sity
of Cincinnati; Data
encesLaboratory,University
General SocialSurveY(GSS) Wis--
*d Ptogr"- tiLrary Service,University of
latent coding the Roper Center' University of
consin-iltadison;
manifest coding Connecticut-Storrs; and the Institute for Re-
nonreactive searchin SocialScience, Universityof North Car-
Nathan
recording sheet olina-ChapelHill. Also seeKiecolt and
StatisticalAbstract of the United States ( 1985)andPar cel (1992)'
structured observation l l . fo. a dlrcr'rsrion oftheseissues,seeDaleand col-
text i.*".. (1988:27-3t), Maier(1991)'and Parcel
0;g2). Horn (1993:138) givesa good-discussion
unobtrusive measures
*ltt ."u-pt.s of the fallacy of misplacedcon-
creteness.
Endnotes 12. SeeStevenson (1996).
;;. ;;; TheEconomisr, "The Good statisticsGuide"
1. SeeWebbandcolleagues (1981:7-11)' (September lI, lg93), "The OverlookedHouse-
i. po, a.n"itions of content analysis'seeHolsti t..p*" (February 5,1994), and "FewerDamned
-'
(isas,sgz),Krippendorff (r980t2r-24)' Lies?"(March30' I996)'
-Yi:\"tr (1984)'
and associates (1974:5-6),Stone and Weber 14. SeeBlock and Burns (1986)'Carr'Hill
(1992),andWeber (1983,1984,1985:81' 1l' (1g73),Horn (1993)' Maier (1991)'and
"9tt Hindess
e. W.iz-att and (1972)is a classicin this
colleagues Van denBergandVanderVeer(1985)'
typeofresearch.
Analysisof Quantitative
Data
Introduction
Dealing with Data
CodingData
EnteringData
CleaningData
Resultswith One Variable
Frequency
Distributions
of CentralTendency
Measures
Measures
of Variation
Results with Two Variables
A BivariateRelationship
Seeingthe Relationship:
The Scattergram
Tables
Bivariate
Measures
of Association
More Than Two Variables
StatisticalControl
Modelof Percentaged
The Elaboration Tables
MultipleRegression
Analysis
lnferential Statistics
The Purposeof InferentialStatistics
StatisticalSignificance
Levelsof Significance
Type I and Type ll Errors
Conclusion
248 PART TW O / CO NDUCTI NG Q UANT I T A T I V ER E S E A R C H
recordingsheets.However,it getscomplexwhen
ilffi--* the dataarenot well organizedor not originally in
the form of numbers' Researchers developrules
Ifyou reada researchreport or articlebasedon
to assign certain numbers to variable attributes'
quantitative data,you will probably find charts'
For example, a researcher codes males as 1 and fe-
graphs,andtablesfirll ofnumbers.Do notbe in-
malesas 2.Eachcategory of a variableand miss-
ii-idut.d by them. A researcherprovides the
needs a code. A codebook is a
charts,graphs,andtablesto giveyou, the reader' ing information
do=cument (i.e.,one or more pages) describing the
a condensedpicture ofthe data.The chartsand
procedure and the location of data for
tablesallow you to seethe evidencecollected' coding
in a format that computers can use'
When you collect your own quantitativedata, variables
yoo *ill want to usesimilar techniquesto help When you code data, it is essentialto cre-
you seewhat is insidethe data'You will needto ate a well-organized,detailedcodebookand
organizeand manipulatethe datasothey can re- make multiple copiesof it. If you do not write
veal things of interest.In this chapter,you will down the detailsof the coding procedure,or if
learn the fundamentalsof organizingand ana- you misplacethe codebook,you havelostthe
llzingqaantitative data. The analysisof quanti- key to thi dataand may haveto recodethe data
tativedatais a complexfield of knowledge.This again.
chaptercoversonly the basicstatisticalconcepts Researchers begin to think about a coding
to un- procedure and codebook before they collect
and data-handlingtechniquesnecessary
iutu. Fot example, a survey researcher precodes
derstandsocialresearch.
a questionnaire before collecting data.Precoding
Data collectedusing the techniquesin the
past chaptersare in the form of numbers.The ttt."trr placingthe codecategories(e.g.,1 for
numberi representvalues of variables'which male,2 for female)on the questionnaire.'Some-'
measurecharacteristics of subjects,respondents, times, to reducedependenceon a codebook,
or other cases.The numbersare in a raw form, surveyresearchers alsoplacethe location in the
on questionnaires, note pads,recordingsheets' computerformat the questionnaire'-
on
or paper.Researchers reorganizethem into a ifa researcher doesnot precode,thefirst step
form suitablefor computers,presentchartsor after collecting data is to createa codebook.He
graphsto summarizetheir features,and inter- or shealso gives each casean identification num-
pret or givetheoreticalmeaningto the results. ber to keeptrack ofthe cases.Next, the researcher
transfersthe information from eachquestion-
naireinto a format that computers canread'
DEALING WITH DATA
Coding Data Entering Data
easilyread it, and without the codebook,it ts then usea bar-codereaderto transferthe in-
worthless.It condensesanswersto 50 survey formation into a comPuter.
questionsfor three respondentsinto threelines
or rows.The raw datafor manyresearchprojects Cleaning Data
look like this, except that there may be over
1,000rows, and the lines may be over 100 Accuracyis extremelyimportant when coding
columns long. For example,a l5-minute tele- data.Errorsmadewhen codingor enteringdata
phonesurveyof250 studentsproducesa grid of into a computerthreatenthevalidityof measures
datathat is 250rowsby 240columns. and causemisleadingresults.A researcherwho
The codebookin Figure 10.1saysthat the has a perfectsample,perfectmeasures'and no
first two numbers are identification numbers. errorsin gatheringdata,butwho makeserrorsin
Thus,the exampledataarefor the first (01)' sec- the coding processor in entering datainto a
ond (02), and third (03) respondents. Notice computer,canruin a wholeresearchproject.
that researchers usezeroesasplaceholdersto re- After verycarefulcoding,the researcher ver-
duceconfusionbetweenI and 01.The ls areaI- ifiesthe acctracy of coding,or "cleans" the data.
waysin column 2; the 10sarein column 1. The He or shemay codea 10 to 15 percentrandom
codebooksaysthat column 5 containsthe vari- sampleof the data a secondtime. If no coding
able"sex":Cases1 and2 aremaleand Case3 is errors appear,the researcherproceeds;ifhe or
female.Column 4 tells us that Carlos inter- she finds errors' the researchbrrechecksall
viewedCases1 and 2, and SophiaCase3. coding.
There are four waysto get raw quantitative When the data are in the computer' re-
datainto a computer: searchers verify codingin two ways.Possible code
cleaning(orwild code involves
checkireg) checking
l. Codesheet.Gatherthe information, then the categoriesof all variables for impossible
transferit from the original sourceonto a codes.For example,respondentsexis coded1 =
grid format (codesheet).Next, type what is Male, 2 = Female.Finding a 4 for a casein the
on the codesheetinto a computer,line by field for the sexvariableindicatesa coding error.
line. A second method, contingencycleaning(ot
2. Direct-entrymethod,includingCATL As in- consistency checking),involvescross-classifying
formation is being collected,sit at a com- two variablesand looking for logicallyimpossible
puter keyboardwhile listeningto/observing combinations.For example,educationis cross-
the information and enterthe information, classifiedby occupation. If a respondent is
or have a respondent/subject enter the in- recordedasneverhavingpassedthe eighthgrade
formation himselfor herself.The computer andalsois recordedasbeinga legitimatemedical
must be preprogrammedto accept the doctor,the researcher checksfor a codingerror.
information. A researchercan modifr dataafterthey are
3. Opticalscan.Gatherthe information, then in the computer.He or shemay not usemore re-
enter it onto optical scansheets(or havea fined categoriesthan wereused when cotlecting
respondent/subject enter the information) the original data,but may combine or group in-
by filling in the correct"dots." Next, usean formation. For example, the researcher may
optical scanneror readerto transferthe in- group ratio-levelincome data into five ordinal
formation into a comPuter. categories. Also,he or shecancombineinforma-
4. Bar code.Gathetthe information and con- tion from severalindicators to create.a new
vert it into different widths of bars that are variable or add the responsesto severalques-
associatedwith specificnumerical values, tionnaireitemsinto an index score.
CHAPTER1 O , / A N A L Y S I SO F Q U A N T I T A T I V E
DATA 251
Males
Females
Under$5, 000 25
$5, 000t o $9, 999 50
$ 10, 000t o $. 15, 99 9 100
$ 15, 000t o $19, 99 9 150
$20,000to $29,999 50
$30.000 andover 25
Total 400
Exampleof FrequencyPolygon
Frequency
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
elc.
18 20 22 24 26 28 etc
10 12 14 16
SkewedDistributions
ModeMedianMean MeanMedianMode
groupsof sixwith a rangeof 35years:303030 30 It is based on the mean and gives an "average
3065 and20 4546 48 50 55. distance" between all scoresand the mean. Peo-
Percentiles tell the scoreat a specificplace ple rarely compute the standard deviation by
within the distribution. One percentileyou ar- hand for more than a handful of casesbecause
readylearnedis the median,the 50thpercentile. computers and calculators can do it in seconds.
Sometimes the 25th and 75thpercentiles or the Look at the calculation ofthe standard devi-
10th and 90th percentilesareusedto describea ation in Figure 10.4.If you add up the absolute
distribution.For example,the 25th percentileis difference between eachscore and the mean (i.e.,
the scoreat which 25 percentof the distribution subtract each score from the mean), you get
haveeitherthat scoreor a lower one.The com- zero. This is becausethe mean is equally distant
putation of a percentilefollowsthe samelogic as from all scores.Also notice that the scores that
the median.If I have100peopleandwantto find differ the most from the mean have the largest
the 25th percentile.I rank the scoresand count effect on the sum ofsquares and on the standard
up from the bottom until I reachnumber 25. If deviation.
the total is not 100,I simply adjustthe distribu- The standard deviation is used for compar-
tion to a percentage basis. ison purposes. For example, the standard devia-
Standarddeviationis the most difficult to tion for the schooling of parents of children in
computemeasureof dispersion;it is also the classA is 3.317years;for classB, it is 0.812;and
mostcomprehensive andwidelyused.The range for class C, it is 6.239. The standard deviation
and percentilearefor ordinal-, interval-,and ra- tells a researcherthat the parents ofchildren in
tio-level data, but the standarddeviationre- classB are very similar, whereasthose for classC
quiresan intervalor ratio levelof measurement. are very different. In fact, in classB, the schoo'-
CHAPT E R1 O , / A N A L Y S I SO F Q U A N T I T A T I V ED A T A 255
Svmbols:
X = SCOREof case I = Sigma(Greekletter)for sum,add together
X = VEltt N= Numberofcases
Formulaj
Standard = ttfx -xf
deviation -
VN
aThereis a slightdifference
in the formuladependingon whetherone is usingdatafor the popula-
tion or a sampleto estimatethe populationparameter
ing of an "average" parent is less than a year The standard deviation and the mean are
above or below than the mean for all parents, so used to create z-scores.Z-scoreslet a researcher
the parents are very homogeneous. In class C, compare two or more distributions or groups.
however, the "average" parent is more than six The z-score, also called a standardizedscore,ex-
years above or below the mean, so the parents pressespoints or scoreson a frequency distribu-
are very heterogeneous. tion in terms of a number of standard deviations
25 6 pART Two , / c oNDUc r lNc Q UANTIT A T I v E R E S E A K L H
z=-
x-x and standarddeviationis 2 yearsis just 7 -l 2, or 9
years.Fora -2 z-score, I put 3 years.Thisis because
6
it is 2 standarddeviations,of 2 years each (or 4
where:X= score,X= mean,E = standarddeviation years),lowerthan the Meanof 7. My diagramnow
I usuallyrelyon a simpleconceptualdiagramthat lookslikethis:
does the samething and that showswhat z-scores
reallydo. Considerdata on the agesof schoolchild- 1 357 9 11 13 agei nY ears
renwith a meanof Z yearsand a standarddeviation rl l l l l l
of 2 years.Howdo I computethe z-scoreof 5-year- -3 -2 -1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3
old Miguel,or whatif I knowthat Yashohda's z-score
is a *2 and I needto know her age in years?First,I It is easyto seethat Miguel,who is 5 yearsold,
draw a little chart from -3 to *3 with zero in the hasa z-scoreof - 1 , whereasYashohda's z-scoreof
'l read from z-
middle.I will put the meanvalueat zero,becausea z- *2 correspondsto 1 yearsold. I can
scoreof zerois the meanand z-scoresmeasuredis- scoreto age,or ageto z-score. For fractions, suchqs
tanceaboveor belowit. I stop at 3 becausevirtually a z-scoreof 1 - .5, I just apply the same fraction.to
allcasesfallwithin3 standarddeviationsof the mean age to get 4 years.Likewise, an age of 1 2 is a z-score
in mostsituations. The chartlookslikethis: of *2.5.
CHAPTE R1 O , / A N A L Y S I SO F Q U A N T I T A T I V ED A T A 257
the mean,then dividing by the standarddevia- other variable. For example, Rita wants to knorv
tion. For example,Suzette'sz-scoreis 3.62 - whether number of siblings is related to life ex-
2.62 = 1.00/.50= 2, whereas|orge'sz-scoreis pectancy. If the variables are independent, then
3.64 - 3.24.= .401.40 = 1. Thus,the employer people with many brothers and sistershave the
learnsthat Suzetteis two standarddeviations same life expectancy as those who are only chil-
abovethe mean in her college,whereasforge rs dren. In other words, knowing how many broth-
only one standarddeviationabovethe meanfor ers or sisters someone has tells Rita nothine
his college.Although Suzette'sabsolutegrade- about the person's life expectancy.
point averageis lowerthan forge's,relativeto the Most researchersstate hypotheses in terms
studentsin eachoftheir collegesSuzette's grades ofa causal relationship or expected covariation;
aremuch higherthan forge's. if they use the null hlpothesis, the hypothesis is
that there is independence. It is used in formal
hlpothesis testing and is frequently found in in-
ferential statistics (to be discussed).
R ESU LTS
WITH TWO V A RIA B TE S Three techniques help researchersdecide
A BivariateRelationship whether a relationship exists between two vari-
ables:(1) a scattergram, or a graph or plot of the
Univariate statistics describe a single variable in relationship; (2) cross-tabulation,or a percent-
isolation. Bivariate statistics are much more aged table; and (3) measuresof associition, or
valuable. Theylet a researcherconsider two vari- statistical measures that expressthe amount of
ables together and describe the relationship be- covariation by a single number (e.g.,correlation
tween variables.Even simple hypothesesrequire coefficient).
two variables. Bivariate statistical analysisshows
a relationship between variables-that is, things
Seeing the Relationship:
that appear together.
The Scattergram
Statistical relationships are based on two
ideas: covariation and independence.Covaria- What Is a Scattergram (or Scatterplot)? A
tion means that things go together or are associ- scattergram is a graph on which a researcher
ated. To covary means to vary together; cases plots each caseor observation, where each axis
with certain values on one variable are likely to representsthe value ofone variable. It is used for
have certain values on the other one. For exam- variables measured at the interval or ratio level,
ple, people with higher values on the income rarely for ordinal variables, and never if either
variable are likely to have higher values on the variable is nominal. There is no fixed rule frrr
life expectancy variable. Likewise, those with which variable (independent or dependent) to
lower incomes have lower life expectanry. This is place on the horizontal or vertical axis, but usu-
usually stated in a shorthand way by saying that ally the independent variable (syrnbolized by the
income and life expectancy are related to each letter X) goes on the horizontal axis and the de-
other, or covary. We could also saythat knowing pendent variable (syrnbol ized by I on the verti-
one's income tells us one's probable life ex- cal axis. The lowest value for each should be the
pectancy, or that life expectancy depends on in- lower left corner and the highest value should be
come. at the top or to the right.
Independenceis the opposite of covariation.
It means there is no association or no relation- How to Construct a Scattergram. Begin with
ship between variables. If two variables are inde- the range of the two variables. Draw an axis with
pendent, cases with certain values on one the values of each variable marked and write
variable do not have any particular value on the numbers on each axis (graph paper is helpful).
258 pA RTT wo ,/ c o N D U c rN c e u A N rtrA Tl vE R E S E A R cH
Next, labeleachaxiswith the variablenameand Form. Relationshipscan take three forms: in-
put a title at the top. dependence,linear, and curvilinear. Inde-
You are now ready for the data. For each pendence or no relationshipis the easiestto see.
case,find the valueof eachvariableand mark the It lookslike a randomscatterwith no pattern,or
graphat aplacecorrespondingto the two values. a straightline that is exactlyparallelto tlie hori-
For example,a researchermakesa scattergram zontal or vertical axis. A linear "relationship
of yearsof schoolingby number of children.He meansthat a straightline canbe visualizedin the
or she looks at the first caseto seeyears of middle of a mazeof casesrunning from one cor-
schooling(e.g.,12) and at the number of chil- ner to another.A curvilinearrelationshlpmeans
dren (e.g.,3). Thenhe or shegoesto the placeon that the centerof a mazeof cases would form a U
the graphwhere 12 for the "schooling"variable curve, right side up or upside down, or an S
and 3 for the "number of children" variablein- curye.
tersectand puts a dot for the case.
The scattergramin Figure 10.5is a plot of Direction. Linearrelationshipscanhavea pos-
datafor 33 women.It showsa negativerelqtion- itive or negativedirection.The plot of a positive
shipbetweenthe yearsof educationthe woman relationshiplooks like a diagonalline from the
completedand the number of childrenshegave lower left to the upper right. Higher valueson X
birth to. tend to go with higher values on Y, and vice
versa.The income and life expectancF example
Whnt Can You Learn from the Scattergram? describeda positivelinear relationship. .
A researchercan seethree aspectsof a bivariate Anegativerelationship lookslike aline from
relationshipin a scattergram:form, direction, the upper left to the lower right. It meansthat
and precision. highervalueson onevariablego with lowerval-
\
5.00
tr
E
= \ I
E 4.00
o
(!
5 \
t5 3.00
z
o
o \
lt 2.OO
E
J
z \
1 . 00 I-
\
0.00
8.00 1 2 .0 0 1 4 .0 0 1 6 .0 0 18.00 22.0O
Years of Formal Education
CHAPTER1O , / A N A L Y S I SO F Q U A N T I T A T I V ED A T A 259
ueson the other.For example,peoplewith more Figure 10.6 is a raw count or frequency
educationarelesslikely to havebeenarrested.If table.Its cellscontain a count of the cases.It is
we look at a scattergramofdata on a group of easyto make,but interpretinga raw count table
maleswhereyearsof schooling(X axis)areplot- is difficult becausethe rows or columnscanhave
ted by number of arrests(Y axis)'we seethat differenttotals.and what is of realinterestis the
most cases(or men) with manyarrestsarein the relativesizeof cellscomparedto others.
lower right, becausemost of them completed Researchers convert raw count tablesinto
few yearsof school.Most caseswith few arrests percentaged tablesto seebivariaterelationships.
arein the upperleft becausemosthavehad more There are three waysto percentagea table: by
schooling.The imaginaryline for the relation- row, by column, and for the total. The first two
ship can havea shallowor a steepslope.More areoften usedand showrelationships.
advancedstatisticsprovide precisenumerical Is it best to percentageby row or column?
measuresof the line's slope. Eithercanbe appropriate.Let us first reviewthe
mechanicsof percentaginga table.When calcu-
Precision. Bivariaterelationshipsdiffer in their lating column percentages, computethe per-
degreeof precision.Precisionis the amount of centageeach cell is of the column total. This
spreadin the pointson the graph.A high levelof includesthe total column or marginal for the
precision occurswhen the points hug the line column variable.For example,the first column
that summarizesthe relationship.Alowlevel oc- total is 26 (there are26 peopleunder age30),
curs when the points are widely spreadaround and the first cell of that column is 20 (thereare
the line. Researchers can "eyeball"a highly pre- 20 peopleunder age30 who agree).The per-
cise relationship. They can also use advanced centageis20126=0.769or76.9percent.Or, for
statisticsto measurethe precisionof a relation- thefirst numberin themarginal,37ll0l = 0.366
ship in a way that is analogousto the standard = 36.6 percent (seeTable 10.2). Except for
deviationfor univariatestatistics. rounding,the total shouldequal100percent.
Computing row percentagesis similar.
