Structuring The Thesis (PDFDrive)

David Kember · Michael Corbett Editors
Structuring
the Thesis
Matching Method, Paradigm, Theories
and Findings
Structuring the Thesis
David Kember Michael Corbett
•
Editors
Structuring the Thesis

Matching Method, Paradigm,
Theories and Findings
123
Editors
David Kember Michael Corbett
University of Tasmania School of Education
Launceston, TAS Acadia University
Australia Wolfville, NS
Canada
ISBN 978-981-13-0510-8 ISBN 978-981-13-0511-5 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5
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Preface
A conventional structure has been developed for writing theses, which is consistent
with the needs of the scientific research method. However, research students in
education, the social sciences and the humanities rarely follow the scientific
method. There are several reasons for this. Firstly, the issues or problems resear-
ched in these fields are normally ill-defined, messy or wicked. One key feature of
wicked problems, as defined by Rittel and Webber (1973) in their now classic
formulation, is the lack of a clear and agreed-upon definition of the problem itself.
Additionally, the problem is nested in other equally wicked problems. Finally, the
way the problem is defined determines the potential solutions and the ways in
which the problem is approached and studied. At the outset, it is often hard to
identify exactly what the problem is, let alone formulate a well-defined research
question. As the issues investigated are hard to define, they have multiple variables
or aspects that interact in complex ways. We began thinking about this book
because the problems our higher degree research (HDR) students want to study
were almost always wicked, but at the same time, they very often wished to tame
these problems with the authoritative techniques of the scientific method.
Indeed, defining precisely what the research problem represents an important
part of setting out most dissertation projects in the social sciences. Definition of
problems is itself contested and unavoidably theoretical, while at the same time they
are caught up in the complexities of practice itself as well as competing definitions
of the situation. Since the nature and framing of problems involves theoretical and
ultimately political engagement on the part of the researcher, a clear articulation of
foundational assumptions that situate and give shape to the particular research
problem is essential. This means that the simplifying assumptions common to the
scientific method are inappropriate to research in these areas. Naturalistic
researchers have also moved away from the methods commonly used by positivist
researchers to ones more suited to ill-defined problems.
In spite of the fact that few social science research projects adhere to the sci-
entific method, the conventional thesis structure adopted by the scientific method
still has a strong influence. There is a long history of educational and social analysis
more generally attempting to adopt and co-opt the methods of the natural sciences
v
vi Preface
and to promote the use of analytic tools designed to study the material world.
Philosophical developments of the twentieth century, beginning with phe-
nomenology and hermeneutics in Europe and pragmatism and symbolic interac-
tionism in the USA expanded and developed into what has been called
postmodernism, poststructuralism, deconstruction or the ‘linguistic turn’ that began
following World War Two. These are movements that have challenged the hege-
mony of the scientific method in social analysis. The ongoing critique of feminism,
Marxist analysis and more broadly critical theory has further complicated the notion
that social life can and should be objectively and neutrally investigated.
This configuration of pragmatic problems of education researchers seeking to be
relevant and to improve practice, in conjunction with philosophical currents that
challenge positivist hegemony, creates difficulty for beginning HDR students. This
uncertainty and complexity also cause problems for research students when they
come to write up their study, and they find it hard to fit their work into a standard
structure developed for a method very different from the one they have followed.
This book addresses this issue by showing that alternative structures more suited to
research in the social sciences are not only possible, they are actually common. The
heart of the book consists of 32 example chapters that illustrate this point. In these
chapters, research students explain how the subject matter, method, paradigmatic
orientation and theories drawn upon in their research led to the structure adopted for
their particular and unique thesis projects. Rather than following a formula as is
suggested in many standard research texts, we begin with actual HDRs describing
the creative and innovative methodological choices they have made to answer their
research questions and to write up their dissertations.
While they are each unique and creatively designed research narratives, each
of these chapters follows a standard format. They begin with a research question
that we suggested to them at the beginning of this book project. Our question was:
‘What is an appropriate structure for reporting a study of subject matter X, fol-
lowing paradigm Y and adopting methodology Z?’ Then we suggested a series of
questions eliciting common features of the thesis, i.e. subject matter; method;
theories and paradigms; structure; table of contents; and commentary. In the
example chapters, therefore, the HDR students explain how their paradigmatic
orientation, the method they followed and the findings of their research led them to
devise the particular structure for their thesis.
The 32 example chapters have been grouped into four parts by methodological
orientation: mixed methods (Part B); action research (Part C); interpretive (Part D);
and emerging theoretical approaches (Part E). The book, therefore, includes
examples of a very wide range of research fields in the social sciences, diverse
methodological orientations and theories that were drawn upon. These range from
work that is positivist in orientation and that seeks to make particular realist
knowledge claims, to more pragmatist, embedded work in the action research tra-
dition, to work inspired by interpretivist forms of social science, and finally to work
that seeks to employ contemporary theory to frame and explore diverse research
questions that problematise educational phenomena within matrices of power and
materiality, typically employing creative methods.
Preface vii
As there is such a diverse range of methodologies, in addition to being a book

about structuring theses, it works very well as a research methods text. In this
respect, it is unusual in covering such wide range of methods. This coverage takes
the form of narrative accounts of individual research journeys and of the practical
problems and considerations that led HDR students to make consequential choices
that shaped the thesis. We do not offer here a methodological how-to manual, but
rather a retrospective ‘how-did’ approach that provides an analysis of the real
decisions, emerging theoretical understandings and methodological judgments that
shaped actual research products. The actual methods employed range from con-
ventional social science approaches such as documentary and discourse analysis,
observation, interviewing and focus groups to arts based, participatory and visual
approaches emerging in the social sciences today.
In addition to the 32 example chapters, there are eight other chapters. Chapter 1
explains the origins of the book by reflecting on how the issue had troubled David
as both an examiner and supervisor. Chapter 1 also introduces the four research
questions, which are addressed throughout the book. Chapter 2 explains the pro-
cesses followed in developing the book.
Parts B–E group the example chapters; each begins with a framing chapter.
These framing chapters situate the work found in each section within the philo-
sophical traditions that inform the pieces. Each section in some ways represents an
ongoing conversation with the positivist tradition which tends to stand as a theo-
retical and methodological shadow to be addressed, and in a sense, circumvented by
HDRs as they make their way to producing independent work. The framing
chapters each situate the philosophical movements which grew up in response to
positivism and have sought to provide social science research with viable frame-
works of inquiry each focussed in different ways on dealing with problems of
reflexivity, subjectivity, interpretation, multiplicity, mutability, materiality, space
and place, the challenge of making sense of practice all of which have challenged
positivistically oriented educational and social research.
The penultimate chapter (Chapter 39) contains reflections on methodological
issues, which have arisen throughout the book. The main topic is the scientific
research method, which has been the underlying rationale for producing the book.
We consider why it is unsuited to research in the social sciences and examine
alternative directions that have emerged.
The final chapter (Chapter 40) contains overall lessons about structuring the
thesis synthesised from across the book. This chapter is organised around main
emerging themes threading through the substantive research chapters. The chapter
discusses the positioning and function of literature, as the traditional comprehensive
literature review, as Chapter 2, was regarded as inappropriate for inductive research,
which explored an ill-defined topic. There was a need for a relatively short initial
literature review to frame the study. The bulk of the literature was then dispersed
through the thesis, as findings were presented in an organised framework and
compared to the literature. In view of the alternative structures adopted, most of the
example theses included a section explaining and justifying the structure adopted.
viii Preface
The structures reported in this book, therefore, differ markedly from the con-
ventional structure, which appears more or less as:
Chapter 1 Introduction of the problem
Chapter 2 Literature review
Chapter 3 Methodology
Chapter 4 Results
Chapter 5 Discussion
Chapter 6 Conclusion
The second chapter of this conventional structure is a comprehensive review
of the literature. This review is necessary, as those following the scientific method,
research well-defined problems or hypotheses. The literature review is needed, as it
expounds what has been discovered in the well-defined area, so that the research
student can formulate a limited number of well-defined hypotheses or research
questions. The third chapter is the methodology chapter. As tightly defined
hypotheses or research questions have been formulated, the research method to be
followed in the programme of research can be specified in detail. Research students
following the scientific method are normally expected to stick closely to the plan.
Yet in social science research, and in educational research particularly, we have
found that few do this. This book responds to this disjuncture between conventions
about how theses are supposed to be structured and how they are actually structured
by working researchers.
The book will be of value to all research students in the social sciences who are
not following the scientific method, or indeed those HDR students who encounter
frustration working to understand how to fit their messy pragmatic problems into an
inquiry framework that makes sense. The guidelines for how to derive an appro-
priate structure to suit their findings, methodology, paradigmatic orientation and the
theories they draw upon will enable them to develop an appropriate structure for
their own thesis. Going through this process will also facilitate the organisation
of their analysis. With the wide range of topics, methodologies and interpretive
theories covered in the example chapters, it is almost certain that there will be
examples of relevance to their own study.
Launceston, TAS, Australia David Kember

March 2018 Michael Corbett
Reference
Rittel, H. W. J., & Webber, M. M. (1973). Dilemmas in a general theory of planning. Policy
Sciences, 4(2), 155–169
Contents
Part A Introduction
1 Critical Reflections on the Conventional Thesis Structure and a
Guide to the Research Questions Addressed in the Book . . . . . . . . 3
David Kember
2 The Collective Voyage of Discovery: How the Book Was
Developed and Produced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
David Kember and Michael Corbett
Part B Mixed Methods

3 The Paradigmatic Challenge of Mixed-Methods Research:
Positivism, Relativism or Pragmatism? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Rosemary Callingham and Ian Hay
4 An Exploration of Epistemological Beliefs, Learning
Environment Expectations and Persistence Intentions: Insights
into the Shaping of Student Persistence in the First Semester
of University Study at Three Australian Universities . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Julie Godwin and David Kember
5 The Challenges Faced by Male Primary Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Vaughan Cruickshank
6 English Language Teaching in Nepal: An Investigation of Issues
and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Ananda Aryal, Megan Short and Si Fan
7 How Do Students Make Decisions About Overseas Higher
Education? A Case Study of Chinese International Students
at a Regional Australian University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Qian Wu and David Kember
ix
x Contents
8 Linguistic Complexity in English Textbooks: A Functional

Grammar Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Vinh To and Ahmar Mahboob
9 Structure by Design: Reasoning About Covariation with
TinkerPlots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Noleine Fitzallen
10 Researching in the ‘Cultural Interface’: Working Between
Non-indigenous and Indigenous Research Paradigms . . . . . . . . . . . 97
David Hicks, Mary O’Dowd and Michael Corbett
Part C Action Research

11 Action Research and Criticality: Working Out the Stone
in Your Shoe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Michael Corbett and Allen Hill
12 Students’ Understanding of Statistical Inference: Implications
for Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Robyn Reaburn
13 The Design and Implementation of a Short Course, Focusing on
Metacognition, to Develop Writing Skills for University Students
for Whom English Is an Additional Language: An Action
Research Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Adnan Satariyan, Bronwyn Reynolds and David Kember
14 Intersections of Indigenous Knowledge and Place Based
Education: Possibilities for New Visions of Sustainability
Education in Uganda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Kevin Kezabu, Jenny McMahon, David Kember and Allen Hill
15 ‘I Only Look Forward to Mondays’. Facilitating Creative
Writing Groups: Ageism, Action and Empowerment . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Joan Webb
16 A Journey Around Tongan Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
W. John Phelps
Part D Interpretive Methods

17 Ways of Working in the Interpretive Tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Angela Thomas and Michael Corbett
18 Fluid Methods to Make Sense of an Unknown: An Emergent
Grounded Theory Study of Cultural Wellbeing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Sherridan Emery and Jill Fielding-Wells
Contents xi
19 Exploring Interpretations of Sustainability Across Diverse

Social Contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Kim Beasy
20 Embracing Change When ‘Writing for Change’: My Ph.D.
Journey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Damon Thomas
21 Teaching History in Australian Museums: Pedagogy
and Praxis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Louise Zarmati
22 Social Justice and Constructivist Grounded Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Val Kitchener, Danielle Williams and Sue Kilpatrick
23 Language Learning and Integration of Adult Bhutanese
Refugees: An Ethnographic Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Subhash Koirala
24 Exposure and Effect: An Investigation into a Culture of Body
Pedagogies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Jenny McMahon
25 Arts-Based Research in Education: Becomings from a Doctoral
Research Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Abbey MacDonald and MaryAnn Hunter
26 Silent, Invisible and Under-Supported? An Autoethnographic
Journey Through the Valley of the Shadow of Youth Mental
Health in Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Anne Hugo
Part E Emerging Theories

27 Emergent Theory and/as Doctoral Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Michael Corbett and Bill Green
28 The Way that Things Are Done Around Here: An Investigation
into the Organisational and Social Structures that Contribute to
Structural Power Within the Australian Swim Coach Education
Pathway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Chris Zehntner
29 Are We All Foodies Now? An Ethnographic Exploration of Food
Experience in Primary Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Lexi Earl
30 Governing Civil Society: How Literacy, Education and Security
Were Brought Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Stephen Kelly
xii Contents
31 From Developing Child to Competent Learner: A Genealogical

Study of the Kindergarten Child and Progressive Reform in
Aotearoa New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Emma Buchanan
32 Feeling-Thinking for a Feminist Participatory Visual
Ethnography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Laura Rodriguez Castro
33 Girls’ Tales: Experiences of Schooling: Making a Re/Active
Documentary Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Melissa Joy Wolfe and Mary Lou Rasmussen
34 Intricacies of Professional Learning in Health Care: The Case
of Supporting Self-management in Paediatric Diabetes . . . . . . . . . . 339
Sarah Doyle
35 Understanding New Spaces and Relations of Global Governance
in Education: The OECD’s PISA for Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Steven Lewis
36 Now, Then, When: Working with Qualitative Longitudinal and
Intergenerational Research to Study Pathways and Imagined
Futures in Transnational Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Joanne Higginson and Julie McLeod
37 Being Chosen and Performing Choice: Young People Engaging in
Imaginative and Constrained Secondary School Practices in
Vancouver, BC, Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Ee-Seul Yoon
38 Research Secrets, Research ‘Messiness’ and the Complexity of
Knowing: Behind the Thesis and the Content’s Page . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Mary O’Dowd
Part F Conclusion
39 Reflections on Methodological Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Michael Corbett and David Kember
40 Lessons Learnt About Structuring the Thesis and Implications
for Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
David Kember
Classification of Thesis Structure Chapters
Chapter Research Method Paradigm for Theory/paradigm for analysis and

student action/data interpretation
collection
Mixed Methods
4 Julie Quantitative: Interpretive A wide range of literature,
Godwin exploratory factor predominantly from the student
analysis and experience and retention fields
correlation
5 Vaughan Mixed methods Constructivist Social cognitive career theory
Cruickshank paradigm
6 Ananda Mixed methods Positivist and Grounded theory
Aryal interpretive
paradigm
7 Qian Wu Mixed methods Positivist and Grounded theory
interpretive
paradigm
8 Vinh To Quantitative Mixed methods Systemic functional linguistics
approach
9 Noleine Educational design Pragmatist Pragmatist
Fitzallen research methodology
10 David Hicks Structural equation Cultural interface Cultural interface
modelling
Action Research
12 Robyn Design experiment Critical Critical
Reaburn and action research
13 Adnan Action research Critical Interpretive and critical
Satariyan
14 Kevin Participatory action Critical Critical place inquiry
Kezabu research
15 Joan Webb Action research Critical Critical
16 John Phelps Action research and Pragmatism Culture and educational change
autoethnography
(continued)
xiii
xiv Classification of Thesis Structure Chapters
(continued)
collection
Interpretive Methods
18 Sherridan Grounded theory Interpretive Social constructivist epistemology
Emery paradigm
19 Kim Beasy Hermeneutical Interpretive Bourdieusian
paradigm
20 Damon Qualitative Positivist, Classical rhetoric and systemic
Thomas interpretive and functional linguistics
critical
21 Louise Qualitative Interpretive Grounded theory
Zarmati
22 Val Constructivist Interpretive Symbolic interactionism and
Kitchener grounded theory pragmatism
23 Subhash Ethnographic Interpretive Eclectic
Koirala
24 Jenny Narrative Interpretive and Creative analytical practices
McMahon ethnography and critical
autoethnography paradigms
25 Abbey Hybridsed arts-based, Naturalistic Creative constructivist
MacDonald narrative and qualitative
autoethnographic method
26 Anne Hugo Critical Interpretivism Critical theory
autoethnography
Emerging Theories
28 Chris Narrative and Critical enquiry Post structural theorist Michel
Zehtner auto-ethnographic perspective Foucault, sociologists Pierre
Bourdieu, and Erving Goffman
29 Lexi Earl Multi-sited Critical; Foucauldian
ethnography constructivist
paradigm
30 Stephen Genealogy and Policy texts as Discourse, governmentality,
Kelly problematisation principle source problematisation
of data
31 Emma Genealogical; Post-structural; Foucauldian theory;
Buchanan interpretive; post-foundational post-foundational historical
historical; visual and perspectives
material-spatial
analysis
32 Laura Visual ethnography De(s)colonial De(s)colonial reflexive paradigm
Rodriguez and participatory feminist
Castro research paradigm and
visual methods
33 Melissa Joy Filmic method Re/active Karen Barad’s new materialist
Wolfe documentary agential realism
34 Sarah Doyle Participant Sociomaterial Karen Barad’s
observation, and ontological-ethical-epistemological
interviews framework
35 Steven Qualitative Critical Critical/poststructural, focusing on
Lewis topological spatiality
(continued)
Classification of Thesis Structure Chapters xv
(continued)
collection
36 Jo Qualitative Interpretive Inductive, drawing principles and
Higginson longitudinal research ideas from biographical methods,
(QLR) and narrative oral history and narrative enquiry
inquiry methods
37 Ee-Seul Multi-site Critical policy Bourdieu and the imaginary
Yoon ethnography studies
38 Mary Participant Interpretative Reflective critical cultural interface
O’Dowd observation cultural ethnography
ethnography deconstructive
Editors and Contributors
About the Editors
David Kember is Professor in Education: Curriculum Methods and Pedagogy in

the Faculty of Education at the University of Tasmania. Prior to that he worked in
Hong Kong for 25 years. The initial position was at the Polytechnic University,
then Chinese University and finally as a Professor in Higher Education at the
University of Hong Kong. He spent six years running an inter-institutional initia-
tive, operating across the eight universities in Hong Kong, known as the Action
Learning Project, which supported 90 action research projects in which teachers
introduced a wide variety of initiatives aiming to improve the quality of student
learning. His research in the following areas has been particularly highly cited:
student approaches to learning and the influence of teaching and assessment on
them; the Chinese and Asian learner; motivation; reflective thinking; teachers’
beliefs about and approaches to teaching; action learning and research for teaching
quality improvement; distance and online learning.
Michael Corbett is an educational sociologist whose work draws on social theory,

as well as historical and geographic traditions. He has worked in the School of
Education at Acadia University in Canada since 2002 with a three-year sojourn at
the University of Tasmania (2015–2017) where he held a research professorship in
rural and regional education, and where he continues to hold an adjunct
professorship. His work focuses principally on rural education, and he is a global
leader in this field. He has studied youth educational decision-making, mobilities
and education, the politics of educational assessment, literacies in rural contexts,
improvisation and the arts in education, the position of rural identities and expe-
rience in education, conceptions of space and place, the viability of small rural
schools, and ‘wicked’ policy problems and controversies in education.
xvii
xviii Editors and Contributors
Contributors
Ananda Aryal School of Education, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS,

Australia
Kim Beasy School of Education, College of the Arts, Law and Education,
University of Tasmania, Launceston, Australia
Emma Buchanan Graduate School of Education, University of Melbourne,
Parkvile, Australia
Rosemary Callingham School of Education, University of Tasmania,
Launceston, Australia
Michael Corbett School of Education, Acadia University, Wolfville, NS, Canada
Vaughan Cruickshank Faculty of Education, University of Tasmania,
Launceston, TAS, Australia
Sarah Doyle NHS Education for Scotland, Edinburgh, UK
Lexi Earl School of Education, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
Sherridan Emery College of Arts, Law and Education, University of Tasmania,
Si Fan School of Education, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS, Australia
Jill Fielding-Wells Learning Sciences Institute, Australian Catholic University,
Brisbane, QLD, Australia
Noleine Fitzallen School of Education, College of Arts, Law, and Education,
University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
Julie Godwin University of New England, Armidale, Australia
Bill Green Charles Sturt University, Bathurst, Australia
Ian Hay School of Education, University of Tasmania, Launceston, Australia
David Hicks Faculty of Education, University of Tasmania, Launceston, Australia
Joanne Higginson Melbourne Graduate School of Education, University of
Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
Allen Hill Ara Institute of Technology, Christchurch, Otautahi, New Zealand
Anne Hugo School of Education, College of Arts, Law and Education, University
of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS, Australia
MaryAnn Hunter School of Education, College of Arts, Law and Education,
University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS, Australia
Editors and Contributors xix
Stephen Kelly School of Education, University of New England, Armidale, NSW,

Australia
David Kember Faculty of Education, University of Tasmania, Launceston,
Australia
Kevin Kezabu University of Tasmania, Launceston, Australia
Sue Kilpatrick University of Tasmania, Launceston, Australia
Val Kitchener University of Tasmania, Launceston, Australia
Subhash Koirala Widening Participation Unit, Macquarie University, Sydney,
Australia
Steven Lewis Research for Educational Impact (REDI) Centre, Deakin University,
Burwood, Australia
Abbey MacDonald College of Arts, Law and Education (CALE), University of
Tasmania, Newnham Campus, Launceston, TAS, Australia
Ahmar Mahboob Department of Linguistics, University of Sydney, Sydney,
NSW, Australia
Julie McLeod University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
Jenny McMahon School of Education, University of Tasmania, Launceston,
TAS, Australia
Mary O’Dowd Central Queensland University, Rockhampton, QLD, Australia;
W. John Phelps University of Tasmania, Launceston, Australia
Mary Lou Rasmussen School of Sociology, Australian National University,
Canberra, Australia
Robyn Reaburn School of Education, University of Tasmania, Launceston,
Australia
Bronwyn Reynolds University of Tasmania, Tasmania, Australia
Laura Rodriguez Castro Griffith University, Southport, QLD, Australia
Adnan Satariyan University of Tasmania, Tasmania, Australia
Megan Short School of Education, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS,
Australia
Angela Thomas University of Tasmania, Launceston, Australia
Damon Thomas University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS, Australia
Vinh To University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS, Australia
Joan Webb University of Tasmania, Launceston, Tasmania, Australia
xx Editors and Contributors
Danielle Williams School of Health Sciences, University of Tasmania, Hobart,

Australia
Melissa Joy Wolfe Faculty of Education, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC,
Australia
Qian Wu Faculty of Education, College of Arts, Law and Education, University of
Tasmania, Launceston, TAS, Australia
Ee-Seul Yoon Faculty of Education, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada
Louise Zarmati University of Tasmania, Launceston, Australia
Chris Zehntner Faculty of Education, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS,
Australia
Part A
Introduction
Chapter 1
Critical Reflections on the Conventional
Thesis Structure and a Guide
to the Research Questions
Addressed in the Book
David Kember
Abstract The chapter describes the voyages of discovery as an examiner and

supervisor which led me to question the suitability of the conventional thesis
structure, devised for the scientific method, for research students in the social
sciences, who generally eschew the scientific method. These personal voyages of
discovery eventually became a collective voyage, as many research students and
supervisors shared similar concerns about the conventional thesis structure and had
explored alternatives. The voyages led to the formation of four research questions.
These are introduced in the chapter as they are explored through the book. (1) Why
do examiners often find theses hard to read when research students in non-scientific
disciplines adopt the conventional structure of the scientific method? (2) Why do
students in non-scientific disciplines struggle to write up the outcomes of their
research in the conventional structure? (3) What alternative thesis structures can be
devised which better suit the wide range of methods, theories and paradigms
commonly followed in education and the social sciences? (4) What range of
methods, theories and paradigms are commonly adopted by education and social
science students and what issues do these pose when students write their theses?
A Voyage of Discovery
A voyage of discovery going from personal experiences to explore theory and move
in a more or less convoluted way towards identifying research questions is an
appropriate starting point for the book as it is what many, if not most, education
students do. Indeed, it is what many research students in professional disciplines do.
Unlike many science students who go directly from an undergraduate degree to a
research one, education students tend to go into professional practice on graduation,
usually as a teacher. Most stay as teachers, but some become so embroiled with a
D. Kember (&)
Faculty of Education, University of Tasmania, Launceston, Australia
e-mail: david.kember@utas.edu.au
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018 3