Compute the percentageof eachcell as a per-
Bivariate Tables centageof the row total. For example,usingthe
What Is a Bivariate Table? Thebivariatecon- samecell with 20 in it, we now want to know
tingency table is widely used. It presentsthe what percentageit is of the row total of 37, or
sameinformation as a scattergramin a more 20137= 0.541= 54.1percent.Percentaging by
condensedform. The data can be measuredat row or column givesdifferentpercentages for a
anylwel of measurement, althoughintervaland cellunlessthe marginalsarethe same.
ratio datamust be groupedif therearemanydif- The row and column percentages let a re-
ferentvalues.The tableis basedon cross-tabula- searcheraddressdifferent questions.The row
tion; that is, the casesare organizedin the table percentagetable answersthe question.Among
on the basisof two variablesat the sametime. those who hold an attitude, what percentage
A contingency tableis formedby cross-tabu- come from eachagegroup?It saysof respon-
lating two or more variables.It is contingentbe- dentswho agree,54.Ipercentare in the under-
causethe casesin eachcategoryofa variableget 30 age group. The column percentagetable
distributed into each categoryof a second(or addresses the question:Among thosein eachage
additional)variable.The table distributescases group,what percentage hold differentattitudes?
into the categoriesof multiple variablesat the It saysthat amongthosewho areunder 30,76.9
sametime and showshow the cases, by category percentagree.From the row percentages, a re-
ofone variable,are"contingentupon" the cate- searcherlearnsthat a little overhalf ofthosewho
goriesof other variables. agreeareunder 30 yearsold, whereasfrom col-
260 PART TW O , / CO NDUCTI NG Q UANTIT A T I V ER E S E A R C H
Agree 20 10 4 3 37
No opinion 3 (d) 10 10 2 25
Disagree 3 _l 2L 10 3g
Total (c) 26 2sfrt 15 101
Missingcases(f ) = 8. (")
umn percentages, the researcherlearns that Unfortunately, there is.no "industry stan-
amongthe under-30people,overthree-quarters dard" for putting independentand dependent
agree.One way of percentagingtells about peo- variablesin a percentagetableasrow or column,
ple who have specificattitudes;the other telis or for percentage by row and column.A major-
aboutpeoplein specificagegroups. ity ofresearchersplacethe independentvariable
h1'pothesis
A researcher's may imply look- asthe column and percentage by column,but a
ing at row percentages or the column percent- large minority put the independentvariableas
ages.When beginning,calculatepercentages the row and percentage bYrow.
eachway and practiceinterpreting,or figuring
out, what eachsays.For example,myhypothesis Reailing a PercentagedTable. Once you uh-
is that ageaffectsattitude, so column percent- derstandhow a tableis made,readingit and fig-
agesare most helpful. However,if my interest uring out what it saysaremuch easier.To reada
wasin describingthe agemake-upof groupsof table, first look at the title, the variablelabels,
peoplewith different attitudes,then row per- and anybackgroundinformation. Next, look at
centages areappropriate. the direction in which percentageshave been
CHAPTER1 O , / A N A L Y S I SO F Q U A N T I T A T I V ED A T A 261
computed-in rows or columns. Notice that the centagesare computed. A rule of thumb is to
percentaged tables in Table 10.2 have the same compare across rows if the table is percentaged
title. This is becausethe same variables are used. down (i.e., by column) and to compare up and
It would have helped to note how the data were down in columns if the table is percentaged
percentaged in the title, but this is rarely done. across(i.e.,by row).
Sometimes, researcherspresent abbreviated ta- For example, in row-percentaged Table
bles and omit the 100 percent total or the mar- 10.2,compare columns or age groups. Most of
ginals, which adds to the confusion. It is best to those who agreeare in the youngest group, with
include all the parts of a table and clear labels. the proportion declining as age increases.Most
Researchers read percentaged tables to no-opinion people are in the middle-age groups,
make comparisons. Comparisons are made in whereasthose who disagreeare older, especiJly
the opposite direction from that in which per- in the 46-to-60 group. When reading column-
€roup
.,. ',
3'Ar:45 45-60
Agree 76.9% 407" 11.4% 20% 36.6%
No opinion I 1.5 40 28.6 13.3 24.8
Disagr:ee I 1.5 20 60 66.7 3 8.6
Total .100
99.9 100 r0 0 100
(N) (26). (2 s)- ( 3s) - (t s )- (10r)*
Missingcases= 8
Row-PercentagedTable
,ii;.
Agree 54.1% 27% 10.8% 8.1% 100% (37).
No opinion 12 40 40 8 100 ( 2s) .
Disagree 7.7 12.8 53.8 2s.6 99.9 (39)-
Total 25.7 2 4 .8 34.7 14.9 ' r0 0 . r (1 0 1 )-
Missingcases= 8
*Forpercentaged tables,providethe numberof casesor N on whichpercentages arecomputedin paren-
thesesnearthe total of I 00%. Thismakesit possibleto go backandforth from a percentaged
tableto a
rawcounttableandviceversa.
2 62 pA RTT wo / c o N D U c l N c e u AN T trATtvER E S E A R C H
MO RET HA N T WO V A RI A B L E S
Agree 26.2 (s7)
StatisticalControl
No opinion 44.5 (2s)
Showing an association or relationship between
Disagree 61.9 (se) two variables is not sufficient to say that an in-
Missingcases= 8 dependent variable causesa dependent variabie.
In addition to temporal order and association, a
researcher must eliminate alternative explana-
tions-explanations that can make the hypothe-
gestthat the mean ageof thosewho disagreeis sized relationship spurious. Experimental
much higher than for thosewho agreeor have researchersdo this by choosing a researchdesign
no opinion. that physically controls potential alternative ex-
planations for results (i.e., that threaten internal
validity).
Measuresof Association
In nonexperimental research, a researcher
A measureof association is a singlenumber that controls for alternative explanations with statis-
expresses the strength,and often the direction, tics. He or she measurespossible alternative ex-
of a relationship. It condensesinformation planations vmth control variables,then examines
about a bivariate relationship into a single the control variableswith multivariate tablesand
number. statistics that help him or her decide whether a
There are many measuresof association. bivariate relationship is spurious. They also
The correct one dependson the level of mea- show the relative size of the effect of multiple in-
surement.Many measures arecalledby lettersof dependent variables on a dependent variable.
the Greek alphabet.Lambda,gamma,tau, chi A researcher controls for alternative expla-
(squared),and rho are commonly usedmea- nations in multivariate (more than two vari-
sures.The emphasishere is on interpretingthe ables) analysis by introducing a third (or
measures,not on their calculation.In order to sometimes a fourth or fifth) variable. For exam-
understandeachmeasure,you will needto com- ple, a bivariate table shows that taller teenagers
pletea beginningstatisticscourse. like sports more than shorter ones do. But-the
If there is a strong associationor relation- bivariate relationship between height and atti-
ship,then few errorsaremadepredictinga sec- tude toward sports may be spurious because
ond variableon the basisof knowledgeof the teenagemales are taller than females, and males
first, or the proportion oferrors reducedis large. tend to like sports more than females. To test
A largenumber ofcorrect guesses suggeststhat whether the relationship is actually due to sex, a
the measureof associationis a nonzeronumber researcher must control for gen'der; in other
if an associationexistsbetweenthe variables. words, effects of sex are statistically remoyed.
Table10.5describesfive commonlyusedbivari- Once this is done, a researchercan seewhether
ate measuresof association. Notice that most the bivariate relationship between height and al-
rangefrom - 1to +1, with negativenumbersin- titude toward sports remains.
264 PART TW O , / CO NDUCTI NC Q UANTI T A T I V ER E S E A R C H
strong cases.More advanced statistics are impact on abortion attitude. The control vari-
neededwhen the differencesarenot asobvious. ableis an interveningvariable,which helpsyou
The replicationpattern is the easiestto un- interpretthe meaningof the completerelation-
derstand.It is when the partialsreplicateor re- ship.
producethe samerelationshipthat existedin the Theexplanationpatternlooks the sameasin-
bivariatetable beforeconsideringthe control terpretation.Thedifferenceis the temporalorder
variable.It meansthat the control variablehas ofthe control variable.In this pattern,a control
no effect. variablecomesbeforethe independentvariable
The specification pattern is the next easiest in the initial bivariaterelationship.For example,
pattern.It occurswhen onepartial replicatesthe the originalrelationshipis betweenreligiousup-
initial bivariaterelationshipbut otherpartialsdo bringing and abortion attitude,but now gender
not. For example,you find a strong (negative) is the controlvariable.Gendercomesbeforerelt-
bivariaterelationshipbetweenautomobileacci- gious upbringing becauseone's sex is fixed at
dentsand collegegrades.You control for gender birth. The explanationpatternchangeshow a re-
and discoverthat the relationshipholdsonly for searcherexplainsthe results.It implies that the
males(i.e.,the strongnegativerelationshipwas initial bivariaterelationshipis spurious.
in the partial for males,but not for females). The suppressor variablepattern occurswhen
This is specificationbecausea researchercan the bivariatetablessuggestindependencebut a
specifr the categoryof the control variable in relationshipappearsin one or both of the par-
which the initial relationshippersists. tials. For example,religious upbringing ,and
The control variablehas a large impact in abortion attitude areindependentin a bivariate
both the interpretation and explanation pat- table. Once the control variable"region of the
terns.In both, the bivariatetable showsa rela' country'' is introduced,religiousupbringing is
tionship that disappearsin the partials.In other associated with abortion attitude in the partial
words, the relationshipappearsto be indepen- tables.The control variableis a suppressorvari-
dencein the partials.Thetwo patternscannotbe ablebecauseit suppressed the true relationship.
distinguishedby looking at the tablesalone.The The true relationshipappearsin the partials.
differencebetweenthem dependson the loca- (SeeTable 10.6for a summary of the elabora-
tion ofthe control variablein the causalorder of tion paradigm.)
variables.Theoretically,a controlvariablecanbe
in one of two places,eitherbetweenthe original
Multiple RegressionAnalysis
independentand dependentvariables(i.e., the
control variableis intervening),or beforethe Multiple regressionis a statistical technique
original independentvariable. whose calculation is beyond the level in this
The interpretation patterndescribes the situ- book. Although it is quickly computedby the
ation in which the control variable intervenes appropriatestatisticssoftware,a backgroundin
betweenthe original independentand depen- statisticsis neededto preventmaking errors in
dentvariables.For example,you examinea rela- its calculationand interpretation.It requiresin-
tionship between religious upbringing and terval-or ratio-leveldata.It is discussedherefor
abortion attitude.Politicalideologyis a control two reasons.First, it controlsfor many alterna-
variable.You reasonthat religious upbringing tive explanationsand variablessimultaneously
affectscurrent political ideologyand abortion (it is rarelypossibleto usemorethan onecontrol
attitude.You theorizethat political ideologyis variableat a time usingpercentaged tables).Sec-
logicallyprior to an attitude about a specificis- ond, it is widely usedin sociology,and you are
sue,like abortion.Thus, religiousupbringing likely to encounterit when readingresearchre-
causespolitical ideology,which in turn has an ports or articles.
CHA P T E RI O , / A N A L Y S I SO F Q U A N T I T A T I V ED A T A
267
EXAMPLES
OF EI.ABOMTIONPATTERNS
Replication
BivariateTable
Partials
Control= Low Control= High
Low High Low High Low High
Low 85% 15% Low 84% 15% 86% 14%
High 15% 85% High 167 84% 14% 86%
Interpretation or Explanation
BivariateTable
Partials
dex
Univariate Frequency distribution,
measure Describe
one variable.
of centraltendency,standard
deviation,z-score
Bivariate Correlation,percentagetable, Describe
a relationship
or the
chi-square association
betweentwo variables.
Multivariate Elaborationparadigm,
multiple Describerelationships
amongseveral
regression variables,
or seehow several
independentvariableshavean effect
on a dependentvariable.
guilty. The judge doesnot want to make either suchas.10.His or herresultsindicatea relation_
error.A judge doesnot want to jail the innocent ship would occurby chanceI in 10times.He or
or to free the guilty. The judge must render a sheis likely to err by sayrngthat a causalrela_
judgmentbasedon limited information andbal- tionship exists,when in fact random factors
ancethe two tFpesof errors.Likewise,a physi- (e.9.,random samplingerror) actuallycausethe
cian has to decidewhether to prescribei ,rerv results.The researcheris likely to faiselyreject
medicationfor a patient.The physiciancan err the null hypothesis(Type I error). In sum, the
by thinking that the medicationwill be effective .05 levelis a compromisebetweenType I and
and hasno sideefFects when, in fact,it hasa se- TypeII errors.
rious side effect,such as causingblindness.Or The statisticaltechniquesof inferentialsta_
the physiciancan err by holding back an effec- tisticsarepreciseandrely on the relationshipbe_
tive medicationbecause of fearof serioussideef- tween samplingerror, samplesize,and central
fectswhen in fact there are none.The physican limit theorem.Thepowerof inferentialstatistics
doesnot want to makeeither error. By making i: ability to let a researcherstate,with spe_
the first error, the physicancausesgreatharm to F.y
cific degreesof certainty,that specificsampleie_
the patientand may evenfacea lawsuit.By max- sults are likely to be true in J population. por
ing the seconderror, the physicandoesnot help example,a researcherconductssiatisticaltests
the patient get better.Again, a judgment must and finds that a relationshipis statisticallysig_
be made that balancestwo types of possible nificant at the .05level.He or shecan statethat
errors. tbe sample results are probably not due to
We can put the ideasof statisticalsignifi- chancefactors.Indeed,there is a 95 percent
canceand the two types of error together.An chancethat a true relationshipexistsin the social
overlycautiousresearcher setsa high levelofsig- world.
nificance.For example,the researcher might uie Testsfor inferentialstatisticsare limited.
the .0001level.He or sheattributesthe resultsto Thedatamust comefrom a randomsample,and
chanceunlessthey are so rare that they would testsonly take into accountsamplingerrors.
occurby chanceonly I in 10,000times.Sucha Nonsampling errors (e.g., a poor sampling
high standardmeansthat the researcher is most frame or a poorly designedmeasure)are not
likely to err by sayingresultsare due to chance considered.Do not be fooled into thinking that
when in fact they arenot. He or shemay falsely suchtestsoffer easy,final answers.Many-com_
acceptthe null hypothesiswhen thereis a causal puter programsquickly do the calculationfor
relationship(a TypeII error). Bycontrast,a risk- inferential and descriptivestatistics(seeBox
takingresearchersetsa low levelofsignificance, 10.2).
272 PART TWO , / CO NDUCTI NG Q UANTI TATI V ER E S E A R C H
Key Terms
Introduction
Research QuestionsAppropriatefor FieldResearch
The Logic of Field Research
What ls FieldResearch?
Stepsin a FieldResearch
Project
Choosing a Site and Gaining Access
Selectinga Siteand Entering
Strategyfor Entering
Learning
the Ropes
BuildingRapport
Relationsin the Field
Rolesin the Field
Maintaining
Relations
Observing and Collecting Data
Watchingand Listening
TakingNotes
DataQuality
Focusing
and Sampling
The Field Research lnterview
The FieldInterview
Typesof Questionsin FieldInterviews
Informants
InterviewContext
Leaving the Field
Focus Groups
Ethical Dilemmas of Field Research
Deception
Confidentiality
Involvement
with Deviants
Publishing
FieldReports
Conclusion
276 PART THREE / CO NDUCTI NG Q UALI TA T I V ER E S E A R C H
Small-ScaleSettings Door-to-doorsalespersons
Passengers in an airplane Factoryworkers
Barsor taverns Gamblers
Batteredwomenl shelters Medicalstudents
Cameraclubs Femalestrippers
Laundromats Policeofficers
' Socialmovementorganizations Restaurant chefs
Socialwelfareoffices Socialworkers
Television
stations Taxidrivers
Waitingrooms
Devianceand Criminal Activity
Community Settings
Body/genitalpiercingand bnnding
Retirementcommunities
Cults
Smalltowns
Drugdealersand addicts
Urbanethniccommunities
Hippies
Working-class
neighborhoods
Nude beaches
Children'sActivities Occultgroups
Prostitutes
Children'splaygrounds
Streetgangs,motorcyclegangs
LittleLeaguebaseball
Streetpeople,homelessshelters
Youthin schools
Juniorhighgirlgroups
Medical Settings and Medical Events
Occupations
Death
Airlineattendants Emergencyrooms
Artists Intensivecareunits
Cocktailwaitresses Pregnancy and abortion
Dog catchers Supportgroupsfor Alzheimerlcaregivers
telephones,newspapers, etc.).We learn the cul- norm. They feeluneaseor discomfortwhen the
ture by watchingtelevision,listeningto parents, norm is violated,but it is difficult to pinpoint
observingothers,and the like. the source of discomfort. Ethnographeri de-
Cultural knowledgeincludesboth explicit scribethe explicit and tacit cultural knowledge
knowledge,what we know and talk about, and that membersuse. Their detaileddescriptions
tacit knowledge,what we rarely acknowledge. and carefirlanalysistakewhat is describedapart
For example,explicitknowledgerncladesthe so- and put it backtogether.
cialevent(e.g.,a "kegger").Most peoplecaneas- Ethnomethodology is adistinctapproachde-
ily describe what happens at one. Tacit velopedin the 1960s,with its own uniquetermi-
knowledge includesthe unspokencultural norm nology. It combinestheory, philosophy,and
for the proper distanceto stand from others. method. Some do not considerit a part of
Peopleare generallyunawarethat they usethis sociology.
278 pA RTr HR E E / c o N D U c rl N c QU AL ITA TIvE
R E S E A R cH
A field researcher
doesthe following: 1. Prepare oneself, read the literature, and
.l defocus.
. Observesordinaryeventsand everydayactivi- 2. Selecta field siteand gainaccessto it.
ties as they happenin naturalsettings,in addi-
3. Enterthefieldandestablishsocialrelationswith
tion to any unusualoccurrences
members.
2. Becomes directlyinvolvedwiththe peoplebeing
4. Adopt a socialrole, learnthe ropes,and get
studiedand personallyexperiences the process
alongwith members.
of dailysociallifein the fieldsetting
5. Watch,listen,and collectqualitydata.
3. Acquiresan insider'spoint of viewwhilemain-
tainingthe analyticperspective or distanceof an 6. Beginto analyzedataandto generateand eval-
outsider uateworkinghypotheses.
4. Usesa varietyof techniquesand socialskillsin a 7. Focuson specificaspectsofthe settingand use
flexiblemanneras the situationdemands theoreticalsampling.
5. Producesdata in the form of extensivewritten 8. Conduct field interviewswith memberinfor-
notes,as wellas diagrams,maps,or picturesto mants.
provideverydetaileddescriptions 9. Disengageand physicallyleavethe setting.
6. Seeseventsholistically (e.g.,asa wholeunit,not 1 0. Completethe analysesand write the research
in pieces)and individually in their socialcontext repon.
Z. Understandsand developsempathyfor mem-
bersin a field setting,and does not just record Note:Thereis nofixedpercentage of timeneeded for each
"cold"objectivefacts step.Fora roughapproximation,Junker (l 960:12)
suggested that,onceinthefield,theresearcher should
8. Notices both explicit (recognized,conscious, expectto spendapproximately one-sixth of hisor hertime
spoken)and tacit (lessrecognized, implicit,un- observing,
one-thirdrecordingdata,one-third ofthetime
spoken)aspectsof culture anallzing
data,andone-sixth reporting results.Alsosee
9. Obseirves ongoingsocialprocesses without up- Denzin(l989:176)foreightstepsof fieldresearch.
settin&disrupting,or imposingan outsidepoint
of view
10. Copeswith highlevelsof personalstress,uncer-
tainty,ethicaldilemmas,
basisof their valuefor providinginformation.In
and ambiguity
the beginning,the researcherexpectslittle con-
trol over dataand little focus.Oncesocializedt<.r
the setting,however,he or she focusesthe in-
quiry and assertscontrol overthe data.
Flexihility. Field researchersrarely follow
fixed steps.In fact, flexibility is a key advantage Getting Organized in the Beginning. Human
offield research,which letsa researcher shift di- and personalfactorscan play a role in any re-
rection and follow leads.Good field researchers searchproject, but they are crucial in field re-
recognizeand seizeopportunities,"play it by search.Field projects often begin with chance
ear,"and rapidly adjustto fluid socialsituations. occurrencesor a personalinterest.Field re-
A field researcher doesnot beginwith a set searchers canbeginwith their own experiences,
of methodsto apply or explicit hlpothesesto suchasworking at a job, havinga hobby,or be-
test.Rather,he or shechoosestechniqueson the ing a patientor an activist.
280 pA Rr rH R EE / c o N D U c rrN c e u A L trA TtvER E S E A R cH
Field researchersuse the skills of careful may be personallytransformedby the field ex-
looking and listening,short-termmemory and perience.Someadoptnew values,interests,and
regularwriting. Beforeenteringthe field, a new moral commitments,or changetheir religion or
researcherpracticesobservingthe ordinary de- politicalideology.s
tails of situationsand writing them down. At-
tention to detailsand short-term memory can
improvewith practice.Likewise,keepinga daily
CHOOSING A SITE AND GAINING
diary or personaljournal is good practicefor
ACCESS
writing field notes.
As with all social research,reading the Although a field researchproject doesnot pro-
scholarlyliteraturehelps the researcherlearn ceedby fixed steps,some common concerns
concepts,potentialpitfalls,datacollectionmeth- Theseincludeselectinga
arisein the earlystages.
ods, and techniquesfor resolvingconflicts. In site and gaining accessto the site, enteringthe
addition, a field researcherfinds diaries,novels, field,learningthe ropes,and developingrapport
journalisticaccounts,and autobiographiesuse- with membersin the field.
ful for gaining familiarity and preparingemo-
tionally for the field.
Selecting a Site and Entering
Field researchbeginswith a generaltopic,
not specifichypotheses.A researcherdoesnot Whereto Observe. Fieldresearchers talk about
getlockedinto anyinitial misconceptions. He or doing researchon a setting,or field site,but this
sheneedsto be well informed but open to dis- term is misleading.A siteis the contextin which
coveringnew ideas.Finding the right questions eventsor activitiesoccur,a sociallydefinedterri-
to askaboutthe field takestime. tory with shifting boundaries.A social group
A researcher first emptieshis or her mind of may interactacrossseveralphysicalsites.For ex-
preconceptions.The researchershould move ample,a collegefootball team may interact on
outsidehis or her comfortablesocialnicheto ex- the playingfield,in the lockerroom, in a dormi-
perienceasmuch aspossiblein the field without tory, at a training camp, or at a local hangout.
betrayinga primary commitmentto being a re- The team'sfield siteincludesall five locations.
searcher. The field site and researchquestion are
Another preparationfor field researchis bound together,but choosinga site is not the
self-knowledge. A field researcherneedsto know sameasfocusingon a casefor study.A caseis a
himselfor herselfand reflecton personalexperi- socialrelationshipor activity;it can extendbe-
ences.He or shecan expectanxiety,self-doubt, yond the boundariesof the siteandhavelinks to
frustration, and uncertaintyin the field. Espe- other socialsettings.A researcherselectsa site,
cially in the beginning,the researchermay feel then identifiescasesto examinewithin it-for
that he or sheis collectingthe wrong data and example,how football team membersrelateto
may suffer emotional turmoil, isolation, and authority figures.
confusion.He or she often feelsdoubly mar- Selectinga field site is an important deci-
ginal an outsiderin the field settingand alsodis- sion,and researchers takenoteson the siteselec-
tant from friends,family,andotherresearchers.4 tion processes. Three factorsare relevantwhen
The relevanceof a researcher's emotionalmake- choosinga field researchsite: richnessof data,
up, personal biography,and culturalexperiences unfamiliarity, and suitability.6 Some sites are
makesit important to be awareof his or her per- more likely than others to provide rich data.
sonalcommitmentsand inner conflicts(seeBox Sitesthat presenta web of socialrelations,a va-
11.3).Fieldworkcan havea strongimpact on a riety of activities,and diverseeventsover time
researcher'sidentity and outlook. Researchers providericher,more interestingdata.Beginning
CHAPTERll / F I E L DR E S E A R C H 281
Eliasoph(l 998) conductedfieldresearch on several shirtsand jeans, womenin curly permsand tiered
groupsin a Californiacommunityto understandhow
flouncesof laceor denimskirts,or jeans,and beltswith
Americans avoidpoliticalexpression. One wasa so_ their namesembroideredin glitter on the back.
cialclub.Eliasophdescribesherselfas an ,,urban,bi_ (1998:92)
coastal,bespectacled, Jewish,ph.D.candidatefroma
longlineof communists, atheists,liberals,
book-read_ Eliasophintroducedherselfas a student.During
ers, ideologues,and arguers',(p.270). The social .
her two yearsofresearch,sheenduredsmoke_filled
club'sworldwasveryforeignto her.The socialclub, roomsas well as expensivebeer and bottled_water
the Buffalos,centeredon countryandwesternmusic prices;attendeda weddingand manydancelessons;
at a bar,the SilveradoClub.Shedescribesit: and participatedin countlessconversations and
heardmanyabusivesexisVracist jokes.Shelistened,
TheSilveradohuddledon a vast,ruttedparkinglot on askedquestions,observed,and took notes in the
whatwas oncewetlands
andnowwasa truckstoi,a mile bathroom.When she returnedhome after hours
anda halffromAmargo's [townname]nuclearbattle_ with club members,it wasto a universitycrowdwho
shipstation.Occasional gulleysof saltwatercattaits had little understanding
of the world shewasstudv_
pokedthroughthewideflat nilesof pavedmallsand gas ing. For them,witty conversation wascentraland
stations.Ciantfour-wheeled-drive vehiclesfitted the being bored wasto be avoided.The club members
pa*ing lot, makingmyminiatureHondalooklikea tov. used more nonverbalthan verbalcommunication
. . . lnsidethewindowless
Silverado,
initiatblindingdai- and beingbored,or sitting and doing nothing,was
gavewayto a hugeConfederate pinnedup be_ just fine.The researchforcedEliasopi'to
less flag r.e"*Irnine
hindthebandstand, thestandardcollectionof nmnbeer her own viewsand tastes,whichsfrehad taken for
signsand beermirrors,menin cowboyshats,cowboys granted.
Strangeness alsoencourages to
a researcher
feelingsaboutnudity until he or sheis in a nud-
until he reconsiderhis or her own world.
social Immer-
ist colony,or aboutpersonalpossessions
or she is in a setting where others "borrow" sion in a different setting breaksold habits of
many items.The researcher's own surprise,in- thought and action. He or shefinds reflection
dignation, or questioning then may becomean and introspectioneasierand more intensewhen
opportunity for reflectionand insight. encounteringthe unfamiliar,whetherit is a dif-
ferentcultureor a familiar culture seenthrough
An Attituile of Strangeness. It is hard to recog- a stranger'seYes.
nize what we are very closeto' The everyday
world we inhabit is filled with thousandsof de- Building Rapport
tails. If we paid attention to everythingall the
time, we would suffer from severeinformation A field researcherbuildsrapportby gettingalong
overload.We manageby ignoringmuch of what with membersin the field. He or she forgesa
is around us and by engagingin habitualthink- friendly relationship,sharesthe samelanguage,
ing. Unfortunately,we fail to seethe familiar as and laughs and cries with members.This is a
distinctive,and assumethat others experience step toward obtaining an understandingof
realityjust aswe do. We tend to treat our own membersand movingbeyondunderstandingto
way of living asnatural or normal. empathy-that is, seeingand feelingeventsfrom
Field researchin familiar surroundingsis another'spersPective.
difficult becauseof a tendencyto be blinded by It is not alwayseasyto build rapport. The
the familiar. By studying other cultures, re- socialworld is not all in harmony,with warm,
searchersencounterdramaticallydifferent as- friendly people.A settingmay containfear,ten-
sumptions about what is important and how sion,and conflict.Membersmaybe unpleasant,
things are done.This confrontationof cultures, untrustworthy, or untruthful; they may do
or culture shock,has two benefits:It makesit things that disturb or disgusta researcher.An
easierto seecultural elementsand it facilitates expeiiencedresearcher is preparedfor a rangeof
self-discovery. Researchers adoptthe attitudeof evints and relationships.He or she may find'
strangeness to gain these benefits. The attitude however,that it is impossibleto penetratea set-
of strangenes.s means questioning and noticing ting or get really close to members. Settings
ordinary details or looking at the ordinary wherecooperation,sympathy,and collaboration
throughthe eyesofa stranger.Strangeness helps areimpossiblerequiredifferenttechniques.v
a researcherovercome the boredom of observ-
Chqrm nnd Trust, A field researcher needsso-
ing ordinary details.It helpshim or her seethe
cial skills and personalcharm to build rapport.
ordinary in a newway, one that revealsaspectsof
Trust, friendly feelings,and being well liked fa-
the setting of which membersare not con-
cilitate communicationand help him or her to
sciouslyaware.A field researcheradoptsboth a
understandthe inner feelingsof others. There is
stranger'sand an insider'spoint ofview
no magicalway to do this. Showing a genuine
Peoplerarely recognizecustomsthey take
for granted.For example,when someonegives concernfor and interestin others,beinghonest,
and sharingfeelingsaregoodstrategies, but theJ
us a gift, we saythank you and praisethe gift. By
arenot foolproof. It dependson the specific set-
contrast,gift-giving customsin many cultures
include complainingthat the gift is inadequate' ting and members.
The attitude of strangeness helpsmakethe tacit Many factorsaffecttrust and rapport-how
culture visible-for example, that gift giversex- a researcher presentshimselfor herself;the role
pectto hear "Thankyou" and "The gift is nice," he or she choosesfor the field; and the events
andbecomeupset otherwise. that encourage,limit, or make it impossibleto
2 86 pA RTT HRE E,/ c o N D U c l N c e u AL trA T r vER E S E A R cH
peratures,filthy and dilapidatedliving condi- Members who are cool at first may warm up
tions, dysentery and mosquitoes.Shefelt iso- later.Or theymayput on a front of initial friend-
lated,shecried a lot, and shegained30 pounds liness,andtheir fearsand suspicionssurfaceonly
from compulsiveeating.After months in the later.A researcher is in a delicateposition.Early
field, shethought shewasa total failure;shewas in a project,when not yet firlly awareof every-
distrustedby membersand got into fights with thing about a field site,the researcherdoesnot
the campadministration. form closerelationshipsbecausecircumstances
Maintaininga "marginal" statusis stressful;may change.Yet, if he or shedoesdevelopclose
it is difiicult to be an outsiderwho is not firlly in-
friends,they can becomeallieswho will defend
volved,especiallywhen studyingsettingsfull of the researcher's presenceand help him or her
intensefeelings(e.g.,political campaigns,reli- gain access.
giousconversions,etc.).The lonelinessand iso- A field researchermonitors how his or her
lation of fieldwork may combinewith the desire actionsor appearance affectsmembers.For ex-
to developrapport and empathyto causeover- ample,a physicallyattractiveresearcher who in-
involvement.A researcher may "go native" and
teractswith membersof the oppositesexmay
drop the professionalresearcher's encountercrushes,flirting, and jealousy.He or
role to be-
comea firll memberof the group beingstudied. shedevelopsan awareness of thesefield relations
Or the researchermay feel guilt about learning and learnsto managethem.
intimate detailsas membersdrop their guard, In addition to developingsocialrelation-
and may cometo overidenti$'with members. ships,a field researcher must be ableto breakor
withdraw from relationshipsas well. Ties with
Normalizing Social Research. A field re- one membermay haveto be broken in order to
searchernot only observesand investigates forgetieswith othersor to exploreother aspects
membersin the field but is observedand inves- of the setting.As with the end of any friendly re-
tigated by members as well. In overt field lationship,the emotionalpain of socialwith-
research,members are usually initially un- drawal can affect both the researcherand the
comfortablewith the presenceof a researcher. member. The researchermust balancesocial
Most are unfamiliar with field researchand fail sensitivityand the researchgoals.
to distinguishbetweensociologists, psycholo-
gists,counselors,and socialworkers.They may Small Favors. Fscchange relationshipsdevelop
seethe researcherasan outsidecritic or spy,or in the field, in which smalltokensor favors,in-
asa savioror all-knowingexpert. cluding deferenceand respect,areexchanged. A
An overt field researchermust normalizeso- researchermay gain acceptance by helping out
cial research-that is, help membersredefineso- in small ways.Exchangehelps when accessto
cial researchfrom something unknown and sensitiveissuesis limited. A researcher may offer
threateningto somethingnormal andpredictable. smallfavorsbut not burden membersby asking
He or shecanhelp membersmanageresearchby for return favors.As the researcherand mem-
presentinghis or her own biography,explaining bersshareexperiences and seeeachother again,
field researcha little at a time, appearingnon- membersrecallthe favorsand reciprocateby al-
threatening,or acceptingminor deviancein the lowing access. For example,Duneier(1999)used
setting(e.9.,minor violationsof officialrules). the small favor of watchingthe tablesof street
vendorswhenthey had to leavefor a short time,
suchasto usethe bathroom.
MaintainingRelations
SocinlRelations, With time, a field researcher Conflictsin theFielil. Fights,conflict,and dis-
develops and modifies social relationships. agreements canerupt in the field, or a researcher
CHAPTERIl / FIELDRE5EARCH ? '8 7
field, notesjotted in the field, and detailednotes in a public setting looks strangewhen furiously
written awayfromthefield.A field researcher ex- writing. More important, when looking down
pectsto fill manynotebooks,or the equivalentin and writing, the researchercannotseeand hear
computermemory.He or shemay spendmore what is happening.The attentiongivento note
time writing notesthan beingin the field. Some writing is taken from field observationwhere it
researchers produce40 single-spaced pagesof belongs.Thespecificsettingdetermineswhether
notesfor threehours of observation.With prac- any notes in the field can be taken. The re-
tice,evena newfield researcher canproducesev- searchermaybeableto write, andmembersmay
eralpagesofnotes for eachhour in the field. expectit, or he or shemay haveto be secretive
Writing notesis often boring, tediouswork (e.g.,go to the restroom).
that requiresself-discipline.The notescontain Jottednotesarewritten in the field.They are
extensivedescriptivedetail drawn from mem- short, temporary memory triggers such as
ory. A researchermakesit a daily habit or com- words, phrases,or drawingstaken inconspicu-
pulsion to write notesimmediatelyafterleaving ously, often scribbledon any convenientitem
the field. The notesmust be neatand organized (e.g.,napkin, matchbook).They are incorpo-
becausethe researcherwill return to them over ratedinto directobservationnotesbut arenever
arld over again.Oncewritten, the notesarepri- substitutedfor them.
vateand valuable.A researcher treatsthem with
care and protectsconfidentiality.Field notes Direct ObservationNotes. The basicsourceof
may be of interestto hostileparties,blackmail- field dataare notesa researcher writes immedi-
ers,or legalofficials,so someresearchers write ately after leaving the field, which he or shecan
field notesin code. add to later. The notes should be ordered
A researcher's stateof mind, levelof atten- chronologicallywith the date,time, andplaceon
tion, and conditionsin the field affectnote tak- eachentry. They serveas a detaileddescription
ing. He or shewill usuallybegin with relatively ofwhat the researcher heard and sawin con-
short one- to three-hourperiodsin the field be- crete,specificterms.To the extentpossible,they
fore writing notes. are an exactrecordingofthe particular words,
phrases,or actions.
Typesof Field Notes. Field researcherstake A researcher's memoryimproveswith prac-
notesin many ways.l0The recommendations tice.A new researcher cansoonrememberexact
here (alsoseeBox 11.4)are suggestions. Full phrasesfrom the field. Verbatim statements
field noteshaveseveraltlpes or levels.Fivelevels should be written with double quote marks to
will be described.It is usuallybestto keepall the distinguishthem from paraphrases. Dialogue
notesfor an observationperiod togetherand to accessories (nonverbalcommunication,props,
distinguishtypes of notes by separatepages. tone, speed, yolume, gestures) should be
Someresearchers includeinferenceswith direct recordedaswell. A researcher recordswhat was
observationsif they aresetoffby a visibledevice actuallysaidand doesnot cleanit up; notesin-
suchasbracketsor coloredink. The quantity of clude ungrammaticalspeech,slang,and mis-
notesvariesacrosstypes.For example,six hours statements(e.g.,write, "IJh, I'm goin' home,
in the field might resultin 1 pageofjoued notes, Sal,"not "I am goinghome,Sally'').
40 pagesof direct observation,5 pagesof re- A researcherputs concretedetailsin notes,
searcherinference,and2pagestotal for method- not summaries.For example,insteadof, "We
ological,theoretical,and personalnotes. talkedaboutsports,"he or shewrites,"Anthony
arguedwith Sam and |ason.He said that the
lotted Notes. It is nearly impossible to take Cubswould win next weekbecausethey traded
good notesin the field. Evena known observer for a new shortstop,Chiappetta.He alsosaid
290 PAR T THREE , / CO NDUCTI NG Q UA L I T A T I V ER E S E A R C H
that the team was better than the Mets, who he ResearcherInference Notes. A field researcher
thought had inferior infielders. He cited last listens to members in order to "climb into their
week's game where the Cubs won againstBoston skin" or "walk in their shoes." This involves a
by 8 to 3." A researchernotes who was present) three-step process. The researcher listens with-
what happened, where it occurred, when, and out applying analytical categories; he or she
under what circumstances.New researchersmay compares what is heard to what was heard at
not take notesbecause"nothing important hap- other times and to what others say; then the re-
pened." An experiencedresearcherknows that searcherapplies his or her own interpretation to
events when "nothing happened" can reveal a infer or figure out what it means. In ordinary in-
lot. For example, members may expressfeelings teraction, we do all three steps simultaneously
and organize experience into folk categories and jump quickly to our own inferences.A field
evenin trivial conversations. researcherlearns to look and listen without in-
C H A P T E R1 . I / F I E L DR E S E A R C H 291
Maps and Diagrams. Field researchers the field. They cannot be introduced into all field
often
makemapsand draw diagrams or picturesof sites,and can be used only aftet a researcherde-
the
featuresof a field site.This servestlvo velops rapport. Recordersand videotapesprovide
purposes:
It helpsa researcherotganizeeventsin the fielda close approximation to what occurred and a
p.r-un.rrt record that others can review' They
and it helpsconveya field siteto others.For ex-
ample, a researcherobservinga bar with. 15 ,a-a ut "jotted notes" to help a researcherrecall
stoolsmay draw and number 15 circlesto sim- events and observe what is easy to miss' Never-
pliS' recording(e.8.'"Yosukecamein and saton theless,these items can create disruption and an
itool 12;Phoebewasalreadyon stool10").Field increased awarenessof surveillance' Researchers
researchers find threetypesof mapshelpful:spa-who rely on them must addressassociatedprob-
tial, social,and temporal.The first helpsorientlems (e.g.,ensurethat batteriesare fresh and there
the data;the latter two arepreliminaryforms ofare enough blank tapes). Also' relistening to or
data analysis.A spatial map locatespeople, viewing tapes can be time consuming' For exam-
ple, it may take over 100 hours to listen to 50
equipment,andthe like in termsof geographical
physical spaceto show where activities occur iro,rr, ,".orded in the field. Transcriptions of tape
are expensive and not always accurate; they do
inig"t. 11.3A).Asocialmapshowsthe number
or variety of people and the arrangements not always convey subtle contextual meanings or
amongthem of power,influence,friendship,di- mumbled words. Duneier (1999) had a tape
vision of labor, and so on (Figure11'3B)'A recorder on all the time in his study of New York
temporalmap showstheebband flow of people, City streetvendors. He made others aware of the
goodr,services,and communications,or sched- machine and took reponsibility for what behav-
ules(Figure11.3C). iors he focusedon, and he left the machine visible'
The taping mayhave createdsome distortion but
Machine Recordingsto SupplementMeffiory' it also provided a record of everydayroutines' He
Tape recordersand videotapescan be hetpful also had a collaborator who took a large collection
supplements Theyneversubsti- of photographs of his field site and informants'
in field research.
presencein
notesor a researcher's
t"ta fot field which heiped him to seethings differently'
F I G URE 11. 3 Typesof MapsUsedin FieldResearch
A SpatialMap
lwong 6 EmPtY
\-/ \_/ Chair
Sampson
o
oo
De Onis Harris
Window
B Social Map
ApartmentA
C Temporal Map
Day of Week, Buzz's Bar
Open10:00
Neighbors
ano
Bridge
Players
294 PART THREE / CO NDUCTI NG Q UALI TATI V ER E S E A R C H
don't say,"Let's now discusswhat we did last motive race"); (9) a pauseor brief silencewhen
weekend"); (3) avoidanceof repetition (we neitherpersontalksis acceptable; (10) a closing
don't say, "Could you clarifr what you said (we don't say,"Let's end this conversation";in-
about"); (4) questionasking("Did you seethe stead,we givea verbalindicator beforephysically
race yesterday?");(5) expressionsof interest leaving:"I've got to get backto work now-see
("Really?I wish I could havebeenthere!"); (6) ya tomorrow").
expressions ofignorance("No, I missedit. What The field interview differs from a friendlv
happened?");(7) turn taking,sothe encounteris conversation.It has an explicit purpose-to
balanced(one persondoesnot alwaysaskques- learn about the informant and setting.A re-
tions and the other only answer);(8) abbrevia- searcherincludesexplanationsor requeststhat
tions ("I missedthe Derby,but I'm goingto the divergefrom friendly conversations. For exam-
Indy," not "I missedthe KentuckyDerby horse ple,he or shemay say,"I'dlike to askyou about
racebut I will go to the Indianapolis500 auto- . . ." or "Could you look at this and seeif I've
SurveyInterviewsversusField ResearchInterviews
l . It hasa clearbeginning
andend. 1. The beginning andend arenot clear.The
interviewcan be pickedup later.
2. The samestandardquestionsareaskedofall 2. The questionsand the order in whichthev
respondentsin the samesequence. are askedare tailoredto specificpeopleand
situations.
3. The interviewerappearsneutralat all times. 3. The interviewershowsinterestin responses,
encourages elaboration.
4. The interviewerasksquestions,and the 4. It is likea friendlyconversational
exchange,
respondentanswers. but with more interviewerquestions.
It is almostalwayswith one respondentalone. 5. lt canoccurin group settingor with othersin
area,but varies.
6. It hasa professional
tone and businesslike
focus; 5. lt is interspersed
with jokes,asides,stories,
diversionsare ignored. diversions, and anecdotes,whichare recorded.
7. Closed-ended
questionsare common,with rare 7. Open-ended questionsarecommon,and
probes. probesare frequent.
8 . The intervieweralonecontrolsthe paceand 8. The interviewerand memberjointly control
directionof interview. the paceand directionof the interview.
9. The socialcontextin whichthe interviewoccurs 9. The socialcontextof the interviewis noted
is ignoredand assumedto makelittle difference. and seenas importantfor interpretingthe
meaningof responses.
10. The interviewerattemptsto moldthe framework 1 0. The intervieweradjuststo the member's
communication pattern into a standard. normsand languageusage.
Source:Adapted
fromBriggs(l 986), Denzin(1 989), Douglas
(l 985), Misher(1 9g6), spradley(1979a).