D. Kember and M. Corbett (eds.), Structuring the Thesis,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_1
4 D. Kember
particular issue in their professional practice that they move on to investigating or

tackling it through a research degree.
However, they do not move in a flash of insight from recognizing a problem to
researching it. Most struggle with a bundle of complex issues for an extended
period. As often with wicked problems, it is hard to even define the problem,
let alone solve it.
Even when they feel they have taken it far enough to enroll for a research higher
degree, they usually still front up with an ill-defined topic to research. Cook (1998)
writes of the mess of the initial stages of action research projects and how those initial
stages are concerned with resolving the mess sufficiently to set out on a project.
My Two Germinating Voyages
This book has come about through two inter-related voyages of discovery of my
own. The first was as an examiner of theses. In this voyage I became increasingly
disillusioned with having to wade through voluminous and often turgid tomes. The
journey was often circuitous, as the theses often did not offer a straightforward
well-signposted path. Other experienced examiners expressed similar sentiments.
The second voyage of discovery was as a supervisor. When I moved to my
current position I took on a heavy supervision load with students tackling a diverse
range of projects. As students started writing up, I often found myself suggesting
major changes to initial drafts as attempts to write about findings using the con-
ventional thesis structure did not seem to adequately communicate the findings of
the project. I moved to suggesting structures before writing commenced.
In the next two sections I will analyse and reflect upon these two voyages. In
course of these voyages I was moving, over an extended period of time, from a
growing unease about thesis structures to a position where I could identify the
issues and articulate them sufficiently clearly that research questions could be
formulated. These questions could then be posed to colleagues to turn the voyages
from a lonely journey into a collective itinerary for a large team of colleagues.
The Voyage as an Examiner
To bring some clarity and sense of direction for the reader I will signpost this
section by starting with the formulated research question, then presenting a series of
reflections on the question. In practice, the voyage was much more circuitous than
this, but as with a thesis, presenting every wrong turn and diversion confuses the
reader.
The first research question is formulated as a general question suitable to be
addressed within the book, rather than the personal reflective question I had been
toying with over time.
1 Critical Reflections on the Conventional Thesis Structure … 5
Research Question 1
Why do examiners often find theses hard to read when research students in
non-scientific disciplines adopt the conventional structure of the scientific method?
The Voice
I find most theses tend not to be enjoyable to read. I usually take on the role of
examiner out of a sense of academic duty or because the project is in my area of
expertise, rather than because I expect a gripping read.
One of the reasons is that research students frequently excise themselves from their
theses. As explained earlier, most education research students research a topic related
to their professional practice, which has gripped them sufficiently to undertake a
highly demanding higher degree. Yet when it comes to writing the thesis the traveler
disappears from the voyage of discovery and there is no narrative of the voyage.
Use of the first person is often avoided in favour of a neutral or impersonal
voice. A passive tense is preferred to an active one. It is as if the task of performing
the research study has been handed over to an automaton. The impersonal or third
person writing emanates from the positivist tradition, in which the researcher is a
neutral observer. Positivist researchers should not influence or disturb the system or
scenario they are investigating.
The hesitancy to write in the first person results from the way students are taught
and conditioned to write during their undergraduate degrees. They are required to
justify their arguments by citing authoritative sources. Personal opinions and
observations are not valued.
I will contrast this position with an action research one, as this is one of my areas of
expertise and I have examined and supervised theses of this type. Action research is a
type of research that requires participants to examine their practice and positively
embraces change. Indeed, action researchers have drawn on the classic phrase of Karl
Marx and Frederick Engels in The German Ideology (1845), ‘We are here to change
the world, not to study it’. Participatory action research in which the researcher is an
active agent with respect to their own practice is recognized as legitimate.
The action research genre is highly consistent with the types of project under-
taken by education and social science research students in which they seek to better
understand and improve their practice towards a particular aspect of their profes-
sional role. As they are the major actor in the study, it makes eminent sense to write
in the first person and give a personalized account of their actions, observations and
reflections.
The Role and Position of the Literature Review
The most tedious part of a thesis is invariably the literature review. Often as much
as 100 pages of tedium. It is also common to find that substantial parts of the review
6 D. Kember
have limited relevance to the research project. Theses which manage to integrate
well the literature review with findings and discussion are not common.
The conventional position of the literature review is as Chapter 2. This makes
perfect sense for scientific disciplines. Research students commonly progress
straight from an undergraduate degree into a project chosen by their supervisor.
The first task, therefore, is to read everything that has been written which relates to
the topic area chosen by the supervisor and to make a record in the form of a
literature review. From this a hypothesis or tightly specified research question can
be formulated.
However, education students usually enter research following a period of pro-
fessional practice and have, at least, a tentative idea of what they want to research.
That topic, though, will usually be more of an ill-defined issue than the testable
hypothesis of their scientific counterparts. The research project, therefore, tends to
be more exploratory.
With ill-defined problems and exploratory methods, it is often not easy to
determine, in advance, which literature will be relevant to a study. Yet social
science students are routinely required to jump through the hoop of writing a
literature review, usually as a confirmation of candidature requirement, in doctoral
coursework, or as comprehensive dissertation proposals, which are typically
required prior to data gathering and thesis writing.
To get over this hurdle, the research students do what the confirmation com-
mittee and standard books on doing a research degree tell them to do—they write an
extensive review of literature relating to their field of study. However, for an
ill-defined study a crystal ball is needed if the literature selected is to be relevant to
their study. If it turns out that some of the review is of limited relevance, it still stays
in the thesis so all the hard work does not go to waste.
Writing the literature review before the study has started means that comparison
with results is often reduced. There is often reluctance to repeat what is in the
literature review in the discussion chapter, so comparison of results to literature
becomes indirect.
Convoluted Writing Structure
The lack of links between literature and discussion relates to the next issue. I often
found myself looking backwards and forwards through a thesis, trying to follow
what had been written about a particular topic. A topic might be referred to in every
chapter in the conventional structure. Few theses made a good job of
cross-referencing, and even if they did, there was a lot of jumping backwards and
forwards to follow the thread.
The problem is confounded by social science dealing with complex messy
topics. Most studies, therefore, have to deal with many themes and topics. Trying to
follow each theme when it is split between multiple chapters can be very
demanding.
The Supervisor Journey
The supervisor journey was shorter in time but possibly required a greater con-
ceptual leap. It has mainly taken place since my appointment to the Education
Faculty at the University of Tasmania. I entered a Faculty short of experienced
supervisors, but with a growing cohort of research higher degree students of diverse
backgrounds undertaking a wide range of projects. Team supervision is the norm,
so I found myself as a member of teams for students undertaking an interesting
diversity of types of project. As a senior professor, I also had an advisory role on
bodies such as confirmation of candidature committees, for an even more diverse
range of projects.
When it came to students writing first drafts of their thesis, all too often, there
was a great deal of red ink, track changes comments and re-writing. Co-supervisors
and I frequently found first drafts, which invariably were conventional in structure,
did not seem to be a good way to present the study.
Suggesting ways to re-write started to lead to insights into problems with the
conventional structure. This made me think of alternative ways of structuring a
thesis. I started suggesting structures before students began writing. This eventually
led to the formulation of a second research question.
Research Question 2
Why do students in non-scientific disciplines struggle to write up the outcomes of
their research in the conventional structure?
Again I will follow the question with four sub-sections, which are my reflections
on the issues that seemed to be material to the problems students were having when
they try to fit their thesis to the conventional structure. Interestingly, there are close
parallels to the reflections on research question 1.
Starting Point
Many students found it hard to start their thesis. In initial discussions they might
have recounted the personal experiences, which motivated them to commit to a
research degree. However, many have been reluctant to start their thesis by
recounting their personal journey.
Conventional research methods texts and courses usually see a research study
originating from a research question. Yet, they often have little to say about where
the research question comes from. In many disciplines it comes from the supervisor.
The start of the thesis is then impersonal. It might include a brief background to the
topic area and a justification for the research question derived from the literature.
However, an impersonal introduction seems inappropriate if the study is being
undertaken as a result of personal experiences and insights. It seems more sensible
to start by recounting the journey.
8 D. Kember
In some cases it is not clear where the research project starts. Some experienced
practitioners take initiatives to improve their practice and might have been doing
this for quite some time before enrolling in a research degree. Writing the thesis as
though the study started at the time of enrolment seems inappropriate, though, as
the journey of discovery started earlier, sometimes much earlier.
Voice
A connected issue is the voice adopted. If research is being conducted as a personal

voyage of discovery, it is surely inappropriate to write about it in the third person
and a passive tense. A voyage of discovery needs to highlight the traveler.
Organising According to Emerging Themes
Consistent with the complexity of topics in the social sciences, when students
analyse qualitative data, they find multiple emerging themes, often interconnected
in complex ways. A research question will generate many answers or issues. Putting
all the themes into a single Results chapter can result in a very lengthy chapter that
is hard to navigate.
A more successful structure seemed to be that of having a chapter that intro-
duced all the themes and placed them in an organizational framework. This was
then followed by a series of chapters; one for each major theme.
Position of the Literature Review
Presenting the results of the analysis theme-by-theme in separate chapters also

helped in dealing with the literature. There is a need for a short introduction to the
literature near the start of the thesis. However, the bulk of the literature fitted better
into the thematic chapters. As the results relevant to each theme were presented,
they could be compared to relevant literature.
Research Students’ Voyages Towards Alternative

Structures
These initial explorations of alternative thesis structures seemed to work well.

Students were able to fit the outcomes of their research into the structures and found
the organizational clarity helped their writing. Co-supervisors found the drafts well
presented and clear to read. Other academics expressed an interest in the process.
A few talked about how their own thesis or those of past or present students had
structures which differed from the conventional one.
There seemed to be sufficient interest and momentum to invite other travelers to
join the voyage of discovery. This led to the formulation of the third research
question, which is addressed in Parts B, C, D and E of the book.
Research Question 3
What alternative thesis structures can be devised which better suit the wide range of
methods, theories and paradigms commonly followed in education and the social
sciences?
Parts B, C, D and E of the book portrays research students’ voyages of dis-
covery, accompanied by their supervisors, as they come to grips with: defining what
it is they want to research; relating the research to relevant theories; and, situating
the research within a paradigm. Then we move to the part that is more germane to
the theme of the book which is finding an appropriate structure to record the voyage
as a thesis. Research question 3 is addressed by each of the students who present
their thesis structure in Parts B, C, D and E. Each structure is explained and justified
in terms of the methods, theories and paradigms adopted for the research study.
Methods, Theories and Paradigms
It had become clear that the need to explore alternative structures arose because
students in education and the social sciences were not following the scientific
method for which the conventional structure was devised. This is the general
problem of coming to understand the difference and the connections between a
particular research problem, theory, and method. Here the HDR student in the social
sciences encounters the initially daunting, but ultimately generative and enriching
challenge of developing a creative and more or less unique methodology. Thus,
dealing adequately with research question 3 clearly needed a parallel exploration of
the underlying methods, theories and paradigms adopted. This led to research
question 4.
Research Question 4
sciences?
This, as students in education typically come to learn, is not simply the appli-
cation of a generic set of methods that can be used to test a hypothesis.
The apparently simple practitioners’ problem of finding ‘what works’ (Biesta 2007,
2010) through some analysis of established best practice or applying a standard set
of supposedly scientific instruments to a seemingly straightforward educational
problem (Lather 2004) seldom fits the messiness of the problems practitioners
experience in educational settings.
10 D. Kember
Indeed, the more HDR students think about these problems, the more complex
they tend to become and the more inadequate generic and standardized approaches
appear. What tends to happen is that as research progresses students begin to
understand that how they theorise the research problem suggests particular meth-
ods, which are located in paradigmatic traditions in the social sciences. They
realize, in other words, that they must design their research and that these design
choices are largely theirs to make.
In the example chapters, the students were asked to address research question 4
by responding to explicit questions, posed in headings, about the methods, para-
digms and theories which underpinned their research. In the chapters they then
reflect upon how the adoption of these methods, theories and paradigms impacted
upon writing about their research. They are asked to explain how the resulting
structure and form of their thesis suits the method, findings and content.
Parts B, C, D and E each commence with a framing chapter. In these supervisors
and researchers experienced in the paradigm addressed by the Part of the book are
asked to address research question 4 by presenting outcomes of supervisors’ voyages
of discovery into the theoretical, methodological and paradigmatic frameworks
which guide the voyages of discovery of the research students they supervise.
The authors of the framing chapters were asked to address the following ques-
tions, which are sub-questions of research question 4.
• How have you come to theory?
• How has this influenced your thinking about research methods?
• How do you support your students as they think through theory, method and the
way that they are linked (methodology)?
• What suggestions do you make for structuring theses?
Through an analysis of these questions a group of supervisors discuss the ways that
they support their students to think about the connections between their topics and
the thought streams in the discipline of education and in the social sciences more
generally. This takes the journey in another direction, one that connects our aca-
demic traveler journeying through problems that came to him or her through an
engagement in practice onward to frameworks and paths that other travelers have
created in their voyages of discovery.
It is here that the research student enters what Michael Oakeshott called the
grand conversation (Plotica 2015) and offers what is often referred to as a ‘con-
tribution to knowledge’ which involves taking steps to locate one’s own work in
relation to other important work in the academic field. The concept of field as it is
employed by Pierre Bourdieu (1984, 1992) is useful here to help us understand the
journey that many education researchers make as they encounter new ideas, ways of
working, standards of evidence, language use, and generally, the range of normative
practices that constitute and make a field coherent.
An important step for the practitioner aspiring to become an academic researcher
is to develop familiarity with theoretical, methodological and paradigmatic dis-
courses that are not commonly engaged in the professional field. At the same time
though, experience or what Lee Schulman (2004) calls the wisdom of practice
continues to inform and inflect the way that many educational researchers approach
their projects. The journey then typically involves some form of integration the
known and the unknown straddling fields or working within the tensions in the
in-between third space rather than settling comfortably in one or the other.
The Conventional Structure
In a chapter which has reflected upon and critiqued the conventional structure for
writing theses, according to the scientific method, it seems appropriate to include a
section on the conventional structure. This will consider: what it is; its prevalence;
and some issues concerned with adopting alternative structures.
The literature on the conventional structure, appropriate to the scientific method,
is voluminous. Numerous research methods texts, university thesis writing guide-
lines and publication manuals detail it. Reviewing this body of literature would be
an arduous task and would serve little purpose in this context.
To establish what the conventional structure is, I will turn to the APA
Publication Guidelines (American Psychological Association 2009), as these are
probably the most widely adopted guidelines in education and many of the social
sciences. Undergraduate students are commonly required to follow the guidelines
for referencing. Other sections of the manual are drawn upon as models for the
presentation of theses.
Chapter 2 of the manual specifies the structure of a manuscript. It is to consist of
the following elements:
• Abstract
• Literature review
• Introduction
• Method
• Results
• Discussion
• Conclusion.
This constitutes the conventional thesis structure. The manual is unequivocal about
the structure. There is no discussion of any alternatives and there are detailed
guidelines for what goes in each element. While there are exceptions, most con-
ventional research methods/methodology textbooks that provide a more detailed
exposition of this idealized thesis structure essentially operate on the assumption
that this is what the thesis ought to look like. We think it is interesting, and
something of an omission, that there are few research methods text that take actual
examples of dissertation work and attempt to analyze how the research process
works in the field. This is the approach we take in this book.
To what extent the conventional structure is prevalent or entrenched is hard to
answer. There are so many theses produced each year in the social sciences that it
would be a substantial task to examine the structures of even a representative
12 D. Kember
sample. We are convinced though, through our own experience as supervisors and
in our conversations with colleagues beginning their academic careers that few if
any actually followed the plot laid out in standard research texts. That we have been
able to put together a book with a sizeable number of examples of alternative
structures indicates that use of the conventional structure is certainly not exclusive.
However, all we really need to establish at this point is that we are not presenting a
straw man argument. I suspect readers will need little convincing of this: the
voluminous literature presenting the conventional structure is surely sufficient
evidence that the structure is well established and extensively followed. These texts
rather obviously have an audience.
A convincing argument for the value of this book is that, while there is abundant
guidance for students wishing to use the conventional structure, we could find little
for those who wished to use an alternative structure. There are thesis writing
guidelines and research methods texts, which accept that alternative structures are
possible and can be appropriate, but we could not find much that went beyond
admitting the possibility towards providing helpful guidance. This is the gap in the
research methodology literature that we hope this book suggests, and to some
extent fills.
To substantiate this assertion, reference can be made to the process for getting
the book accepted for publication. In proposals, publishers ask for information
about competing titles. Our response to this question was that we could not find any
competing titles. We tried hard to find any, as assertions of this nature can backfire
if found to be inaccurate. However, the publisher or reviewers did not challenge the
assertion. We, therefore feel that it is reasonable to claim that this book has resulted
from a collective voyage of discovery into the unknown. In this book we attend to
actual research journeys rather than to an idealised conception of how research
ought to be conducted. We hope that higher degree students in education and
indeed, in other social science disciplines find value in this book and in our way of
working back from a body of recent work by scholars beginning their academic
careers.
References
American Psychological Association. (2009). Publication manual of the American Psychological

Association. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Biesta, G. (2007). Why ‘what works’ won’t work: Evidence-based practice and the democratic
deficit in educational research. Educational Theory, 57(1), 1–22.
Biesta, G. J. J. (2010). Why ‘what works’ still won’t work: From evidence-based education to
value-based education. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 29(5), 491–503.
Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction: A social critique of the judgment of taste. Cambridge: Harvard
University Press.
Bourdieu, P. (1992). The logic of practice. (R. Nice, Trans.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University
Press.
Cook, T. (1998). The importance of mess in action research. Educational Action Research, 6(1),
93–108.
Lather, P. (2004). Scientific research in education: A critical perspective1. British Educational

Research Journal, 30(6), 759–772.
Marx, K., & Engels, F. (1845). The German ideology. Republished (1947). New York:
International Publishers.
Plotica, L. P. (2015). Michael Oakeshott and the conversation of modern political thought. New
York: SUNY Press.
Shulman, L. S. (2004). The wisdom of practice: Essays on teaching, learning, and learning to
teach. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
David Kember is Professor in Education: Curriculum Methods and Pedagogy in the Faculty of
Education at the University of Tasmania. Prior to that he worked in Hong Kong for 25 years. The
initial position was at the Polytechnic University, then Chinese University and finally as a
Professor in Higher Education at the University of Hong Kong. He spent six years running an
inter-institutional initiative, operating across the eight universities in Hong Kong, known as the
Action Learning Project, which supported 90 action research projects in which teachers introduced
a wide variety of initiatives aiming to improve the quality of student learning. His research in the
following areas has been particularly highly cited: student approaches to learning and the influence
of teaching and assessment on them; the Chinese and Asian learner; motivation; reflective
thinking; teachers’ beliefs about and approaches to teaching; action learning and research for
teaching quality improvement; distance and online learning.
Chapter 2
The Collective Voyage of Discovery:
How the Book Was Developed
and Produced
David Kember and Michael Corbett
Abstract As the book is quite novel we feel it would be helpful if we explained the
guidelines we have given to authors and the processes we incorporated in devel-
oping the book. We asked the past and current research students to describe their
own voyages of discovery to capture some of the tensions researchers go through as
they struggle to find a methodological approach to tackle their project. This is often
initially perplexing as research students in the social sciences usually come from a
background of professional practice and wish to research a complex issue of interest
or concern from that practice. To present both their solution to the methodological,
paradigmatic and theoretical issues and the way they accordingly presented and
structured their thesis, we asked the authors of the 32 example chapters to use a
common template. This asked them to explain: what the thesis was about; the
methods, paradigms and theories drawn upon; and, the resulting structure of the
thesis. The template ensures that the important common elements are present in
each chapter, but still provides authors with sufficient flexibility to accommodate
very different voyages of discovery and resulting thesis structures.
The Collective Voyage
The previous chapter explained how an individual voyage of discovery morphed

into a collective voyage. This chapter narrates the story of this collective voyage.
It is not common for an edited book to describe the process for its development.
In many cases of edited books, authors of individual chapters have little contact
with each other. Reviewing of chapters is normal, but is usually by reviewers other
than chapter authors. Quality is assured by the original choice of chapter authors,
D. Kember (&)
M. Corbett
School of Education, Acadia University, Wolfville, NS B4P 2R6, Canada
e-mail: michael.corbett@acadiau.ca; michael.corbett@utas.edu.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_2
16 D. Kember and M. Corbett
based on their previous writing on related topics. First drafts are then enhanced
through the reviewing process. A sense of coherence can be sought by the choice of
authors and chapter topics, and by the editors producing a concluding review.
For this book, though, we were seeking authors to write on a topic none of them
had written about before. The topic is specified in the title of the book; Structuring the
thesis—matching method, paradigm, theory and findings. Chapter 1 clearly defined
what the book is about, with research question 3 particularly pertinent at this point.
Research Question 3
sciences?
We, therefore, felt that the process of constructing the book needed to be
underpinned by a set of activities which similarly enabled us to explore the topic
together and inform our writing about it. We felt that the book would be enhanced
considerably if it were developed through a genuine collective voyage of discovery.
The process of development is, therefore, integral to exploring the topic and how
we collectively enhanced our understanding of it.
This is also an ethical point as well, in the sense that we do not wish to provide
authoritative prescriptions to the beginning HDR student that offer a set of abstract
procedures to be followed in order to produce quality research. Instead, we work in
the opposite direction, beginning with the finished work of recently graduated or
nearly graduated HDR students who provide, in the coming chapters, specific
accounts of their particular research voyages. We see this as a way of orientating
HDR students through narratives that introduce the complexities and nuances of
educational and social science research as they have been experienced by other
fellow travellers who have recently taken their own journeys.
Rationale for the Critical Discussion: Questions

Rather Than Answers
To begin with, we had only a general sense of the kinds of dissertation work that
students in our Faculty were undertaking. Each of us had worked with a good
number of graduate/HDR students, and, as we point out in the preceding chapters,
we encountered students whose work was typically developed out of a practical
engagement in education systems, both domestic and international. This work spans
the range and breadth within particular educational systems from early childhood to
doctoral level study. The work is also located in different national contexts with
differently constituted centralised or decentralised systems, different social, politi-
cal, economic and cultural contexts. We found though, across these differences,
there tended to be a common interest in addressing pragmatic problems, or to use
Canadian education scholar Lorri Neilsen’s lovely phrase, ‘stones in the shoe’
2 The Collective Voyage of Discovery: How the Book Was Developed … 17
(1994). In other words, most education research students begin not with a deep
immersion in educational theory; nor do they tend to begin in the disciplines out of
which this theory is derived. Neither do they tend to arrive for HDR study with a
particular methodology in mind, although most have a general sense about whether
they want to work quantitatively (for the most part with surveys) or qualitatively
(typically using interviews and focus groups). Rather, in our experience, students
tend to think about educational problems in terms of teaching, learning, adminis-
tration, leadership and curriculum, not as abstract academic fields, but rather as
practical discourses that have some bearing on their work as educators.
Some higher degree students see themselves as ‘coming out’ of professional
practice as teachers, principals and system administrators seeking a different way of
looking at commonplace problems they have encountered. Others want to use
research to continue their existing practice in order to enter more deeply into this
practice through a more intentional and studied engagement. Frankly, many enter
higher degree students arrive with the view that they already know something
important that they wish to share with colleagues and with those of us in the
academy who live and work far from the ‘chalkface’. They very often want to
explore the ‘wisdom of practice’ (Britzman and Greene 2003; Schulman 2004) and
share their acquired learning back into the professional field, armed with the
authority of an advanced degree.
Each of these orientations carries with it a core feature which is some level of
personal engagement and history with/in professional practice. The challenge we
face as university educators is to help practice-oriented teachers, principals and
system administrators to think in terms of researchable questions instead of
pre-formulated answers received from ‘what the research says,’ from some notion
of data that provides a form of transparent truth about reality, or from an established
and authoritative idea of transcontextual ‘best practice’. One part of this challenge is
to work with our students to help them understand that all practice is fundamentally
theoretical, and indeed that theory is not the opposite of practice or even the result
of practice. Rather, theory is practice and vice versa.
Thus, the journey for higher degree students who have been immersed in years,
or even decades of professional practice, is to make the shift to thinking about
themselves, their work and their research inquiries as fundamentally implicated in
educational theory. For many students, the challenge is to find the implicit and often
unconsciously held theory that animates and even explains their practice and how
they understand human agency more generally. For others, it is a matter of reading
deeply into fields of educational thought to find the bodies of ideas that resonate or
make sense to them, and that help them see and understand the ordinary landscapes
of practice in a way that raises fresh, authentic and genuinely researchable ques-
tions. For still others who enter higher degree research in education with a more or
less explicit direction, the task is to discover who else has been considering similar
questions, and how they have gone about trying to answer them. Again, theory is
indispensible for this level of work and through the text we return to theoretical
discussions that are not common in standard research methods texts which tend to
be almost exclusively procedural and method-focussed.
The problems confronted by higher degree students can be, to some extent,
supported by standard research texts that lay out the fundamental distinctions
between qualitative and quantitative research and provide detailed road maps for
how to develop a standard and legitimate structure for a research project. Indeed,
many, if not most, beginning HDR students are looking for precisely this kind of
text. Finding the ‘right’ way to answer research questions is a common preoccu-
pation. Yet in our experience, most students discover rather quickly that the stan-
dard research text is not particularly helpful when they get into the meat of their
inquiries. They find that the literature takes them in directions that raise difficult
questions about the ontological and epistemological dimensions of their work
which are not really addressed by the rather simplistic slicing and dicing of reality
and how to approach and represent it found in most social research texts.
Developing a powerful and meaningful research question often is more complicated
than the formulaic approach imagines. They often find the research process that
engages them is more specific to the particularity of the situations HDR students
understand through their practical experience and also to the places they want to do
their research. They learn that rather than applying a standard method to their
problem, they must create a theoretically consistent methodology of their own.
They also learn in the process about the multiple methods at their disposal beyond
the standard interview and survey adding to the complexity and also to the richness
and creativity possible in the research act.
This book traces the journey into and through the process of structuring a thesis,
from developing a question, to thinking about theory and method and how to put
them together, to writing up the results. We divide this work somewhat arbitrarily
into four broad categories of inquiry, each of which is informed by particular kinds
of theory, which in turn suggests different methodological approaches. Indeed, our
sense of methodology is bricolage (Berry 2006) or a creative putting-together of
theory and method into a way of asking worthwhile questions about social phe-
nomena in a complex world.
Call for Chapters
The initial call for chapter proposals was when the voyage of discovery started to
become collective. We knew from conversations with colleagues with supervisory
experience that there was interest in a book about alternative thesis structures. To
see if there was sufficient interest to make a book viable, a call for chapter proposals
was sent out to all academic staff and research higher degree students in the
Education Faculty of the University of Tasmania where we both worked at the
beginning of this project in 2016.
The call requested chapter proposals in the form of the chapter template
described below. The proposal asked for responses to each of the questions in the
chapter template. It was in the form of a short proposal though and just one
paragraph was required in response to each question or heading.
To our surprise, no less than 21 proposals were received. They represented an

interesting range of topics, methods, underpinning theories and structures deviating
from the conventional. There were definitely enough submissions to formulate a
proposal to the publisher, which would give a clear indication of the intention and
the form of the book.
Expanded Call
The response from the publisher was generally positive, with one significant caveat
raised by reviewers. They were concerned that the recruitment of chapter authors
was focused too exclusively upon the University of Tasmania. This presented an
opportunity to widen the input, not just in terms of the affiliation of authors, but also
in terms of the methodologies and theories drawn upon. We also expanded the call
more explicitly to our junior colleagues in the Faculty who were recently graduated
PhDs, as well as to current and recently graduated HDR candidates.
We also accepted the critique of the reviewers and decided that what we wanted, in
addition to the work of our students and colleagues, was a number of contributions
from leading education theorists and researchers working in universities around
Australia. We were particularly interested in finding cutting-edge research or higher
degree students working with what we call ‘emerging theory’. Mike put out a vari-
ation of our original call to a number of leading academics working theoretically in
curriculum studies and the sociology of education, virtually all of whom responded
positively suggesting those of their students whose dissertation projects were both
new and representative of interesting and important theoretical and methodological
work. These additional calls for proposals yielded an even wider variety of work and
approaches represented in the text you are reading here. We had the crucial ‘raw
material’ for developing a research text that focuses primarily on actual concrete and
current HDR research efforts. Thus, the project was set in motion and our bottom-up
approach to designing a research methodology text was born.
Chapter Template
Our initial challenge was to support chapter authors who were asked to write on a
topic that none of them had written about before. Furthermore, we had been unable
to find similar or competing books, which might have served as a model. It,
therefore, seemed sensible to provide guidance to chapter authors, which is what we
did, in part to support the chapter authors and lend clarity, but also to provide
consistency for beginning HDR students who would read this text. We wanted to
provide a format for each chapter that would generate a related and coherent set of
analyses of the research process that was flexible enough to accommodate the broad
range of topics, theoretical orientations and methodological approaches present in
this diverse body of proposals, but which was not so flexible that the book would
offer little comprehensible and solid guidance.
Chapter 1 introduced the four generative research questions about research itself
that we asked the authors to use as they prepared their substantive chapters. As the
authors addressed research question 4 in their chapters, it seemed sensible to base
our guidance to them upon this question:
Research Question 4
What range of methods, theories and paradigms are commonly adopted by edu-
cation and social science students and what issues do these pose when students
write their theses?
To prompt the authors to focus their chapters to answer this question, a template
was developed. The template contained a series of headings that prompted the
writers to answer the sub-parts of research question 4 and to structure their chapters
in a consistent way, which focuses clearly on the issues explored by this book.
The headings in the template are as follows.
• Research question
• What was the study about?
• What was the method?
• What were the theories and paradigms employed?
• Structure
• Contents page
• Commentary.
The research question in the chapter template asked for a research question for the
chapter; not the one authors used in their thesis. It was expected to be in the
following form. What is an appropriate structure for reporting a study of subject
matter X, following paradigm Y, and adopting methodology Z?
The structure part of the template asked for a guide to the formulation of the
thesis structure in parts, chapters and main sections. This is illustrated by the major
elements of the contents page. In the commentary, authors were asked to explain
how the structure of their thesis is consistent with the paradigm, methodology,
theories and subject matter. The commentary also provided an opportunity to dis-
cuss issues in writing the thesis. They could, and typically did, reflect upon how the
adoption of these methods, theories and paradigms impacted upon writing about
their research illustrating in most cases how theory, method, practice and the
paradigmatic traditions within which the research was situated are entangled in
particular ways.
This approach, while fairly formulaic, did simultaneously allow authors both
space to think about their particular way of working and a clear structure for
reporting the process that is consistent with those of other chapter authors who were
obviously working on different projects.
Initial Workshops
Following the release of the template guidelines we conducted two sessions of an