298 PART THREE / CO NDUCTI NC Q UALI TATI V ER E S E A R C H
written it down right?"The field interviewis less adds structural questionsuntil, in the middle
balanced.A higher proportion of questions stageafter analysishas begun,they make up a
comefrom the researcher, who expresses more majority of the questions.Contrast questions
ignoranceand interest.Also, it includes repeti beginto appearin the middle of a field research
tion. and a researcherasksthe memberto elabo- study and increaseuntil, by the end, they are
rateon unclearabbreviations. askedmore than any other type.l3
Kissane(2003)useddepthinterviewsin her A descriptitequestionis usedto explorethe
field study of low-income women in Philadel- setting and learn about members.Descriptive
phia (discussed in Chapter6). Interviewslasted questionscanbe abouttime and space-for ex-
from 30 minutesto three hours. Kissanenoted ample,"Where is the bathroom?""When does
that she askedthe women what servicesthey the delivery truck arrive?" "What happened
used,and then namedspecificagencies. Often a Monday night?" They can alsobe about people
woman would then say she was aware of the and activities:"\,Vhois sitting by the window?"
namedagency.Sheaskedthe women to describe "What is your unclelike?""What happensdur-
their experienceswith various agencies,when ing the initiation ceremony?"They canbe about
they had usedthem or if theywould useservices objects:"When do you usea sabersaw?""Which
of various agencies,and what other socialser- tools do you carry with you on an emergency
vicesthey used.Open-endedinterviewingal- water leakjob?" Questionsaskingfor examples
lowed her to seethe women'sdecision-making aredescriptive:.questions-for example,"Could
process. you giveme an exampleof a greatdate?""What
were your experiences as a postalclerk?"De-
scriptivequestionsmay ask about hypothetical
Types of Questions in Field Interviews
situations:"If a studentopenedher book during
Many field researchers askthree tlpes of ques- the exam,how would you deal with it?" They
tions in a field interview:descriptive,structural, alsoaskmembersabout the argotof the setting:
and contrastquestions.All are askedconcur- "What do you call a deputy sherif,R"(The an-
rently,but eachtypeis more frequentat a differ- sweris a "county Mountie.")
ent stagein the researchprocess(seeFigure A researcher introducesa structuralquestion
11.5).During the earlystage,a researcher pri- after spendingtime in the field and starting to
marily asksdescriptive questions,then gradually analyzedata. It begins after a researcherorga-
nizesspecificfield events,situations,and con-
versations into conceptual categories.For
example,a researcher's observationsof a high-
FIcURE 1 1.5 TypesofQuestionsin way truck-stoprestaurantrevealedthat the em-
FieldResearchlnterviews ployees informally classify customers who
patronizethe truck stop.In a preliminary analy-
sis, he or she createsa conceptualcategoryof
kinds of customersand hasmembersveriff the
categories with structuralquestions.A common
way to posea structural questionis to ask the
Numberof memberswhethera categoryincludeselements
Questions in addition to those aheadyidentified-for ex-
ample,"Are there any typesof customersother
than regulars,greasers,pit stoppers,and long
haulers?"In addition, a researcher asksfor con-
Time in the Field firmation: "Is a greasera type of customerthat
C H A P T E RI 1 , / F I E L DR E S E A R C H 299
you serve?""Would a pit stopper ever eat a setting, using categoriesfrom the media or
three-coursedinner?" education.
The contrastquestionbuilds on the analysis
alreadyverifiedby structuralquestions.Contrast A field researchermay interview several
questionsfocuson similaritiesor differencesbe- typesof informants.Contrastingtypesof infor-
tween elementsin categoriesor betweencate- mants who provide usefulperspectives include
gories.The researcherasksmembersto verifii rookiesand old-timers,peoplein the centerof
the similarities and differences:"You seemto eyentsand thoseon the fringesof activiry peo-
hayea number of different kinds of customers ple who recentlychangedstatus(e.g.,through
come in here. I've heard you call some cus- promotion) and thosewho are static,frustrated
tomers'regulars'and others'pit stoppers.'How or needypeopleand happyor securepeople,the
are a regularand a pit stopperalike?"or "Is the leaderin chargeand the subordinatewho fol-
differencebetweena long hauler and a greaser lows.A field researcherexpectsmixed messages
that the greaserdoesn'ttip?" or "Two typesof whenhe or sheinterviewsa rangeof informants.
Customers iust stopto usethe restroom-entire
families and a lone male. Do you call both pit
stoppers?" lnterview Context
Field researchersrecognizethat a conversation
Informants in a private office may not occur in a crowded
lunchroom. Often, interviewstake placein the
An informant or key actor in field researchis a member'shomeenvironmentsothat he or sheis
memberwith whom a field researcherdevelopsa comfortable.This is not alwaysbest.If a member
relationshipand who tellsabout,or informs on, is preoccupied or there is no privacy, a re-
the field.la Who makesa good informant?The searcherwill move to another setting (e.g.,
idealinformant hasfour characteristics: restaurantor universityoffice).
The interview's meaning is shapedby its
1. The informant is totally familiar with the Gestaltor whole interactionof a researcher and
culture and is in position to witnesssignifi- a memberin a specificcontext.For example,a
canteyents.He or shelivesandbreathesthe researchernotesnonverbalforms of communi-
culture and engagesin routines in the set- cationthat add meaning,suchasa shrug,a ges-
ting without thinking aboutthem. ture, and so on.
2. The individual is currently involvedin the
field. Ex-memberswho have reflectedon
the field mayprovideusefulinsights,but the
longerthey havebeenawayfrom direct in- LEAVING THE FIELD
volvement, the more likely it is that they Work in the field can last for a few weeksto a
havereconstructedtheir recollections. dozenyears.In either case,at somepoint work
3. The person can spend time with the re- in the field ends.Someresearchers (e.g.,Schatz-
searcher. Interviewing may take many man and Strauss,1973)suggestthat the end
hours, and somemembersare simply not comesnaturallywhen theorybuilding ceases or
availablefor extensiveinterviewing. reachesa closure; others feel that fieldwork
4. Nonana\tic individualsmakebetter infor- could go on without end and that a firm decision
mants.A nonanalyticinformant is familiar to cut offrelationsis needed.
with and usesnative folk theory or prag- Experiencedfield researchersanticipate a
matic common sense.This is in contrastto processof disengaging and exitingthe field. De-
the analyticmember,who preanalyzesthe pendingon the intensityof involyementand the
300 pA RTT HREE,/ c o N D U c rrN c e u A L trAT tvER E S E A R cH
lengthof time in the field,the processcanbe dis- ished until the processof disengagementand ex-
ruptive or emotionallypainful for both the re- iting is complete.
searcherand the members.A researchermay
experiencethe emotionalpain of breakinginti-
mate friendshipswhen leavingthe field. He or
FOCUS GROUPS
shemay feel guilty and depressedimmediately
beforeand after leaving.He or shemay find it Thefocusgroup is a specialqualitativeresearch
difficult to let go becauseof personaland emo- techniquein which peopleareinformally "inter-
tional entanglements. If the involvementin the viewed"in a group-discussion setting.lsFocus
field wasintenseand long, and the field sitedif- group researchhasgrown overthe past20years.
fered from his or her native culture. the re- The procedureis that a researchergathersto-
searchermay needmonthsof adjustmentbefore gether6 to 12peoplein a room with a modera-
feelingat home with his or her original cultural tor to discussa fewissues.Most focusgroupslast
surroundings. about 90 minutes.The moderatoris trained to
Once a researcherdecidesto leave-be- be nondirectiveand to facilitatefree,open dis-
causethe projectreachesa natural end and little cussionby all group members(i.e.,not let one
new is beinglearned,or becauseexternalfactors persondominatethe discussion).Group mem-
forceit to end (e.g.,endofajob, gatekeepers or- bers shouldbe homogenous,but not include
der the researcher out, etc.)-he or shechooses closefriendsor relatives.In a tlpical study,a re-
a methodof exiting.The researchercanleaveby searcherusesfour to six separategroups.Focus
a quick exit (simply not return one day) or grouptopicsmight includepublic attitudes(e.g.,
slowly withdraw, reducing his or her involve- racerelations,workplaceequalrty),personalbe-
ment overweeks.He or shealsoneedsto decide haviors(e.g.,dealingwith AIDS), a new product
how to tell membersand how much advance (e.g.,breakfastcereal),a political candidate,or a
warning to give. number of other topics.Researchers often com-
The exit processdependson the specific bine focus groups with quantitative research,
field settingand the relationshipsdeveloped.In and the procedurehasits own specificstrengths
general,a researcher letsmembersknow a short andweaknesses (seeBox 11.5).
period aheadof time. He or shefulfills any bar- Severalyearsago, I conductedan applied
gains or commitments that were made and study on why parentsand studentschoseto at-
leaveswith a cleanslate.Sometimes,a ritual or tend a private high school.In addition to col-
ceremony,suchasagoing-awayparryorshaking lecting quantitative survey data, I formed six
handswith everyone,helpssignalthe break for focus groups,eachwith 8 to 10 studentsfrom
members.Maintaining friendshipswith mem- the high school.A trainedcollege-student mod-
bersis alsopossibleand is preferredby feminist eratoraskedquestions,elicitedcommentsfrom
researchers. groupmembers,andpreventedonepersonfrom
A field researcheris awarethat leavingaf- dominatingdiscussions. The six groupswereco-
fectsmembers.Somemembersmay feelhurt or ed and containedmembersof either one grade
rejectedbecausea closesocialrelationshipis levelor two adjacentgrades(e.g.,freshmenand
ending. They may reactby trying to pull a re- sophomores).Studentsdiscussedtheir reasons
searcherbackinto the field and makehim or her for attendingthe high schooland whetherspe-
more of a member,or they may becomeangry cific factorswereimportant. I tape-recordedthe
and resentful.They may grow cool and distant discussions, which lastedabout45 minutes,then
becauseofan awareness that the researcher
is re- analyzedthe tapesto understandwhat the stu-
ally an outsider.In anycase,fieldworkis not fin- dentssawasimportant to their decisions.In ad-
C H A P TE R Il / FIE LDR E S E A R C H 3OI
Introduction
Research
QuestionsAppropriatefor Historical-Comparative
Research
The Logic of Historical-Comparative Research
The Logicof Historical-Comparative
Research
and Quantitative
Research
The Logicof Historical-Comparative
Research
and Interpretive
Research
A DistinctHistorical-Comparative
Approach
Steps in a Historical-Comparative Research Project
Conceptualizing the Objectof Inquiry
LocatingEvidence
Evaluating
Qualityof Evidence
Organizing
Evidence
Synthesizing
Writing a Report
Data and Evidence in Historical Context
Typesof HistoricalEvidence
Researchwith SecondarySources
Researchwith PrimarySources
Comparative Research
Types of ComparativeResearch
The UnitsBeingCompared
Datain Cross-Cultural
Research
Equivalence in Historical-Comparative Research
The lmportanceof Equivalence
Types of Equivalence
Ethics
Conclusion
304
CHAPTER1 2 , / H I S T O R I C A L - C O M P A R A T I VREE S E A R C H 305
Evidence Reconstructs
from fragmentsand incompleteevidence
Distortion cuards againstusingown awareness
of factorsoutsidethe socialor historical
context
Humanrole Includesthe consciousness
of peoplein a contextand usestheirmotivesas causal
factors
Causes Seescauseas contingenton conditions,
beneaththe surface,
and dueto a
combination
of elements
Micro./macro Compareswholecasesand linksthe microto macrolevelsor layersof socialreality
Cross-contexts Movesbetweenconcretespecificsin a contextand acrosscontextsfor more
abstractcomparisons
CHAPTER12 , / H IS TOR IC A L-C OMP A R AR
TIV
E SEE A R C H 309
Second, both field and H-C researchexam- searcherhas a unique perspective and assembles
ine a great diversity of data. In both, the re- a unique body ofevidence. Instead, researchers
searcher becomes immersed in data to gain an offer plausible accounts and limited generaliza-
empathic understanding of events and people. tions.
Both capture subjective feelings and note how
everyday, ordinary activities signif important Unique Features of Historical-Comparative
social meaning. Research. Despite its many similarities to field
The researcherinquires, selects,and focuses research,some important differencesdistinguish
on specific aspectsof social life from the vast ar- H-C research. Researchon the past and on an
ray of events, actions, symbols, and words. An alien culture share much in common, and what
H-C researcher organizes data and focuses at- they share distinguishes them from other
tention on the basis of evolving concepts. He or approaches.
she examines rituals and s).rnbolsthat dramatize First, H-C researchusually relies on limited
culture (e.g.,parades,clothing, placement of ob- and indirect evidence. Direct observation or in-
jects, etc.) and investigatesthe motives, reasons, volvement by a researcher is often impossible.
and justifications for behaviors. An H-C researcher reconstructs what occurred
Third, both field and H-C researchersuse from the evidence, but cannot have absolute
grounded theory. Theory usually emergesduring confidence in the reconstruction. Historical evi-
the processofdata collection. dence depends on the survival of data from the
Next, in both field and H-C researchthe re- past, usually in the form of documents (e.g.,let-
searcher's meaning system frequently differs ters and newspapers). The researcheris limited
from that ofthe people he or she studies, but he to what has not been destroyed and what leaves
or she tries to penetrate and understand their a trace, record, or other evidencebehind.
point of view. Once the life, language, and per- Historical-comparative researchers must
spective of the people being studied have been also interpret the evidence. Different people
mastered,the researcher"translates" it for others looking at the same evidence often ascribe dif-
who read his or her report. ferent meanings to it, so a researcher must re-
Fifth, both field and H-C researchersfocus flect on evidence. An understanding of it based
on processand sequence.Theyseethe passageof on a first glance is rarely possible. To do this, a
time and processas essentialto how people con- researcherbecomes immersed in and absorbs
struct social reality. This is related to how both details about a context. For example, a re-
are sensitive to an ever-present tension between searcher examining the family in the past or a
agency-the active moving fluid side of people distant country needs to be aware of the full so-
changing social reality-and r1t.161u1s-fhs cial context (e.g., the nature of work, forms of
fixed regularities and patterns that shape social communication, transportation technology,
life. For both qpes of research social reality si- etc.). He or she looks at maps and gets a feel for
multaneously is what people create and some- the laws in effect, the condition of medical care,
thing that imposes restrictions on human and common social practices. For example, the
choice.3 meaning of "a visit by a family member,, is af-
Sixth, generalization and theory are limited fected by conditions such as roads of dirt and
in field and H-C research.Historical and cross- mud, the inability to call ahead of time, and the
cultural knowledge is incomplete and provi- lives of people who work on a farm with animals
sional, based on selective facts and limited that need constant watching.
questions. Neither deducespropositions or tests A reconstruction ofthe past or another cul-
hypothesesin order to uncover fixed laws. Like- ture is easily distorted. Compared to the people
wise, replication is unrealistic because each re- being studied, a researcheris usuallymo.. ur"ur.
310 PART THREE / c oNDUc r lNG Q UALI TATI v ER E S E A R c H
evidence about a protest movement. The pre- mountains of evidence into exposition and pre-
liminary analysis organizes the evidence into a pares extensive footnotes. She or he must also
theme: People who are active in protest interact weave together the evidence and arguments to
with each other and develop shared cultural communicate a coherent, convincing picture or
meanings. He or she examines theories of cul- "tell a story''to readers.
ture and movements, then formulates a new
concept: "oppositional movement subculture. "
The researcherthen usesthis concept to reexun-
ine the evidence. DATA AND EVIDENCEIN
HISTORICAL CONTEXT
Synthesizing Types of Historical Evidence
Thenextstepis is to synthesize
evidence.
Once First, some terms need clarification.History
most of the evidenceis in, the researcherrefines meansthe eventsof the past(e.g.,it is historythat
concepts,createsnew ones,and movestoward a the Frenchwithdrew troops from Vietnam), a
generalexplanatorymodel. Concreteeventsin record of the past (e.g.,a historyof Frenchin-
the evidencegivemeaningto new concepts.The volyement in Vietnam), and a discipline that
researcherlooks for patterns acrosstime or studiesthe past (e.g.,a departmentof history).
units, and drawsout similaritiesand differences Historiographyis the method of doing historical
with analogies.He or she organizesdivergent researchor of gathering and analyzinghistorical
eventsinto sequences and groupsthem together evidence.Historicalsociologyis a part of histor-
to createa largerpicture.Plausibleexplanations ical-comparativeresearch.
arethen developedthat subsumeboth concepts Researchers draw on four typesofhistori-
and evidenceinto a coherentwhole. The re- calevidenceor data:primary sources,secondary
searcherthen readsand rereadsnotesand sorts sources,running records,and recollections.6
and resortsthem into pilesor fileson the basisof Traditional historians rely heavily on primary
organizingschemes. He or shelooks for links or sources.H-C researchersoften use second-
connectionswhile looking at the evidencein dif- ary sources or the different data types in
ferentways. combination.
Synthesislinks specificevidencewith an ab-
stract model of underlying relations or causal Primary Sources. The letters,diaries,newspa-
mechanisms. Researchers may usemetaphors. pers, movies,novels,articlesof clothing, pho-
For example,massfrustrationleadingto a revo- tographs,and so forth of thosewho lived in the
lution is "like an emotionalroller coasterdrop" past and have survived to the present are
in which things seemto be getting better, and primary sources.They are found in archives(a
then thereis a suddenletdownafterexpectations placewhere documentsare stored), in private
haverisen very fast.The modelsare sensitizing collections,in family closets,and in museums
devices. (seeBox 12.2).Today'sdocumentsand objects
(our letters,televisionprograms,commercials,
Writing a Report clothing, automobiles)will be primary sources
for future historians.An exampleof a classicpri-
Assemblingevidence,arguments,and conclu- mary sourceis a bundle of yellowedletterswrit-
sionsinto a report is alwaysa crucial step,but ten by a husband awayat war to his wife and
more than in quantitativeapproaches, the care- found in an attic by a researcher.
ful crafting of evidenceand explanationmakes Publishedand unpublishedwritten docu-
or breaksH-C research.A researcherdistills ments are the most important type of primary
CHAPTER12 / H I S T O R I C A L - C O M P A R A T I VREE S E A R C H
313
source.Researchers find them in their original ple,it wasillegalfor slavesin the United Statesto
form or preservedin microficheor on film. ihey read or write, and thus written sourceson the
areoften the only survivingrecordof the words, experienceof slaveryhavebeenindirect or diffi_
and feelings of people in the past. cult to find.
th_oughts,
Written documentsarehelpful for studyingso_ The written word on paper was the main
cietiesand historical periods with writing and medium of communicationprior to the wide_
Iiteratepeople.A frequent criticism ofliitten spreaduseof telecommunications,computers,
sourcesis that they werelargelywritten by elites and video technologyto record evenis and
or thosein official organizations;thus,the views ideas.In fact,the spreadof forms of communi_
of the illiterate,thepoor, or thoseoutsideofficial cation that do not leavea permanentphysical
socialinstitutionsmaybeoverlooked.For exam_ record(e.g.,telephoneconversations, co-mputer
3' 14 PART THRE E , / c oNDUc r lNc Q UALI TATI v ER E S E A R c H
pages of newspapers, letters, and diaries, then Also, narratives rarely explicitly indicate
boils down this information into summaries and how combinationor interactionefiecisoperate,
selectedquotes in a 100-pagebook. An H-C re- or the relativesizeof differentfactors.Foi am-
searcher does not know whether information ple, the historian discusses three conditions as
that the historian left out is relevant for his or causingan event.Yet, rarely do readersknow
her purposes. which is most important or whether all three
The typical historian's researchpractice also conditions must operatetogether to have a
introduces an individualist bias.A heary reliance causalimpact, but no two conditionsalone.or
on primary sourcesand surviving artifacts com- no single condition alone, createsthe same
bines with an atheoretical orientation to pro- impact.io
duce a narrow focus on the actions of snecific The narrativeorganizationcreatesdifficul-
people. This particularistic, micro-level view di- ties for the researcherusing secondarysources
rects attention away from integrating themes or and createsconflictingfindings.The H-C re-
patterns. This emphasis on the documented ac- searchermust read though weak concepts,un-
tivities of specific individuals is a tlpe of theoret- known selectioncriteria, and uncleai casual
ical orientation.e ' logic. Theory may residebeneaththe narrative
Another problem is in the organization of but it remainimplicit and hidden.
the evidence. Tradional historians organize evi- Two last problemsare that a historian is
dence as a narrative history. This compounds influencedby when he or she is writing and
problems of undefined concepts and the selec- historiographicschools.Various schoolsof frir_
tion of evidence. In the historiial narrative. ma- toriography (e.g., diplomatic, demographic,
terial is chronologically organized around a ecological,psychological,Marxist, intelleitual,
single coherent "story." Each part of the story is etc.) havetheir own rules for seekingevidence
connected to each other part by its place in the and askingquestions,and they give priority to
time order of events.Together, all the parts form certaintypesof explanatoryfactors.Likewise,a
a unity or whole. Conjuncture and contingency historian writing today will examineprimary
are key elements of the narrative form-that is. materialsdifferentlyfrom how thosewriting in
if X (or X plus Z) occurred, then ywould occur, thepast,suchas 1920s, did.
and if X (or X plus Z) had not occurred, some-
thing elsewould have followed. The contingency
creates a logical interdependenry between ear- Researchwith Primary Sources
lier and later events. The historianis the major issuewhen usingsec-
A difficulty of the narrative is that the pri- ondary sources.When using primary ro.r...r,
mary organizing tool-time order or position in the biggestconcernis that only a fraction of
a sequenceof events-does not denote theoreti- everythingwritten or usedin the past has sur-
cal or historical causality. In other words, the vivedinto the present.Moreover,what survived
narrative meets only one of the three criteria for is a nonrandomsampleof what onceexisted.
establishing causality-that of temporal order. Historical-comparative researchers attempt
Moreover, narrative writing frequently obscures to readprimary sourceswith the eyesand as-
causalprocesses.This occurs when a historian in- sumptionsof a contemporarywho lived in the
cludes eventsin the narrative to enrich the back- past.This means"bracketing,"or holding back
ground or context, to add color, but that have no knowledgeof subsequenteventsand modern
causal significance. Likewise, he or she presents v-alues. For example,whenreadinga sourcepro-
events with a delayed causal impact, or events ducedby a slaveholder,moralizingagainstslav-
that are temporarily "on hold" with a causalim- ery or faultingthe author for not seeingits evil is
pact occuring at some unspecified later time. not worthwhile.The H-C researcher holdsback
3' 16 PART THREE / c oNDUc r lNc Q UALI TATI vER E S E A R c H
o
When
Written?
WhereWas
ItWritten?
o SecondhandAccount?
WhyWas
It Written?
Literal
Why Did lt Meaning?
^rJ"","q
Survive?
t"u?n,"nffi
in Context
lnternal
Consistency?
Connotations?
WhoWasthe RealAuthor?
CHAPTER12 , / H IS TOR IC A L-C OMP A R AR
TIV
E SEE A R C H 3' 17
identities. He learned that networks with links across several social units or settings are less
backto villagesin China and crossing severalna- likely to apply only to a specific culture or set-
tional borders helped to sustain a vibrant, inter- ting. It is difficult for a researcherto detect hid_
acting community. The network was held den biases,assumptions, and values until he or
together by social relations from the village of she applies a concept in different cultures or ser_
origin, clan, family, business transactions, and tings. Different social settings provide a wider
shared language and customs. One of McKe- range ofevents or behavior, and the range in one
own's major arguments is that a perspective culture is usually narrower than for huinan be-
based solely on nations can limit a researcher,s havior in general. Thus, researchin a single cul_
ability to seea social communitythat is transna- ture or setting focuses on a restricted range of
tional and the hybrid of multiple cultures. Many possible social activity. For example, twi re-
aspectsof the transnational community devel- searchers,Hsi-Ping and Abdul, examine the re-
oped in reaction to specific interactions that oc- lationship between the age at which a child is
curred locally. weaned and the onset of emotional problems.
Hsi-Ping looks only at U.S. data, which show a
range from 5 to 15 months at weaning, and indi_
catethat emotional problems increasesteadily as
C O M P A RA T I V E R ES EA R C H ageofweaning increases.Sheconcludesthat iate
Types of Comparative Research weaning causes emotional problems. Abdul
looks at data from 10 cultures and discovers a
A Comparative Method. Comparative re- range from 5 to 36 months at weaning. He finds
search is more of a perspective or orientation that the rate of emotional problems rises with
than a separate research technique. In this sec- age-of weaning until 18 months; it then peaks
tion, we consider its strengths. and falls to a lower level. Abdul arrives at more
Problems in other tlpes of research are accurate conclusions: Emotional problems are
magnified in a comparative study.il Holt and likely for weaning between the agei of 6 and,24
Turner (1970:6) said, "In principle, there is no months, but weaning either earlier or later re-
difference between comparative cross-cultural duces the chances of emotional problems. Hsi-
researchand researchconducted in a single soci- Ping reached false conclusions about tne
ety. The differences lie, rather, in the masnitude relationship because of the narrow range of
of certain tlpes of problems." A comparative weaning age in the United States.
perspective exposesweaknessesin research de- The way comparative research raises new
sign and helps a researcherimprove the quality questions and stimulates theory building is a
of research.The focus of comparative researchis major strength. For example, Lamont (ZOOO)
on similarities and differences between units. compared samples of blue-collar and lower_
Comparative research helps a researcher white-collar workers in France and the United
identift aspectsof social life that are general Statesfortheir justifications and forms of argu_
acrossunits (e.g.,cultures), as opposedto being ment used to explain racial differences.Shedrew
limited to one unit alone. AII researcherswant to random samples from telephone directories of
generalizeto some degree.Positivist researchers Whites and Blacks in the suburbs of paris and
are interested in discovering general laws or pat- NewYork City and interviewed respondents for
terns ofsocial behavior that hold acrosssocieties. two hours. Lamont found that the arguments of
But most positivist researchis not comparative. racists and antiracists alike differed widely be-
The comparative orientation i^mproves tween France and the United States.people use
measurement and conceptualization. Concepts arguments and rationales closely tied to the
developed by researcherswho conduct research dominant cultural themes of their society. For
318 PART THRE E / c oNDUc r lNc Q UALI TAT I v ER E S E A R c H
other cases,a nation-state contains more than Canada,France,and the United States;a re-
one culture. Over the past centuries, boundaries searcherdiscoversa strongassociationbetween
between cultures and distinct vibrant cultures speakingEnglishand having the dollar as cur-
have been destroyed, rearranged, or diffr-rsedas renry, or speakingFrenchand usingthe franc as
territory around the world was carved into currency.Obviously,the associationexistsbe-
colonies or nation-states by wars and conquest. cause the units of analysis (i.e., states or
For instance, European empires imposed arbi- provinces)are subpartsof larger units (i.e.,na-
trary boundaries over severalcultural groups in tions). The featuresof the units aredue to their
nations that were once colonies. Likewise, new being parts oflarger units and not to any rela-
immigrants or ethnic minorities are not always tionship amongthe features.Socialgeographers
assimilated into the dominant culture in a na- alsoencounterthis because manysocialand cul-
tion. For example, one region of a nation may tural featuresdiffuseacrossgeographicspace.
have people with a distinct ethnic backgrounds, Galton'sproblemis an important issuein
languages,customs, religions, social institutions, comparativeresearchbecauseculturesrarelyhave
and identities (e.g., the province of Quebec in clear,fixedboundaries.It is hardto saywhereone
Canada). Such intranational cultures can create culture ends and another begins,whether one
regional conflict, since ethnic and cultural iden- culture is distinct from another,or whetherthe
tities are the basis for nationalism. featuresof one culture have diffirsed to another
The nation-state is not always the best unit overtime. Galton'sproblemoccurswhenthe re-
for comparative research. A researcher should lationship betweentwo variablesin two different
ask What is the relevant comparative unit for my unitsis actuallydueto a commonorigin,andthey
research question-the nation, the culture, a arenot truly distinctunits (seeFigare12.2).
small region, or a subculture? For example, a re- Galton'sproblem originatedwith regardto
searchquestion is: Are income level and divorce comparisonsacrosscultures,but it appliesto
related (i.e., are higher-income people lesslikely historicalcomparisonsalso.It ariseswhen a re-
to divorce?)?A group of people with a distinct searcherasls whetherunits are really the same
culture, language,and religion live in one region or different in different historical periods.For
of a nation. Among them, income and divorce example,is the Cuba of 1875the samecountry
are not related; elsewherein the nation, however, asthe Cubaof 2005?Do 130yearssincethe end
where a different culture prevails,income and di- of Spanishcolonialism,the riseof U.S.influence,
vorce are related. Ifa researcherusesthe nation- independence,dictatorship,and a communist
state as his or her unit, the findings could be revolution fundamentallychangethe unit?
ambiguous and the explanation weak. Instead of
assuming that each nation-state has a common
Data in Cross-Cultural Research
culture, a researchermay find that a unit smaller
than the nation-state is more appropriate. ComparativeField Research. Comparativere-
searchers usefield researchand participantob-
Galton's Problem. The issue of the units of servationin cultures other than their own.
comparison is related to a problem named after Anthropologistsare speciallytrained and pre-
Sir Francis Galton (1822-l9Il). When re- paredfor this type ofresearch.The exchangeof
searcherscompare units or their characteristics, methodsbetweenanthropologicaland field re-
they want the units to be distinct and separate searchsuggeststhat there are small differences
from each other. If the units are not different but betweenfield researchin one'sown societyand
are actually the subparts ofa larger unit, then re- in anotherculture. Field researchin a different
searcherswill find spurious relationships. For cultureis usuallymore difficult and placesmore
example, the units are the statesand provinces in requirementson the researcher.
320 PART THR EE / CO NDUCTI NC Q UALI TAT I V ER E S E A R C H
it meansapplylngspecializedtechniques.Some Endnotes
specializedtechniquesare used,suchasthe ex-
ternal criticism of primary documents,but the 1. SeeMahoney (1999) for major works of histori-
mostvital featureis how a researcher
approaches cal-comparative research.
2. See Calhoun (1996), McDaniel (1978), Prze'
a question,probes data, and moves toward
worski and Teune (1970), and Stinchcombe
explanations. (1978) for additional discussion.
Historical-comparativeresearchis more 3. For additional discussion,seeSewell( 1987)'
difficult to conductthan researchthat is neither 4. SeeNaroll (1968) for a discussion of difficulties in
historical nor comparative,but the difficulties creating distinctions. Also seeWhiting (1968).
arepresentto a lesserdegreein othertypesofso- 5. Transhistorical concepts are discussedby others,
cial research.For example,issuesof equivalence such as Bendix (1963)' Przeworski and Teune
existto somedegreein all socialresearch. In H-C ( 1970),and Smelser(1976).
research,however,the problems cannot be 6. SeeLowenthal (1985:187).
treatedas secondaryconcerns.They are at the 7. Bendix (1978:16) distinguished between the
judgments of historians and the selectionsof soci
forefront ofhow researchis conductedand de-
ologists.
terminewhethera researchquestioncanbe an-
8. Bonnell (1980:161), Finley (L977:132), and
swered.
Goldthorpe (1977:189-l9O) discussedhow histo-
rians use concepts.Selectionin this context is dis-
cussed by Abrams (1982:194) and Ben-Yehuda
Key T e r m s ( 1983).
9. For introductions to how historians see their
back translation method, see Barzun and Graff (1970), Braudel
conceptual equivalence (1980), Cantor and Schneider (1967), Novick
contextual equivalence (1988),or Shafer(1980).
external criticism 10. The narrative is discussedin Abbott ( 1992)' Gallie
(1963), Gotham and Staples (1996), Griffin
Galton's problem
(1993), Mclennan (198I:76-87), Runciman
Human RelationsArea Files (HRAF)
(1980),and Stone(1987:74-96).
internal criticism
I 1. For more on the strengthsand limitations of com-
lexicon equivalence
parative research,seeAnderson (1973), Holt and
measurement equivalence Turner (1970), Kohn (1987), Ragin (1987)'
oralhistory Smelser(1976), Vallier (1971a, 1971b),Walton
primary sources (1973), and Whiting ( 1968).
recollections 12. For more on the Human RelationsArea File and
running records the EthnographicAtlas,see Murdock (I9 67, 197l)
secondarysources andWhiting (i968).
'ry
Analysisof QualitativeData
Introduction
Comparing Methods of Data Analysis
Similarities
Differences
Explanations
and QualitativeData
Coding and Concept Formation
Conceptualization
CodingQualitativeData
AnalyticMemoWriting
Analytic Strategies for Qualitative Data
The Narrative
ldealTypes
Successive
Approximation
The lllustrative
Method
Other Techniques
NetworkAnalysis
TimeAllocationAnalysis
Flowchartand TimeSequence
M ultipleSortingProcedure
Diagrams
Software for Qualitative Data
Conclusion
328 PART THREE / CO NDUCTI NC Q UALI TATI V ER E S E A R C H
terns or relationships,but they begin analysis build new theory to createa realisticpicture of
earlyin a researchproject,whiletheyarestill col- sociallife and stimulateunderstandingmore
lecting data. The results of early data analysis than to test a causalhypothesis.Explanations
guidesubsequentdatacollection.Thus,analysis tendto be rich in detail,sensitiveto context,and
is lessa distinct final stageofresearchthan a di- capableof showingthe complexprocesses or se-
mension of researchthat stretchesacrossall quencesof sociallife. The explanationsmay be
stages. causal,but this is not alwaysthe case.The re-
Another differenceis the relationship be- searcher's goalis to organizespecificdetailsinto
tween data and socialtheory. Quantitative re- a coherentpicture, model, or setof interlocked
searchersmanipulatenumbersthat represent concepts.
empiricalfactsto testtheoreticalhypotheses. By A qualitative researcherdivides explana-
contrast, qualitativeresearchers createnew con- tions into two categories:highly unlikely and
ceptsand theoryby blendingtogetherempirical plausible.The researcher is satisfiedby building
evidenceand abstractconcepts.Insteadoftest- a caseor supplyingsupportiveevidence.He or
ing a hypothesis,a qualitativeanalystmay illus- shemay eliminatesometheoreticalexplanations
trate or color in evidenceshowingthat a theory, from considerationwhile increasingthe plausi-
generalization, or interpretationis plausible. bility of othersbecauseonly a few explanations
The fourth differenceis the degreeof ab- will be consistentwith a pattern in the data.
straction or distancefrom the detailsof social Qualitative analysiscan eliminate an explana-
life. In all data analysis,a researcherplacesraw tion by showingthat a wide arrayof evidence
data into categoriesthat he or shemanipulates contradictsit. The data might support more
in order to identifi patterns. Quantitative than one explanation,b:ut all explanationswill
researchers assumethat sociallife can be repre- not be consistentwith it. In addition to elimi-
sentedby using numbers.When they manipu- nating lessplausible explanations,qualitative
late the numbers according to the laws of dataanalysishelpsto verif' a sequenceofevents
statistics,the numbers revealfeaturesof social or the stepsof a process.This temporalordering
life. Qualitative analysisdoes not draw on a is the basisof finding associations amongvari-
large,well-established body of formal knowledge ables,and it is useful in supporting causal
from mathematicsand statistics.The dataarein arguments.
the form of words, which are relativelyimpre-
cise,diffuse, and context-based,and can have
more than one meaning. CODING AND CONCEPT
FORMATION
Explanationsand Qualitative Data
Qualitativeresearchersoften use generalideas,
Qualitativeexplanationstakemanyforms.A qual- themes,or conceptsasanalytictools for making
doesnot haveto choosebetween
itativeresearcher generalizations.Qualitativeanalysisoften uses
a rigid idiographic/nomotheticdichotomy- nonvariableconceptsor simple nominal-level
that is, betweendescribingspecificsand veriff- variables.
ing universallaws.Instead,a researcherdevelops
explanationsor generalizationsthat are close
Conceptualization
to concretedata and contexts but are more
than simpledescriptions.He or sheusuallyuses Quantitativeresearchers conceptualizeand re-
a lower-level, less abstract theory, which is fine variablesin a processthat comesbeforedata
groundedin concretedetails.He or she may collectionor analysis.By contrast,qualitativere-
330 pART THRE E / c oNDUc r lNG Q UALI TATIv ER E S E A R c H
searchers form new conceptsor refine concepts suresofvariables,which arein the form of num-
that are groundedin the data.Conceptforma- bers,into a machine-readable form for statistical
tion is integralto dataanalysisandbeginsduring analysis.
datacollection.Conceptualization is how a qual- Coding data has a different meaning in
itative researcher organizes and makes senseof qualitativeresearch. A researcher codesby orga-
the data. nizing the raw data into conceptualcategories
A qualitativeresearcherorganizesdatainto and createsthemesor concepts.Insteadof a sim-
categorieson the basisof themes,concepts,or ple clericaltask,codingis an integralpart ofdata
similar features.He or she developsnew con- analysisguidedby the researchquestion.Coding
cepts,formulatesconceptualdefinitions,and ex- encourages higherJevelthinking aboutthe data
amines the relationships among concepts. and movesa researcher toward theoricalgener-
Eventually, he or she links conceptsto each alizations.
otherin termsof a sequence, asoppositionalsets Coding is two simultaneousactivities:me-
(X is the oppositeof I) or assetsof similar cate- chanicaldata reduction and analyticdatac4te-
goriesthat he or sheinterweaves into theoretical gorization.Coding data is the hard work of
statements.Qualitative researchers conceptual- reducingmountains of raw data into manage-
ize or form concepts as they read through and ablepiles.In addition to making a largemassof
askcritical questions of data (e.g., field notes, datamanageable, it is how a researcher imposes
historical documents,secondarysources,etc.)' order on the data. Coding also allows a re-
The questionscan come from the abstractvo- searcherto quickly retrieverelevantpartsofthe
cabularyof a disciplinesuch as sociology-for data.Betweenthe momentsof thrill andinspira-
example:Is this a caseof classconflict?Wasrole tion, codingqualitativedata,or filework,canbe
conflict presentin that situation?Is this a social wearisomeand tedious.
movement?Questionscan alsobe logical-for
example:Whatwasthe sequence of events? How Open Coiling, Opencodingis performeddur-.
doesthe way it happened here compare to over ing a first passthrough recentlycollecteddata.
there?Are thesethe same or different, general or The researcher locatesthemesand assignsinitial
specificcases? Researchers often conceptualize as codesor labelsin a first attemptto condensethe
they codequalitativedata. massof data into categories.He or she slowly
In qualitativedata analysis,ideasand evi- readsfield notes,historical sources,or other
dencearemutually interdependent. This applies data, looking for critical terms, key events,or
particularlyto casestudy analysis. Cases arenot themes,which are then noted. Next, he or she
givenpreestablished empirical units or theoreti- writesa preliminaryconceptor labelat the edge
calcategories apartfrom data;theyaredefinedby of a notecardor computerrecordandhighlights
data and theory. By analyzingasituation, the re- it with brightly colored ink or in somesimilar
searcherorganizesdataand appliesideassimul- way. The researcheris open to creating new
taneouslyto createor specifra case.Making or themesand to changingtheseinitial codesin
creatinga case,calledcasingbringsthe dataand subsequentanalysis.A theoretical framework
theory together.Determiningwhat to treat as a helpsif it is usedin a flexiblemanner.
caseresolves a tensionor strainbetweenwhatthe Open coding brings themesto the surface
researcher observes and his or her ideasaboutit. from deepinsidethe data.The themesareat a
low level of abstractionand comefrom the re-
searcher'sinitial researchquestion,conceptsin
Coding Qualitative Data the literature,termsusedby membersin the so-
codesafterall the data
A quantitativeresearcher cial setting,or new thoughtsstimulatedby im-
havebeen collected.He or shearrangesmea- mersionin the data.
c H A p rER1i ,/ A N A LystsoF euA Ll rA TtvED A TA 331
DataNotes
t---.=.-.-.-.-. 7
- -
-.-.-
Organization of Codes
files, and often have many files with different good-qualityanalyticmemos can becomesec-
kinds of notes:a file on methodologicalissues tions of the final report.
(e.g.,locationsofsourcesor ethicalissues), a file The technologyinvolvedin writing analytic
of maps or diagrams,a file on possibleoverall memosis simple:pen and paper,a few note-
outlinesofa final report or chapter,a file on spe- books,computerfiles,and photocopiesof notes.
cific peopleor events,and so on. There are many ways to write analytic memos;
The analyticmemois a specialtype of note. eachresearcherdevelopshis or her own styleor
It is a memo or discussionof thoughtsand ideas method.Someresearchers makemultiple copies
aboutthe codingprocessthat a researcher writes ofnotes,then cut them and placeselectionsinto
to himselfor herself.Eachcodedthemeor con- an analyticmemo file. This workswell if the data
ceptforms the basisof a separatememo,and the files are large and the analyticmemosare kept
memo containsa discussionof the conceptor distinctwithin the file (e.g.,on different-colored
theme.The rough theoreticalnotesform the be- paper or placedat the beginning).Other re-
ginning of analyticmemos. searchers link the analyticmemo file locationsto
The analytic memo forgesa link between the datanoteswherea themeappears.Then it is
the concretedataor raw eyidenceand more ab- easyto movebetweenthe analyticmemo and the
stract,theoreticalthinking (seeFigure13.2).It data.Because datanotescontainlinks or marked
containsa researcher's reflectionson and think- themes,it is easytolocatespecificsectionsin the
ing about the data and coding. The researcher data.An intermediatestrategyis to keepa run-
addsto the memo and usesit ashe or shepasses ning list of locationswhere a major theme ap-
through the datawith eachtype of coding.The pearsin the raw data.
memosform the basisfor analyzingdatain the As a researcherreviewsand modifies aner-
researchreport. In fact,rewritten sectionsfrom lytic memos,he or shediscusses ideaswith col-
i
t:l
rl
ii
r!
lll-
Data
Notes i i-
i.
Analytic
Memos
Other
Files i-
Filed by Concept
orTheme Filed by Purpose
Organized by Date
or DataSource
Final
Report r
CHAPTE R1 3 , / A N A L Y S I SO F Q U A L I T A T I V ED A T A 335
leagues,
and returnsto the literaturewith a focus Some argue that the narrative approach is a
on newissues.Analyticmemosmayhelpto gen- presentation of data without analysis.There can
eratepotential hypotheses, which can be added be analysis in a narrative, but it is ..light,' and
and dropped as needed,and to developnew subtle. In the narrative method, a reseaicher ur_
themesor codingsystems. semblesthe data into a descriptive picture or ac_
count ofwhat occurred, but he or she larselv
leavesthe data to "speak for themselves." H! oi
ANA LY T I C S T R AT E GIES F OR she interjects little in the form of new systematic
Q UA LI T A T I V E D AT A concepts, external theories, or abstraci models.