initial workshop, held soon after the project had been finalized. One session was
broadcast via a video conference to the three University of Tasmania campuses.
The other was a Skype link-up for the remainder of participants who were in other
universities in other parts of the world.
The initial workshop took the form of a general briefing and discussion. There
was a discussion of the process to be used for producing the book with attendant
timelines. The response to the proposal for the critical discussion sessions was very
positive. Those whose were still working on their theses were particularly appre-
ciative of the proposed sessions, and they anticipated gaining insights that could
improve their research process and dissertation. The discussions ranged from
introducing and learning about the substantive focus of one another’s research, to
the pragmatics of aligning the chapters and their content, to more scholarly dis-
cussions about how different students structured their work, made choices, came to
theory, developed methodology, and how they considered their work to be
important in terms of contributions to knowledge.
On the purely practical side of things, the chapter template was discussed.
Guidelines were given for what to focus on, and there was also discussion of
appropriate length and content for each section. Use of the styles embedded in the
template were demonstrated by David and we also discussed citation protocols and
how to deal with the publisher’s feedback, timelines and expectations. In other
words, our process reflected the parallel process of working in and with academic
conventions and the structured requirements which surround formal academic
writing.
Discussion Workshops
We then organized a set of four discussion workshops, according to the Parts of the
book. All authors of chapters associated with the respective Part of the book were
invited. Also participating were the authors of the framing chapter for the Part,
together with the editors.
The purpose of these workshops was to explore, through critical dialogue, issues
relating to the writing and structuring of theses within the Part category. These
dialogues, therefore, constituted a process for collectively exploring the issues
underpinning the book. They had an impact on example chapters and also framing
and concluding chapters and generally took on a more in-depth and focused
scholarly tone as authors worked toward the completion of first drafts.
First Drafts of Substantive and Framing Chapters
Chapter authors were asked to complete first drafts of chapters within 6 months of
contracts being signed. Perhaps rather surprisingly for a book with so many
chapters, only a few authors needed a short extension. There are in this book, four
parts, each containing a collection of substantive chapters written by current or
recently graduated HDR students. Each of the four parts is introduced by what we
call ‘framing chapters’ that respond to the substantive chapters.
Once the first drafts of the substantive chapters were in, it was possible to start
work on the framing chapters. The authors of these chapters responded to, and
situated the chapters in each section to write the framing commentary. The purpose
of the framing chapters is to provide historical background and contextual surround
in terms of the broad movements of ideas, philosophical traditions and epistemo-
logical and ontological debates that animate particular types of educational research
as well as to speak to how each distinct chapter works differently within these
broader philosophical and methodological flows.
Reviewing
Following the completion of first drafts, a process of peer reviewing of chapters

then commenced. To facilitate the process of collective discovery, fellow chapter
authors conducted the peer reviewing. Each author was asked to select the three
chapters most closely related to his or her own. From these selections, each author
was asked to review one chapter.
The reviewers were asked to act as constructive critical friends. They were asked
to provide constructive comments to the authors to improve their chapters.
In addition, peer-reviewers were asked to write a short commentary if they think
that would be valuable, particularly if they could see useful links, parallels or
comparisons to their own chapter. These were placed at the end of the chapter in the
Commentary section. In this way, the review process contributed to
cross-referencing and enhanced coherence.
Conclusion
We like to think of the process we used not only as a way of generating a set of
useful and diverse chapters for the explicit purposes of this methodology text, but
also as a set of post-doctoral seminars and rich conversations that carry on the best
aspects of doctoral study itself which we take to be critical friendship. In this sense,
we see the process providing an opportunity to HDR students to meet in a way that
combines aspects of the oral thesis defense, but also aspects of a methodological
postmortem/debriefing relating not to the findings themselves (which is what
academics are typically called upon to write and speak about), so much as the
process or journey taken to generate those research conclusions. We think this is
particularly important in those HDR contexts like that of Australia where the dis-
sertation is not defended orally and is simply sent out for external examination.
The process also provided chapter authors an opportunity to think about their
projects in a way that might support others who are at the beginning stages of their
work. This approach does not proceed from a set of ideal-type propositions and
instructions about how research ought to be done as is the case in most research
manuals. Rather, it provides a set of experiential accounts that relate how research
was conceived, structured, carried out and written up. In other words we offer her not
a guide-book to how research should be done, but rather a text that explores multiple
ways in which research was done by a group of HDR students and recent graduates.
Most research methodology texts are more formulaic, and, while they may
mention particular research projects along the way to make a point, actual people
thinking about and doing concrete projects is not the central focus of these texts. We
offer no formulas here and we suggest that the nature of educational research does not
fit particularly well with the standard and sedimented vision of what can be called the
‘scientific method,’ precisely because most educational problems that are taken up by
beginning researchers are inherently ‘wicked’ (Rittell and Webber 1973) and deeply
embedded in the inevitable messiness of practice (Bourdieu 1992; Law 2004).
Simply put, very often, the formula does not fit complexity of the problems that
interest and engage HDR students in education and they soon find themselves on a
journey that winds through the complex relationship between theory, method,
paradigm, identity, social context, choices of data and framing of what counts as
data, standards of evidence, complexities of ethics and reciprocity, structural
choices, styles of academic writing and other modes of representation … in other
words they enact methodology as a complex learning journey rather than a
pre-given process. This book attempts to honour the often transformative, lived
experience of this journey. Rather than simply gesturing toward these issues as
problems to be taken up by beginning researchers and HDR candidates, this book
illustrates how actual people struggling to realise actual research projects have
addressed the crucial and consequantial decisions generated by the human com-
plexity inherent in their research projects.
We feel that this approach is novel and we think that it will serve HDR candidates
well in their own research voyages. Perhaps a good closing analogy for this chapter
is to compare booking a package-tour or a cruise as opposed to setting out seeking to
explore a complex geography more independently and with a unique purpose in
mind. We think that many educational researchers begin with a sense that they are
taking a packaged tour and very quickly become dissatisfied and begin to explore the
complexity and emergent phenomena they find as they move into and through the
terrain. Another important aspect of educational research is that the terrain of
research is often already known to a greater or lesser extent and so the purpose of the
journey or voyage can be to see something that is familiar with new eyes, from
different theoretical perspectives and social locations, in other words to re-search a
territory one thought one knew, but which, when approached through a rich research
question, can yield surprise, insight and ultimately, new and valuable knowledge.
References
Berry, K. (2006). In K. Tobin & J. Kincheloe (Eds.), Doing educational research (pp. 87–115).
Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.
Bourdieu, P. (1992). The logic of practice. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Britzman, D. P., & Greene, M. (2003). Practice makes practice: A critical study of learning to
teach (Revised ed.,). Albany: State University of New York Press.
Law, J. (2004). After method: Mess in social science research. London, New York: Routledge.
Neilsen, L. (1994). A stone in my shoe, teaching literacy in times of change. Winnipeg: Peguis.
Sciences, 4(2), 155–169.
Shulman, L. S. (2004). The wisdom of practice: Essays on teaching, learning, and learning to
teach. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Michael Corbett is an educational sociologist whose work draws on social theory, as well as
historical and geographic traditions. He has worked in the School of Education at Acadia University
in Canada since 2002 with a three-year sojourn at the University of Tasmania (2015–17) where he
held a research professorship in rural and regional education, and where he continues to hold an
adjunct professorship. Corbett’s work focuses principally on rural education and he is a global
leader in this field. He has studied youth educational decision-making, mobilities and education, the
politics of educational assessment, literacies in rural contexts, improvisation and the arts in
education, the position of rural identities and experience in education, conceptions of space and
place, the viability of small rural schools, and ‘wicked’ policy problems and controversies in
education.
Part B
Mixed Methods
Chapter 3
The Paradigmatic Challenge
of Mixed-Methods Research: Positivism,
Relativism or Pragmatism?
Rosemary Callingham and Ian Hay
Abstract Contemporary research in education has been shaped by changing trends

in society over the last 100 years. The aim of this chapter is to highlight the
multifaceted nature of contemporary education research and the challenges this
environment provides to beginning researchers. This paradigmatic issue is explored
across five interconnected themes. (1) Educational research is dynamic and keeping
up to date with developments in theory and practice has to be ongoing. (2) There is
an ongoing transition between theories, to research methodologies, to educational
practices and then back to theories. (3) Educational research cannot occur in a
vacuum and so the context and culture of that research needs to be articulated.
(4) Educational research is often explored using a qualitative or quantitative data
framework but other similarities and differences also need to be considered. (5) The
research methodology needs to work towards answering the specific research
question under investigation. Educational research by its very name means
re-looking, going back again and again, and wondering (theorising) what is hap-
pening and why in education.
Introduction
Contemporary research in education has been shaped by changing trends in society

over the last 100 years. The aim of this chapter is to highlight the multifaceted nature
of contemporary education research and the challenges this environment provides to
beginning researchers. The context of education is complex, life-long focussed and
has a broad range of stake-holders. As an independent discipline, education research
began to emerge towards the end of the 19th century shaped in part by global
conflicts (Lagerman 2000). In America and Australia in particular, the two World
R. Callingham (&) I. Hay

School of Education, University of Tasmania, Launceston, Australia
e-mail: rosemary.callingham@utas.edu.au
I. Hay
e-mail: ian.hay@utas.edu.au; i.hay@utas.edu.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_3
28 R. Callingham and I. Hay
Wars focussed attention on intelligence testing for sorting and selection purposes.
Developing out of the Binet-Simon intelligence scales, the Stanford Binet test was
established by Louis Terman, and was widely regarded as a more ‘objective’
measurement of intelligence (Becker 2003). Education research was firmly estab-
lished in the positivist tradition, and had a focus on testing and measurement of
mental capacity, persisting to solve the problems defined at the time, such as fatigue
in learning, and transfer of learning from one curriculum subject to another, for
example, the notion that teaching Latin was ‘good for the mind’ (Nisbet 2000). The
aim of education research was to identify an objective reality.
Gradually other forms of research began to be recognised. The move to universal
education after each of the World Wars, such as that associated with the ‘baby
boomers’, led to a demand for program evaluation. As more resources were poured
into educating the masses, governments began to want to know how their money
was spent and how effective different programs were. Descriptive approaches to
education research began to develop, such as case studies, using new and different
techniques, and based in disciplines like sociology and anthropology (Yates 2004).
Piaget had presented the notion of developmental stages (e.g., Piaget 1926) which
became highly influential. Although now criticised on some methodological
grounds, Piaget’s work has been significant in shaping curriculum documents and
approaches to teaching. Equally important, although taking a different position, was
the work of the Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky, who emphasised the role of
culture and the significant other in children’s development (e.g., Vygotsky 1962).
Piaget and Vygotsky provided a basis for the theory of constructivism—children
develop knowledge over time through the interaction between their experiences and
their emerging thinking. In part this challenged the behaviourist school of research
exemplified by Skinner (1977).
Today, education research can draw from a plethora of theoretical stances,
having very different philosophical roots. This variety of theories may present some
difficulties for the beginning researcher. Although the testing and educational
measurement movement is still strong in education as a way of ranking individuals,
this approach has been challenged as being too narrow. On the other hand, quali-
tative approaches to research have been criticised as being insufficiently rigorous
(Fisher 2004) Many researchers attempt to bridge this gap by using some form of
mixed method research, combining quantitative and qualitative approaches to
provide both the ‘rigour’ of quantitative methods with the ‘rich description’ of
qualitative devices. The challenge is to combine these in ways that are meaningful,
and capture the best of both worlds. Many early researchers struggle with this task.
Education Research is Dynamic
Education research is typically applied research that often occurs in a naturalistic

school or classroom setting. The ‘proof’ is often how the different theoretical
perspectives play out in the real world of the classroom or in the behaviour and
3 The Paradigmatic Challenge of Mixed-Methods Research … 29
actions of the students. The context of education is a complex social and dynamic
environment and hence isolating one element and attributing cause has been
problematic in education research. Variables or elements typically cluster together
as a conglomerate factor that is multidimensional in nature. A review of education
research journals will demonstrate that a single outcome, such as achievement, can
be influenced by many variables either independently or as a combination,
including age, gender, home language, previous education experiences, motivation,
self-perceptions, home support, aspirations, motivation, interest in the task or
subject, the quality of the pedagogy, peers, students’ and teachers’ expectations, the
quality of resources, the time on task, the social and physical environment, duration
and intensity of any intervention; support within the school, the school’s leadership,
the family and home connections, the school and classroom culture, parental
occupation, cognitive working memory, speed of processing of information, verbal
reasoning and comprehension, health and physical and psychological well-being,
and location. This is not an exhaustive list but it does illustrate the challenge of
identifying a single cause.
In addition, as education progresses new theories and models are developed. The
advent of technology in the classroom, for example, has led to new models such as the
Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework (Mishra and
Koehler 2006), which is typically used at the teacher level of analysis. In addition
how students’ behaviours change as a result of technology is also of interest to
education researchers, for example, understanding adolescent students’ problematic
internet use (Yu et al. 2013), or how adolescents construct online identities (Jang
2016). The learning and teaching process is explored by Fitzallen (Chapter 9). She
examined the notion that students’ learning is iterative and cyclical in nature using
classroom based research using the software program TinkerPlots (Konold & Miller
2011). Fitzallen argued that the classroom intervention is refined as the students and
the teacher become more knowledgeable with the software and this acquisition occurs
over a series of teaching and review cycles and this idea is reflected in both the study
design and in the thesis structure. Compared to their parents, children born into the
‘Information Age’ are likely to experience a social world where there is greater
cultural diversity and less focus on gender stereotypical values, expectations, and
roles (Lightfoot et al. 2012). The nature of system responses to the use of technology
provides another avenue for research (Jaikaran-Doe et al. 2016).
How then should the beginning researcher choose a theory or perspective from
which to proceed? The starting point is often interest—in a topic, curriculum area,
or approach to education—stemming from the researcher’s own background and
experiences. Many of the studies in this section begin with a personal story or
reflection, for example the research about Chinese international students’ experi-
ences by Wu, Myhill and Kember (Chapter 7) and Aryal, Short and Fan’s study
about English language teaching in Nepal (Chapter 6). Such a starting point
automatically challenges the idea of objectivity because the choice of project itself
is not impartial but brings with it the influences of prior involvements and expe-
riences. The next level is a consideration of what aspects of the element of interest
form the basis of the research, which in turn will influence the unit of analysis. Is
the point of interest the system, the classroom, the teacher, or the students? These
questions are not trivial, and can only be answered after considerable reading round
the topic, and deep thought. Almost all variables addressed in education research
are nested within these levels, and there are complex interactions between them.
From this thinking and reading a working research question should emerge.
Research questions usually address the relationships between two or more vari-
ables, A and B, under a specified set of conditions, C. Some questions concern
causality, for example, What factors (A) influence students’ aspirations for further
study (B) in rural schools (C)? (Hay et al. 2016). Some are descriptive, for example,
In what ways (A) do teachers use interactive whiteboards (B) in early years
classrooms (C)? (Muir et al. 2016). Most questions could be potentially addressed
using a variety of methods.
Theory to Method
How does a novice researcher decide what data to collect and how to collect and
analyse it—the method for the study? If the study is a replication of previous
research under different conditions or contexts, the approach is fixed. The earlier
study must be followed as closely as possible. More often, however, the research
question may address a different aspect of previous work, or take an alternative
perspective. Here too there are traps for early researchers. Assuming that a topic is a
‘green field’ in terms of research is naïve. Many research students are keen to
collect data as early as possible but going out with a half formed self-designed
questionnaire or interview schedule may generate qualitative and or quantitative
data, but those data may not ultimately address the research question. How the
interviews, observations, and questionnaires or surveys are set up, and the context
in which they are used, is critical, and should be driven by the underlying theo-
retical stance of the study. One common problem with initial researchers is the false
economy of collecting data before really knowing what to look for, or how the data
will be analysed, or even whether the interview questions, or questionnaires are
understandable by the people involved. When mixed qualitative and quantitative
methods are employed, this problem can be exacerbated, with the researcher unable
to reconcile the two data sets when writing up the study. When initially starting a
research project, it is important to be aware that although a topic may be new to a
novice researcher typically it has a history. Understanding that history, and its
limitations and strengths, provides the researcher with a point of entry in the
research debate related to that topic.
Even in a well-designed study with a sound theoretical focus, however, the data
collected may not provide the desired insight into the topic. In this situation, it is
wise to stand back and reflect on all aspects of the study. This reflection can provide
new insights into not only the study itself, but also on the practice of becoming a
researcher. Goodwin and Kember (Chapter 4) describe this process in terms of the
researcher’s personal journey to understanding. Novice researchers are often
reluctant to take such a course of action, feeling that it invalidates the work
undertaken to that point. On the contrary, as Goodwin and Kember show, thinking
deeply about the study, and having the courage to change direction can be pro-
ductive and satisfying.
Context and Culture
Bronfenbrenner (1992), in his ecological development model, considered culture to

be a key factor that interacts with an individual, be that individual a student, a
teacher, or a parent. The notion that culture and social context are important
variables in educational research is reflected in many of the chapters in this section.
In particular, how higher degree students’ own self-identity and thinking changes as
a result of shifting between different cultures is explored by Wu, Myhill, and
Kember (Chapter 7) in their research with Chinese students enrolled in a regional
Australian University. The idea that one culture can in part ‘overpower’ another
culture is explored by Hicks, O’Dowd, and Corbett (Chapter 10) in their research
on the interface between indigenous and non-indigenous cultures. How previous
research findings and theoretical models adapt to a new cultural context and with
particular cohorts of students is often not fully known. How valid and reliable
particular theoretical constructs are in a new cultural context, is a topic explored by
To and Mahboob (Chapter 8) and by Aryal, Short and Fan (Chapter 6). To and
Mahboob investigated functional grammar research developed around English and
applied it to English as a second language teaching in Vietnam. Aryal et al. also
investigated English as a second language teaching but drew on teacher efficacy,
motivation and English language proficiency research to see how these constructs
operated within the context of the Nepal educational system.
Is There a Dichotomy?
In terms of mixed methods and education research, the typical dichotomy is con-
sidered as qualitative versus quantitative methods, but there are other dichotomies.
Skinner (1985) argued that controlled experimental conditions were important in
social science research and he claimed that research that was ‘mere descriptions of
conditions’ (p. 291) should not replace the assessment of behaviour with statements
of expectations and intentions. Skinner could be described as a positivist researcher,
aiming to identify some objective reality. Positivist studies usually adopt a
deductive approach, based on some hypothesis. In contrast, phenomenographic
researchers, such as Marton (1986) focus more on the human condition and making
meaning of the given situation, drawing on inductive reasoning. Such an approach
is more constructivist in nature in that it assumes that reality is relative to a given
situation. Some researchers today go further and aim to deconstruct particular
situations (e.g., Somerville 2013). All of these approaches may use various methods
to collect and analyse data. Although it is possible to separate these differences in an
abstract way, when dealing with complex educational variables both facts and the
human condition are important.
As an example, take the notion of students’ interest in a curriculum subject (Hidi
and Renninger 2006). Interest may be inferred from student behaviour (e.g., are
students engaged in a learning task), using a qualitative observational approach
with an emphasis on the human condition, or from responses to appropriate
questions on a survey or questionnaire, a quantitative approach aiming to uncover
factual information. Both can provide valid outcomes for the examination of the
interest variable. Recent work, however, using a survey and observational
approach, identified that students who appeared engaged in classrooms might only
be complying with the classroom norms, rather than engaging cognitively with the
topic (Carmichael et al. 2017). In this study both the lived experience of the
observed classroom and the reported experience from students provided valuable
information that allowed a more nuanced picture of students’ interest in mathe-
matics to emerge.
There is much to be gained from reusing well validated instruments from prior
research, whether quantitative surveys or tests or qualitative interview and obser-
vation schedules. Some researchers are concerned about using standardised tests,
but such tests give the research higher levels of validity and a greater likelihood of
take up by appropriate authorities. For example, researching the effectiveness of a
phonics verses a language based approach to early reading received significant
attention when the same internationally available and reliable tests were used to
measure the outcome of the two interventions that were also qualitatively described
through collection of video data (Fielding-Barnsley and Hay 2012).
Answering the Research Question
The fulcrum on which an educational research study is balanced, is the research

question. How that research question is set up and stated in the study directs the
methodology needed to answer that specific question. There may be a range of tools
that could work to answer a particular research question, and investigating the
reliability, suitability and validity of these instruments is important before the study
begins. Carefully reading primary source journals may seem time consuming, but
the method section in the journal is typically the ‘cook book’ as to how the par-
ticular researchers conducted the study. Extending a particular piece of research
with its underlying constructs is a logical point of entry for beginning and even
experienced researchers.
Finding strengths and weaknesses in previous research or identifying its limi-
tations is an essential part of education research. The word research has two parts:
the prefix ‘re’ means to go back or return, and the word ‘search’ means to seek, to
look. Thus, looking at a problem again and again from different perspectives using a
range of procedures and diverse stake holders is characteristic of education

research. As the researcher becomes engrossed in the specialisation of a topic or
process, once minor differences typically become the tensions that encourage new
thinking. As most postgraduate supervisors realise, there comes a point where the
student researcher knows the topic and overtakes the supervisor in recognising the
nuances of the procedure and the argument that are the basis for the study. Getting
to this point requires wide reading, focussed on the topic, and if need be mastering
the specific skills necessary to be in control of the whole research process. There is
no short cut to this comprehension process, it is constructivist learning in action.
That is, as the researcher develops a greater understanding of the topic, its limi-
tations and strengths become more apparent. The researcher draws on personal
metacognitive skills to comprehend the topic and the research process, in order to
adapt the previous work to the new setting (see Hay 2014 for an overview of this
cognitive process in comprehension).
As education research emerged as a field, considerable effort was put into
identifying pathways of knowledge growth, and appropriate ways to develop these
pathways in the classroom. Often the method used was hypothesis driven, in the
positivist tradition, but studies were typically small-scale and took an experimental
or quasi-experimental approach. The clinical interview technique used by Piaget
began to become a familiar tool, and the same practice is still used today, partic-
ularly with young children. Programs such as Reading Recovery (Clay 1993), and
Mathematics Recovery (Wright 2003) use one-to-one interviews to place the chil-
dren’s performance on a previously identified scale, providing a research-based
approach to classroom intervention. Interestingly, these programs and many others
that take a similar approach, bridge the divide between quantitative and qualitative
approaches. The method of identification of the child’s understanding is essentially
a qualitative structured interview requiring interpretation but this interpretation is
carefully proscribed within quantitative norms.
Method to Methodology
Today education research can draw from an overabundance of methods and theo-
ries. The purest forms of the positivist perspective, epitomised by the double blind
trial used in medical research, is almost impossible in education research because
there are too many variables. At the same time, purely descriptive and comparative
research, in which a situation is described in detail providing a rich picture or
narrative relative to other, similar situations, may lack the precision of numbers and
statistical methods. This situation has led to a rise in the forms of research denoted
as mixed-methods, using some form of quantitative process together with qualita-
tive approaches (Creswell and Plano Clark 2011). Typically such studies take the
form of a survey and interviews or observations. Fisher (2004, p. 441) argued that
Research methods embodying integrated qualitative-quantitative mathematics have two

crucial advantages over currently popular methods in the social sciences. The first is that
strict criteria exist for knowing when mathematically transparent representation, and so,
quantification, has been provisionally achieved. The second is the foundation this
achievement lays for creating and maintaining universal uniform metrics as a common
language for the exchange of value.
Theorising such approaches, however, has not always kept up with the devel-
opments in the field. Similarly, there are challenges for research thesis writers, who
have to decide whether to treat these two disparate methods as separate thesis
chapters or to integrate them together. These considerations are important because
they require the melding together of diverse paradigms. Add to this mix, the
dynamics of learning, which is far from a linear process, and the complexity of the
learning context, and decisions made about thesis structure and underpinning
philosophies can tie the writer up in knots. This challenge is illustrated by the work
of Hicks, O’Dowd, and Corbett (Chapter 10) who fit Settler Colonial Theory
(Wolfe 1999) to the positivist approach taken by the Longitudinal Study of
Indigenous Children (LSIC) (Australian Government Department of Social
Services 2018). Using structural equation modelling provides a quantitative
approach to a theory that arose from ethnography (Tedlock 2003). The Hicks et al.
study meets the challenge of disparate paradigms head on.
There have been suggestions made that social reality theory (Berger and
Luckmann 1966) could provide a suitable basis for a methodology. Such an
approach focusses more on systems and so appears to play down the importance of
the individual, a perspective that should not be lost in education. On the other hand,
there is a quest for certainty in education, epitomised by league tables and pre-
scriptive approaches to teaching and learning. These approaches, typified by
large-scale testing of a narrow conception of knowledge, take little account of the
human condition. Both the relativism of social theories and the positivism of sci-
entific approaches seem to have limitations for education research. Cobb (2011)
used the notion of ‘pragmatic realism’ to provide one way of resolving this diffi-
culty, stating that pragmatic realism ‘holds up a mirror to scientific practice and
clarifies that it is quite reasonable for scientists to act as conceptual relativists’
(p. 16). Cobb implicitly acknowledges the problem referred to earlier that the choice
of topic and approach is not value free or entirely objective. At the same time, he
recognises that truly naturalistic studies are also compromised. Having a researcher
present in a classroom, for example, however familiar students may be with that
person, may change the classroom dynamics.
In essence, as Fisher (2004) suggested, the qualitative and quantitative divide is
more conceptual than real. The researcher has to tell the story of the data, regardless
of its form. Interpretation of quantitative data to translate this into meaningful
information requires more than a simple presentation of some statistics. These
statistics have to be understood and read in relation to the location of the project,
the underlying theoretical framework, and the social and psychological context of
the study. Qualitative data provides this information. The two data sets allow for the
precision of mathematics and the depth of contextual understanding to be realised in
ways that enhance both types of data. Modern approaches to mixed methods
research, such as design research studies (Cobb et al. 2003), make use of these
strengths to develop projects that are both pragmatic and theoretical. This point is
illustrated in the following chapters. For example in Cruickshank’s research
(Chapter 5) on male primary school teachers, an initial quantitative survey was
followed by qualitative interviews. In Godwin and Kember’s research (Chapter 4)
on the learning environment for first year university students a survey that con-
tained both qualitative and quantitative elements was administered at the start and at
the end of a semester to identify students’ changes in beliefs and attitudes.
Summary
Education researchers need to have a range of strategies and procedures that they
can adapt to suit their research question and their research context. The nature of the
research question shapes the research approach. Increasingly, education research is
drawing on other disciplines related to: psychology, sociology, philosophy, medi-
cine, technology, statistics, social welfare, economics, history, and cognitive
development to form theories that help to explain, understand, and predict students’
learning.
In this chapter some of the conceptions that can be used as a methodological
basis for mixed-methods research have been explored, together with the challenges
of providing suitable guidance to beginning researchers during their doctoral
studies. It is argued that there is not a simple dichotomy between quantitative and
qualitative research approaches. Rather education research is applied research that
operates in a social context that is dynamic and changing, and can have the best of
both worlds through well designed mixed methods studies that acknowledge both
the pragmatic limitations of the context and the reality of needing to provide
information that is generalised, meaningful, and useful. The applied nature of
educational research is well illustrated in the topics that are being investigated in the
chapters in this section of this book, such as students’ decisions about overseas
study (Wu et al., Chapter 7); use of technology in the mathematics classroom
(Fitzallen, Chapter 9); and engaging with indigenous knowledge and scholarship
(Hicks et al., Chapter 10).
What is evident across all of the chapters in the section is the notion that the field
of education research is not static but constantly changing in response to societal
pressures, shifting values and changing priorities. This dynamic nature of educa-
tional research provides new researchers with opportunities to make a contribution
to the field.
Although education researchers use mixed methods, it is not a formulaic mix.
The chapters that follow indicate some of the multiplicity and complexity of mixed
methods approaches. The researchers, working in different settings, have drawn on
a variety of sophisticated tools to plan, undertake data collection, analyse, and
interpret their data. The authors also illustrate a range of ways in which apparently
different paradigms can be integrated. Education is a meeting point of many other

disciplines, such that mixed methods, mixed theories and mixed approaches are
now almost standard practice in education research. Perhaps it is time to stop
thinking of dichotomies and start thinking about the pragmatics of undertaking
studies in the changing context of education research.
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(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
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Rosemary Callingham is a mathematics educator at the University of Tasmania. She has an

extensive background in mathematics education in Australia, at school, system and tertiary levels,
including mathematics curriculum development and implementation, large-scale testing, and
pre-service teacher education. Her specific research interests include teachers’ pedagogical content
knowledge, statistical literacy, mental computation, and assessment of mathematics and numeracy.
She uses both quantitative and qualitative approaches in her work.
Ian Hay is Emeritus Professor of Education at the University of Tasmania, and was the former
Executive Dean of the Faculty of Education. His professional background is in psychology and
education. He has written over 250 publications for peer-reviewed journals, chapters in books, and
conference proceedings. His main research interests relate to the interactions between students’
cognitive and psychosocial factors and their longitudinal academic and social development. Ian
has had academic appointments at Griffith University, the University of Queensland, and the
University of New England. He is a Fellow of the International Academy of Research into
Learning Disabilities.
Chapter 4
An Exploration of Epistemological
Beliefs, Learning Environment
Expectations and Persistence Intentions:
Insights into the Shaping of Student
Persistence in the First
Semester of University Study
at Three Australian Universities
Julie Godwin and David Kember
Research Question
What is an appropriate structure for reporting a study of the impact of epistemo-

logical beliefs and learning environment expectations on persistence, following the
interpretive paradigm, and adopting a survey method?
What Was the Study About?
On commencing tertiary study most students find themselves in unfamiliar land-

scapes. They will be challenged not only by a new learning environment, but also
by new expectations of ways of knowing and making meaning in their chosen
discipline or disciplines. Krause and Coates (2008) highlight the significance of
unmet or unresolved expectations of university life in the first year of study in
relation to persistence. This study explores the relationship between the episte-
mological belief structures and learning environment expectations of commencing
J. Godwin (&)
University of New England, Armidale, Australia
e-mail: jgodwin3@une.edu.au
D. Kember