The explanation residesnot in abstract concepts
Techniques of coding and memo writing are ap- and theories, but in a combination of specific,
proachesto the analysisof qualitative data. Most concrete details. The researcher presents or re_
qualitative researchers use these techniques to veals the social reality as members in a field set_
some degree, often combined with a more spe- ting experience it, or the worldview of specific
cific strategy for the analysis ofqualitative dita. historical actors at a particular point in time. By
In this section you will learn about four strate- using little commentary a researcher tries to
gies researchersuse to analyzequalitative data: convey an authentic feel for life's complexity as
the narrative, ideal types, successiveapproxima- experienced by particular people in specific cir-
tion, and the illustrative method. cumstances,and does not derive abstract princi_
Compared to the analysis of quantitative ples or identifr generalizableanalytic patterns.
data, strategiesfor qualitative data are more di- In the narrative, data are"analyzed,, or..ex_
verse, less standardized, and less explicitly out- plained" in the terminology and concepts of the
lined by researchers.Only in the past decade people being studied. The analysis appears in
have researchersstarted to explain and outline how a researcherorganizes the data f- p..r..r_
exactly how they analyze qualitative data. tation and tells the story. It appears in a greater
In general, data analysismeans a search for attention to particular people, events, oi fuctr,
patterns in data-recurrent behaviors, objects, and it relies on literary devices-the creative se-
or a body of knowledge. Once a pattern is iden- lection of particular words to tell a story. de_
tified, it is interpreted in terms of a social theory scribe a setting, show character development,
or the setting in which it occurred. The qualita- and present dramatic emphasis, intrigue, or
tive researchermoves from the description of a suspense.
historical event or social setting to a more gen- Researchersdebate the usefulness of the
eral interpretation of its meaning. narrative strategy. On the one hand, it provides
rich concrete detail and clearly demonstiates the
The Narrative temporal ordering of processes or specific
events. It captures a high degree of complexity
You encountered the narrative in the last chap- and.conveysa nuanced understanding ofho*
ter on historical-comparative research. In field particular events or factors mutually affect each
research, it is also called a natural history or other. The narrative allows the researcherto as-
realist tale approach. The narrative is a laigely semble very specific concrete details (i.e., the
atheoretical description. The researcher-author names, actions, andwords of specific people and
"disappears" from the analysis and presents the the detailed descriptions of particulai evints at
concrete details in chronological order as ifthey specific times) that may be idiosyncratic but that
were the product of a unique and "naturally un- contribute to a complete explanation. On the
folding" sequenceof events.He or she simply other hand, manyresearchers criticize the narra-
"tells a story" of what occurred. tive approach for being too complex, particular,
336 pA RTT HR E E/ c o N D U c l N G e u A L trATtvER E S E A R cH
CheckTemp.of Oven
of ways people understand the world. For exam- of qualitative analysis. In addition to tax-
ple (Canter et al., 1985:90),a gambler sorts a list onomies,maps,and lists,they suggested the use
of eight gambling establishments five times. of flowcharts,organizationalcharts,causaldia-
Each sort has three to four categories.One of the grams,and various lists and grids to illustrate
sorts organized them based on "class ofcasino" analysis(seeFigure13.4).
(high to low). Other sortswere basedon "frills,"
"size of stake," "make me money," and "per-
sonal preference." By examining the sorts, the
researcherseeshow others organize their worlds.
S O F T WA RE
F O RQ UA L I T A T I V E
DA T A
ti
ri
:t))11)),i::::::)t))::l
with highly detailed and program-specific user rowboat, schooner, vessel,yacht, steamer, ocean
manuals. The reviewhere does not go into detail liner, tug, canoe, skffi cutter, aircraft carrier,
about specific software. It covers only the major dinghy, scow, galley, ark, cruiser, destroyer, flag-
approachesto qualitative data analysis at this ship, and submarine. In addition, some pro-
time. grams permit the combination of words or
Some programs perform searchesof text phasesusing logical terms (and, or, not) in rvhat
documents. What they do is similar to the are called Boolean searches.For example, a re-
searching function available in most word-pro- searchermay searchlong documents for rvhen
cessingsoftware. The specializedtext retrieval the keywords collegestudent and drinking and
programs are faster and have the capability of smokingoccur within four sentencesof one an-
finding close matches, slight misspellings, simi- other, but only when the word fraterniq' is not
lar-sounding words, and synonyrns. For exam- presentin the block oftext. This Boolean search
ple, when a researcherlooks for the keyword uses and to seek the intersection of collegestu-
boat, the program might also tell whether any of dent with either of two behaviors that are con-
the following appeared: ship, battleship,frigate, nected by the logical terr.rror, n'hereasthe logical
3 42 pA RTT HR E E,/ c o N D U c l N C e u AL l rATtvER E sE A R cH
&
A
searchword rof excludessituations in which the branches, and twigs) among the codes, and
I
term fr aternity appears. among the data to which the codes refer. The
Most programs show the keyword or phrase qualitative data are rearranged in the program
and the surrounding text. The programs may basedon the researcher'scodesand the relations
also permit a researcherto write separatememos among codesthat a researcherspecifies.
or add short notes to the text. Some programs
count the keywords found and give their loca-
tion. Most programs create a very specific index
for the text, based only on the terms of interest
c o Nc t u s t o N
to the researcher. In this chapter, you have learned how re-
Textbase managers are similar to text re- searchers analyze qualitative data. In many re-
trieval programs. The key difference is their abil- spects,qualitative data aremore difficult to deal
ity to organize or sort information about search with than data in the form of numbers. Num-
results. They allow researchersto sort notes by a bers have mathematical properties that let a re-
key idea or to add factual information. For ex- searcheruse statistical procedures. Qualitative
ample, when the data are detailed notes on inter- analysisrequires more effort by an individual re-
views, a researcher can add information about searcherto read and reread data notes, reflect on
the date and length ofthe interview, gender of in- what is read, and make comparisons based on
terviewee, location of interview, and so on. The logic and judgment.
researchercan then sort and organizeeach inter- Most forms of qualitative data analysis in-
view or part of the interview notes using a com- volve coding and writing analltic memos. Both
bination of keywords and added information. are labor-intensive efforts by the researcher to
In addition, some programs have Hpertext read over data carefully and think about them
capability. Hypertext is a way of linking terms to seriously. In addition, you learned about meth-
other information. It works such that clicking ods that researchershave used for the analysisof
the mouse on one term causesa new screen(one qualitative data. They are a sample of the many
that has related information) to appear.The re- methods of qualitative data analysis.You also
searchercan identifykeywords or topics and link learned about the importance of thinking about
them together in the text. For example, a field negative evidenceand events that are not pre-
researcherwants to examine the person Susan sent in the data.
and the topic of hair (including haircuts, hair- This chapterendsthe sectionofthe book on
styles,hair coloring, and hats or hair covering). researchdesign, data collection, and dataanaly-
The researchercan use Hypertext to connect all sis. Social researchalso involves preparing re-
places Susan'sname appears to discussionsof ports on a researchproject, which is addressedin
hair. By the mouse clicking on Susan'sname, the next chapter.
one block of text quickly jumps to another in the
notes to seeall placeswhere Susan and the hair
topic appeartogether. Key Ter m s
Code-and-retrieve programs allow a re-
searcherto attach codesto lines, sentences,para- axial coding
graphs, or blocks of text. The programs may emptyboxes
permit multiple codes for the same data. In ad- illustrative method
dition to attaching codes,most programs also al- narrative history
low the researcherto organize the codes. For open coding
example, a program can help a researchermake selectivecoding
outlines or "trees" of connections (e.g.,trunks, successiveapproximation
Writing the Research
Report
Introduction
The Research Report
Why Write a Report?
The Writing Process
Stepsin Writing
The QuantitativeResearchReport
The QualitativeResearchReport
The Researchproposal
Conclusion
343
344 PART FOU R / W RI TI NG A RESEARCHRE P O R T
FIcU RE I 4. 1 F or m o fOu tl i n e
l. Firstmaiortopic One of the mostimPortant
A. Subtopicof topic I Secondlevelof imPortance
1 . Subtopicof A Thirdlevelof importance
a. SubtoPic of 1 Fourthlevelof imPortance
"l
b. SubtoPicof
(1) SubtoPic of b Fifthlevelof importance
(2) SubtoPic of b
(a) SubtoPicof (2) Sixthlevelof imPortance
(b) SubtoPicof (2)
i. Subtopicof (b) Seventhlevelof imPortance
ii. Subtopicof (b)
2. Subtopicof A Third levelof imPortance
B. Subtopicof toPicI Secondlevelof imPortance
ll. SecondmaiortoPic One of the mostimPortant
researchersfinish
third); (2) group relatedideastogether(e.g., Back to the Library. Few
their literature review before completing a re-
theseare similar to eachother but they differ
researcher shouldbe familiar
from those);and (3) separatethe more general' searchproject.The
beginning a project,
or higher-level,ideasfrom more specificideas, with the literature before
but will need to return to the literature after
and the specificideasfrom very specificdetails.
completingdatacollection and analysis, for sev-
Somestudentsfeel that they need a com-
eral reasons.First, time has passed between the
plete outline before writing, and that once an
beginningand the end ofa research project, and
outline is prepared,deviationsfrom it are im-
possible.Few writers begin with a complete out- nei studiesmay havebeenpublished'Second,
iine. The initial outline is sketchybecauseuntil after completinga researchproject,a researche
you write everythingdown, it is impossibleto will know better what is or is not centralto the
put all ideasin a sequence' group them together, study and may have new questions in mind
or separatethe generalfrom the specific.For when rereadingstudiesin the literature.Finally,
may find
most writers, new ideas develop or become when writing the report' researchers
that notesarenot complete enough or a detailis
clearerin the processof writing itself.
missingin the citation of a reference source (see
A beginningoutline may differ from the fi-
library after data col-
nal outline by more than degreeof complete- Box t+.t). The visit to the
more selective or fo-
ness.The processof writing may not only reveal lectionis lessextensiveand
cusedthan that conducted at the beginning of
or clarifr ideasfor thewriter but it will alsostim-
ulatenew ideas,new connectionsbetweenideas, research.
a different sequence,or new relationsbetween When writing a researchreport, researcher
the generaland the specific.In addition, the frequentlydiscardsomeof the notesand sources
processof writing may stimulatereanalysisor a thai were gatheredprior to completingthe re-
ieexaminationof the literatureor findings.This searchproject.This doesnot meanthat the ini-
review were a
doesnot meanbeginningall over again.Rather, tial library work and literature
expectthat
it meanskeepingan open mind to new insights wasteof time and effort.Researchers
someof the notes(e.g.,25 percent) taken before
and beingcandidaboutthe researchproject.
CHAPT E R1 4 , / WR I T I N G T H E R E S E A R C HR E P O R T
347
Thereis no fixed organizationfor a field re- setting,the meansof gainingaccess, the role of
searchreport, althougha literaturereyiewoften the researcher,and the subject-researcher rela-
appearsnearthe beginning.Therearemany ac- tionship into the discussionof evidenceand
ceptableorganizationalforms. Lofland (1976) analysis.This is intensifiedif the writer adopts
suggeststhe following: what Van Maanen(1988:73)calleda "confes-
sional"styleof writing.
1. Introduction A chronological,zoomlens,or theme-based
a. Most generalaspectsof situation organizationallowsplacing the data collection
b. Main contoursof the generalsituation methodnearthe beginningor the end.In book-
c. How materialswerecollected lengthreports,methodologicalissuesareusually
d. Detailsaboutthe setting discussed in a separateappendix.
e. How the report is organized Fieldresearchreportscancontaintranscrip-
2. The situation tions of taperecordings,maps,photographs,or
a. Analyticcategories chartsillustratinganalyticcategories. They sup-
b. Contrastbetweensituationand othersit- plementthe discussionand are placednear the
uations discussionthey complement.Qualitative field
c. Developmentof situationovertime researchcan use creative formats that differ
3. Strategies from the usualwritten text with examplesfrom
4. Summaryand implications field notes.Harper's(1982)book containsmany
photographswith text. The photographsgive a
Devicesfor organizingevidenceand analysis visual inventory of the settingsdescribedin the
alsovary a greatdeal.For example,writers can text and presentthe meaningsof settingsin the
organizethe report in termsof a naturalhistory, termsof thosebeingstudied.For example,field
an unfolding of eventsasyou discoveredthem, researcharticleshaveappearedin the form ofall
or asa chronologl/, following the developmental photographs,a script for aplay, or a documen-
cycleor careerofan aspectofthe settingor peo- taryfilm.3
ple in it. Anotherpossibilityis to organizethe re- Direct, personal involvement in the inti-
port asa zoomlens,beginningbroadlyand then mate detailsof a socialsettingheightensethical
focusing increasingly narrowly on a specific concerns.Researchers write in a manner that
topic. Statementscan move from universal protectsthe privacyof thosebeing studiedand
statementsabout all cultures,to generalstate- helpspreventthe publication of a report from
ments about a specificcultures,to statements harming thosewho were studied.They usually
about a specificcultural scene,to specificstate- changethe namesof membersand exactloca-
ments about an aspectof culture, to specific tions in field reports.Personalinvolvementin
statementsabout specificincidents. field researchleadsresearchers to includea short
Field researchersalso organizereports by autobiography.For example,in the appendixto
themes.A writer choosesbetweenusingabstract StreetCornerSociety,the author,William Foote
analyticthemesand usingthemesfrom the cate- Whyte (1955),gavea detailedaccountofthe oc-
goriesusedby the peoplewho werestudied.The cupationsofhis fatherand grandfather,his hob-
latter givesreadersa vivid descriptionofthe set- bies and interests,the jobs he held, how he
ting and displaysknowledgeof the language, endedup goingto graduateschool,and how his
concepts,categories,and beliefsof thosebeino researchwasaffectedby his gettingmarried.
wdtre; about.T
Field researchers discussthe methodsused Historical-ComparativeResearch, Thereis no
in the report,but its locationandform vary.One singleway to write a report on historical-com-
techniqueis to interweavea descriptionof the parativeresearch.Most frequently,researchers
CHAPT E RI 4 , / WR I T I N C T H E R E S E A R C HR E P O R T 355
s. Historica|-comparativeresearchersof-
1 O. Synthesi shiftingpopularbeliefsand problemswith gov-
ten synthesize manyspecificeventsand details ernmentfinancesinto a compact,coherentex-
into a comprehensive whole.Synthesisresults planation.Researchers usingthe narrativeform
fromweavingtogethermanysmallergeneraliza- summarize the argumentin an introductionor
tions and interpretations into coherentmain conclusion.lt is a motif or themeembedded
themes.Forexample,a researcher studyingthe withinthe description.Thus,theoreticalgener-
FrenchRevolutionsynthesizes specificgeneral- alizationsareintertwinedwith the evidenceand
izationsaboutchangesin socialstructure,inter- appearto flow inductivelyout of the detailed
national pressures,agriculturaldislocation, evidence.
going to be in chargeof the project. The re- detailson how funds were spent,the findings,
searcherin chargeof a researchproject is the and an evaluationof whetherthe projectmet its
principal investigator(PI) or project director. objectives.Failure to spend funds properly,
Proposalsusuallyinclude a curriculum vitae or completethe project describedin the proposal,
academicresum6,lettersof support from other or file a final report may result in a researcher
researchers, and a record of past research.Re- being barred from receivingfuture funding or
viewersfeel safer investing funds in a project facing legal action. A seriousmisuseof funds
headedby someonewho alreadyhasresearchex- may resultin the banning of othersat the same
periencethan in a novice.One canbuild a track institution from receivingfuture funding.
recordwith smallresearchprojectsor by assist- The processof reviewingproposalsafter
ing an experiencedresearcherbefore seeking they are submitted to a funding sourcetakes
funding asa principal investigator. anywherefrom a fewweeksto almostayeat, de-
The reviewers who evaluate a proposal pending on the funding source.In most cases,
judgewhetherthe proposalproject is appropri- reviewersrank a large group ofproposals, and
ateto the funding source'sgoals.Most funding only highly rankedproposalsreceivefunding.A
sourceshaveguidelinesstatingthe kinds of pro- proposaloften undergoesa peerreviewin which
jectstheyfund. For example,programsthat fund the reviewersknow the proposerfrom the vitae
basicresearchhavethe advancementof knowl- in the proposal,but the proposerdoesnot know
edgeas a goal. Programsthat fund applied re- the reviewers.Sometimesa proposalis reviewed
searchoften haveimprovements in the delivery by nonspecialists or nonresearchers. Instruc-
of servicesas a goal. Instructions specifr page tions on preparinga proposalindicatewhether
length,numberof copies,deadlines, andthe like. to write for specialistsin a field or for an edu-
Follow all instructionsexactly. catedgeneralaudience.
Proposalsshould be neat and professional If a proposalis funded, celebrate,but only
looking. The instructions usually ask for a de- for a shorttime. If theproposalis rejected,which
tailedplan for the useof time, services,and per- is more likely, do not despair.Most proposals
sonnel. These should be clearly stated and arerejectedthe first or secondtime they aresub-
realisticfor the project.Excessivelyhigh or low mitted. Many funding sourcesprovide written
estimates,unnecessary add-ons,or omitted es- reviewerevaluationsof the proposal.Alwaysre-
sentialswill lower how reviewersevaluatea pro- questthem if they are provided. Sometimes,a
posal.Creatinga budgetfor a proposedproject courteoustalk on the telephonewith a personat
is complicatedand usuallyrequirestechnicalas- the funding sourcewill revealthe reasonsfor re-
sistance.For example,pay rates,fringe bene{it jection. Strengthenand resubmit a proposalon
rates,and soon that must be chargedmay not be the basis of the reviewer'scomments.Most
easytoobtain. It is bestto consulta grantsoffi- funding sourcesacceptrepeatedresubmissions
cer at a college or an experiencedproposal of revisedproposals,and proposalsthat have
writer. In addition, endorsements or clearances been revisedmay be strongerin subsequent
of regulationsare often necessary (e.g.,IRB ap- competitions.
proval). Proposalsshould also include specific If a proposalhasbeensubmittedto an ap-
plans for disseminatingresults(e.g.,publica- propriatefunding sourceand all instructionsare
tions, presentationsbeforeprofessionalgroups, followed,reviewersaremorelikelyto rateit high
etc.)and a plan for evaluatingwhetherthe pro- when:
ject met its objectives.
The proposalis a kind of contractbetween r It addressesan important researchquestion.
researcherand the funding source.Funding It buildson prior knowledgeand represents
agenciesoften require a final report, including a substantialadvanceofknowledgefor basic
REPORT
CHAPTER1 4 , / WR I T I N G T H E R E S E A R C H 359
CONCLUSION Endnotes
Clearlycommunicatingresultsis a vital part of
the larger scientificenterprise,as are the ethics
I
t. is discussedin Lofland
The error of segregation
andLofland(1984:146).
and politicsofsocial research.
2. SeeVan Maanen(1988:13).
I want to end this chapterby urgingyou, as (1989),Dabbs(1982),
3. SeeBeckerand associates
a consumerof socialresearchor a new socialre- and Iackson (1978).
Followingthe definition, the number in parentheses question and that has a direct, practical appli-
indicatesthe chapterin which the term first appears cation.(1)
in the text and is in the KeyTerms section.Italicized Association A co-occurrenceof two events,fac-
terms refer to terms defined elsewherein this glos- tors, characteristics,or activities, such that
sary. when one happens,the other is likely to occur
Abstract A term with two meanings in literature aswell. Many statisticsmeasurethis. (2)
reviews:a short summaryof a scholarlyjournal Assumption Parts of social theories that are not
articlethat usuallyappearsat its beginning,and tested,but act asstartingpoints or basicbeliefs
a referencetool for locating scholarlyjournal about the world. They are necessaryto make
articles.(4) other theoreticalstatementsand to build social
Accretion measures Nonreactivemeasuresof the theory. (2)
residueof the activity of people or what they Attitude of strangeness A technique in field re-
leavebehind. (9) searchin which researchersstudy a field siteby
Action research study A tFpe of applied social re- mentally adjustingto "see" it for the first time
searchin which a researchertreats knowledge or asan outsider.( I 1)
as a form of power and abolishesthe division
Attributes The categoriesor levelsof a yariable.
betweencreatingknowledgeand using knowl- (4)
edgeto engagein political action. ( I )
Axial coding A secondcoding of qualitatite data
Alternative hypothesis Afuipothesispaired with a
afteropencoding.Theresearcherorganizesthe
vari-
statingthat the independent
null hypothesi.s
codes,developslinks among them, and discov-
ablehasan effectonadependentvaiable.(4)
erskey analyticcategories.( 13)
Ana\tic memo The written notesa qualitativere-
Back translation A technique in comparativere-
searchertakesduring datacollectionand after-
searchfor checking lexiconequivalence. A rc-
wards to develop concepts, themes, or
searchertranslatesspokenor written text from
preliminary generalizations.( 1I )
an original languageinto a secondlanguage,
Anonymity Researchparticipantsremain anony- then translatesthe sametext in the secondlan-
(3)
mousor nameless. guage back into the original language,then
Appearance of interest A technique in field re- comparesthe two original languagetexts. (12)
searchin which researchersmaintain relations Bar chart A display of quantitative data for one
in afield siteby pretendingto be interestedand variablein the form of rectangleswherelonger
excitedby the activitiesofthose studied, even rectanglesindicatemore casesin a variablecat-
though they are actually uninterestedor very egory. Usually, it is usedwith discretedata and
bored.(11) there is a small spacebetweenrectangles.They
Applied research Researchthat attemptsto solvea can have a horizonal or vertical orientation.
concrete problem or address a specificpolicy Also calledbar graphs.(10)
362 clossARy
Bogardussocial distancescale A scalethat mea- Code sheets Paperwith a printed grid on which a
suresthe distancebefiveentwo or more social researcherrecordsinformation so that it canbe
{
groups by having members of one group ex- easilyenteredinto a computer. It is an alterna-
pressthe point at which they feel comfortable tive to direct-entrymethodand using optical-
scansheets.(10)
with varioustypesofsocial interactionor close-
nesswith membersof the other group(s). (5) Codebook A document that describesthe proce-
x
Casestudy Research,usually qualitative, on one dure for codingvariablesand their location in a
or a small number of casesin which a re- format for computers.(10)
searchercarefiJly examinesa large number of Coding The processof converting raw informa-
detailsabout eachcase.( 1) tion or data into another form for analysis.In
Causal explanation A statementin social theory contentanalysis,it is a meansfor determining
about why events occur that is expressedin how to convert syrnbolicmeaningsin text into
terms of causesand effects.They correspondto anotherform, usuallynumbers(seeCodingsys-
associationsin the empiricalworld. (2) tem);in quantitathtedafa analysis,it is a means
for assigningnumbers; and in qualitativedata
Cell of a table A part of the body of a table.ln a analysis,it is a seriesof stepsfor reading raw
contingencytable,it showsthe distribution of notesand assigningcodesor conceptualterms
casesinto categoriesof variablesas a specific (seeAxial coding Opencoding,Seleaivecoding).
number or percentage.( 10) (9)
Central limit theorem A lawlike mathematicalre- Coding system A set ofinstructions or rules used
lationship that states:Whenevermany random in contentanalysisto explainhow to systemati-
samplesare drawn from a population and plot- cally convert the symbolic content from text
ted, a normal distributionis formed, and the into quantitativedata. (9)
centerof such a distribution for a variableis
equalto its populationparameter.(6) Cohort study A type of longitudinal researchin
which a researcherfocuseson a categoryof
Citation Detailsof a scholarlyjournal article'slo- peoplewho sharea similar life experiencein a
cation that helpspeoplefind it quickly. (4) specifiedtime period.(1)
Classicalexperimentaldesign An experimentalde- Computer-assistedtelephoneinterviewing (CATI)
sign that has random assignment,a control Surveyresearchin which the interviewersitsbe-
group, an experimentalgroup, and pretestsand fore a computer screenand keyboardand uses
posttests
for eachgroup. (8) the computer to read questionsthat are asked
cLossARY 363
Empirical evidence The observationsthat people Evaluation researchstudy A tfpe of applied re-
experiencethrough their senses-touch, sight, searchinwhichone tries to determinehowwell
hearing,smell,and taste;thesecan be direct or a program or poliry is working or reachingits
indirect.(1) goalsand objectives.(1)
Experimental group The group that receivesthe Field research A ffpe of qualitative researchin
(8)
treatmentin experimentalresearch. which a researcherdirectly observesthe people
Experimental research Researchin which one in- being studied in a natural setting for an ex-
tendedperiod. Often, the researchercombines
tervenesor does somethingto one group of
people but not to another, then comparesre- intenseobservingwith participationin the peo-
ple'ssocialactivities.( I )
sultsfor the two groups.( I )
Explanation pattern A pattern in the elaboration Field site The one or more natural locationswhere
(l l)
a researchercondtctsfield research.
paradigm in which the bivariate contingency
table showsa relationship, but thepartials show First-orderinterpretation In qualitativeresearch,
no relationshipand the controlvariableoccttrs what the peoplewho arebeing studiedactually
prior to the independentvaiabla (10) feel and think. (4)
Explanatory research Researchthat focuseson Floaters Respondentswho lack a belief or opin-
why eventsoccur or tries to testand build social ion, but who grvean answeranyway if askedin
theory.(1) a surveyresearchquestion.Often, their answers
Exploratory research Researchinto an area that are inconsistent.(7)
hasnot beenstudiedand in which a researcher Focusgroups A tJpe of group interview in which
wants to develop initial ideasand a more fo- an interviewerasksquestionsto the group, and
cusedresearchquestion.(1) answersare givenin an open discussionamong
External consistenry A way to achievereliabikty of the groupmembers.(11)
data in field researchin which the researcher Frequenry distribution A table that showsthe dis-
cross-checksand verifies qualitative data :using tribution of casesinto the categoriesof one
multiple sourcesof information. (11) variable(i.e.,the number or percentof casesin
External criticism In historical research,a way to eachcategory).(10)
checkthe authenticityof primary sourcesbyac- Frequencypolygon A graph of connectedpoints
curatelylocating the place and time of its cre- showingthe distribution of how many casesfall
ation (e.g.,it is not a forgery).(12) into each categoryof a variable.(10)
External validity The ability to generalizefrom Full-filter question A.typeof sun eyresearchques-
experimentalresearchto settingsor peoplethat tion in which respondents are first asked
differ from the specific conditions of the study. whether they have an opinion or know about a
(s) topic, then only the respondentswith an opin-
Facevalidity A tFpe of measurementvalidity in ion or knowledgeare askeda specificquestion
which an indicator "makessense"asa measure onthetopic.(7)
of a construct in the judgment of others,espe- Functionaltheory A type of socialtheorybasedon
cially thosein the scientificcommunity. (5) biological analogies,in which the socialworld
Factorialdesign Atype of experimentaldesignthat or its parts are seenas systems,with its parts
considers the impact of several independent servingthe needsof the system.(2)
variablessimultaneously.( 8) Funnel sequence A way to order surveyresearch
Fallacyof misplacedconcreteness When a person questionsin a questionnairefrom generalones
usestoo many digits in a quantitativemeasure to specific.(7)
in an attempt to createthe impressionthat the Galton's problem In comparative research,the
data are accurateor the researcheris highly ca- problem of finding correlationsor associations
pable.(9) among variablesor characteristicsin multiple
Field experiment Experimentalresearchthat takes casesor units, when the characteristicsare ac-
placein a natural setting.(8) tually diffused from a singleunit or havea com-
mon origin. Thus, a researchercannot really Historical-comparative research Research in
treat the multiple units (e.g.,countries,cul- which one examinesdifferent culturesor peri-
tures,etc.) asbeing wholly separate.(12) ods to better understandthe socialworld. ( 1)
GeneralSocialSurvey(GSS) Asuwey of arandom History effects A threat to internal validity dueto
sampleof about 1,500U.S.adultsthat hasbeen somethingthat occursand affectsthedependen
conductedin most yearsbetween1972andthe variableduring an experiment,but which is un-
presentand is availablefor many researchers
to planned and outsidethe control ofthe experi-
analyze.(9) menter.(8)
Go native What happens when a researcherin
Human Relations Area Files (HRAF) An exten-
field researchgets overly involved and loses all sive catalog and comprehensivecollection of
distance or objectivity and becomeslike the
ethnographies on many cultures(mostly prelit-
peoplebeingstudied.(l 1)
erate) that permits a researcherto compare
Grantsmanship The strategiesand skills of locat- acrosscultural units. (12)
ing appropriatefunding sourcesand preparing
Hlpothesis The statementfrom a causalexplnna-
high-quality proposalsfor researchfundino
( 14) tion or a propositionthat has at least one
independentand one dEendent variable,but it
Grounded theory Socialtheory that is rooted in hasyet to be empiricallytested.(4)
observationsofspecific, concretedetails.(2)
Idealtype Apuremodelaboutanidea,process, or
Guilty knowledge When a researchern field re- event. One developsit to think about it more
searchlearns of illegal, unethical, or immoral clearly and systematically.It is used both as a
actionsby the peoplein thefield sitethat is not method of 4zalitativedata analysisand in soclal
widelyknown.(11) theorybutlding.(2)
Guttman scaling A scalethat researchers useafter
Idiographic An approachthat focuseson creating
dataarecollectedto revealwhethera hierarchi-
detaileddescriptionsofspecific eventsin par-
cal pattern existsamong responses,such that
ticular time periods and settings.It rarely goes
people who give responsesat a "higher level"
beyondempiricalgeneralizations to abstractso-
alsotend to give "lowerJevel" ones.(5)
cial theory or causallaws.(2)
Halo effect An error often madewhen peopleuse
personalexperienceasan alternativeto science Illustrative method A method of qualitativedata
for acquiring knowledge.It is when a person analysisin which a researchertakes the con-
overgeneralizes ceptsof a socialtheoryor explanationand treats
fiom what he or sheacceptsas
being highly positiveor prestigiousand lets its them as emptyboxesto be filled w.irthempirical
strong reputation or prestige "rub off' onto examplesand descriptions.(13)
otherareas.(1) Independence The absenceofa sfatisticalrelation-
Haphazard sampling A type of nonrandomsam- shlpbetweentwo variables(i.e.,when knowing
ple in which the researcherselectsanyonehe or the valueson one variable provides no infor-
shehappensto come across.(6) mation about the valuesthat will be found on
anothervariable).There is no associationbe-
Hawthorne effect An effect of reactivity named af-
tweenthem. (10)
ter a famous casein which subjectsreactedto
the fact that they were in an experimentmore Independentvariable The first variablethat causes
than they reactedto the treatment.(8) or producesthe effect in a causalexplanation.
(4)
Hidden populations Peoplewho engagein clan-
destine, deviant, or concealedactivities and Index The summing or combining of many sepa-
who are difficult to locateand study. (6) rate measuresofa constructor variable.(5)
368 c Los s AR Y
interaction in small groups during a two- Nonreactive Measures in which people being
month period.(2) studiedareunawarethat they arein a study. (9)
Mode A measureof centraltendencyfor one vari- Normal distribution A "bell-shaped" frequency
able that indicatesthe most frequent or com- polgon for a distribution of cases,with a peak
mon score.(10) in the centerand identicalcurving slopeson ei-
Mortality Threatsto internal validity due to sub- ther side ofthe center.It is the distribution of
jectsfailing to participatethrough the entire ex- many naturally occurring phenomenaand is a
periment.(8) basisof much statisticaltheory. ( l0)
Multiple indicators Many proceduresor instru- Normalize social research Techniquesin field re-
mentsthat indicate,or provide evidenceof, the searchusedby researchersto make the people
presenceor level of a variable using empirical being studied feel more comfortable with the
evidence.Researchersuse the combination of researchprocessand to help them acceptthe
researcher'spresence. (11)
severaltogetherto measurea variable.(5)
Mutually exclusiveattributes The principle that Null hypothesis A hlpothesisthat saysthere is no
responsecategoriesin a scaleor other measure relationship or associationbetween two vari-
should be organizedso that a person's re- ables,or no effect.(4)
sponsesfit into only one category(i.e., cate- One-shot casestudy An experimentaldesignwith
goriesshould not overlap).(5) only an experimentalgroup and a posttest,no
Narrative history A type ofwriting about a histor- pretest.(8)
ical settingin which the writer attemptsto "tell Open coding A first coding of qualitativedata in
a story" by following chronologicalorder, de- which a researcherexaminesthe data to con-
scribing particular people and events,and fo- densethem into preliminary analyticcategories
cusingon many colorfi-rldetails.(13) or codesfor anallzing the data. ( I 3)
Naturalism The principle that researchers
should Open-ended question A tlpe of surveyresearch
examineeventsasthey occur in natural, every- questionin which respondentsare free to offer
day ongoing socialsettings.( 11) any answerthey wish to the question.(7)
Negativerelationship An associationbefiveentwo Operational definition The definition of a variable
variablessuchthat asvalueson one variablein- in terms of the specificactivitiesto measureor
crease,valueson the other variablefall or de- indicate itvnth empiricalevidence.(5)
crease.(2) Operationalization The processof moving from
Nominal-level measurement The lowest, least the conceptualdefinition of a constructto a set
preciselevelof measurement for which there is of specificactivitiesor measuresthat allow a re-
only a differencein type among the categories searcherto observe it empirically (i.e., its
ofavariable.(5) operationaldefinition).(5)
Nomothetic An approach basedon laws or one Oral history A tFpe of recollectionin which a re-
that operatesaccordingto a systemoflaws. (2) searcherinterviewsa person about the events,
Nonlinear researchpath Researchthat proceeds beliefs,or feelingsin the pastthat were directly
experienced. (12)
in a circular,back-and-forthmanner.It is more
characteristicof a qualitative than a quantita- Order effects An effect in surveyresearchin which
tive styleto socialresearch.(4) respondentshear some specificquestionsbe-
Nonrandom sample A type of samplein which the fore others,and the earlierquestionsaffecttheir
sampling elementsare selectedusing some- answersto later questions.(7)
thing other than a mathematically random Ordinal-level measurement A level of measure-
process.(6) ment thal identifies a difference among cate-
goriesofa variableand allowsthe categoriesto Plagiarism A type of unethicalbehavior in rriich
be rank ordered.(5) one usesthe writings or ideasof anotherwith-
Overgeneralization An error that people often out giving proper credit. It is "stealingidea:."
(3, 14)
makewhen using personalexperienceas an al-
ternativeto sciencefor acquiringknowledge.It Population The name for the largegeneralgroup
occurs when some evidencesupports a beliel of many casesfrom which a researcherdrans a
but a person falselyassumesthat it appliesto sampleandwhich is usuallystatedin theoretical
many other situations,too. ( 1) terms.(6)
Panel study A powerful tlpe of longitudinal re- Positive relationship An associationbetweentrr-o
searchin which a researcherobservesexactly variablessuch that as values on one increase,
the samepeople,group, or organizationacross valueson the other alsoincrease.(2)
multiple time points. ( 1)
Possiblecodecleaning Cleaningdatausinga com-
Paradigm A general organizing framework for puter in which the researcherlooks for re-
socialtheoryand empiricalresearch.It includes sponsesor answercategoriesthat cannot have
basic assumptions,major questions to be an- cases. ( l0)
swered,models of good researchpractice and
Posttest The measurementof the deDendent vari-
theory, and methodsfor finding the answersto
questions.(2) ablein experimentalresearchafter
the treatment.
(8)
Parameter A characteristicof the entirepopulation
Praxis An idea in critical socialsciencethat social
that is estimatedfrom a sample.(6)
theory and everydaypracticeinteract or work
Paraphrasing When a wdter restatesor rewords together,mutually aflbcting one another. This
the ideas of another person, giving proper interaction can promote socialchange.(2)
creditto the originalsource.(14)
Prediction A statement about something that is
Partially open question A tfpe of survey research likely to occur in the future. (2)
questionin which respondentsaregivena fixed
Predictive validity Measurementvalidity that re-
setof answersto choosefrom, but in addition,
an "other" categoryis offered so that they can lies on the occurrenceof a future event or be-
havior that is logically consistentto verift the
sPecifi'a different answer.(7)
indicatorofa construct.(5)
Partials ln contingencytablesfor three variables,
Preexperimentaldesigns Experimentaldaslgnsthat
tablesthat show the association betweenthe
lack randomassignment or use shortcutsand
independentand dependentvariablesfor each
categoryof a controlyariable.(10) aremuch weakerthan the classicalexperimental
design.They may be substituted in situations
Percentile A measureof dispersionfor one vari- where an experimentercannot use all the fea-
ablethat indicatesthe percentageofcasesat or turesof a classicalexperimentaldesign,but have
belowa scoreor point. (10) weakerinternalvalidity. (8)
Pie chart A display of numerical information on Prematureclosure An error that is often made
one variablethat divides a circle into fractions when using personalexperienceas an alterna-
by linesrepresenting the proportion ofcasesin tive to sciencefor acquiring knowledge.It oc-
the variable'samibutes.(10\ curs when a person feelshe or she has the
Placebo Afalsetreatmentor ole that hasno effect answersand doesnot needto iisten,seekinfor-
in an experiment. It is sometimescalled a mation,or raisequestionsanylonger.( 1)
"sugar pill" that a subjectmistakesfor a true Prestigebias A problem in surveyresearchques-
treatment.(8) tion writing that occurs when a highly re-
372 c Lo s s A R Y
attributescan be rank ordered,the distancebe- a seriesrather than thinking through their an-
tweenthe attributespreciselymeasured,and an swerto eachquestion.(7)
absolutezero exists.(5) Revising A stepin the writing processthat is part
Reactivity The generalthreat to externalvalidity of rewritingin which a writer addsideasor evi-
that arisesbecausesubjectsare awarethat they dence,and deletes,rearranges,or changesideas
arein an experimentand being studied.(8) to improve clarity and better communicate
meaning.(14)
Recollections The words or writings of people
about their life experiencesafter sometime has Rewriting A step in the writing processin which
passed.The writings arebasedon a memory of the writer goesovera previousdraft to improve
the past,but may be stimulatedby a review of communication of ideasand clarity of expres
pastobjects,photos,personalnotes,or belong- sion,(14)
ings.(12) Running records A specialtype of existingstatistic
Recording sheet Pages on which a researcher researchusedin historical researchbecausethe
writes down what is coded in contentanalysis. files,records,or documentsaremaintainedin a
(e) relatively consistentmanner over a period of
time.(12)
Reductionism Something that appears to be a
causalexplanation,butisnot, because ofa con- Sample A smaller set of casesa researcherselect
A researcherhas from a larger pool and generalizesto the
fusion about units of analyszs.
population.(6)
empiricalevidencefor an associationat the level
of individual behavioror very small-scaleunits, Sampling distribution A distribution createdby
but overgeneralizes Io make theoretical state- drawing rnany random samplesfrom the same
mentsabout verylarge-scaleunits. (4) populntion.(6)
Reliability Thedependabilityorconsistenryofthe Sampling element The name for a caseor single
measureof avariable.(5) unit to be selected.(6)
must be
Replication The principle that researchers Sampling error How much a sampledeiates fiom
able to repeat scientific findings in multiple being representativeofthe population.(6)
studiesto have a high level ofconfidence that Samplingframe A list of casesin a populntion,or
the findings aretrue. (2) the bestapproximation of it. (6)
Replication pattern A pattern inthe elaboration Samplinginterval The inverseof the samplingra-
paradigm in which the partials show the same ,o, which is used in systematicsamplingto se
relationship as in a bivariatecontingencytable lect cases.(6)
of the independent and dependentvariable
Samplingratio Thenumberofcasesinthesampl
alone.(10)
divided by the number of cases irr the
Requestfor proposal (RFP) An announcementby population or the samplingframe, or the pro-
a funding organizationthat it is willing to fund portion of thepopulntionin the sample.(6)
researchand it is soliciting written plans of re- Scale A type of quantitative data measttreoften
searchprojects.( 14) usedin surveyresearch that capturesthe inten-
Researchfraud A tlpe of unethical behavior in sity, direction, level, or potengv of a variable
which a researcherfakesor invents data that he construct along a continuum. Most are at the
or shedid not really collect,or fails to honestly ordinallevelof measrtrement.(5)
and fully report how he or she conducted a Scattergram A diagram to display the sratisticalre-
study.(3) lationshipbettreentwo variablesbasedon plot-
Responseset An effect rn surveyresearchwhen re- ting eachcase'svaluesfor both ofthe variables
spondentstend to agreewith everyquestionin ( l 0)
374 c Los s AR Y
Selectionbias A threat Io internal validity when Socialimpact assessment study Atype of applied
groups in an experimentare not equivalentat socialresearchin which a researcherestimates
the beginningof the experiment.(8) the likely consequencesor outcome of a
planned intervention or intentional changeto
Selectivecoding A last passat coding qualitative occur in the future. ( 1)
data in which a researcherexaminesprevious
codesto identiff and selectillustrativedatathat Social research A processin which a researche
will support the conceptualcoding categories combines a set of principles, outlooks, and
that he or shedeveloped.(13) ideas with a collection of specific practices,
techniques,and strategiesto produce knowl-
Selectiveobservation The tendencyto take notice edge.(l)
ofcertain peopleor eventsbasedon pastexpe-
rienceor attitudes.( I ) Sociogram A diagram or "map" that shows the
netlvork of social relationships,influence pat-
Semantic differential A scalein which people are terns,or communication pathsamong a group
presentedwith a topic or object and a list of ofpeopleorunits. (6)
many polar opposite adjectives or adverbs.