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_4
40 J. Godwin and D. Kember
students. It also investigates the impact of the relationship on the nature of students’
intentions to persist from very early in their university study.
A student’s decision to stay or leave has far reaching implications for the
individual, the institution and arguably, wider society. For universities, retaining
first-year students beyond the first semester census date is critical to meeting load
targets that determine the national distribution of government funds and the via-
bility of the institution. However, most studies of persistence consider the pro-
gression and retention of students over a longer period than one semester and rely
on exit data. Few studies look specifically at the intentions of students to persist at
the outset of study and throughout their first semester, despite the known impor-
tance of these early weeks to degree completion (Woosley and Shepler 2011).
As a Learning Advisor I support first-year students to find a ‘way in’ to the
academic practices of their disciplines and to align their expectations of university
learning with those of the institution, in short, to know the rules of the game and
understand the demands of the field. All too often, I meet with students at cross
roads, in ‘stuck places’, from very early on in their study. Students who are
struggling to take a critical perspective when confronted with new knowledge and
who may resist the call to interpret and integrate new knowledge demanded in
assessment tasks. For these students, there is seemingly little or no concept of their
own agency in knowledge construction. For some students, there was simply no
point to considering multiple perspectives if you already ‘knew’, or in verifying
what was known by distinguishing between sources of evidence. These were
unwanted, and uncomfortable complications of the learning process. At the same
time a surprising number of students were expressing doubt about their capacities
for success and uncertainty about their intentions to continue their study.
Traditionally, first-year students who are perceived to be ‘at risk’ and experi-
ence difficulties in transitioning to the tertiary learning environment are sent to a
central learning support unit with the attendant risk of alienation and feelings of
exclusion. More recently, there has been a shift to embed learning support within
the first-year curriculum and a call to shape teaching and learning tasks to create a
high support-high challenge learning environment that promotes early success
(Kift 2009). What is missing in these support programs and approaches is con-
sideration of students’ epistemological beliefs and the alignment of belief struc-
tures with their expectations of the learning environment. Phan (2007) notes that it
is as important for educators to help students reflect on their epistemological
beliefs as it is to reflect on study skills and motivation. It is possible to nudge
students’ epistemological development in the first year of university study (Neely
2014; Nist and Holschuh 2005). Potentially the data collected from this study
could inform a new approach to acculturation of first-year students that empha-
sizes the understanding and development of students’ personal epistemology and
more closely aligns persistence with the traditional aims of Higher Education as
opposed to institutional imperatives of student retention.
4 An Exploration of Epistemological Beliefs, Learning … 41
What Was the Method?
In setting up the project I took a quantitative approach to the research. Data were
collected by means of questionnaire, administered at two time points: the beginning
of the first semester and the end of the semester. Each questionnaire contained three
individually identified separate surveys. In order participants completed (1) The
Epistemological Beliefs Survey developed by Kardash and Wood (2002), (2) A
learning environment survey based on the work of Tenenbaum, Naidu, Jegede, and
Austin (2001) (expected version at time one and perceived experience version at
time two) and, (3) An original five question survey ‘Intentions and options’ to
determine students’ persistence intentions for the start of the second semester. In the
learning environment part, students were instructed to answer thinking about a
particular unit of study (e.g., Biology110, English101). To enable comparison
between time one and time two, the selected unit of study was identified for each
student in the time two survey. For intention to persist, responses were based on
students’ overall intentions for study in the following semester, rather than a single
unit. There were also questions to capture demographic information, such as age,
gender, educational background and family experience of tertiary education and
space for comment on intentions for the second semester. At the second adminis-
tration of the questionnaire (end of semester), open ended questions to further
explore what knowledge means to students, their persistence intentions and per-
ceptions of the learning environment were added.
Descriptive, correlational and inferential statistics were used to summarise data,
characterise relationships and test group differences. Exploratory factor analysis was
used to establish students’ epistemological belief structures and conceptions of the
learning environment and then to explore the relationship between these constructs.
Student comments provided context and added rich description to the study. This
design is well suited to exploratory research where, as in this case, the focus is on
discovery and providing insight to the topic of interest (Cipriano 2002). The study
has both a cross-sectional focus in establishing key concepts and relationships and a
longitudinal focus in exploring change in those relationships over time.
What Were the Theories and Paradigms Employed?
I searched across disciplines for previous research and theory to provide direction to
explore concepts and identify potential relationships that underpinned my obser-
vations. The project aims to explore the relationship between three main concepts;
epistemological beliefs, learning environments and student retention. Drawing on
the literature of each, I formed a theoretical framework for the research. As my
understanding developed, the project’s position was clarified as exploratory rather
than confirmatory. I was looking at how two constructs might help explain the
persistence puzzle.
Beliefs about what is knowledge and how one comes to know (epistemological
beliefs) are complex and have been studied in various contexts and alongside other
equally complex constructs. In tertiary education, research students’ personal
epistemologies have been linked with numerous teaching and learning variables, for
example, conceptual change, information literacy, metacognitive awareness, study
strategies, motivation and field of study. Of importance to understanding my
observations, it has been found that a student’s epistemology influences how they
interpret the learning environment and how they act within it (Kember 2001;
Magolda 2002; Trabak and Weinstock 2008). The literature also provides
descriptions of the influence of learning environment/instruction on development of
epistemological beliefs (e.g., see Tolhurst 2007; Valanides and Angeli 2005). The
relationship between epistemological beliefs and learning approach has been
established (Mohamed and El-Habbal 2013; RodrÃ-guez and Cano 2006) and there
is evidence to suggest that learning environment perception predicts meaningful-
ness of learning approach directly and indirectly through epistemological beliefs
(Ozkal et al. 2009). Marton and Saljo (1984) drew attention to the role of learning
approaches in academic performance and Hofer (2001) later linked academic per-
formance and epistemological beliefs through the development of skills such as
critical thinking and learning strategies.
Student attrition is a ‘wicked problem’ in need of alternative approaches to
uncover ways to encourage student persistence (Beer and Lawson 2016, p. 1).
When the evidence linking epistemological beliefs with students’ responses to
learning environments is taken together with their predicted mismatched expecta-
tions (Longden 2006), it seemed reasonable to consider the student’s epistemo-
logical stance and their learning environment expectations in relation to persistence
in higher education. This reflected my interest in understanding the complexities
around what might contribute to students finding themselves in ‘stuck places’.
Though the research is quantitative, the paradigmatic approach, if forced to
select one, is best classified as interpretive. In my confirmation document, I orig-
inally formulated hypotheses in line with the positivist paradigm commonly asso-
ciated with quantitative research. However, these proved to be inconsistent with the
exploratory nature of the project and the research was instead defined by open
research questions as is more commonly associated with qualitative approaches
(Krauss 2005). The opportunity to rethink the project was afforded by a change in
university and supervisory team around the mid-point of my candidature. Notably,
the title of the thesis changed from ‘Persistence: a measure of fit between the
epistemological beliefs and learning environment expectations of first year science
students’ to one that reflects exploration and the gaining of insight as presented in
the title of this chapter. Figure 4.1 illustrates the progress of the research journey
and how this is linked to the final thesis structure as discussed in the next section. It
also reflects the shift in my own epistemological beliefs in the process of becoming
a researcher.
Fig. 4.1 Progress of the research journey and development of thesis structure
Structure
The thesis is organized four parts: Introduction, Main concepts and their
Measurements, Relationships and Discussion and Implications. This structure
provides essential context and reflects my discovery as I searched the literature
looking for links that might explain my observations. Each complex concept is
presented in general terms and then situated within the study before relationships
are presented.
Contents page
Part A Introduction
Chapter 1 Introduction to the Research Topic
Chapter 2 Overview of Thesis
Chapter 3 Research Method
Part B Main concepts and their Measurements
Chapter 4 Epistemological Beliefs of First Year Students
Chapter 5 Learning Environment Expectations of First Year Students
Chapter 6 Persistence Intentions of First Year Students
Part C Relationships
Chapter 7 Epistemological Beliefs and Learning Environment Expectations
Chapter 8 Intention to Persist, Epistemological Beliefs and Learning Environment
Expectations
Part D Discussion and Implications
Chapter 9 Impact of epistemological beliefs and learning environment on persistence
Chapter 10 Implications for practice
Chapter 11 Conclusions and contribution to new knowledge
Commentary
Part A provides background to the research topic, context around how I came to the
research questions and describes how the research was conducted. Chapter 1
reflects my experiences in working with commencing first-year students and my
then knowledge of the literature. It conveys what prompted my line of thinking
about the potential of epistemological belief awareness in promoting student per-
sistence and contextualizes the study within the literature. The aim of the explo-
ration is stated and the research questions are posed. Chapter 3 identifies the study
population and outlines the research method. Part A gives the reader insight into
why and how I conducted the research.
Part B, Chapters. 4, 5 and 6, treats each of the topics of interest, epistemological
beliefs, learning environment expectations and persistence, separately. Linking the
chapters builds the theoretical framework. In each chapter, the relevant literature is
reviewed, measures are justified and the results of analyses are presented and
discussed with reference to the effect of demographic measures. Leading the reader
through the complex individual concepts and research findings in Part B establishes
understanding and foreshadows the relationships that are explored in Part C.
Locating the literature relating to the three main concepts in the accordant
chapter of Part B provides context and positions the initial findings for further
exploration. It seems logical to put it there so that each of the three concepts are
presented coherently and within one chapter. For each concept there is a logical
flow to the chapter: from reviewing the literature; discussing and choosing an
instrument for measurement; using EFA to analyse the factor structure of the
gathered data; finalizing scales to be used for further analysis; to examining the
relationship of these scales to demographic variables.
Part C is the conceptualization of relationships between epistemological beliefs,
learning environment expectations and persistence intentions of the participants. In
chapter seven the relationship between expectations of the learning environment
and epistemological belief structures are explored. Chapter 8 brings together the
relationships explained in chapter seven and my findings about students’ persis-
tence intentions. Following on from Part B, there is a focus on effects of demo-
graphics on the relationships uncovered.
Part D draws the conclusion of the thesis and speculates on the implications of
the research. Chapter 9 discusses the impact of epistemological beliefs and learning
environment expectations on persistence. As this project grew out of my experi-
ences supporting first-year students, Chapter 10 proposes ways in which the find-
ings could inform practice, policy and further research in this area of Higher
Education. Finally, Chapter 11 presents resolutions to the research questions and
illustrates how this work contributes to new knowledge.
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approaches. Learning and Individual Differences, 19(1), 71–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.
2008.05.005.
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beliefs at the university of the South Pacific: A path analysis approcah. Educational
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conventional on-campus and distance learning practice: An exploratory investigation. Learning
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Julie Godwin’s research interest was sparked by countless conversations with first-year students
who seemed to be in ‘stuck places’ as they struggled to find their place, and make sense of the
requirements of their new learning environment when she was a First Year Advisor at the
University of New England, Armidale (2000–2017). This chapter is based on Julie’s journey as a
novice researcher exploring the epistemological beliefs, learning environment expectations and
persistence intentions of commencing first-year students at three Australian universities. Building
on this understanding, the project then investigates the relationship between these three constructs
and effects on the retention of students beyond their first trimester of study. Julie is completing her
Ph.D. thesis at UTAS under the supervision of David Kember and Michael Prosser. She is
currently the Manager, Student Partnerships at UNE where she drives projects that support the
development of contemporary learning relationships reconceptualising the role of the student as a
partner in Higher Education.
Chapter 5
The Challenges Faced by Male Primary
Teachers
Vaughan Cruickshank
Research Questions
What is an appropriate structure for reporting a study of male primary teachers,

following a constructivist paradigm, and adopting a mixed methodology?
The percentage of Australian primary teachers who are male has decreased notice-
ably in the past thirty years (Australian Bureau of Statistics [ABS] 2016). The falling
number of male primary teachers is a concern for many key stakeholders who
believe that more men are required, both in the classroom and in the wider school
environment (Martin and Marsh 2005). These concerns have prompted numerous
calls for increased male recruitment to, and retention in, the primary teaching pro-
fession (e.g., Carrington et al. 2007; Francis and Skelton 2005). Educational
authorities in Australia (e.g., Education Queensland 2002) have responded to calls
for more men in primary schools by initiating policies designed to increase the
numbers of male teachers. Despite the instigation of these recruitment-focused ini-
tiatives such as scholarships and quota systems, the percentage of primary teachers
who are male continues to fall. The continual decrease in male primary teachers
suggests that more attention needs to be placed on the retention of male primary
teachers already in the profession. Therefore, exploring the experiences of practicing
male primary teachers was a key focus in this research project.
V. Cruickshank (&)
Faculty of Education, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS, Australia
e-mail: v.j.cruickshank@utas.edu.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_5
48 V. Cruickshank
Previous research on male primary teachers (e.g., Burn and Pratt-Adams 2015;
Mills et al. 2008) has noted that men often leave the profession because of the
gender related challenges they face. Challenges such as fear and uncertainty sur-
rounding physical contact have been identified by numerous studies of male pri-
mary teachers (e.g., Cruickshank 2014; Gosse 2011; Smith 2008), yet investigating
strategies to assist male primary teachers cope with these challenges has received
much less focus. This research project aimed to address this gap through the
identification of practical coping strategies that male primary teachers could use to
deal with the gender related challenges they faced, and thereby, persist within the
profession. This aim was underpinned by the desire to better understand the effects
these challenges have on the retention of male primary teachers, and the ambition to
further knowledge about how the influences of these challenges can be moderated
by coping efficacy. This project was guided by the following research questions:
1. What gender related challenges do Tasmanian male primary teachers face in their
profession?
2. How do Tasmanian male primary teachers cope with the gender related challenges they
face?
2 (a). Does coping efficacy moderate the influence of the gender related challenges
faced by Tasmanian male primary teachers?
This mixed methods study utilised a sequential explanatory mixed methods design
(Creswell and Plano Clark 2011) that consisted of an initial quantitative survey phase
with specific findings then being explored in more depth in a subsequent qualitative
phase. The qualitative phase was given priority (Creswell et al. 2003) because this
study was focused on an in depth examination of challenges, and identification of
coping strategies. Qualitative data was best suited to examining the complexity of the
contextual challenges men face in a non-gender traditional occupation.
The quantitative and qualitative phases were connected (Hanson et al. 2005)
when selecting the participants for the qualitative phase of the study, and also when
using survey results to construct the interview questions around the challenges of
most concern to participants. The results of the both phases were integrated
(Creswell et al. 2003) when discussing the survey results with interview partici-
pants, and during the discussion and analysis of the findings of the study as a whole.
This strategic approach was undertaken in an attempt to produce findings that were
as authentic and trustworthy as possible.
The initial quantitative phase was conducted in order to obtain broader perspectives
from a larger number of male primary teachers to inform the development of the
interview questions for the qualitative phase of the study. Notwithstanding the
5 The Challenges Faced by Male Primary Teachers 49
prioritisation of the qualitative phase, substantial time and effort was taken during the
quantitative survey phase of this study. As there was no valid and reliable survey found
in the literature to address the research questions above, I developed a new survey tool
—the Male Primary Teacher Gender Challenge Inventory (MPTGCI; Cruickshank
2016; Cruickshank et al. 2018) consisting of both Likert scale and open ended ques-
tions. This process was based on the recommendations of Senocak (2009), and allowed
me to test the validity and reliability of the tool through four stages: item formulation
derived from previous literature, content validation using an expert panel of researchers,
reliability analysis, and construct validation through Rasch (1960) modelling. More
information on this approach is contained in my previous work (Cruickshank et al.
2015). A visual representation of the research design is presented in Fig. 5.1. This
chronological approach was adapted from an explanatory sequential mixed methods
study conducted by Ivankova and Stick (2007).
Phase 1 Procedure Product

Construct and conduct pilot survey
Pilot survey
Quantitative Survey Construction Test for pilot survey validity and reliability
Construct survey within Qualtrics Survey
Ethical Considerations Obtain ethics approval Ethics approval
Quantitative Data Collection Web-based survey (N=53) Numeric data
Rasch modelling to determine reliability and validity

Quantitative Data Analysis Numeric data
Descriptive statistics
Phase 2 Procedure Product

Purposefully selection of interview participants (n =5) Interview participants (n =5)
Interview Protocol Development
Development of interview questions Interview protocol
2 x 60 minute one on one semi structured interviews

Qualitative Data Collection Text data (interviews with transcripts)
with each participant
Code data in Nvivo Codes

Qualitative Data Analysis
Inductive and deductive thematic analysis Themes
Integration of Quantitative and Interpretation and explanation of the quantitative and Discussion
Qualitative Findings qualitative results Implications for future research
Fig. 5.1 Visual representation of the research design

50 V. Cruickshank
Much of the male primary teacher research described above has utilised qualitative
methods and a poststructuralist feminist lens to deconstruct and critically examine
issues of gender in primary school contexts. Utilising a more pragmatic approach,
this exploratory study sought to build on previous research in this area by focusing
on the identification of practical coping strategies male primary teachers could use
to deal with the gender related challenges they faced, and persist in the profession.
The decision to take this approach influenced my choice of methodology, which
resulted in the use of Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) (Lent et al. 1994) as a
lens to analyse my data.
SCCT was used as a lens for examining male primary teachers and the gender
related challenges they face. SCCT highlights the complex interactions between
people, their behaviour, and their environments, and provides direction for research
that aims at increasing knowledge about the career choices of male primary
teachers. More specifically, how these decisions are affected by gender related
challenges, coping strategies and coping efficacy. SCCT is more concerned with
investigating the social effects of gender than with viewing sex as a physical or
biological factor to be categorised (Lent 2012). Gender is believed to link to career
development in several important ways. These links include the reactions indi-
viduals evoke from their social-cultural environment, and how it affects the
opportunity structure to which they are exposed. This theory was used to drive the
qualitative design of this mixed methods study, which was entirely conducted
within a constructivist paradigm.
The most common criticism of mixed methods research (MMR) is based on the
incompatibility thesis (e.g., Howe 2004). Proponents of this purist perspective have
argue that different paradigms cannot be mixed in a single study due to their
different definitions of concepts such as quantitative versus qualitative, and relia-
bility and validity. To do so would likely result in critical aspects of one method’s
findings being ignored, misinterpreted or reinterpreted by the researcher’s preferred
worldview. Guba and Lincoln (2005) began cautiously to take down the artificial
boundaries created by proponents of the purist perspective through the delinking of
paradigms and methods. This development meant that conducting research within a
specific paradigm did not mean a researcher was bound to the specific data col-
lection and analysis methods commonly associated with that paradigm. The key
inference for this study was that Guba and Lincoln provided provisional support for
surveys to be used in research informed by constructivist epistemologies. This
study involved the mixing of methods within the single paradigm of constructivism.
In this way, this research can be seen as dialectical in terms of methods, not
epistemology or ontology.
Within a constructivist framing, I saw the benefit of using different data col-
lection techniques in a complementary and interactive manner. When quantitative
and qualitative methods are combined to answer a research question they can
provide complementary strengths that allow for a more complete analysis of the
research questions. This approach can be considered a form of ‘methodological

eclecticism’ (Yanchar and Williams 2006, p. 3), which Teddlie and Tashakkori
(2011) refer to as an essential characteristic of MMR. Embracing methodological
eclecticism can allow researchers to identify what they believe are the best methods
for answering their research questions. This flexible ‘what works best’ approach has
strong links to pragmatism and consequently, most MMR studies have elements of
pragmatism in their design (e.g., Feilzer 2010; Igo et al. 2008). This study does
have pragmatically designed elements, however it has been conducted utilising a
constructivist approach. This approach was chosen because male primary teachers’
perceptions of the gender related challenges they face in their profession are
socially constructed in relation to the particular contexts in which they live and
work. Carrying out this research project within a constructivist ontology and
epistemology therefore maximised opportunities for comprehensive examination
and nuanced exploration of these social constructions.
Structure
Contents page
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 2 SCCT and male primary teachers (Critical Literature Review)
Chapter 4 Quantitative Results/Overview of findings and discussion chapters
Chapter 5 Thematic Findings/Discussion Chapter 1—Physical Contact
Chapter 6 Thematic Findings/Discussion Chapter 2—Masculine Roles
Chapter 7 Thematic Findings/Discussion Chapter 3—Social Isolation
Commentary
The structure of my thesis was constructed in response to participant data. The

findings and discussion chapters initially explored the quantitative survey data, and
how it were used to inform the construction of interview questions used in the
qualitative data collection phase of the study. Interview questions were open-ended
because male primary teachers’ perceptions of the gender related challenges they
face in their profession are constructed in relation to the unique environments in
which they live and work. This question format allowed participants to speak about
the challenges that were of most relevance and importance to them. In allowing
participants some control in the direction of the interview, I was attempting to
minimise my influence, and correct for some of the power asymmetry (Kvale and
Brinkmann 2009) that exists between the interviewer and interviewee. The three
52 V. Cruickshank
resultant thematic discussion chapters allowed for the in-depth examination and
exploration of these social constructions, as consistent with a constructivist
approach.
As is the case with most Ph.Ds, I had some setbacks during my study. These
setbacks were primarily concerned with getting ethical approval from relevant
bodies. The low participant numbers in the initial quantitative phase of this study
were primarily due to the Tasmanian Department of Education (DoE) not giving
approval for their employees to participate in this study because it was not con-
sidered to align with their literacy and numeracy specific research interests. This
was a limitation of this study. The DoE decision was disappointing in light of
previous national and international data (e.g., Burn and Pratt-Adams 2015; Smith
2008) detailing the low number of male primary teachers and the numerous gender
related challenges they face. The DoE decision greatly reduced my potential survey
participant numbers as they employ over 70% of the male primary teachers working
in Tasmania (ABS 2016). The resultant participant numbers limited my ability to
perform more in depth data analysis using demographic variables and inferential
statistics. To resolve this limitation I used a qualitative dominant mixed methods
approach. This approach was well suited to examining the gender related challenges
faced by male primary teachers. Although the quantitative phase was not the focus
of this research, it could be the focus of future research with more participants.
Increased participant numbers might allow for emergent challenges, supports and
strategies to be better identified and explored using conventional statistical methods
such as correlations and inferential statistics. Emergent themes might also be
identified through extending the Tasmanian context of this study to a larger national
or international cohort of male primary teachers.
Interview participant selection was also a difficult task in this Tasmania focused
research project. I had intended to have survey participants enter their email at the
end of the MPTGCI if they wished to participate in the follow-up interview phase of
the study. I was not able to do this because of University Ethics Committee con-
cerns about protecting the anonymity of participant data. Therefore, at the end of
the MPTGCI (Cruickshank 2016; Cruickshank et al. 2018), participants who
wished to self-nominate for the interview phase were taken to a second survey
where they could give their contact details. Ensuring the anonymity of survey
responses allowed me to gain ethical approval for this study but did limit my ability
to purposefully select interview participants as all data from the MPTGCI was
non-identifiable. The secondary survey included questions about participants’ age,
experience and location, but I did not know other demographic information or the
previous survey responses of potential interviewees. Therefore I did not know if the
interview participants had given a variety of survey responses, or all responded in
exactly the same way to each survey item. This situation did not allow for the
identification of participants that had provided noteworthy open-ended responses to
be interviewed for elaboration. I was also unable to select participants from all
demographic groups or different responses to the three main challenges identified in
the survey data and Rasch analysis. It is possible that this might have restricted the
variety in coping strategies I was able to identify for these challenges. Researchers
using or adapting this survey instrument in future might need to better inform their
ethics committee of the limitations this requirement can result in, and argue that all
survey data needs to be identifiable. Such conversations need to incorporate an
awareness of the possibility that anonymity allows participants to be honest and
open in ways not possible (for some) if they are identifiable.
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Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2016). Schools Australia series. Canberra, Australia: Australian
Bureau of Statistics.
Burn, E., & Pratt-Adams, S. (2015). Men teaching children 3–11: Dismantling gender barriers.
London, United Kingdom: Bloomsbury.
Carrington, B., Francis, B., Hutchings, M., Skelton, C., Read, B., & Hall, I. (2007). Does the
gender of the teacher really matter? Seven- to eight-year-olds accounts of their interactions with
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recruitment and retention of male teachers in Queensland state schools 2002–2005. Brisbane,
QLD: Queensland Government.
Feilzer, M. Y. (2010). Doing mixed methods research pragmatically: Implications for the
rediscovery of pragmatism as a research paradigm. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 4(1),
6–16.
Francis, B., & Skelton, C. (2005). Reassessing gender and achievement. London, United
Kingdom: Routledge.
Gosse, D. (2011). Race, sexual orientation, culture and male teacher role models: “Will any
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54 V. Cruickshank
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Vaughan Cruickshank’s chapter is based on his Ph.D., which focused on the challenges faced by
male primary teachers and the coping strategies they use to deal with them. He developed this
research interest during his previous Health and Physical Education teaching experience in various
schools (predominantly primary) in Australia, England and Japan. He also travelled extensively
between completing his Bachelor degree and beginning his Ph.D., including volunteering stints in
the USA, Costa Rica, Kenya and Tanzania. Vaughan also has a strong interest in school boarding
and has nearly a decade of experience working in different positions in boarding houses in
Australia and England.
Chapter 6
English Language Teaching in Nepal:
An Investigation of Issues
and Challenges
Ananda Aryal, Megan Short and Si Fan
Research Question for This Chapter
The research question that is being asked in this chapter is ‘what is an appropriate
structure for reporting this study on English language teaching in Nepal?’ The study
itself is an investigation of issues and challenges explored using a mixed methods
approach.
Prior to starting the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), my personal experience and

observations as an English language teacher suggested that several issues and
challenges limited English language teaching (ELT) in Nepal. Once I received the
opportunity to do a Ph.D. I decided to further explore these issues and challenges.
I believed that such a study could possibly assist ELT practitioners, educational
stakeholders and policy makers to introduce ELT practices and policies designed to
improve the quality of ELT in Nepal.
Although some of my motivations to conduct this research resulted from my
own experiences of teaching English in Nepal, I felt that other teachers would also
have ideas, and to consider their ideas would be beneficial in framing the research
A. Aryal (&) M. Short S. Fan

School of Education, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS, Australia
e-mail: ananda.aryal@utas.edu.au
M. Short
e-mail: megan.short@utas.edu.au
S. Fan
e-mail: si.fan@utas.edu.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_6
56 A. Aryal et al.
questions. For this reason, I contacted some lecturers and colleague teachers that I
had met in the past and communicated with them regarding some of the questions
related to ELT in Nepal. This process was termed as a ‘Preliminary Exploration’
(PE). The PE revealed that ELT teachers in Nepal experienced similar issues to
those I had encountered, they also have issues with self-efficacy and motivation,
and are concerned with their English language proficiency. Consequently, the PE
guided me to include teachers’ efficacy, motivation and English language profi-
ciency as part of the investigation. Although the investigation of teachers’ efficacy,
motivation and English language proficiency was not included as a research
question, it holds a prominent position in this research. Exploration in these areas
complemented the findings resulted from the qualitative data. In light of the PE, the
research questions in this study were written as:
1. What are the issues and challenges that have an impact on English language
teaching in Nepal?
2. How can English language teaching in Nepal be improved?
Analysis of the qualitative data indicated several issues and challenges for ELT
in Nepal occurring at different levels of the education system. These issues can be
observed in a top-down hierarchy from a macro to a micro level, with the system
level issues on the top and the actual classroom teaching issues remaining on the
bottom. These issues involved in ELT in Nepal do not exist in isolation, rather they
are interconnected and complex in terms of their relationship to each other.
A pyramid structure issue hierarchy (see Fig. 6.1) developed via the analysis of
qualitative data offered a way of understanding the linkages between ‘top-down’
pressures, such as the ineffective policies, limited funding, social and political
context and its influence in the classroom practice. The issue hierarchy was fun-
damental in discussing diverse ELT issues in the Nepalese education system. ELT
issues and challenges identified in each level were reported in each chapter of this
thesis. Hence, the issue hierarchy was used as a guide to structure the chapters in the
discussion section.
What Was the Methodology?
This research employed a concurrent mixed methods design (Teddlie and

Tashakkori 2003) which is a key type of the mixed methods approach. In the
concurrent mixed methods design, data collection takes place in a single phase and
is analysed separately. This research solicited the perceptions of Nepalese sec-
ondary English language teachers in order to investigate issues and challenges in
ELT in Nepal with the help of semi-structured interviews. Questionnaires were also
used to explore teachers’ efficacy, motivation and English language proficiency.
6 English Language Teaching in Nepal: An Investigation … 57
Role
of the
governe-
ment
Community
level issues
PoliƟcal interference
Professional idenƟty and

status
Issues of professional development
Constraints on pedagogical pracƟces
Fig. 6.1 A pyramid structure issue hierarchy for ELT in Nepal, also used to structure the chapters
in the discussion part of the thesis
Mixed method, which is also known as the ‘third wave’, offers a logical and
practical alternative of conducting research (Johnson and Onwuegbuzie 2004,
p. 17). Explaining the usefulness of mixed methods in conducting research,
Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004) stated:
Mixed methods research also is an attempt to legitimate the use of multiple approaches in
answering research questions, rather than restricting or constraining researchers’ choices
(i.e., it rejects dogmatism). It is an expansive and creative form of research, not a limiting
form of research. It is inclusive, pluralistic, and complementary, and it suggests that
researchers take an eclectic approach to method selection and the thinking about and
conduct of research. (p. 17)
The mixed methods approach became important in this research for the richness
of data which also provided an opportunity to compare or contrast the findings. As I
was interested in exploring ELT issues and challenges in Nepal, understanding the
participants’ lived experiences, feelings and behaviours became important. Multiple
people report, view or describe same incident differently (Mack 2010) therefore
qualitatively exploring ELT experiences of the participants from the interviews
became essential where participants could indicate different issues resulting on
richness of data. On the other hand, the PE confirmed my previous observation that
Nepalese English language teachers have low self-efficacy and motivation, and it
58 A. Aryal et al.
also questioned on the English language proficiency of the teachers. As a result, I

decided to quantitatively explore the self-efficacy, motivation and self-reported
English language proficiency of the participating teachers.
The qualitative data in this study were drawn from 16 semi-structured interviews
that were conducted with participants in four different districts of Nepal:
Kathmandu, Chitwan, Surkhet and Dailekh. The participants shared their experi-
ences of teaching English language and highlighted the issues and challenges. The
interview data were analysed to generate emergent themes. A data reduction, data
display and conclusion drawing and verification framework forwarded by Miles and
Huberman (1994) was used to analyse the data. Interview transcripts were
repeatedly read to generate codes and categories. The issues and challenges iden-
tified by the participating teachers were logged into different categories according to
their types and frequencies. These categories were further grouped into an ‘um-
brella’ theme according to the type of issues revealed by the participants.
For the quantitative data in this study, 200 teachers from the same four districts
completed a questionnaire survey to determine their self-efficacy, motivation and
self-reported English language proficiency. The Teacher Sense of Efficacy Scale
(Tschannen-Moran and Hoy 2001) was adapted to determine efficacy for classroom
management, student engagement, and instructional strategies in this research. The
questionnaire to test teachers’ self-reported English language proficiency was
derived from Chacon (2005) to assess four components of language skills: speak-
ing, listening, reading and writing. Finally, 16 items were formulated based on
Guajardo’s (2011) framework of analysis for teacher motivation. The quantitative
data were descriptively analysed to gain mean and standard deviation. Bivariate
two-tailed correlations were also computed on the questionnaire data to analyse the
strength and direction of the linear relationship between variables (Pallent 2011).
Grounded Theory
The grounded theory approach was followed in this research to determine the issues
and challenges limiting ELT in Nepal. A grounded theory research begins with a set
of data that further develops into a theory. Strauss and Corbin (1998) stated that in
grounded theory the researcher does not start research with a preconceived theory,
rather the theory emerges from the data. Similarly, Creswell (2003) defined
grounded theory research as the ‘researcher attempts to derive a general, abstract
theory of a process, action, or interaction grounded in the views of participants in a
study’ (p. 14).
One of the key features of the grounded theory is its iterative study design
(Lingard et al. 2008). Several processes followed this iterative approach in this
research. Firstly, the conceptual framework which shaped the research questions of
this research was developed from the researchers’ personal experience of teaching
English in Nepal, the PE, and the review of current literature. Secondly, under-
standings and knowledge gained from the first interview was used during the
second interview and the same pattern was followed while conducting the subse-
quent interviews for deeper understanding and richness of data. Thirdly, the
translated interviews were sent to the participating teacher to confirm the accuracy
of the interpretation and translation of the information shared during the interviews.
Finally, the interview data were systematically analysed. The researcher kept on
going back to his original translated interviews and continuously re-read them to
generate new ideas and themes. Similarly, the researcher frequently read translated
interviews to pursue a higher level of familiarity with the translation of each par-
ticipating teachers and systematically compared the categories that emerged from
the analysis. This was beneficial in order to develop final conceptual categories.
This research used both qualitative and quantitative data to compliment or
contrast the findings. It used the grounded theory approach to ‘…emphasis(es) steps
and procedures for connecting induction and deduction through the constant
comparative method’ (Patton 2002, p. 125). Employing the grounded theory was
essential because it is practical and pragmatic in terms of providing a process for
coding the data. Similarly, this research was not based on preconceived theories;
rather I aimed to build a theory based on the participants’ experiences of teaching
English in Nepal. Hence, the grounded theory approach was an appropriate
methodological tool to analyse and interpret the qualitative data.
Interpretive and Positivist Paradigms
Both interpretive and positivist paradigms were used in this research. The onto-
logical position of interpretivism is relativism. Relativism is the view that reality is
subjective and differs from person to person (Scotland 2012). Thus, the interpretive
position is a key aspect in exploring individuals’ perceptions and investigating
interaction among individuals (Creswell 2013). Understanding the lived experi-
ences, feelings and behaviours of the participating teachers through interviews
became important for the deeper understanding of ELT issues and challenges.
On the other hand, the ontological position of positivism is one of realism or
objectivism and positivistic statements are descriptive and factual (Scotland 2012).
The research aimed to explore the self-efficacy, motivation and English language
proficiency of the participating teachers in relation to their ELT experience.
As the core idea of this research was to explore ELT issues and challenges in the
Nepalese education system, it was only possible to do this by exploring the lived
experiences of the participants. Therefore, I believed that a qualitative approach
would provide rich data in order to answer the research questions. Hence, the
methodological stand of this research is interpretive dominant with qualitative
results supplemented by the quantitative results.
60 A. Aryal et al.
Structure of the Thesis
This thesis is divided into three parts (A, B and C) and 14 chapters. Part A is an
introduction section which contains five chapters. Similarly, Part B includes the
analysis, results and discussion chapters. Structure of the chapters in part B was
guided by the pyramid structure issue hierarchy (see Fig. 6.1) developed after
analysing the qualitative data.
The thesis starts with my personal reflection of teaching English in Nepal. The
idea of exploring ELT issues in Nepal originated from my five years of ELT
experience. Therefore, the personal reflection chapter discusses the issues and
challenges faced during my teaching and provides justifications for conducting this
research in the Nepalese ELT context.
The second chapter is ‘The overview of the structure of the thesis’ which
explains the theoretical positioning of this research. This chapter also unveils
methods and techniques employed in structuring this thesis.
The third chapter is ‘The preliminary exploration’. I conducted a PE to gain authentic
insights on ELT in Nepal. The outcome of the PE is reported in Chapter three.
Chapter four is ‘The contextual overview of ELT in Nepal’ which presents a
historical overview of the introduction of English language teaching in Nepal. This
also discusses the impact of ten years of civil war in English language teaching and
present ELT scenario of Nepal. Finally, this contextual overview chapter discusses
some of the Nepalese ELT issues identified by the literature. The remainder of the
reviewed literature is dispersed in relevant chapters of discussion in Part B. This
research is exploratory in nature and revealed varied ELT issues. I believed that
writing the literature review depending on the diverse issues and challenges
reported by the participants will create confusion on the consistency of the thesis.
Therefore, the literature review has been embedded while discussing the issues and
challenges in the discussion sections. This enables comparison and discussion of
issues relevant to ELT in Nepal with the international literature.
The final chapter of part A, chapter five, is about the ‘research design’. This
chapter describes the research methodology, method, data collection procedure and
the analytical techniques applied in this research. The chapter also details the data
analysis methods utilised and discusses the limitations of the study.
Part B of this thesis is the most significant section. This section presents analysis,
results and discussion in eight chapters. Chapter six which is also the first section of
Part B presents the quantitative data analysis. It presents the mean and standard
deviation of the participants’ self-efficacy, motivation and self-reported English
language proficiency from the questionnaire responses. A correlation study of these
variables is also discussed.
Chapter seven discusses the macro-level analysis of the qualitative data and
reveals the main themes and subthemes that emerged from the qualitative data. The
issue hierarchy presented in Fig. 6.1 was used as a guide to structure the
Chapters 8–13. These chapters answer the main research question, ‘What are the
issues and challenges that have an impact on English language teaching in Nepal?’
by discussing key findings based qualitative analyses and integrating quantitative
findings to support the qualitative discussion.
Table 6.1 Structure of the thesis ‘English language teaching in Nepal: An investigation of issues
and challenges’
Contents page
Part A Introduction
Chapter 1 Teaching English in Nepal: Personal reflection of the researcher
Chapter 2 The overview of the structure of the thesis
Chapter 3 The preliminary exploration
Chapter 4 The contextual overview of English language teaching in Nepal
Chapter 5 Research design
Part B Analysis, Results and Discussion
Chapter 6 Quantitative data analysis
Chapter 7 Macro level analysis of qualitative data
Chapter 8 Role of the government
Chapter 9 Community level issues
Chapter 10 Political interferences
Chapter 11 Professional identity and status
Chapter 12 Issues of professional development
Chapter 13 Constraints on pedagogical practices
Part C Conclusion
Chapter 14 Overall conclusion and Recommendations for improvement
Part C of this thesis is the conclusion section. This part comprises two sections:
overall conclusion and recommendation for improvement which are included in
Chapter 14. The first section of Chapter 14 presents the concluding ideas and
summary of the overall findings of qualitative and quantitative results. Finally, the
second section forwards recommendations to improve the ELT scenario in Nepal.
This section is important to address the second research question. Table 6.1 pro-
vides the overall structure of the thesis.
Commentary
The main aim of this research was to explore issues and challenges limiting ELT in
Nepal. The pyramid structure issue hierarchy developed from the data analysis
presents these issues in relation to a ‘top-down and bottom-up’ dichotomy. The
research suggests that the pyramid structure encapsulates the tensions between
larger societal forces, such as government funding and the political and social
context, with the lived experience of English teachers in Nepal. The challenges
faced by English teachers appear at all stages of the issues hierarchy to be signif-
icant and indeed, capable of limiting the quality of ELT in Nepal.
The pyramid structure issue hierarchy also served as an organising principle for
the structure of the dissertation. In this sense, the process of data analysis played a
role in decisions made about the thesis presentation and organisation. The qualitative
62 A. Aryal et al.
data provided insights on the diverse ELT issues and challenges from the system
level to the actual classroom teaching. Similarly, the quantitative data explored the
self-efficacy, motivation and English language proficiency of the participating
teachers which indicated that teachers’ perceived themselves as less efficacious and
proficient in English language and demotivated within the profession. The structure
of this thesis is congruent with the mixed methods research design. It used single
phased triangulation design in which quantitative results supplemented the quali-
tative findings. Finally, obtaining results using both approaches were beneficial to
comprehend the Nepalese ELT context and to assist in generating theories.
References
Chacon, C. T. (2005). Teachers’ perceived efficacy among English as a foreign language teachers
in middle schools in Venezuela. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21(3), 257–272.
Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches
(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Creswell, J. W. (2013). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches. Thousand Oaks: Sage publications.
Guajardo, J. (2011). Teacher motivation: Theoretical framework, situation analysis of save the
children country offices and recommended strategies. Washington, DC: Save the Children.
Johnson, R. B., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2004). Mixed methods research: A research paradigm
whose time has come. Educational researcher, 33(7), 14–26.
Lingard, L., Albert, M., & Levinson, W. (2008). Grounded theory, mixed methods, and action
research. BMJ, 337, 459–461.
Mack, L. (2010). The philosophical underpinnings of educational research. Polyglossia, 19, 5–11.
Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook
(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Pallent, J. (2011). SPSS survival manual: A step by step guide to data analysis using SPSS (4th
ed.). Hong Kong: Everbest Printing Co.
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks:
Sage.
Scotland, J. (2012). Exploring the philosophical underpinnings of research: Relating ontology and
epistemology to the methodology and methods of the scientific, interpretive, and critical
research paradigms. English Language Teaching, 5(9), 9.
Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research: Procedures and techniques for
developing grounded theory (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Teddlie, C., & Tashakkori, A. (2003). Major issues and controversies in the use of mixed methods
in the social and behavioural sciences. Handbook of mixed methods in social & behavioural
research, 3–50.
Tschannen-Moran, M., & Hoy, A. W. (2001). Teacher efficacy: Capturing an elusive construct.
Teaching and Teacher Education, 17(7), 783–805.
Ananda Aryal is a Ph.D. candidate in Faculty of Education in the University of Tasmania

working on a research topic ‘English language teaching in Nepal: An investigation of issues and
challenges’. This chapter is based on the structure adopted by Aryal in structuring his dissertation
under the supervision of Megan Short, Si Fan and David Kember. He has five years of English
language teaching experience in Nepal which motivated him to conduct this research in the
Nepalese context. He is particularly interested in researching English as a second/foreign language

teaching contexts and pronunciation teaching.
Megan Short is a lecturer in language and literacy at the University of Tasmania, currently
specialising in English language teaching methodologies and TESOL. Her research interests focus
on issues that offer opportunities to explore how culture and language are involved in the
formation of attitudes towards ‘the other’. She is currently involved in a project that is exploring
the prevalence of racism and racist attitudes in specific communities. Her other research interests
include teachers’ beliefs, teacher knowledge and personal epistemology.
Si Fan is a lecturer in Early Childhood Education at the University of Tasmania, Newnham

Campus. She has been involved in a number of research projects, and has a broad research interest
in higher education, learning analytics, early childhood education, educational technologies, Big
Data analytics for educational purposes, and online language education. She contributed in this
book as a Ph.D. supervisor and co-author of Ananda Aryal, who is the first author of one of the
chapters.
Chapter 7
How Do Students Make Decisions About
Overseas Higher Education? A Case
Study of Chinese International Students
at a Regional Australian University
Qian Wu and David Kember
Research Question
What is an appropriate structure for reporting a study exploring Chinese interna-

tional students’ decision-making to undertake regional Australian higher education,
following positivist and interpretivist paradigms, and utilizing convergent mixed
methods?
This doctoral research aims to investigate the decision-making of Chinese inter-

national students when selecting a regional Australian university, and their
post-sojourn satisfaction with that decision. From this specific aim, there is a more
generalized aim of developing models for student decision-making to study
overseas.
The initial inspiration of this research was derived from my personal experience.
Before coming to Australia to undertake my Ph.D. program, I was conducting
research about higher education, especially comparative higher education, in China
for several years. The approaches to develop my vision for understanding inter-
national higher education at that time were limited to translated literature from
English to Mandarin and second-hand resources, which probably could not present
Q. Wu (&)
Faculty of Education, College of Arts, Law and Education,
University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS, Australia
e-mail: qian.wu@utas.edu.au
D. Kember

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_7
66 Q. Wu and D. Kember
the full sense of original authors. Plus, founders of a large number of higher
education theories are from overseas. Therefore, for the sake of understanding
higher education better, it would be a good idea to study overseas to gain first-hand
knowledge. Also, to undertake a doctoral course at an overseas university is a good
way to involve myself into the overseas higher education system which would
greatly help me to gain a more comprehensive understanding of overseas higher
education.
After I decided to study overseas, I realized that only a small number of edu-
cation students in China intended to go overseas to study, which was different from
the situation for science students in China. Therefore, due to quite limited infor-
mation upon selecting overseas study from my seniors, I became very keen to
collect overseas study information from various sources in an effort to help me
make a wise decision. Additionally, a special phenomenon caught my attention; that
for students in China who had intention to study overseas, the preference of the
majority of them was to enrol in universities located in metropolises. For the above
two reasons, I started to become curious of what motivated students in China to
make decisions to study overseas and how those decisions were made.
Eventually, I enrolled into the University of Tasmania (UTAS), a regional
Australian university. When I just commenced my doctoral course at UTAS, I
attempted to understand my own decision-making process of selecting regional
Australian higher education. Moreover, it came to my attention that the enrolment
numbers of Chinese international students at UTAS, a regional Australian univer-
sity have steadily increased in recent years. This led me to focus on another new
phenomenon emerging recently in a broader context; that a growing number of
Chinese international students have made the decision to undertake higher educa-
tion courses in regional Australia rather than to follow the majority of their com-
patriots to enrol in metropolitan Australian universities.
Reviewing literature was the main task in the beginning of my Ph.D. journey.
I found that there were significant gaps between those two emerging phenomena
and existing studies. That is, a significant body of literature has concentrated on
education decision by employing Mazzarol and Soutar’s push-pull theory (2002) to
facilitate an understanding of the decision-making factors for international students,
especially in metropolitan universities (e.g. Azmat et al. 2013; Bohman 2009;
Cummings 1984; Duan 1997; Li and Bray 2007; Pimpa 2002; Wilkins et al. 2012).
However, the factors influencing the decision-making of the new generation of
Chinese international students are unknown, and much less attention has been paid
to students in regional universities. What is more, most existing research fails to
explain the relationship between factors and choices, and does not reveal the
complete decision-making process.
Seeking to make a contribution to those under-researched areas, this study
focuses on two major research objectives:
Objective 1. To examine how Chinese international students make their
pre-departure decisions to enrol at a regional Australian university.
Objective 2. To identify how Chinese international students perceived their
experiences of a regional Australian university after their overseas study sojourn.
7 How Do Students Make Decisions About Overseas … 67
Along with achieving two research objectives, this research eventually establishes
Chinese international students’ decision-making models of selecting to enrol in a
regional Australian university through fully presenting the interaction among three key
elements, choices, factors and processes. The study then proceeded to derive general-
ized decision-making models for international students seeking overseas study.
The methodological principles underpinning this study are located within mixed
methods, including both qualitative and quantitative methods. Mixed methods
research is known for gaining multiple pictures of the research problem from
several angles (Creswell 2015a). In terms of types of mixed methods, this research
falls into a convergent mixed methods design, which is to concurrently and sepa-
rately gather qualitative and quantitative data (Creswell 2012), subsequently to
merge results of the quantitative and qualitative data analysis.
This convergent mixed methods design provides a more complete understanding
of the research problem and questions than either method by itself (Creswell 2012,
2015a). To be specific, quantitative results generate general statistical trends, while
qualitative results yield stories and personal experiences (Creswell 2015b). In this
research, the quantitative method offers an overview of the general situation of
Chinese international students’ motivations by examining certain variables across a
large sample. The qualitative method is utilized to explore the individual factors
further and deeper, through investigating interviewees across a large number of
variables (Huxley 1995), and to examine student perceptions of experiences.
Because of complementary and non-overlapping strengths of both methods, this
convergent mixed methods employed in this research potentially offer a compre-
hensive and broad insight into the research data which would allow an appropriate
examination of the issue (Frechtling and Sharp 1997).
This study included two phases of data collection, corresponding to the time-
frames associated with the two objectives. In phase one, data were collected by
questionnaires and individual semi-structured interviews, conducted simultane-
ously. Questionnaires were utilized to obtain the numerical data and the textual
data, while interviews were carried out for collecting the textual data. In the second
phase of data collection, only one form of data, qualitative data was gathered, in
individual semi-structured interviews. Data analysis in this research also had two
stages. Stage one was for analysing data in the phase one of data collection. In this
stage, the numerical data from questionnaires was analyzed using tools: SPSS
(Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) version 22 and Excel 2010. The main
technique employed to analyze those quantitative data was descriptive statistics
analysis, including frequencies and descriptives. In the same stage, NVivo software
was the platform used to analyze the textual data according to three steps of open,
axial, and selective coding under the methodological guidance of systematic
grounded theory (Strauss and Corbin 1990). Systematic grounded theory is a design
widely used in educational research and it focuses on procedures used to generate a
theory that explains a process or an interaction (Creswell 2012). This research

emphasizes process, including the decision-making process of choosing overseas
higher education and assessment of overseas higher education experiences. Thus,
systematic grounded theory is considered to be the most appropriate choice. In the
second stage of data analysis, qualitative data from the second phase of data col-
lection, was analyzed in the platform of the NVivo. Subsequently, quantitative data
results and qualitative data results from two stages of data analysis were integrated
to address research questions.
Paradigms
Underlying this mixed methods research, the philosophical paradigms which pro-
vides a context for the process and grounds its logic and criteria (Crotty 1998),
involve positivist and interpretivist stances. In other words, this research combines
deductive and inductive approaches with an induction-dominated nature.
Specifically, the key aim of this research is to generate theories about phenomenon
‘grounded’ in collected data, which is primarily based on systematic grounded
theory. Therefore, a ‘theory-building structure’ developed in this thesis tailors to
match the nature of this research. If putting this research on an inductive/deductive
spectrum, as seen in Fig. 7.1, the theory-building process of this research is posi-
tioned dominantly at the inductive side but also involves some deductive elements.
More detailed information upon the paradigmatic position of this study can be
shown in Fig. 7.2. In the philosophy of positivism, reality is out there to be studied,
captured, and understood (Guba 1990). Positivism is referred to as the scientific
method and is based on empirical evidence, adhering closely to the deductive nature
(Sciarra 1999). Part of this research is done deductively in a positivist spirit. Ideas
and theories from reviewed relevant literature were used to deductively derive the
theoretical framework of this research, and then based on the theoretical framework,
the research instruments were deductively developed.
Interpretivists seek to rely on ‘participants’ views of the situation being studied’
(Creswell 2014, p. 8) and realize the impact of their background and experiences on
the research. Therefore, interpretive studies’ generate or inductively develop a
theory or pattern of meanings’ (Creswell 2014, p. 8). Guided by the interpretive
paradigm, after those deductive preparations, this research comes straight to the
point, to inductively establish the Chinese international students’ decision-making
Fig. 7.1 Research position in the inductive/deductive spectrum