They are to indicate their feelings by marking Solomon four-group design An experimentalde-
one ofseveralspacesbetweentwo adjectivesor slgain which subjectsare randomly assignedto
adverbs.(5) two clntrll groupsandtwo experimental groups
Only one experimentalgroup and one control
Sequentialsampling Atype of nonrandomsample group receivea pretest.All four groups receivea
in which a researchertries to find asmany rele-
posttest.(8)
vant casesas possible,until time, financial re-
sources,or his or her energyare exhausted,or Specialpopulations Peoplewho lack the necessar
until there is no new information or diversity cognitive competency to give real informed
fiom the cases.(6) consent or people in a weak position who
GLOSSARY 375
might comprisetheir freedomto refuseto par- Structural question A type of questionin field re-
ticipate in a study. (3) searchintervtews in which the researcherat-
tempts to verift the correctnessof placing terms
Specificationpattern A pattern inthe elaboration
or eventsinto the categoriesof the meaning sys-
paradigm in which the bivariate contingency
tem usedby peoplebeing studied.( I 1)
table showsa relationship. One of thepartial ta-
blesshowsthe relationship, but other tables do Structured observation A method of watching
not. (10) what is happening in a social setting that is
highly organized and that follows systematic
Spuriousness A statement that appearsto be a
' causalexplanation,but is not becauseof a hid- rulesfor observationand documentation.(9)
den, unmeasured,or initially unseenvariable, Subjects The name for peoplewho are studied and
The unseenvariable comesearlier in the tem- (8)
participatein experimentalresearch.
poral order, and it hasa causalimpact on what
Successiveapproximation A method of 4ualiutive
wasinitially positedto bethe independentvari-
data analysisinwhich the researcherrepeatedly
ableas well.as the dependentvariable.(4) moves back and forth between the empirical
Standard deviation A measureof dispersionfor data and the abstract concepts, theories, or
one variable that indicates an averagedistance models.(13)
betweenthe scoresand the mean.(I0) Suppressor variable pattern A pattern in the
Standard-format question A tFpe of survey re- elaborationparadigm in which no relationship
searchqtestion in which the answer categories appearsin abivariate contingencytabbbutthe
tail to include "no opinion" or "don't know." partiak show a relationship between the vari-
(7) ables.(10)
Standardization The procedure to statistically ad- Survey research Quantitative social researchin
just measuresto permit making an honest com- which one systematicallyasksmany people the
parisonby giving a common basisto measures samequestions,then recordsand analyzestheir
ofdifferent units. (5) answers.(1)
Static group comparison An experimental design Systematic sampling A tfpe of random samplern
with two groups, no random assignment,and which a researcherselectseveryftth (e.g.,12th)
only a posttest.(8) casein the samplingframe using a sampling in-
terval.(6)
Statistic A numerical estimateof a populationpa-
rametercomputedfrom a sample.(6) Target population The name for the large general
group of many casesfrom which a sampleis
Statistical Abstract of the United States A U.S.
drawn and which is specified in very concrete
government publication that appearsannually
terms.(6)
and contains an extensivecompilation of sta-
tistical tablesand information. (9) Text A generalnamefor symbolicme"ning within
a communication medium m easurd,in contmt
Statistical significance A way to discussthe likeli-
analysis.(9)
hood that a finding or statisticalrelntionshipin
a sampleis due to the random factors rather Third-order interpretation In qualitative re-
than due to the existenceof an actualrelation- search,what a researchertells the readerofa re-
ship in the entirepopulation.(10) searchreport that the people he or she sflrdied
felt and thought. (4)
Stratified sampling A tfpe of random samplein
which the researcherfirst identifies a set of Threatening questions A tfpe of survey research
mutually exclusiveand,exhaustivecategories, question in which respondents are Likely to
then usesa random selectionmethod to select cover up or lie about their tme behavior or be-
casesfor eachcategory.(6) liefs becausethey fear a lossof self-imageor that
376 c Los s AR Y
Type I error The logical error offalsely rejecting Verstehen A German word that translatesas un-
the null lrypothesls.( I 0) derstanding;specifically,it meansan empathic
understandingof another'sworldview. (2)
Tlpe II error The logicalerror of falselyaccepting
( 10)
the null lrypothesls. Whistle-blower A personwho seesethicalwrong-
doing, tries to correct it internally but then in-
Unidimensionality The principle that when using forms an external audience, agency, or the
mubiple indicatorsto measurea construct, all media.(3)
the indicators should consistentlyfit together
and indicatea singleconstruct.(5) Wording effects An effectthat occurswhen a spe-
cific term or word used in a survey research
Unit of analysis The kind of empirical caseor unit question affectshow respondentsanswer the
that a researcherobserves,measures,and ana- question.(7)
lyzesin a study. (4)
Zoom lens An organizationalform often usedby
Univariate statistics Statistical measuresthat deal when writing reports that be-
field researchers
with one variableonly. (10) gin broadly then becomenarrow, focused,and
Universe The broad classofunits that arecovered specific.(14)
in ahypothesis.All the units to which the find- Z-score A way to locatea scorein a distribution of
ingsof a specificstudymight be generalized.(4) scoresby determining the number of standard
Unobtrusive measures Another name for deviationsit is above or below the mean or
nonreactivemeasure* It emphasizesthat the arithmetic average.(10)
peoplebeing studiedarenot awareofit because
the measuresdo not intrude. (9)
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B IB LIOGR A P H Y 3t9
G L
c
Galton,F.,319 Lamont,M.,317
Canter,D.,340
Chafetz,l.,28 Gamson,W., I43 Lauzen,M., 103-104, 228-230
Chavez,L.,23l Garza,C., 16 LeMasters,E., 331
Cherlin,A., 17 Goar,C., 103-104,205 Lieberson, 5.,244
Cogan,J.,323 Gorden,D., 191 Lofland,I.,354
Crozat,M., I37 Gordon, P., 135 Lu, S.,105-106
Gurney,I.,285
D M
H
Dasgupta,N., 217 Marx, A., 34,305
Davis,f ., L54,I58,240 Harper,D.,354 Marx, K., 25,305-306
Denz in,N. , 279 ,2 9 7 Hawkes,D., 136,206,2LI-212 Mastro,D.,232
DeVaus,D., 177 Heberlein,T., 186 McKelvie,S.,225
Diener,E.,58 Hemingway,8.,349 Merton,R.,31
Dillman, D., 184 H i l l , M.,3 1 3 Miles,M.,340
Douglas,l.,297 H o l t, R .,3 17 Milgram,S.,51,53
Downey,L.,236-237 Humphreys,L., 52-53, 57 Mill, J.,336
391
392 NAMEtND,Ex
N S
V4r
Neuman,W.,77 Sanders,I., 39
Vanlaar, C., 130, I32,ZIB
Sassen, S.,305
VanMaanen,1.,52,354
o Scarce,R., 58
VanPoppel,F.,97
Schatzmann,L.,299
Oesterle,
S.,19,39 Vaquera,E., 159
Schuman,H., 180, 183
Ong,A.,211 Vidich, A., 57
Scribner,R.,220
Skocpol,T.,305,311
P Smith,T., 181 w
Sniderman,P., 130
Paige, l Wax,R.,285
f.,338 Snow,D.,20
Weber,M.,25,305,336
Piliavin,1.,5I,57 Solomon,R.,210 Weitzer,R., 29,32,38,73, l3Z
Popper, K.,93 Spradley,l.,297 Whyte,W., 12,354
Stac\ S., l6-17
R Starr, P., 305
Strauss,A., 3l z
Ragin,C.,90 Sudman,S., 183,191 Zelizer,V.,305
Rathje,
W.,226 Sutton,l.,322 Zimbardo,P.,51,53
riliiiir
.iilfii
r,llh;
D EX
A Authenticity, 120
Authority, as alternativeto science,3, 7
Abstract Available data(seeResearch,nonreactive)
ofarticleor report,73,77,80,351
Average(seeMean; Median;Mode)
aslocation tool for articles,T5-77
Axial coding (seeCoding, in qualitative research,
Abstraction, level of, 31, 45 axial)
Abuse (seeHarm to researchsubjects)
Accessto field site,280-283
Account, secondary(seeInterpretation, second- B
order)
Back translation, 32!, 323, 326
Accretion measures(seeMeasures,accretion)
Bad Blood, 50
Aggregates,24
Balance,in questionresponses, 173
Analysis
Bar chart (seeStatistics,univariate)
blame,25,45
Bell-shapedcurve (seeNormal distribution)
casestudy (seeResearch,casestudy)
Beta (seeRegression,multiple)
cohort, l8-I9,22
Bias(seealsoUnbiased)
content,20,227-236, 246
interviewer in surveys,194
data(seeD ataanalysis)
Galton'sproblem (seeGalton'sproblem)
Ievelof, 95-97,107
prestige,170-171,I98
network,339
random processto avoid, 203
scalogram,138
responseset(seeResponse, set)
secondary,239-241
selection,2I2-2I3, 223
time allocation,339
socialdesirabrlity, 176, L98
units of, 95-97, 107,228,231-232,240
Blind peer review, 9
Analltic memos (seeNotes, analytic
Body of table (seeT able,parts of cross-tabulation
notes/memos;Notes,field)
table)
Anonl.rnity, 57-58,66
BogardusSocialDistanceScale(seeScale,
Appearanceof interest,287
BogardusSocialDistance)
Archives,3l3
Bracketing,3l5
Associationof variables,36, 45,263
measuresof,263-264
requirement for causalry,36-37
C
Assumptions (seeTheory, assumptionsof)
Attitude of strangenes s, 284,302 Casing,330
Attributes (seeVariables,attributes o0 C ATI (seeComputer-assisted
telephone
Audience for researchreport, 344-345 interviewing)
393
394 s uB J E c r rN D EX
G Index
aslocation tool to find articles (seeAbstract, as
Galton's problem, 319-320, 326
location tool for articles)
Gamma (seeAssociationof variables,measures
asmethod of measuremenl,124-128,139
ofl
unweighted, 127
Gatekeeper,in field rcsearch,282
weighted,127
GeneralSocialSurvey(GSS),158,239-240,246 Indicator
"Go native" (seeField research,overinvolvement
multiple, 116-117,139
in)
socra7,237
Grantsmanship, 357, 359 Inductive
Grounded theory (seeTheory grounded) approachto theory (seeExplanation,inductive)
GSS(seeGeneralSocialSurvey) reasoning(seeExplanation, inductive)
Guilty knowl edge(seeKnowledge, guilty) Inference
Guttman Scale(seeScale,Guttman) in content analysis,236
fr om nonreactive data,244
H samples,162-164
separationof,29l
Halo effect (seeEffect,halo) Inferential statistics(seeStatistics,inferential)
Harm to researchsubjects,51-53 Informant in field research.299
Hawthorne effect (seeEffect, Hawthorne) Informed consent,5+-55, 66
Histogram (seeStatistics,univariate) Institutional ReviewBoard (IRB), 54, 59, 66, 358
Historical-comparativeresearch(seeResearch, Interaction effect (seeEffect,interaction)
historical-comparative) Intercoder reliability (seeReliability, intercoder)
Historiography, 312 Interlibrary loan service,73
History effect (seeEffect, history internal validity Internal
threat) consistency(seeConsistencyin field research,
HRAF (seeHuman Area RelationsFiles) internal)
Human Area RelationsFiles (HRAF),320,326 criticism (seeCriticism in historical research,
Hyper1.ert,342 internal)
Hlpothesis, 29,L07 validity (seeValidity, internal)
alternative,95,107 Internet (seealsoSurvey,web)
causal,92-93 usein literature search,80, 82-84
conceptual,113-115, 139 Interpretation
empirical,113-115, 139 first-order, 90, 107
null,93-95,107 second-order,90,L07
of secondarysources,historical-comparatite
research.314-315
I third-order, 90,107
Ideal type, 27-28, 46, 336-337 in trivariate data analysis (seeElaboration
analogiesin,337 paradigm)
contrast contexts,337 Interpretative socialscience(ISS),43-14
Idiographic explanation (seeExplanation, Interval-levelmeasures(seeMeasurement,ler"el<
ideographic) o0
Illustrative method, 338, 342 Interview
Independencein statisticalrelationship (see comparison of survey and ordinan-
Relationship,independence) conversation.190-191
398 s uB J Ec r T N D EX
Interview (continued) M
in cross-nationalsurveyresearch,32l
face-to-facesurvey,I 8g-1 90 Macro-level theory $ee Theory, macro-level)
field,296-299 Manifest coding (seeCoding in content analysis,
postexperimental,2Ig manifest)
scheduleof, 168,198 Maps (seealsoDiagramsin qualitative data
stagesof, 192 analysis)
survey, 190-194 social,292193 (seealsoSociograms)
telephone,188-189 spatial,292-293
training for,192-193 temporal, 292-293
IRB (seeInstitutional ReviewBoard) Marginals (seeTable,parts of cross-tabulation
table)
Matching vs. random assignment,203-:204
T Maturation effect(seeEffect,maturation, internal
/ournals validity threat)
personal (seeNotes, field, personaljournal) Mean,25I-253, 273
scholarlyarticles,9, 7 I-7 4, 76-7 9 Measurement,108-129
equivalence(seeEquivalence,measurement)
levelsof, 722-124, 139,264
K
validity (seeY alidity, measurement)
Knowledge Measures
explicit,277 accretion,225-226. 246
guilty,301-302 of association(seeAssociationof variables,
questionsin surveys,176-177 measuresofl
tacit,277 of central tendency (seeMean;Median;Mode)
erosion,225-226,246
unobtrusive (seeResearch,nonreactive)
L
of variation (seeStandarddeviation)
Lake Wobegon effect (seeEffect,Lake Wobegon) Media m1ths, 4-7
Lambda (Associationof variables,measuresof) Median, 251-253,273
Latent coding (seeCoding, in content analysis, Member
latent) in field research,267
Latin squaredesign(seeExperimental design, validation (seeYalidity,in field research)
Latin square) Micro-level theory $ee Theory,microlevel)
Layout (seeQuestionnaire,layout of) Milgram Obediencestudy, 51, 53
Level Missing data
of analysis(seeAnalysis,level of) in existingstatisticsresearch,249
ot measurement(seeMeasurement,levelsofl in index construction, 127
of significance(seeStatistical,significance) Mode,25I-253, 273
Lexicon equivalent(seeEquivalence,lexicon) Mortality, experimental (seeExperimental
Likert Scale(seeScale,Likert) mortality, internal validity threat)
Literature (seealsoJournals,scholarlvarticles) Multiple
reviews,69-7 1, 79-80, 82, 107 indicators (seeIndicator, multiple)
Logic regression(seeRegression,multiple)
of disconfirming hypothesis,g3-94 (seealso sorting procedure, 339-340
Hypothesis,null) Mutual exclusiveness(seeVariables,mutually
of historical-comparativeresearch,306_3l0 exclusive)
Outlining (seeWriting, Processo0
N
Overgeneralization, 6, 22
Narrative
history,315
P
mode of qualitative data analysis335-336'342'
355 Panelstudy, I7-I9,22
National Opinion ResearchCenter (NORC)' 8' Paradigm,4142,46
239-240 Parameterof population , L47, l5l, 165
National ResearchAct, 59 Paraphrase,348,359
Natural history, 295, 335, 354 Partials,tablesin trivariate analysis'265-267,
Naturalism, 278,303 273
Negativerelationship (seeRelationship,negative) Participant observationin field teseatch,287
Notinal-level measures(seeMeasurement'levels Pearsonproduct moment correlation coefficient,
of) 37.264
Nonresponsein surveyresearch,186 Peerreview (seeBlind peer review)
NORC (seeNational Opinion ResearchCenter) Percentagedtable (seeCross-tabulation)
Normal distribution, 253 (seeako Skewed Percentile,254
distribution) Ph.D. (seeDissertations, Ph'D')
Normalize, in field research,286,303 Pie chart (see univariate)
Statistics'
Norming (seeStandardization) Pilot
Notes study,117
analytic notes/memos,291-292, 302,332-334 test,179,219
fie\d.289-294 Placebo,216-223
direct observati on, 289-292, 303 Plagiarism, 49, 66, 348,359
inference'291 Population, 146,165
jotted,289-290, 303 hidden,160-161,165
personaljournal, 29I-292 parameter (seeParameterof population)
personal,289-294 special,55-56,66
Nuremburg Code, 59-60 target,146,165
Positivism,42-43
Posttest(seeExperimental,posttest)
o PPS(seeSampling,probability proportionate to
size)
Objective,64-65
Prais,44,46
Observation
Precisionin statisticalrelationship,
in field research,287
258-259
selective,6,22
Precoding (seeCoding in quantitative
structured, 228,246
research,Precoding)
One-shot casestudy (seeExperimental design'
Prediction, 34-35,46
one-shot casestudY)
Preexperimentaldesigns(seeExperimental
Open coding (seeCoding, in qualitative research'
design,PreexPerimental)
open)
Premature closure, 6, 22
Ouerationalization'I 12-115' 139
Pretest,improving measures'll7 (seeako
Optical scansheets(seeData, quantitative'
ExPerimental,Pretest)
entry)
Principal investigator (PI)' 358-359
Oral history, 314,326
Principle ofvoluntary consent,53' 59,66
Ordinal-level measures(seeMeasurement'levels
Privacy,57
o0
400 s uB JEc r rN D E X
Probability,24 Range
proportionate to size(seeSampling,probability in statistics,253,273
proportionate to size) in theory (seeTheory, range)
theory (seeTheory, probability) Rates(seeStandardization)
Probes,179,192-193,1,98 Ratio-levelmeasures(seeMeasurement,
Proofreading (seeWriting, processof) levelsof)
Proposition (seeTheory,proposition in) RDD (seeRandom Digit Dialing)
Pseudosurvey(seeSurvey,pseudo) Reactive(seeReactivity)
Publicopinion (seeResearch, survey) Reactivity,54,2L7,223
Purposivesampling (seeSampling,purposive) Recall,aiding respondent, 173-174
Recollections, 3I4, 326
Recordingsheet
a
in contentanalysis,223-225,246
Qualitative data(seeData, qualitative) in quantitative data analysis,248--250
Quantitative data (seeData, quantitative) Reductionism,gS-99, I02, 107
Question Refusals,in surveyresearch(seeNonresponse,in
closed-ended,177-178,198 surveyresearch)
contingency,17l-172,198 Regression
contrast, 298,302 multiple, 266-267
descriptive,298,302 statistical(threat to internal validity),2ls
double-barreled,171,198 Relationship
double-negative,I73 bivariate,257-263
full-filter, 179, I98 causal,35-39
leading,lT2 curvilinear,258,262
loaded,lT2 direction,258
matrix, 185-186,198 form ol 258
open-ended,177-179,198 independence,257-258,273
order(seeEffect,orderofsurveyquestions) linear,37,258-259,262,273
partially open, 179, 198 negative,39, 46, 258
quasi-filter,180,198 nonlinear,258
research(seeResearch, question) positive,39,46,258
slop,77I-1.72, 198 precision in (seePrecisionin statistical
standardformat,180*181,i98 relationship)
structural, 298*299, 303 recursive,37
threatening, 175-L78, 198 theory,in,29
Questionnaire,169 Reliability, II5-117, LI9-120, 139
layout of, 181-185 in existingstatisticsresearch,243-244
length of, 18 1-182 in field research,294-295
mail, 186-188 intercoder,230
relation to validity, 120-I2l
Replication (seealsoElaboration paradigm)
R
of other'smeasures.117
Random ofresearchfindings,42,46
assignment,202-204,223 Requestfor Proposals(RFP),356,359
number table,148,153,165 Research
sampling,148*149,161,165 academic,IL-I3,2L
RandomDigit Dialing (RDD), 158-159,165 action,13,22
suB JE C rTN D E X 4{tl
Semanticdifferential (seeScale,semantic
suppression,196
differential)
web, 187-189
Separationof inference(seeInference,
separation Symbolic interactionism (seeTheory,symbolic
ofl
interactionism)
Skeweddistribution, 253_254,273
Systematicsample (seeSampling,systematic)
Social
impact assessment,14_15.22
indicator (seeIndicator,social) T
Sociograms,144,165
Table
Solomon four-group design (seeExperimental
in bivariate statistics(seeCross_tabulation)
design)
partsof cross-tabulationtable,260,273
Sourcesin historical research
trivariate,265-267
primary, 312-317, 326
Tau (seeAssociationof variables,measures
secondary314_316,326 ofl
Tearoom Trade study, 52_53,57
Specialpopulations (seepopulation,
special) Telephoneinterviewing (seeInterview, telephone)
Specificationpattern (seeElaborationparadigm)
Temporal order (seeCausal,temporal order)
Sponsorsof research,ethical.on...nr,
6 l_63" Text in content analysis,227, 246
Spuriousness , 37,99_102,I07, 263,322 Theoreticalframeworks,32_33
Standarddeviation,254_256,273
Theory
Standardization, !27 -129, I39
assumptionsof,2g,45
Standardizedscore(seeZ_score)
causal(seeExplanation, causal)
Statistic(contrastedwith parameter),
147,165 conflict,33
Statistical
exchange,33
regression(seey alidity, internal)
functional, 32-33, 40,46
significance,269-270,273
grounded, 3I, 46, gg, 309
validity (seey alidity,statistical)
, level of 33
StatisticalAbstractof the (Jnited States, _23g,
237 macro-level,34, 46
246
meso-level,34,46
Statistics
micro-level, 33, 46
bivariate,257J65, 269,273
middle-range,3l-32
descriptive,25lJ6g, 273
network,3g
inferential, 162, 765, 16g17 I
probabiliry 148_149
univariate,251157, 269,273
proposition in,29,46
Stepsin research,9-10
range,31
Structural
rational choice,33
explanation (seeExplanation, structural)
sequential,39
fu nctionalism (seeTheory,structural
social,7,24
functional)
structural functional, 32_33,40,46
question (seeeuestion, structural)
substantive,3l-32
Stylein writing, 345
symbolic interactionism, 33
Successive approximation, 337_33g,342
Threateningquestion (seeeuestion, threatening)
Suppressionof researchfindings,62_63
Time series
Survey
equivalentdesign(seeExperimental design)
cross-national,321
interrupted design (seeExperimental d.rrg"l
pseudo,196
research(seeResearch,time series)
research(seeResearch,survey)
Tone in writing, 345,353
S U B JE CIN
T DEX 4O3