Fig. 7.2 Development of the theory-building structure
theories on regional Australian higher education selection on the basis of collected

data by means of research instruments and guided by systematic grounded theory
(see Fig. 7.2). In other words, theories in this research are inductively established
from the proposed theoretical framework, and research instruments serve as a
bridge between the theoretical framework and theories. The presentation of the
theory development is the main focus of this research and devotes the major part of
this whole thesis. It also reflects the essence of the research, that is, to inductively
present research findings. Those discovered theories in this research will be a
contribution to the relevant field, especially utilized to fill these gaps in existing
literature. Also, research findings will play an active role in restructuring the
original theoretical framework derived from previous literature.
Literature Position
Reviewed literature plays special roles in two parts of the thesis. In Part A of this
thesis, Chapter 2: Thematic overview of the literature, reviews a series of literature
very related to this research topic, and then this chapter establishes the theoretical
framework of this research. This chapter is kept short and only presents most
relevant literature to this study. In this chapter, the most relevant literature discussed
is presented in the form of themes in terms of diverse elements of decision-making
process. The thematic literature eventually leads to the establishment of a theo-

retical framework in this study on student choice facets of overseas study (see
Fig. 7.3). This developed theoretical framework of this research is utilized to
interpret data in Part B of this thesis. Chapter 2 is mainly about a preliminary
literature review. The role of the literature in Chapter 2 is to build the theoretical
framework, to facilitate developing research instruments, including survey ques-
tionnaire and interview schedules.
The remainder of the literature is embedded within Part B of this thesis in results
and discussion chapters. In each results and discussion chapter, after results for that
theme are presented, theories are reviewed and related literature compared with the
identified results, in an attempt to maximize the links between literature and discus-
sion and to explore the theoretical position of those results in relevant research fields.
Structure
This thesis develops a ‘theory-building’ structure which is to describe how theories

are mainly inductively generated and to allow those theories to build throughout
this study based on systematic grounded theory approach (O’Leary 2014). This
structure also presents this mixed methods study through seamlessly integrating
Fig. 7.3 The theoretical framework of this research

quantitative and qualitative data. Table 7.1 provides the overall structure of the
Ph.D. thesis.
In order to make readers clearly and easily understand this research, the thesis
shows an organisational structure with three parts, Part A: Introduction, Part B:
Analysis, results and discussion, and Part C: Conclusion. As a guide to the thesis,
Part A provides a comprehensive overview on mapping this research before the
research step to look at data. This part presents a systematic introduction to this
study through grouping introduction, literature review, and methodology together
as a package on the grounds that those are the first few key steps before collecting
data. This part leads readers to developing a clear understanding of what this
research is about and how this study was undertaken. It is noteworthy that the
theoretical framework (see Fig. 7.3) as a sound theoretical basis for the following
theory-building process is yielded after reviewing thematic literature in Chapter 2. It
is followed by the next theory-building step, the designs of research instruments in
Chapter 3, according to the generated theoretical framework.
Part B: Analysis, results and discussion is the main part of this thesis. It focuses
on gathered data through presenting data analysis, and reporting results and dis-
cussions. In terms of the order of the research procedures, data analysis is firstly
shown in Chapters 5 and 6. Chapter 5: Analysis of the quantitative data, details the
process and the preliminary results of quantitative data analysis, including the
demographic distribution of survey respondents, and the descriptive statistical
Table 7.1 Structure of the Thesis ‘How Do Students Make Decisions About Overseas Higher
Education? A Case Study of Chinese International Students at a Regional Australian University’
Contents page
Part A Introduction
Chapter 2 Thematic overview of the literature
Chapter 3 Method and research design
Chapter 4 Structure of the thesis
Part B Analysis, results and discussion
Chapter 5 Analysis of the quantitative data
Chapter 6 Macro level analysis of the qualitative data
Chapter 7 Results and discussion for theme-Higher education
Chapter 8 Results and discussion for theme-Overseas
Chapter 9 Results and discussion for theme-Australia
Chapter 10 Results and discussion for theme-Tasmania
Chapter 11 Results and discussion for theme-UTAS
Chapter 12 Results and discussion for theme-Course
Chapter 13 Post-sojourn satisfaction with the decision to study at UTAS
Chapter 14 Decision-making models of the Chinese international students in the case study
Part C Conclusion
Chapter 15 Conclusion and generalizations
summary of the numerical data. Chapter 6 looks at the process and the preliminary
results of qualitative data analysis in the macro level. The micro level analysis of
qualitative data will be presented in chapters of results and discussion. Six themes
emerged from the theoretical framework are reaffirmed in this Chapter 6 (see
Fig. 7.3), that is, higher education, overseas, Australia, Tasmania, UTAS, and
course, which is the theoretical basis for the following six results and discussion
chapters. In this chapter, sub-themes in the first-phase interviews are identified from
codes. Afterwards, the choice sequences of Chinese international students gathered
from the first-phase interview is analyzed.
Forming part of the built theory, Chapters 7–12 present results and discussion
for six themes in the logical order for the sake of addressing the first research
question under the first research objective. Seeing that themes of Chapters 7–12 are
a group of choices Chinese international students made (see Fig. 7.3), Chapters 7–
12 all adopt identical structures to present results and discussion. Take Chapter 7:
Results and discussion for theme-Higher education as an example. Chapter 7
reports the results and discussion for the first theme according to the theoretical
framework, about why Chinese international students seek higher education. The
highlight of this chapter is to reflect a seamless combination of quantitative data and
qualitative data in the process of presenting findings in this theme. The descriptive
statistics summary of survey data for this theme is provided in the beginning of this
chapter. Most sub-themes presented in this chapter are from quantitative data while
other sub-themes are identified from qualitative data. In each sub-theme section,
results from quantitative data analysis is reinforced or compared with relevant
qualitative results if any, for interpreting each factor in this theme holistically. Then,
results are compared with the theories reviewed in closely related literature.
Chapter 13 explains results and discussions about Chinese international stu-
dents’ satisfaction with their decision of receiving higher education at UTAS,
through evaluating Chinese international students’ pre-departure decision of UTAS
study and influencing factors taken into consideration in making that decision,
which will be foundations for the formulation of decision-making models in the
next chapter. This chapter addresses the research question under the second
research objective, which is achieved. Building on six chapters on influencing
factors for Chinese international students to choose overseas study, and former
chapter on the evaluation of their decision on overseas study, Chapter 14 interprets
the decision-making processes and constructs Chinese international students’
decision-making models of selecting to enrol in UTAS, a regional Australian
university. In the beginning of this chapter, the choice strength framework is
constructed inductively in an effort to discover Chinese international students’
decision-making processes. Taking account of the importance of each choice in
results of the analysis of first-phase qualitative data, this framework encompasses a
set of six spectra poles representing the strength of choices in the decision made.
Arising from this framework, the decision-making processes of Chinese interna-
tional students are identified in the form of a set of flowcharts, and thus restructuring
the theoretical framework of the research, so that the second research question
under the first research objective is addressed. Following up with the construction
of decision-making processes and combining the findings of decision-making

factors reported from Chapters 7–12, the grounded decision-making models of
Chinese international students in selecting UTAS, a regional Australian university,
are derived. The discovery of those decision-making models address the third
research question under the first research objective.
To wrap up this thesis, Part C: Conclusion mainly presents more general
decision-making models which were derived from decision-making models of the
case study, and provides a summary of the findings of this study. This part in this
thesis is shorter via integrating key points rather than repeating all points in the
entire research journey.
Thus, this is an appropriate structure for reporting a mixed methods study of
students’ decision-making in selecting international higher education and present-
ing its built theories, through integrating qualitative data and quantitative data
seamlessly and following the induction-dominated nature underpinned by system-
atic grounded theory.
Commentary
An unconventional structure is adopted in this thesis to present the mixed methods

study through the seamless integration of quantitative data and qualitative data. The
induction-dominated presentation of theory formulation and development, under
the guidance of systematic grounded theory and based on the proposed theoretical
framework, provides readers with a comprehensive and logical insight to under-
stand this research.
This thesis structure is consistent with the paradigm, methodology and subject
matter of this research. One of characteristics of this thesis structure is the great
suitability for a mixed methods research, particularly for this convergent mixed
methods design. Results and findings do not have quantitative and qualitative
differences but are identified using those two distinct approaches for the purpose of
exploration from multiple dimensions. Quantitative data and qualitative data are
collected in parallel in the convergent mixed methods research, so the convergence
of quantitative data and qualitative data is the key in this research. Thus, this thesis
adopts a suitable approach to present data for convergent mixed methods research,
that is, to seamlessly integrate qualitative data and quantitative data according to
themes of decision-making process, and to present data analysis, results and dis-
cussion into one part of the thesis. In detail, both forms of data are combined
together to be discussed in each theme chapter, and results and discussion are
shown according to themes, so that findings for each theme could be presented
holistically and exhaustively. This approach is contributive to bridging the gap
between quantitative and qualitative data analysis, and presenting the intersections
of quantitative and qualitative data, which is the essence of the convergent mixed
methods research. This reflects a deep understanding of convergent mixed methods
research (Fig. 7.4).
Fig. 7.4 Key components in the formulation of theories
References
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Bohman, E. J. (2009). Headed for the heartland: Decision-making factors for international
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article=1004&context=diss.
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Mason (Eds.), Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and
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(Eds.), A concise introduction to mixed methods research (pp. 34–50). Thousand Oaks, CA:
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CA: SAGE.
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Qian (Amanda) Wu is a Ph.D. candidate in the Faculty of Education at the University of

Tasmania, under the supervision of David Kember, and Marion Myhill. Her research interests lie
in the areas of internationalization and globalization of higher education, higher education and
regional development, and higher education management. She is completing her Ph.D. research on
how students make decisions about overseas higher education. The Examiner newspaper on March
28th, 2015 reported her Ph.D. research. In addition, the Embassy of the People’s Republic of
China in Australia, and the Consulate General of The People’s Republic of China in Melbourne
have expressed particular interest in her research, because her research contributes positively to
Sino-Australian higher education relationship, and the globalization and the internationalization of
higher education. Also, the 2016 Australian Higher Education Summit specially invited her as a
keynote speaker to present her Ph.D. research. This chapter is about her Ph.D. thesis.
Chapter 8
Linguistic Complexity in English
Textbooks: A Functional Grammar
Perspective
Vinh To and Ahmar Mahboob
Research Question
This chapter explores how a dissertation was structured according to the chosen
research framework and research questions. In particular, the chapter attempts to
address the following question:
What is an appropriate structure for reporting a study of linguistic complexity in English
textbooks, following the Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) approach, and adopting
mixed methods research?
Within the diversified English as a Foreign Language (EFL) textbook markets,

choosing an appropriate textbook for a course at university or at language centres
has become increasingly difficult (Minoo and Nikan 2012), and in many places,
such as Vietnam, there are no consistent criteria for education policy makers and
educators to choose texts and/or textbooks for their language teaching programs.
This raises the need to investigate the appropriateness of the language used in
available textbooks in the markets, based on established measures, to provide
suggestions and implications for textbook choice and writing in the Teaching
English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) context.
V. To (&)
University of Tasmania, Locked Bag 1307, Launceston, TAS 7248, Australia
e-mail: vinh.to@utas.edu.au
A. Mahboob
Department of Linguistics, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
e-mail: ahmar.mahboob@sydney.edu.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_8
78 V. To and A. Mahboob
The dissertation analysed in this chapter explored whether and how texts differed
across levels in a commonly used English textbook series used in Vietnamese
universities and language centres. In the dissertation, I argued that the concept of
linguistic complexity is crucial in language teaching and that there is a need to carry
out research on the language of international textbooks designed and chosen for
English language teaching (ELT) around the world. In order to investigate this
issue, I focused on a popular textbook series used in Vietnam and presented a case
study of what such work might reveal and what implications it might have for ELT.
In order to carry out this work, I focussed on linguistic complexity as a measure of
text differentiation. Linguistic complexity is an important concept in language and
literacy education. Despite its significant contributions to the understanding of
language sciences, there are no general measures for it as different linguistic theories
take different perspectives on linguistic complexity (To 2014a, b). In my disserta-
tion, I chose to use SFL as the informing framework. SFL is a theory of language that
views language as a social semiotic system and a meaning-making resource. In other
words, it looks at how people use language to construe and create meaning to fulfil
their communicative purposes in social contexts (Martin and Rose 2003).
In specific, my study aimed to examine how the level of linguistic complexity
shifted across four textbook levels and within science and non-science fields in a
series of EFL textbooks. The study also examined the relationships among lin-
guistic features characterising complexity as well as how complexity differed
according to stages of text types. The study drew on Halliday’s (1985a, b)
description of five key linguistic features, namely lexical density, grammatical
intricacy, nominalisation, grammatical metaphor, and thematic structure to analyse
24 reading extracts in the selected textbooks on a quantitative analysis basis. In
addition, qualitative method research was adopted to analyse hierarchies of peri-
odicity (i.e., the flow of information) to unpack the complexity of language further
in four full texts.
As mentioned previously, my study adopted SFL, a socio-semiotic theory of lan-

guage, as the main theoretical and methodological framework. In SFL, language is
realised in four levels of abstraction known as four strata of language: context,
discourse semantics, lexico-grammar, and grapho-phonology (Halliday and
Matthiessen 2004). At the level of context, genre and register are realised. Genre is
‘a staged, goal-oriented, purposeful activity in which speakers engage as members
of our culture’ (Martin 2001, p. 155). This means genre is concerned with the
context of culture. Genre is realised through register which is ‘the immediate sit-
uational context in which the text was produced’ (Eggins 1994, p. 26). In other
words, register refers to the context of situation. Furthermore, in SFL, register is
seen as relating to three variables: field, tenor and mode which determine the
ideational meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning respectively at the
8 Linguistic Complexity in English Textbooks: A Functional … 79
discourse semantic level. The ideational meaning represents human experience

about the world; the interpersonal meaning enacts the interactions between the
writer/speaker and the reader/listener; and the textual meaning is concerned with the
text organisation (Martin and Rose 2003). These three kinds of meaning are known
as three metafunctions of language. At the lexico-grammar level, meaning is rea-
lised by means of wording through three levels of rank: word, group and clause
(Halliday and Matthiessen 2004). The ideational meaning is realised by lexical and
grammatical choices such as lexical items, transitivity systems, and the logico-
semantic types. The interpersonal meaning is realised by mood, modality and
evaluative language. Finally, the textual meaning is realised by thematic and
information structure (Halliday and Matthiessen 2004), and text periodicity (Martin
and Rose 2003). While discourse semantics and lexico-grammar belong to the
content plane, phonetics and phonology belong to the expression plane, which are
the most basic linguistic resources for making meaning (Halliday and Matthiessen
2004). The dissertation analysed in this chapter primarily focused on the ideational
and textual meanings at the level of lexico-grammar, discourse semantics and
context to analyse and interpret the language of English textbooks across levels.
With respect to the research paradigms, the positivist paradigm was employed in
this study to analyse English textbook language. Positivism is a deductive research
approach and it seeks objectivity and employs logical and consistent approaches to
research (Carson et al. 2001). Thus, in addition to a consistent analytical framework,
statistical techniques are central and adopted within the positivist tradition
(Carson et al. 2001). Within the positivist paradigm, the dissertation employed well-
established measures from SFL theory and examined how they worked in the English
textbooks designed to teach English as a foreign language. This study also examined
the correlations among linguistic features. Guided by the positivist perspective, the
focus of the dissertation examined here is on description and explanation of the
investigated linguistic features in the chosen texts and the relationship between them.
In order to investigate the linguistic complexity of selected texts from the textbook
series under focus, this study adopted a mixed methods approach (drawing both on
quantitative and qualitative analysis of texts). Quantitative research design was used
to examine the complexity of 24 reading extracts in four textbooks at four different
levels (i.e., elementary, pre-intermediate, intermediate and upper-intermediate).
Qualitative analysis was conducted with four full texts.
The quantitative analysis presented in the study included descriptive statistics
that reported the values of lexical density, grammatical intricacy, nominalisation,
grammatical metaphor and thematic structure across textbook levels and in science
and non-science fields. In addition, inferential statistics conducted by one-way
ANOVA test was presented to examine if there was a significant difference in terms
of statistics between textbook levels. When there was a difference between textbook
levels (p 0.05) displayed by ANOVA test, Tukey post hoc test was presented to
find out which group was statistically different. The qualitative analysis used in this
study focussed on the flow of information in the four selected texts, known as the
text hierarchies of periodicity.
There were six main elements to consider in carrying out the quantitative (5) and
qualitative (1) analysis in this study:
Lexical density analysis: The dissertation employed two formulas of lexical
density. The first method, which was originally proposed by Ure (1971), is identical
to Halliday’s (1985b) first approximation. In the first method, lexical density is
measured by the proportion of lexical items to total words (Ure 1971; Halliday
1985b). In the second formula, lexical density is calculated by the ratio of lexical
items per ranking clauses Halliday (1985b). The purpose of employing both
measures of lexical density was to determine if they were consistent in measuring
density and if the results obtained were reliable.
Grammatical intricacy analysis: The dissertation adopted Halliday’s (2008)
measure to carry out this analysis. According to this measure, grammatical intricacy
is calculated by the ratio of ranking clauses per clause complexes. Only ranking
clauses comprising parataxis (or independent clause in traditional term) and
hypotaxis (or dependent clauses in traditional grammar) are counted, embedded or
rankshifted clauses are not included in the analysis.
Nominalisation analysis: The study focused on two main types of nominalisa-
tion: nominalisation of verbs and nominalisation of adjectives (Halliday 1994).
Verbal nominalisation can be recognised in three ways: (1) verbs and nouns have
the same stems (e.g., to visit—a visit), (2) verbs change their stems to become
nouns (e.g., to live—a life), (3) verbs add suffixes to become nouns (e.g., to explore
—an exploration). Adjectival nominalisation can be formed by adding suffixes to
adjectives (e.g., dense – density). Frequency of nominalisation was calculated by
the ratio of instances of nominalisation to ranking clauses.
Grammatical metaphor analysis: The study drew on Halliday (1985a, 1994) in
developing ways of coding and analysing grammatical metaphor. Following
Halliday (1985a, 1994), the study differentiated between two types of grammatical
metaphors: ideational metaphors and interpersonal metaphors. As this study
investigated linguistic features of written language and the relationship between
nominalisation and grammatical metaphor, it focussed on ideational metaphors.
Interpersonal metaphors were not taken into consideration in this study.
Thematic analysis: Themes were classified into three major types: simple
themes, multiple themes and clausal themes. Simple themes, also known as topical
or ideational themes, include unmarked themes and marked themes. A multiple
theme may consist of a combination of two or three themes together including
textual theme, interpersonal theme and ideational themes. A clause complex con-
tains one dependent clause followed by one independent clause; dependent clause is
treated as an adverbial clause and functions as the Theme of that clause complex
which is known as clausal Theme (Halliday 1985a, 1994).
Full text analysis: Four texts were chosen for a detailed qualitative analysis. To
do this, hierarchies of periodicity were analysed according to stages of genre to see
whether different stages of genre led to different values of lexical density, gram-
matical complexity, nominalisation and grammatical metaphor.
Structure
My dissertation comprised of eight chapters. The content of each chapter is

described in detail in the following sections. However, before the focus of each
chapter is summarised, three broad observations should be shared. First, the dis-
sertation was structured based on how SFL dissertations are typically organised, but
with some caveats: in particular, I considered the purpose of the dissertation in
deciding what would be included in the dissertation and how this information was
to be organised. In making these adjustments, the dissertation both looks like, but is
different from, other SFL dissertations. Second, given the newness of the topic of
research, I decided to include a full chapter that described the different perspectives
of linguistic complexity before expanding on the approach used in this study in a
follow-up chapter. And third, given that the quantitative analysis aided the quali-
tative analysis, I first presented a detailed account of their quantitative findings in
Chapter 5 before delving into the qualitative findings in Chapter 6. In addition to
these three observations, another point (a point we will return to later in this section
and discuss in more depth in the following section) that we noted was that I
continuously reflected on and changed my dissertation structure as I progressed in
my work. These observations are important as they help answer the ‘research
question’ stated in the introduction to this chapter.
Chapter 1: Introduction
This chapter introduced the rationale and purpose of the dissertation project. It provided
a brief overview of studies on linguistic complexity and pointed out the gap in research
in this area. This led to the presentation of four specific research questions explored in
this dissertation. The chapter also presented a general introduction to Halliday’s SFL
theory and briefly discussed how linguistic complexity is measured from this point of
view. The chapter also introduced the research design employed in the study, the chosen
textbooks and texts, and the methods of analysing data.
Chapter 2: Different Perspectives on Linguistic Complexity
This chapter provided a comprehensive and critical review of literature on linguistic

complexity from multiple linguistic perspectives. While the study primarily drew on
SFL, the author found it important to contextualise and evaluate work on linguistic
complexity in general in order to provide a strong rationale for their choice. By
describing and evaluating alternative approaches, the author was able to present
arguments that supported her choice of using SFL. In terms of the organisation of
this chapter, it started with an explanation of some concepts in relation to grammar
and linguistic complexity. Following that, linguistic complexity was discussed from
the perspective of traditional grammar, Chomsky’s transformational-generative
grammar, and Halliday’s functional grammar.
Chapter 3: A Hallidayan Approach on Linguistic Complexity
After identifying and justifying an appropriate theoretical framework for my study

in Chapter 2, I provided an elaborate and detailed discussion of linguistic com-
plexity from a Hallidayan SFL perspective in Chapter 3. In particular, lexical
density, grammatical intricacy, nominalisation, grammatical metaphor, thematic
structure and hierarchies of periodicity were discussed in depth. A literature review
on prior studies on linguistic complexity and pointing out the gap in research in this
area was also included.
Chapter 4: Methodology
This chapter introduced the methodological and analytical framework of the

research. After reiterating the aim and objectives of the project, I explained the
research methodology adopted in this study and highlighted how this was aligned
with the research goals. This study employed quantitative research approach to
quantify complexity; thus, quantitative data analysis dealt with descriptive and
inferential statistics of linguistic complexity. Quantitative research design was
supported by qualitative analysis of four texts to identify some trends regarding text
periodicity in more detail. In addition to the analytical approach taken, the chapter
also described the process of text selection and discussed issues related to the
reliability and validity of the study.
Chapter 5: Analysis of Linguistic Complexity Across

Textbook Levels
This chapter reported on findings from quantitative data analysis of the linguistic
complexity of 24 reading extracts in EFL textbooks with a focus on five linguistics
features: lexical density, grammatical intricacy, nominalisation, grammatical
metaphor, and thematic structure. I chose to present the findings of the quantitative
study first in a separate chapter so that these results could be used in analysing four
full texts in more detail (using a qualitative approach).
Chapter 6: Analysis of Linguistic Complexity

at the Full Text Level
In this chapter, quantitative and qualitative analysis of four full texts was conducted
to find out how linguistic features differed according to stages of genre, and what
effects they had on the text periodicity.
Chapter 7: Discussion
The two data analysis chapters were followed by a discussion of the results
addressing the four main research objectives and four associated research questions.
In response to each research question, this chapter discussed the extent to which this
research supported and expanded the existing literature. It also pointed out which
results were expected and which ones were unforeseen but interesting.
Chapter 8: Conclusion
This final chapter summarised the main findings of the research project and dis-
cussed the theoretical and educational implications of this work. Limitations of the
study and recommendations for further studies were also highlighted. The thesis
concluded with a brief review of my personal reflections on the research journey.
Above, we have summarized the key focus of the eight (8) chapters contained in
my dissertation. However, before moving on, we would like to argue that that the
organization of a dissertation is based on: (a) the dissertation structure frequently
adopted in studies using a particular framework (in this case SFL); (b) the specific
questions being asked in the dissertation’ and (c) my growing understanding of and
confidence in my research. I continuously reflected on and changed my dissertation
structure as I progressed in my work. So, what is described in the sections above is
not what I had originally planned. Table 8.1 includes my final ToC (Table of
Contents) as well as an indication of whether I had initially planned to include this
chapter in my dissertation or not. Readers will note that that a number of chapters in
the submitted dissertation were not part of my original plans. The structure of the
dissertation evolved as I progressed in my work: a point that we will discuss in
more detail in the following section.
Table 8.1 Thesis structure

Contents page
Chapter Chapter title Was this chapter included in my
ID initial plans?
Chapter 1 Introduction Yes
Chapter 2 Different Perspectives on Linguistic Chapters 2 and 3 were initially
Complexity planned
Chapter 3 A Hallidayan Approach on Linguistic as a single literature review chapter
Complexity
Chapter 4 Methodology Yes
Chapter 5 Analysis of Linguistic Complexity across Chapters 5, 6 and 7 were initially
levels planned
Chapter 6 Analysis of Linguistic Complexity as a single ‘Results and
at full text levels Discussion’ chapter
Chapter 8 Conclusion Yes
Commentary
As starting off the research journey, I developed a broad outline structure of what my
dissertation would include. I did this primarily by looking at how a ‘simple’ traditional
thesis is organised as well as reviewing some other SFL dissertations. However, the
final structure, as described in the previous section, was not the same as the one at the
beginning my work. As I progressed on my research journey, my discussions with my
Ph.D. supervisors and academic mentors, as well as my on-going readings and
analyses, I revised the organization of my thesis (see Table 8.1) in a way that not only
suited my chosen theoretical paradigm, but which also reflected the unique needs of
my research goals (see also Paltridge and Starfield 2007).
For example, in my initial plans, I had projected only one literature review
chapter; however, I ended up having two. The first of these was a comparative
analysis of the different approaches used in analyzing linguistic complexity. I added
this as a separate chapter to show what the different approaches used for studying
linguistic complexity were, how these were different, how they related to my work,
and which of these was most appropriate for my project. By doing this, I wanted to
avoid potential criticism from examiners that I had not explored or considered other
theoretical frameworks (note: I was successful in avoiding such criticism).
Following this chapter, I added another literature review chapter, which focused on
the Hallidayan framework and also included a discussion of other studies that
adopted this framework.
I had also initially planned a single Results and Discussion chapter, in which I
had planned to provide all my research findings and include an analysis and dis-
cussion of these findings. However, as my work developed, I realized that I needed
to separate these out into three chapters. The first findings chapters presented the
results from the quantitative analysis of linguistic features across levels. The second
findings chapter focused on the qualitative analysis of four full texts. And the third
chapter provided an in-depth discussion of both my quantitative and qualitative
findings as well as relating these findings to previous research.
In conclusion, and to respond to the research question set out in the introductory
section of this chapter, an analysis of how I structured my dissertation lead us to
two key observations. First, I organized my dissertation broadly in sync with how a
‘simple’ traditional thesis is organized, however, over time, I made some important
changes to this structure. I reflected on the specific purpose of my dissertation in
deciding what would be included in the dissertation and how this information
would be organized. Second, my initial plans of how I would organize the dis-
sertation evolved as my work developed. For example, given the focus of research,
and the potential criticism that I might draw from examiners, I decided to include
two full chapters on literature review, instead of one: one which discussed the
different perspectives of linguistic complexity; and the second on the approach used
in the study. Similarly, I decided to break-up my planned single Results and
Discussion chapter into three chapters. These changes reflected my development as
a researcher and as a writer of research. One of the things that I discovered through
writing my dissertation was that one might start off thinking and planning one thing,
but may end up doing something quite different to suit the development of the
work. I also learned that although my study addressed a gap in research and
provided an answer to a research issue, this was not really the end, as new questions
emerged from my work. Through this exciting yet challenging journey, my research
abilities enhanced in many different ways. I learnt that research is a journey and that
one develops and learns through the journey.
References
Carson, D., Gilmore, A., Perry, C., & Gronhaug, K. (2001). Qualitative marketing research.
London: Sage.
Eggins, S. (1994). An introduction to systemic functional linguistics. London: Pinter.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1985a). An introduction to functional grammar. London: Arnold.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1985b). Spoken and written language. Deakin: Deakin University.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1994). An introduction to functional grammar (2nd ed.). London: Arnold.
Halliday, M. A. K. (2008). Complementarities in language. Beijing: The Commercial Press.
Halliday, M. A. K., & Matthiessen, C. M. I. M. (2004). An introduction to functional grammar
(3rd ed.). London: Arnold.
Martin, J. R. (2001). Language, register and genre. In A. Burns & C. Coffin (Eds.), Analysing
English in a global context: A reader (pp. 149–166). London: Routlege.
Martin, J. R., & Rose, D. (2003). Working with discourse: Meaning beyond the clause. London:
Continuum.
Minoo, A., & Nikan, S. (2012). Textbook evaluation: EFL teachers’ perspectives on “pacesetter
series”. English Language Teaching, 5(7), 64–68.
Paltridge, B., & Starfield, S. (2007). Thesis and dissertation writing in a second language: A
handbook for supervisors. London: Routledge.
To, V. (2014a). Grammatical complexity of English textbooks: A comparative study of two book
levels: Elementary and Pre-intermediate. Paper presented at the Australian Systemic
Functional Linguistics Association Conference, 29 September–2 October, Sydney, Australia.
To, V. (2014b). Linguistic complexity in English textbooks: A Functional Grammar Perspective.
Paper presented at the AILA World Congress 10–15 August 2014, Brisbane, Australia.
Ure, J. (1971). Lexical density and register differentiation. In G. E. Perren & J. L. M. Trim (Eds.),
Applications of linguistics (pp. 443–452). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Vinh To has completed a thesis on Linguistic complexity in English textbooks: A functional

grammar perspective. The chapter about her thesis was based on a Ph.D. degree, completed at the
University of Tasmania under the supervision and mentoring of Thao Le, Si Fan, Quynh Le and
Ahmar Mahboob. Vinh To was an experienced English Language Lecturer in Vietnam who is
passionate about English education and English curriculum design in universities in her country,
leading her to researching English textbooks commonly used in Vietnam to provide useful insights
into English pedagogy and curriculum design in Vietnam. Vinh completed her Ph.D. at the
University of Tasmania in 2015 and has worked as a Lecturer in English curriculum and pedagogy
at the same university since then. Her recent publications appear in the proceeding of the 44th
International Systemic Functional Congress, the Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, and
the Qualitative Research Journal.
Ahmar Mahboob is Associate Professor of Linguistics at the University of Sydney. Ahmar is

keenly interested in the application of language sciences to developmental issues, with a particular
focus on education. His primary research interest is on an examination of policies, practices, and
implications of language variation in local and global contexts. In pursuing this goal, Ahmar draws
from and contributes to a range of linguistics and applied linguistics traditions, theories, and
methodologies.
Chapter 9
Structure by Design: Reasoning About
Covariation with TinkerPlots
Noleine Fitzallen
Research Question
What is an appropriate structure for reporting a study of the development of stu-

dents’ understanding of covariation when using exploratory data analysis software,
TinkerPlots Dynamic Data Exploration, following a pragmatist paradigm, and
adopting educational design research methodology?
The first objective of the inquiry was to further understanding of the factors that
influence student learning when working with a graphing software package,
TinkerPlots Dynamic Data Exploration, through the development of a conceptual
framework for learning in exploratory data analysis graphing environments. The
second objective was to explore the intersection between the students’ thinking and
reasoning about covariation and the influence of TinkerPlots on that process, as
students explore data sets to determine the relationship between variables, and
identify trends.
N. Fitzallen (&)
School of Education, College of Arts, Law, and Education,
University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
e-mail: noleine.fitzallen@utas.edu.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_9
88 N. Fitzallen
The inquiry was a teaching experiment that employed a sequential exploratory

strategy (Creswell 2003) and an educational design research methodology to
facilitate the development of a systematic iterative study (Akker et al. 2006). It
adopted an innovative qualitative research approach to capture the complexity of
student learning of covariation, which is influenced heavily by the context of the
technological learning environment, student prior knowledge, and instructional
design (Konold 2007). These influences created a complex research/learning
environment that recognised the research process and the learning intervention were
intrinsically entwined—one constantly influenced by the other. Embedded within
this was the idea that the students’ learning about statistical concepts, learning about
data analysis software, and developing exploratory data analysis (EDA) skills
(Tukey 1977) were similarly entwined. The research questions explored were:
1. How can the learning behaviours of students as they engage with exploratory
data analysis software be characterised through a framework that can then be
used to explore and analyse students’ understanding of covariation using
TinkerPlots?
2. How do students interact with the exploratory data analysis software,
TinkerPlots, to represent data in a variety of forms when exploring questions
about relationships within a data set?
3. How do students develop an understanding of covariation in the exploratory
data analysis software environment afforded by TinkerPlots and use these
understandings to provide informal justification for their conclusions about the
relationships identified?
The orientation of this research aligned with a pragmatist paradigm. Pragmatism

seeks to link theory and praxis through the exploration of the research problem
(Greenwood and Levin 2003; Mackenzie and Knipe 2006). It examines actions and
situations to develop an understanding of the meaning of ideas by drawing on
qualitative research methods and techniques (Creswell 2003; Johnson and
Onwuegbuzie 2004). There is an emphasis on developing an understanding of what
works and examining solutions to problems to derive knowledge about the prob-
lems (Patton 2002). It follows that the meaning of an idea or a proposition is
developed by observing its application in real-world practice (Creswell 2013).
Therefore, a pragmatist approach dictates that research methods are matched to the
aim and purpose of the research and the specific questions of an inquiry (Boaz and
Ashby 2003). Although a pragmatist paradigm is usually applied to scientific
investigations (Mackenzie and Knipe 2006), it was appropriate for this inquiry as it
9 Structure by Design: Reasoning About Covariation … 89
allowed for the design of the inquiry to be shaped around investigating directly the
use of TinkerPlots by students.
Educational design research was selected for the inquiry because it is iterative
and cyclical in nature (Seeto and Herrington 2006; Shavelson et al. 2003). It is
underpinned by a fundamental tenet that ongoing evaluation is an essential part of
the research process (Kelly 2003; Phillips 2006). Educational design research has
been used in many studies that interrogated and informed the design of techno-
logical learning environments (Reeves 2006). In the case of Seeto and Herrington
(2006), it guided the development of a web site for accessing online learning. The
purpose of their study was to create a collaborative research environment where
software designers worked with education researchers to develop a set of design
principles for the web-based delivery of teacher education courses. Typically,
design research studies are longitudinal. The study conducted by Seeto and
Herrington demonstrates that design research can also be an effective research
approach when studies are short term.
The intention of the TinkerPlots inquiry was to take advantage of the iterative
nature of educational design research (Shavelson et al. 2003), which involved using
the outcomes from each stage of the inquiry to inform the next stage of the inquiry.
Although the inquiry explored the students’ use of the software environment
afforded by TinkerPlots (Fitzallen 2013; Watson and Fitzallen 2016) and was
interested in the way in which the environment influenced students’ data analysis
techniques (Fitzallen 2012, 2016), it was not the intention of the inquiry to make a
contribution to the design principles of TinkerPlots.
A general model of educational design research includes four phases: develop-
ment of the research questions, selection of data and data collection methods,
design of artefacts and processes, and analyses and evaluation. It ‘is a research
approach that is particularly suited to the exploration of significant education
problems and technology-based solutions’ (Seeto and Herrington 2006, p. 742).
Seeto and Herrington aligned their research methodology with the integrative
learning design (ILD) framework developed by Bannan-Ritland (2003). The phases
of the ILD framework are (a) Informed Exploration, (b) Enactment, (c) Evaluation:
Local Impact, and (d) Evaluation: Broader Impact. The Informed Exploration phase
may include activities such as conducting literature reviews, carrying out needs
analyses, and determining the form of teaching intervention to be developed. The
Enactment phase is characterised by the development, implementation, and
refinement of the intervention over a number of cycles. Refinement of theories and
suggestions for redesign arise from the Evaluation: Local Impact phase, while
dissemination of data, evaluation of the impact, and consideration of the conse-
quences of the intervention for the long term occur in the Evaluation: Broader
Impact phase. The ILD framework is utilised by large projects that are expected to
be delivered over a long period of time. The extended research period provides the
opportunity for the implementation and evaluation of interventions to be iterative
(Bannan-Ritland 2003).
The inquiry utilised the ILD framework developed by Bannan-Ritland (2003) to
guide the inquiry design. In recognition that the inquiry was short term, as well as to
90 N. Fitzallen
Table 9.1 Phases of educational design research in relation to the inquiry

Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4
ILD framework Informed Enactment Evaluation: Evaluation:
(Bannan-Ritland exploration Local Broader impact
2003) impact
Seeto and Analysis of Development Evaluation Documentation
Herrington practical of solutions and testing and reflection to
model (2006) problems by with a of solutions produce ‘design
researchers and theoretical in practice principles’
practitioners framework
Reasoning Analysis of Development Evaluation Application of
about practical of solutions of solutions solutions and
Covariation problems with a reflection on
with TinkerPlots theoretical implementation
framework
accommodate the context of the inquiry, the titles of the phases of the ILD
framework were modified. Consideration was also given to the educational design
based research model used by Seeto and Herrington (2006), who implemented a
study that explored the development of a web site for teacher education students.
Although their study was relatively short term—less than one year—they applied
the phases of educational design research successfully. Table 9.1 details the phases
of the ILD framework, the Seeto and Herrington model, and their relationship to the
phases developed for the TinkerPlots inquiry. The research followed four phases of
inquiry consistent with educational design research methodology through seven
stages of inquiry (Fig. 9.1). The figure maps chronologically the four phases of the
inquiry process noted in Table 9.1 to each of the seven stages of the inquiry.
Alpha-numerical codes are used for each phase of the inquiry to reflect the nature of
each phase. For example, L0 includes the literature review for the initial stage of the
inquiry, D0 includes the development of the inquiry design, E0 includes the
evaluation of the inquiry design and links to E6. The link to E6 reflects the iterative
nature of the inquiry. A0 includes the application of inquiry design and its
implementation to the structure of the thesis.
Structure
The structure of the thesis was based on the seven stages of the educational design
research inquiry. It was divided into seven sections with each section of the thesis
for the first six stages of the inquiry opening with a literature review, as noted in the
first phase of each stage detailed in Fig. 9.1. This was followed by information
about the implementation of the other phases for that stage together with infor-
mation about the methodological considerations relevant to that stage. Providing the
detail about each stage of the inquiry as it arose in the thesis addressed the call from
Inquiry
Analysis of Development of Evaluation of Application of
Phases
practical solutions with a solutions solutions and
problems theoretical reflection on
Inquiry
framework implementation
Stages
Stage 0 L0. Literature D0. Development E0. Inquiry Design A0. Guides Inquiry
Inquiry reviewed on of Inquiry Design discussed in Stage 6 Implementation
Commencement educational design and Thesis
based research Structure
Stage 1 L1. Literature D1. Development E1. Evaluation of A1. Model of
Development of a reviewed on graph of Model of Model of Learning in Learning in EDA
Model of creation and Learning in EDA EDA Graphing Graphing
Learning - interpretation, Graphing Environments Environments
Research using technology, Environments conducted in Stage 6 applied in Stages 2,
Question 1 EDA, and models 3, & 4
of graphing
Stage 2 L2. Literature D2. Development E2. Evaluation of A2. Informs other
Evaluation of reviewed on of Criteria for TinkerPlots using inquiry activities –
TinkerPlots – evaluating EDA Evaluating EDA Criteria for development of
Research software packages Software Evaluating EDA Student Survey and
Question 2 Environments Software Learning Sequence
Environments
Stage 3 L3. Literature D3. Development E3. Trial and A3. Selection of
Establishment of reviewed on of Student Survey evaluation of Student Participants
Student Prior assessment to determine Survey (n=12) for Stage
Learning- instruments for student prior (n=71) 4.
Research evaluating student learning in graph
Questions 2 & 3 learning of creation and graph
covariation and interpretation.
graphing
Stage 4 Sequence L4. Literature D4. Development E4a. Implementation A4. Analysis of
of Learning and reviewed on of Learning of Learning Sequence Student Interviews
Outcomes – student Sequence (n=12) (n=12)
Research understanding of - Covariation E4b. Administration
Questions 2 & 3 covariation and of Student Interviews
graphing (n=12)
Stage 5 L5. Literature D5. Results of E5. Discussion of the A5.
The Findings – revisited and used Research Research Questions. Recommendations
Research to support findings Questions for future research
Question 1, 2 & 3
Stage 6 L6. Literature D6. Discussion of E6. Evaluation of A6.
Inquiry revisited and used Inquiry Inquiry Design using Recommendations
Conclusion to support inquiry Implications NRC (2002) for future research
implications principles of scientific
inquiry. (E0 & E1))
Fig. 9.1 Stages and phases of the inquiry
Collins et al. (2004) to characterise the elements of an inquiry design and state the
reasons for including the elements in the inquiry process.
Contents page
Stage 0—Inquiry Commencement
Stage 1—Development of Model of Learning
Stage 2—Evaluation of TinkerPlots
92 N. Fitzallen
Stage 3—Establishment of Prior Learning

Stage 4—Sequence of Learning and Outcomes
Stage 5—The Findings
Stage 6—Inquiry Conclusion
Stage 0—Inquiry Commencement. This stage set the scene for the inquiry and
included the broad methodology that underpinned the inquiry and explained how
the methodology fit the purpose of the inquiry. Inclusion of Stage 0 acknowledged
the research that was undertaken in setting up the research project before its
implementation. The aim and objectives, the research questions, the origins of the
inquiry, the inquiry design, the sampling design, the significance of the inquiry, and
a consideration of the ethical issues associated with the inquiry were also included.
Following Stage 0, the next four stages detailed the enactment of the inquiry.
Stage 1—Development of Model of Learning. The purpose of this stage of the
inquiry was to develop a theoretical framework, Model of Learning in EDA
Graphing Environments (Fitzallen 2006), which exemplified the critical behaviours
of working in EDA graphing environments from an interrogation of the literature on
student learning about graphing and development of data analysis skills. The model
was used repeatedly throughout other stages of the inquiry to inform the research
process, evaluate research instruments, design criteria for the evaluation of
TinkerPlots, and analyse student interviews. The model of learning was developed
in response to Research Question 1 and is revisited in Stage 6 to determine in what
ways it contributed to the inquiry meeting its objectives.
Stage 2—Evaluation of TinkerPlots. This stage was used to establish a clear
understanding of the features of the software package and the different graph types
it produces in order to answer Research Question 2. To do this it was necessary to
develop criteria for evaluating TinkerPlots and then apply them to evaluate the
potential for TinkerPlots to be used as a learning tool. The Model of Learning in
EDA Graphing Environments developed in Stage 1, in conjunction with the liter-
ature on evaluating software and technological learning environments, was used to
establish the criteria (Fitzallen and Brown 2006). The literature on previous
research about TinkerPlots, its application as a learning tool, and its application as a
teaching tool were also reviewed in this stage.
Stage 3—Establishment of Prior Learning. The purpose of this stage of the
inquiry was to establish the prior learning of students in relation to their under-
standing of graphs, graph-sense-making, and covariation. In order to do this, an
assessment instrument to be used as a student survey was developed. Proven
assessment items from previous research that evaluated students’ development of
statistical and graphing concepts were used to construct the student survey
(Fitzallen 2008). The results from the administration of the student survey informed
the design of the sequence of learning experiences developed and implemented in
Stage 4—Sequence of Learning (Fitzallen and Watson 2014). The results also
informed the selection of the participants for Stage 4.
Stage 4—Sequence of Learning and Outcomes. The purpose of this stage of the
inquiry was to develop and implement a sequence of learning experiences that
would provide the opportunity for novice learners to use TinkerPlots to develop an
understanding of covariation. As part of the implementation of the sequence of
learning experiences, the final session was used to administer an interview protocol
to gather evidence of the students’ understanding of covariation and determine the
way in which they interacted with TinkerPlots to create graphs and interpret data.
Student profiles that characterised their statistical thinking and reasoning according
to the dimensions of the Model of Learning in EDA Graphing Environments were
developed for the students who participated in this stage of the inquiry (Fitzallen
2012, 2013). The student profiles contributed to answering Research Question 1 in
Stage 5.
Stage 5—The Findings. In Stage 5 the student profiles built from the results in
Stage 4 were analysed and used to answer Research Question 1. The student
profiles were then analysed another two times to answer Research Questions 2 and
3, respectively.
Stage 6—Inquiry Conclusion. This stage revisited the research design adopted
for the inquiry and the Model of Learning in EDA Graphing Environments
developed in Stage 1 as part of an evaluation of the inquiry design using the
principles of scientific inquiry developed by the National Research Council (2002).
The implications and limitations of the inquiry were developed in this stage of the
inquiry as were recommendations for future research.
Commentary
The thesis, Reasoning about Covariation with TinkerPlots, used the structure of the
inquiry design to structure the thesis. It was set out to follow the design process
through Stages 0–6 as chapters of the thesis. The decision for the structure of the
thesis to follow the inquiry design was made so that the thesis reflected the evolving
exploratory nature of the inquiry, which is in keeping with design-based research
approaches (Akker et al. 2006). Setting out the thesis in this way allowed the thesis
to demonstrate clearly how each stage of the inquiry was developed from the
literature and how the literature was used to inform each stage. It also allowed the
factors that influenced the enactment of each stage to be made explicit at the time
they were relevant to the inquiry, which satisfied Collins and his colleagues (2004)
call for elements of an inquiry be justified. All of the conventions for a regular
thesis such as literature review, methodology and results were included in the
thesis; however, they were not presented as individual chapters.
The thesis was organised so that the literature reviews and methodological
considerations for each of the stages were presented at the beginning of each stage.
Figure 9.2 provides a representation of the relationships among the phases and
stages of the inquiry and indicate which research question was the main focus of
each stage. The main connections are indicated by the bold lines and arrows. It is
94 N. Fitzallen
Fig. 9.2 Inquiry map
important to note that there are many other subtler connections represented by
dashed lines. Although not directly responsible for the outcome of a preceding or
following stage, information from a particular phase impacted on other stages or
phases of the inquiry. For example, evaluation of the students’ prior learning in
Stage 3 was used to inform the development of the sequence of learning experi-
ences in Stage 4. The map also places the Model of Learning in EDA Graphing
Environments developed in Stage 1 in the centre and indicates its relationship with
the other stages of the inquiry.
References
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educational design research. In Educational design research (pp. 3–7). New York: Routledge.
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Boaz, A., & Ashby, D. (2003). Fit for purpose? Assessing research quality for evidence based
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Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches
(3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Fitzallen, N. (2006). A model of students’ statistical thinking and reasoning about graphs in an ICT
environment. In P. Grootenboer, R. Zevenbergen & M. Chinnappan (Eds.), Identities, cultures
and learning spaces. Proceedings of 29th annual conference of the Mathematics Education
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Fitzallen, N. (2008). Validation of an assessment instrument developed for eliciting student prior
learning in graphing and data analysis. In M. Goos, R. Brown, & K. Makar (Eds.), Navigating
currents and charting directions. Proceedings of the 31st annual conference of the Mathematics
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Fitzallen, N. (2012). Interpreting graphs: Students developing an understanding of covariation.
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Fitzallen, N. (2013). Characterising students’ interaction with TinkerPlots. Technology
Innovations in Statistics Education, 7(1), Article 2. Retrieved from http://www.escholarship.
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Fitzallen, N. (2016). Interpreting association from graphical displays. In B. White & J. Clarke
(Eds.), Opening up mathematics education research. Proceedings of the 39th annual conference
of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, Adelaide, July 3–7 (pp. 220–
227). Sydney: MERGA.
Fitzallen, N., & Brown, N. (2006). Evaluating data-analysis software: Exploring opportunities for
developing statistical thinking and reasoning. In N. Armstrong & C. Sherwood (Eds.), IT’s up
here for thinking. Proceedings of the Australian Computers in Education Conference, Cairns,
October 2–4, 2006. Retrieved from http://acce.edu.au/conferences/2006/papers/evaluating-
data-analysis-software-exploring-opportunities-developing-statist.
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from beginning researchers (pp. 263–278). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.
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Thinking with data (pp. 267–291). New York: Taylor and Francis.
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mackenzie.html.
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Educational design research (pp. 93–99). New York: Routledge.
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Noleine Fitzallen conducts research in statistics education. Her thesis was on student reasoning
about covariation when using the exploratory data analysis software, TinkerPlots. The chapter
about her thesis was based on a Ph.D. completed at the University of Tasmania under the
supervision of Prof. Jane Watson and Prof. Natalie Brown. Prior to embarking on her Ph.D. study,
Noleine was investigating the integration of ICT in the mathematics classroom. Her statistics
education research focus has now shifted to exploring students’ development of understanding of
modelling with data when conducting investigations embedded within STEM contexts. Her other
research interests include investigating the outcomes for undergraduates delivering STEM
outreach programs, the constructive alignment of learning in tertiary education, and the assessment
of inquiry-based learning.
Chapter 10
Researching in the ‘Cultural Interface’:
Working Between Non-indigenous
and Indigenous Research Paradigms
David Hicks, Mary O’Dowd and Michael Corbett
Research Question
What is an appropriate structure for reporting a study of Indigenous education

which employs Structural Equation Modelling as a primary method of analysis as a
means to understand and explore the role of culture in the educational environment
as a facilitator of improved student outcomes?
In 2008 the Australian government committed the nation to closing the gap between
Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians (Council of Australian Governments
[COAG], 2008). Central to such commitment was a promise to eliminate educa-
tional disparity. The government committed to halve the gap in reading, writing and
numeracy achievements for Indigenous children within a decade, to close the gap
between Indigenous and non-Indigenous school attendance by 2018, and to halve
D. Hicks (&)
e-mail: david.hicks@utas.edu.au
M. O’Dowd
e-mail: mfodowd@outlook.com
M. Corbett
e-mail: michael.corbett@utas.edu.au; michael.corbett@acadiau.ca

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_10
98 D. Hicks et al.
the gap in year twelve attainment by 2020. It is now 2018. Despite nearly a decade
of intervention little real progress has been made. Instead, abject failure has been
clouded by cleverly crafted spin and a discourse of deficit which positions
Australia’s Indigenous population as a ‘problem’ to be fixed (Gillan et al. 2017).
The present study explores this issue. However, it distances itself from the
traditional rhetoric and discourse of deficit which often surrounds Indigenous
education. Instead of asking what is wrong with the individual, it asks what is
wrong with the environment within which the individual is forced to operate? Thus,
it views the classroom and broader school environment as sites where positive
change can be implemented. Drawing on De-Colonial Theory and the concept of
the cultural interface, it hypothesises that educational environments which are
responsive to and respectful of Indigenous cultures will promote improved
engagement and thus educational outcomes for Indigenous students. We take a
strengths-based approach, similar to that expounded by Walter and Andersen
(2013), and seek out through an analysis of the data, what it is that appears to work
in terms of supporting engagement and achievement. The study is guided by the
following sequential research questions:
(1) Does the implementation decolonizing practices in the classroom and broader
school environment influence the engagement of Aboriginal students with
formal education?
(2) Does engagement with formal education influence literacy and numeracy
outcomes for Aboriginal students?
What Were the Theories Employed and How Do They

Articulate with the Methods?
The study operates within an over-arching framework of Settler Colonial Theory.

It begins with an explication and extension of Patrick Wolfe’s ‘logic of elimination’.
We argue firstly, that formal education, through overt and covert processes of
assimilation, has and continues to function as a force of cultural repression for those
whose social and cultural background fail to align with those of the status-quo.
To make such a claim, we draw on the broader literature of Post-Colonialism to assert
that the classroom, both historically and in the present day, is a site of colonial power
implicated in the reproduction of Eurocentric ideology and hegemony.
From this juncture the study undergoes a shift as we move from the classroom to
an exploration of the individuals within it. At this point we turn to Indigenous
scholars working both in the Australian and the global context. Drawing consid-
erably on the work of Marie Battiste (2008) and Martin Nakata (2007), the study
asserts firstly, that students who are faced with curricula that fail to reflect their
history and perspective, experience a fragmented existence. Secondly, this work
argues that many stories of Indigenous success stem from children who have learnt
not just the curriculum, but also to live in two worlds built on competing
10 Researching in the ‘Cultural Interface’: Working … 99
epistemologies. A theorisation, which can be traced to the classic scholarship of

W. E. B. Du Bois, as he spoke of the ‘two souls, two thoughts, two unreconciled
strivings; two warring ideals in one dark body, whose dogged strength alone keeps
it from being torn asunder’ (Du Bois 1903, p. 5).
Lastly, we explore the work of Indigenous and non-Indigenous scholars to blend
Settler Colonial Theory and De-Colonial Theory to hypothesise that solutions to the
educational disparity experienced by Indigenous Australians lie in part, in the
restructuring of curricula, classrooms and schools. In essence, the study adopts the
position that ‘where Indigenous languages, heritages and communities are respec-
ted, supported, and connected to Elders and holistic learning, educational successes
among Indigenous students can be found’ (Battiste 2008. p. 88). The general
argument here is that what counts as educational success is subject to cultural
interpretation rather than simple acontextual quantification.
Methodological tension arises in our work as we work from a set of theoretical
assumptions that derive from De-Colonial Theory. We assume, based upon the
historical record concerning schooling as a process that was explicitly opposed to
Aboriginal cultural practices, ontologies and epistemologies (Beresford 2012), that
decolonising practices may remedy, in part, the current outcomes in Indigenous
education in the nation. Quantitative analysis such as Hunter (2000) and Hunter
(2009) has established how discriminatory educational practices have denied many
Indigenous communities access to the full gamut of opportunities and privileges of
citizenship, security and employment and qualitative research such as Dockett et al.
(2006) has evidenced widespread educational disenfranchisement. We explicitly
use quantitative methods to seek out, through advanced statistical techniques, those
de-colonial educational practices that work.
From theory we hypothesise that culturally responsive practices have no direct

effect on educational outcomes. Rather it is our argument that such practices pos-
itively affect student engagement and subsequently educational outcomes.
Furthermore, we hypothesise that such a pathway will remain despite the influence
of various circumstances derived from the literature which are known to influence
educational outcomes both for Indigenous and non-Indigenous students. We apply
this hypothesis to a longitudinal data set containing information on 4620 variables
pertaining to 1680 Indigenous Children, their parents/primary carers and teachers
conducted over eight waves with further iterations planned (National Centre for
Longitudinal Data 2017). This data was obtained from the Footprints in Time
research project conducted by the Department of Social Services under the guid-
ance of an Indigenous steering committee chaired by Professor Mick Dodson AM.
In the context of statistical analysis, the testing of such a hypothesis is not a
simple process. There is no single measure for outcomes, for engagement, or for
what may constitute culturally responsive practice. Rather, these are building blocks
100 D. Hicks et al.
of theory, they are constructs, they are mental abstractions which we cannot directly
observe and thus, must be treated as such. This is the beginning of our analysis, to
observe the ‘unobservable’. We begin first with a reading of our data in conjunction
with the literature applicable to each construct, we look for questions which have
been asked which align with our operational definitions, and categorise these
accordingly. From here, we test.
We conduct a series of exploratory factor analyses to uncover the underlying
structure of the variables we have chosen. From the results, we are able to deter-
mine, in a statistical sense, the influence of the unobserved on the observed.
Through interpreting the factor loading of each variable, we can identify whether
the chosen variables move in conjunction with one another and more importantly,
whether they move in relation to the overarching constructs we have hypothesised.
Furthermore, we can identify in-part the validity of our proposed constructs. From
this process the following variables were identified as aligning to the constructs of
interest, evidence also emerged that there were more constructs than initially
hypothesised (Fig. 10.1):
Hypothesized Identified Manifest Variables

Construct Construct(s)
1) Understands and interprets a story or other text read to
him/her
2) Reads words with regular vowel sounds
3) Reads words with irregular vowel sounds
4) Reads age appropriate books independently with
Literacy comprehension
5) Reads age appropriate books fluently
6) Able to write sentences with more than one clause
7) Composes a story with a clear beginning, middle and end
Educational
8) Demonstrates an understanding of some of the
Outcomes
conventions of print
1) Demonstrates an understanding of place value
2) Models, reads, writes and compares whole numbers
3) Counts change with two different types of coins
4) Surveys, collects and organizes data into simple graphs
Numeracy
5) Makes reasonable estimates of quantities
6) Measures to the nearest whole number using common
instruments
7) Uses a variety of strategies to solve math’s problems
1) Keeps belongings organized
2) Shows eagerness to learn new things
3) Works independently
Engagement Engagement 4) Easily adapts to changes in routine
5) Persists in completing tasks
6) Pays attention well
1) Typically teach Indigenous arts or practices
Pedagogy
2) Typically do Indigenous singing/storytelling
Culturally
1) Elders visit or teach
Responsive Community
2) Involved within the Indigenous community
Practice
1) Indigenous education workers
Staff
2) Indigenous teachers/staff
Fig. 10.1 Table of constructs and manifest variables

Fig. 10.2 Pathway model employed by the study
From this juncture, we are able to explore relationships between our proposed
constructs and begin testing our overarching hypothesis. To achieve this we employ
a combination of confirmatory factor analysis and regression to construct a struc-
tural equation model. Within this model, latent variables derived from manifest
variables represent our proposed constructs and regression relationships between
latent variables represent causal propositions between these. To test the efficacy of
our proposed model, covariances implied by the model are compared to those
within the data with the aim of confirming whether the relationships we have
hypothesised are plausible in a statistical sense. It is traditional to represent such
models in the form of a path diagram where ellipses represent latent variables,
rectangles represent manifest variables, circles represent error/disturbance terms
and directional effects are indicated by single headed arrows. We have represented
our proposed model as such below (Fig. 10.2).
102 D. Hicks et al.
Structure
We begin our study with a brief self-reflexive commentary on the lead author’s
social and cultural positioning. This has been done in attempt to ‘make clear’ the
author’s stand-point from the outset and thus to introduce the manner in which the
subsequent chapters of the thesis are framed both in political and scholarly terms.
From here, the study enters its first section (Part A) which begins with an intro-
ductory chapter outlining Australia’s Indigenous policy, both broadly and within
the specific domain of education. In the secondary chapter we discuss aspects of
research methodology through an exploration of Indigenous scholarship, the impact
of such on the lead author and, subsequently the research process as a whole.
The study then enters its second section (Part B) which deals solely and
explicitly with theory. The initial chapter situates itself within Settler Colonial
Theory and aims to identify the research problem. The following chapter, situated
in the work of Martin Nakata’s and his theorisation of a ‘cultural interface’ aims to
hypothesise potential solutions. It is within this latter chapter that links between
theory and analysis are explicitly made.
Part C opens with a discussion of method. Here we link our hypothesised
solutions to statistical technique and the data to be employed in the process. From
this point, the study blends literature and analysis to define and test the validity of
constructs. This process is a direct product of statistical technique, which creates
unique structural consequences. For example, each sub-section could be presented
as an individual study. From here, the final chapter engages in the formal processes
of model development and testing.
The final section of the study (Part D) explores both the applicability of the
research findings, and the implications for future policy and practice. It also
explores to some extent, the role quantitative evidence can play in strengths based
analysis of Indigenous education and within this, ways that such analysis can be
constructed to avoid creating deficit interpretations of Indigenous learners.
Prologue:
i. Portrait of the Cultural Self
ii. Road Map
iii. Table of Contents
Part A—Introduction
Chapter 1: Mind the ‘Gap’
i. Fifty Years: A discussion of Indigenous inequality & potentially transforma-
tive policy.
ii. Separate and (un) Equal: Exploring past and present manifestations of
Indigenous education.
iii. Research Aims.
Chapter 2: Deficit Aboriginals…

i. Colonial Ghosts: Representations of Indigenous ‘realities’.
ii. Talking Back: Indigenous voices in the Ivory tower.
iii. Listening: Recognising and challenging hegemony.
iv. Research Questions.
Part B—Theoretical Frameworks
Chapter 3: Eliminating the ‘Native’
i. Settler Colonial Demands: Land and the nation state.
ii. Education = Elimination: Assimilation through the institution.
iii. Here to Stay: Resistance in the face of neo-colonialism.
Chapter 4: Culture
i. Existential Terror: Invasion, cultural destruction, grief.
ii. Education ¼ 6 Elimination: The cultural interface.
iii. Culturally Responsive Education.
Part C—Method and Results
Chapter 5: Complex Relationships
i. Tackling ‘Wicked Problems’: Structural equation modelling as a method of analysis.
ii. The Data: The ‘Longitudinal Study of Indigenous Children’.
Chapter 6: Defining and Testing Constructs
i. Culture.
a. The literature.
b. The measures.
c. Validity and reliability.
ii. Social and Emotional Well-being.
a. The literature.
b. The measures.
iii. Engagement.
a. The literature.
b. The measures.
104 D. Hicks et al.
iv. Outcomes.
a. The literature.
b. The measures.
v. Controls
a. The literature.
b. The measures.
Chapter 7: Defining and Testing Relationships.
i. Hypothesis.
ii. Specification.
iii. Identification.
iv. Model fit.
Part D
Chapter 8: Culture.
i. Universal applicability? Research findings in the context of diverse realities.
ii. The present: Curricula and teacher standards re-visited.
iii. Where to now? Tomorrow’s research and policy.
Commentary
The research we describe here covers tricky, contested and often shifting ground.
Methodological tension arises from competing paradigms, epistemologies and
ontologies as we work from a set of theoretical assumptions that derive from both
Indigenous and non-Indigenous scholarship. Within this, our methods are a product
of the way in which we frame the issue at hand, in essence our political and
theoretical commitments. In this sense we recognise and in a sense resist the typical
use of quantitative methods in the analysis of Indigenous students’ performance,
which tends to focus on gaps and deficiencies, often (unintentionally) reinforcing
deficit framing. Furthermore, we recognise as (Walter and Andersen 2013) have
argued; that ALL research is to some extent subjective; driven by ‘stand-points’
which shape everything from the questions we ask to the answers we seek. These
recognitions inevitably place considerable structural demands on the thesis which
steer it away from the traditional positivist form. The result, we believe, is a thesis
which recognises the complexity of the issue at hand and in many ways breaks new
ground.
References
Battiste, M. (2008). The struggle and renaissance of Indigenous Knowledge in eurocentric

education. In M. Villegas, S. Neugebauer, & K. Venegas, Indigenous knowledge and education
(pp. 85–92). Cambridge: Harvard Educational Review.
Beresford, Q. (2012). Separate and equal: An outline of aboriginal education 1900-1996.
In Q. Beresford, G. Partington, & G. Gower (Eds.), Reform and resistance in Aboriginal
education (pp. 85–119). Crawley: UWA Publishing.
COAG. (2008). Council of Australian Governments [COAG]. Canberra: Council of Australian
Governments [COAG].
Dockett, S., Mason, T., & Perry, B. (2006). Successful transition to school for Australian
Aboriginal children. Childhood Education, 82(3), 139–144.
Du Bois, W. E. (1903). The souls of black folk. Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co.
Evermann, J., & Tate, M. (2009). Building theory from quantitative studies, or, how to fit SEM
models. In International conference on information systems (p. Paper 192). Arizona: AIS
Electronic Library.
Gillan, K., Mellor, S., & Krakouer, J. (2017). Australian education review: The case for urgency:
Advocating for indigenous voice in education. Camberwell: Australian Council for Education
Research.
Hunter, B. (2000). Social exclusion, social capital, and Indigenous Australians: Measuring the
social costs of unemployment. Canberra: CAEPR.
Hunter, B. (2009). Indigenous social exclusion: Insights and challenges for the concept of social
inclusion. Family Matters, 82, 52–61.
Nakata, M. (2007). The cultural interface. The Australian Journal of Indigenous Education, 36
(Supplement), 7–14.
National Centre for Longitudinal Data. (2017). Footprints in time: The longitudinal study of
indigenous children (LSIC). Canberra: Department of Social Services.
Smith, L. (1999). Decolonizing methodologies, research and indigenous peoples. London: Zed
Books.
Walker, P. (2003). Colonising research: Academia’s structural violence towards indigenous
peoples. Social Alternatives, 22(3), 37–40.
Walter, M., & Andersen, C. (2013). Indigenous statistics: A quantitative research methodology.
California: Left Coast Press.
David Hicks came to tertiary education later in life. Initially, he enrolled in a Bachelor of
education specializing in health and physical education however over the course of the degree,
engagement with educational and economic theory saw a shift in focus. This shift resulting in the
completion of an honors dissertation exploring the ability of current policy to improve
socioeconomic outcomes for Indigenous Australians through education. From this juncture, he
enrolled in a Ph.D. program at the University of Tasmania and is currently completing a thesis
under the supervision of Prof. David Kember, Prof. Michael Corbett, Assoc Prof. Clair Anderson
which explores the relationship between culture, engagement and educational outcomes for
Aboriginal children.
Mary O’Dowd’s thesis was a study of empowerment and the at risk. Her chapter is based on her
Ph.D. thesis. The chapter’s reflective analysis, on how taken-for-granted assumptions embedded in
socio-cultural discourses were disrupted by experience and emotion, was completed at Monash
University. This Ph.D. was supervised by John Hunt. The motivation for her study arose from her
prior community development work with homeless and marginalized young people (Indigenous
and non-Indigenous), where too many of these young people suicided or died in overdoses. Since
then, Mary has had an academic career in teaching and research on social/ cultural/ human rights
106 D. Hicks et al.
education in three universities. Her specialization is Settler-Colonialism and fostering critical

thinking on hegemony in non-Indigenous knowledges/beliefs, to improve professional practice for:
the non-Indigenous cultural interface with Indigenous peoples. She is currently a Cultural
Consultant and Researcher specializing in this area.
historical and geographic traditions. He has worked in the School of Education at Acadia
University in Canada since 2002 with a three-year sojourn at the University of Tasmania
(2015–17) where he held a research professorship in rural and regional education, and where he
continues to hold an adjunct professorship. Corbett’s work focuses principally on rural education
and he is a global leader in this field. He has studied youth educational decision-making, mobilities
and education, the politics of educational assessment, literacies in rural contexts, improvisation and
the arts in education, the position of rural identities and experience in education, conceptions of
space and place, the viability of small rural schools, and ‘wicked’ policy problems and
controversies in education.
Part C
Action Research
Chapter 11
Action Research and Criticality:
Working Out the Stone in Your Shoe
Michael Corbett and Allen Hill
Abstract The action research tradition in Australia has been heavily influenced by
critical work of Steven Kemmis and the school of researchers he inspired, as well as
by the British tradition inspired by Lawrence Stenhouse and others. These chapters
illustrate the close alliance between educational research and the ordinary practice
of working educators, which is a particular feature of Anglo-American traditions of
inquiry inspired both by pragmatism and by critical theory, both of which demand
of research an active engagement in intentional change process. Work in this
section is developed out of this action research tradition and takes the form of
analyses of practice with an eye to improving the way that practice is accomplished.
In some cases, this means a critical interrogation of the effectiveness of the work of
an educator/researcher, while in other cases, the analysis of practice from a socially
critical perspective is the central focus of the work. What draws these disparate
studies together is a central focus on practice.
Introduction
Most contemporary education research texts instruct students to begin their inquiry
with a robust research question. The question, it is argued, will not only give
direction to the study, it will also point toward the kinds of methods that should
be applied to the investigation. Then typically, students are walked through the
essential distinctions between qualitative and quantitative approaches and the
philosophical assumptions that should be brought to the surface of how the inquiry
is theorized and how the methods of the inquiry are developed in the project.
M. Corbett (&)
e-mail: michael.corbett@utas.edu.au; michael.corbett@acadiau.ca
A. Hill
Ara Institute of Technology, City Campus—Madras Street, PO BOX 540,
Christchurch, Otautahi 8140, New Zealand
e-mail: allen.hill@ara.ac.nz; allen.hill@utas.edu.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_11
110 M. Corbett and A. Hill
The turn toward critical forms of inquiry, informed by critical theories of various
kinds, adds complexity in the sense that research questions often contain unac-
knowledged and unrecognized political assumptions. With notable exceptions (Carr
and Kemmis 1986), action research is derived from the pragmatist tradition in
which particular ‘problems of practice’ are situated at the centre of the research act.
Yet, it is also clear to us that the question of how problems are framed, and whose
problems they are in the first place (Mertins 2010), involves politically and con-
textually situated choices made under increasingly challenging political circum-
stances (West and Crookes 2017). One part of good social science research is
developing an acute sense of reflexivity, or the ability to interrogate one’s own
biases, assumptions and implicit theory as well as socio-political positioning. By
doing this work, a researcher employing action research implicitly moves into a
political or critical frame.
The question that drove Corbett’s (2001) doctoral research was, ‘Who stays and
who leaves rural communities and what role does education play in the process?’ At
one level, this question is simple and straightforward. Yet this is a question that the
research act itself only went a short way toward answering. It should be obvious for
instance, that this would be a difficult question to answer for all rural communities.
Thus, ‘Which rural communities?’ is one issue. Another is: ‘What is a rural com-
munity anyway?’ A third is: ‘What does it mean to leave?’ Enormous conceptual
complexity starts to emerge when we explore a rich research question. Fundamentally
though, action research is informed by the pragmatist tradition that tends to be pri-
marily interested in what are today called problems of practice, and subsequently how,
in complex institutional and social environments, these problems can be actively
addressed through research (Carr and Kemmis 1986; Labaree 2003; McKernan 2013).
On one hand, quantitative research is fundamentally concerned with asking
questions that can be answered deductively through an analysis of numerical data.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is typically concerned with answering ques-
tions that cannot be adequately answered through quantification, but which require an
inductive linguistic engagement and more of an investigation into the nuances of the
meanings people assign to phenomena. For instance, quantitative research questions
might explore the rates of retention or PISA (Programme for International Student
Assessment) scores in a particular student population. A qualitative analysis, alter-
natively, might delve into why in a particular community, or sub-population within the
community, PISA scores or retention rates are high or low, or even what different
people make of the test itself. Finally mixed methods projects of various sorts can also
work abductively formulating questions through inductive analysis and testing them
deductively (Timmermans and Tavory 2012). It is these latter two sorts of investi-
gation that are prevalent throughout this section and indeed, throughout this book.
As a practice-oriented field, education doubles as an academic discipline, at least
in the Anglo-American tradition that has shaped educational inquiry in Australia,
New Zealand, the United States, and Canada, and as such it remains intimately
connected with professional teaching practice and its problems. Indeed, in the
action research tradition, it is the practical problems encountered by professionals
working in complex situations that are considered to be the appropriate and
11 Action Research and Criticality: Working Out the Stone … 111
generative starting point of a research project. Because the problems faced by

modern professionals are layered and ‘wicked’ (Rittel & Webber 1973), it can be
difficult if not impossible to answer, the problems themselves are worthy of
ongoing systematic investigation that is shared with colleagues forming part of an
emerging, generative, research-oriented approach to professional practice itself.
Thus, in action research, professional practice becomes research.
The logic of the inquiry chosen in action research is significant because it belies
the researcher’s particular approach to the problem as well as his or her particular
position in the research act. If the lens is drawn into focus on the meaning-making
activity of individuals and/or small groups, the researcher makes some assumptions
about the best way to understand the problem, and indeed, about the nature of social
reality and of knowledge production itself. A rough way of framing this is in terms
of realist and idealist ontologies that pragmatist social research sought to bridge.
The situated approach we are describing above assumes an ontology that accords
importance to understanding the way agents consciously construct meaning within
the social situations in which they live and work. This ontology points the
researcher to questions, theory and method that focus on interpretation and con-
struction, and ultimately, to the improvement of practice.
To assume a realist ontology (typically, but not exclusively associated with
quantitative analysis) is to tend to see the world as a place where forces (economic,
psychological, linguistic, mythic, etc.) operate ‘behind the back’ of ordinary per-
ceiving social actors. These ‘forces’ may be the structural features that are uncovered
by a macro analysis of the structuring structures (Bourdieu 1989) such as the eco-
nomic position, gender, race, psychological or developmental predisposition of
groups of people. In critical education analysis, the structures operating behind the
backs of ordinary people have to do with the exploitative structures within capitalist
societies, or in the discursive and institutional practices through which subjectivities
are formed. Still, as critical realists point out, to adopt such an ontology does not
necessarily signal epistemological uniformity, but rather a conscious approach to
reflexivity and relevance that recognizes the interplay of structure and agency
(Archer 2000, 2012; Fenwick et al. 2011). In other words, we can accept that an
external reality exist independent of our constructions and linguistic devices, but that
there are, at the same time, many ways which are appropriate to making sense of this
reality. As Haraway (1988) pointed out some years ago, multiple perspectives on
reality do not deny objectivity, but rather, we become more objective when we
examine a social phenomenon from a number of angles and using different methods.
Today, many educational researchers are focused on practical problems, be they
at the level of policy, curriculum or instructional practice. Many, if not most
graduate or higher degree research (HDR) students in education come out of a field
of practice (teaching and/or educational administration) and wish to understand
their experience, and ultimately contribute in some way to the improvement of
teaching and learning. This is, as Biesta (2015) points out, one of the legacies of the
Anglophone tradition in educational research, which has been closely aligned with
the education of teachers and system improvement as opposed to the system
analysis, and critique which characterize the Germanic tradition of educational
research. At the same time though, it seems to us that most people who find their
way into educational research are also driven by a discomfort (sometimes profound)
with the way educational institutions work. Higher degree research students are
often, as Neilsen (1994) puts it, doing research to try and work out a ‘stone in our
shoe’. These chapters each contains a particular stone in the shoe of the researchers
who deal not so much with abstractions or with objectivised system analysis, but
with specific problems emanating from practice.
The political, psychological, sociological, geographic, economic, philosophical
or other key metaphors that they use to think about the world then frame this
discomfort, providing the critical educator with a set of tools to understand it better
(Giroux 1988). Often, these frameworks are unacknowledged and/or unrecognized
theoretical perspectives, and the journey toward a Ph.D., is in large part, a journey
toward finding out what kind of thinker you are, and what kind of theory you use to
view, represent and analyze the world. Many educational researchers work on the
ground with students whose families are significantly disadvantaged in school by
factors that are largely systemic and beyond their control. Others work in diverse
contexts where problems of language and culture form the basis of the questions
that they feel a need to answer.
Theory helps them to make sense of an unequally structured world and the
motivations of individuals operating in social space. But then, because we work with
people day in and day out, the cold, rational, structural or psychological analysis that
often underpins social or learning theory is typically unsatisfying. There can be a
resistance to theory in the sense that this is not the starting place from which typical
novice educational researchers want to begin (and of course, there are exceptions).
Many educational researchers today are interested in inductively generating their
own theory, typically through some form of thematic analysis of qualitative data that
they believe will lead them to a better understanding of the problems(s) they have
posed for themselves, one which will ultimately improve practice. Because of this,
many educational researchers whose work comes out of their own teaching experi-
ence, are interested in action research that has as its fundamental premise, the
improvement of practice through critical reflection and sharing work with colleagues.
This chapter presents an analysis of action research as a generative space that
animates educational research conducted by embedded practitioners, typically in
conjunction with university-based academics. It is our sense that in most instances
both in this section, this book, and indeed, in education research generally, that
problems of practice are more commonly used to frame educational inquiry than the
theoretical preconceptions and structural analysis that drives and shapes most forms
of critical theory. Yet at the same time, it is virtually impossible to imagine action
research or any other pragmatist-inspired form of social inquiry that is not located in
the contested space of politics and theory, precisely because this sort of work is
necessarily and explicitly aligned with the messy and inevitably political world of
practice. Bourdieu puts this rather nicely when he asserts that while agents have an
‘active apprehension of their world’, that ‘they do construct their vision of the
world’, and that the resulting ‘construction is always carried out under structural
constraint’ (1989, p. 18).
Structuring Pragmatic Research Projects
The chapters in this section share in common their investment in problems of

practice and the development of a structure to help the researcher both understand
the problems itself and to develop a way of addressing the problem proactively
through an action research cycle. Interestingly, the first of these research problems
in this section relate to student learning principally in the areas of mathematics and
language learning, and particularly in second language learning in the relatively
contained pragmatic space of the Australian institutional education system. While
the contexts in which these problems are posed vary quite widely, the centrality of
the highly politicised fields of numeracy and language learning sit at the heart of
these inquiries. Moving on through the chapters, the research problems engaged
through action research move out of the school and into the space outside. Here the
‘action’ that is researched is perhaps messier and driven not so much by the
pragmatic concerns of the institutionally located teacher, but rather, by problems in
wider society.
For instance, operating out a pragmatist paradigm, Fitzallen whose work is
featured in the previous section, offers an analysis of her dissertation research that
uses design principles to move from the investigation of a practical problem (how
students use data software to understand covariance), through to thinking theoreti-
cally about how to solve that problem, and then on to an application of the solution.
After an initial research engagement, the whole process then begins again as she
reflects on this approach and works through her research questions as a problem of
design and working evaluation. Her thesis structure differentiates productively
between cyclical inquiry phases (problem-solution-evaluation-reflection) using a
series of six stages that engage the inquiry ultimately designed to understand better
how students learn with data analysis software. The structure of this work is both
emergent and responsive to the way that the researcher learned how to make sense of
her problem as she progressed. Fitzallen’s approach is an excellent example, we
think, of the kind of abductive inquiry that consciously uses a pragmatist paradig-
matic framework to combine inductive and deductive analysis.
Reaburn also takes up a problem of practice in mathematics education. Her
central concern is the struggles experienced by students to actually grasp statistical
concepts as opposed to using ‘formulaic methods’ to solve problems. She took up
this problem as one that is key to her own teaching practice and sought to find what
her students understand about key statistical concepts. To accomplish her aims, like
Fitzallen, Reaburn constructs a design experiment that uses an action research cycle
to continuously generate questions, suggest solutions to be tested, put them to the
test, and finally reflect on the success of the design and examine new problems that
arise to start the cycle again. The political dimension of this methodology has to do
with a commitment to working with teachers and to creating reciprocity and
democratic collaboration between researchers and practitioners.
Satariyan et al. address a problem of practice that is all too familiar to teachers of
English as an additional language, that is, the level of proficiency in written and
spoken English of students who arrive at Anglophone universities and who are
immediately expected to perform linguistically at a very high level. This chapter
reports on how a structure was developed to enact the kind of experientially based
language learning program that is missing for many international students who
arrive at Australian (and other international) universities ill prepared for the lin-
guistic demands of higher degree research, in some measure because of the way
English language teaching is approached in their home countries. The problem is
identified and a pragmatic program is developed to actively address it in the context
of the academy with its particular ways of working, standards of evidence, concern
with theory and methodology, and modes of inquiry. The thesis structure begins by
posing the problem, moving on to thinking about it theoretically, which leads to an
intervention, and then on to describing the action research cycle. Like Reaburn and
Fitzallen, this is a recursive cyclical approach that involves active reflection and
iterative reframing through the research cycles. Again, this is active theorization
derived from an engagement in and with practice.
An important aspect of pragmatically driven research is that it often involves a
teacher’s own search for answers to his or her research questions which are simul-
taneously key problems of practice, or ‘stones in the shoe’ (Neilsen 1994). The work
is consequential for the purposes of improving practice as much as for generating
theoretical knowledge. Indeed, the extent to which action research can and should
produce generalizable theory is an interesting question. Indeed, some if not most
action research actually seem to retreat from making this kind of generic knowledge
claim preferring to focus specifically on an immediate practice context and the
recursive and reflexive work of research-engaged professionals. Yet, following on the
critical turn in action research initiated by Carr and Kemmis (1986) whose influential
book Becoming Critical raised the radical possibility that research could use theory to
frame the problems action researchers investigated. This legacy has resonance in
these chapters and we will turn to it now.
Structuring Political Research Projects
Webb’s study of her implementation of creative writing projects in two residential

aged care facilities (RACF) in Tasmania sought to both investigate the impacts of
creating poetry with participants and also uncover or interrogate how the social,
economic and organisational structures of RACFs marginalised creativity. Based on
the well-accepted premise that creativity is beneficial to wellbeing generally, and
particularly for the mental and emotional health of RACF residents, Webb found
through the action research process that she moved from ‘the practical’ to ‘the
critical’. The problem shifted or evolved in Webb’s study from a focus on how to
improve the practice of care in RACF’s to one of critical examination of the
underlying features of those care facilities. Thus, her research became overtly
political, inspired by the writings of Carr and Kemmis (1986) and Kemmis and
McTaggart (2005), to engage in deliberate social change to transform the worlds of
participants. Although claims of emancipatory power in any action research project

must be treated with caution, the resulting published books of poetry, recitals, and
of course, accompanying positive impacts on wellbeing of participants’ cannot be
underestimated. The challenge for projects such as Webb’s, in the context of this
book, was how to structure a thesis in a way that captured the unfolding narrative of
the research whilst simultaneously extending the political and critical elements of
the process. Webb achieved this through a genealogical approach that created, a
temporal narrative with short critical or theoretical interjections woven throughout.
This innovative style and structure honoured the lived experiences of her partici-
pants in the action research process and met the academic standards expect of
doctoral level work.
Kezabu et al. take up an explicitly political problem and one that has a geo-
graphic foundation. They begins with a theoretically informed concept of indige-
nous knowledge juxtaposed against a colonially-derived, abstract school knowledge
system. The analysis then investigates what happens when place is made central to
education in the Ugandan context. The problem is both immediate and explicitly
political relating directly to the politics associated with deforestation and sustain-
ability in a community she cares about. The research is, in fact, motivated by the
killing of a friend of the researcher herself. The thesis is structured around a stone in
a teacher’s shoe, but one which is a public issue as well as a personal trouble (Mills
2000) as the research is structured to engage an action research cycle in the
transformation of practice through education. This politically engaged and invested,
transformative imperative is the fundamental foundation of the critical approach.
Kezabu embeds herself in the research and works with educators and community
elders (who actually participate in this research) to address a pragmatic and con-
sequential, and highly political problem. The research was structured in such a way
that the problem, which is essentially one of environmental sustainability is
engaged by an assemblage of community actors including elders steeped in
indigenous knowledge and teachers to effect change through education.
The chapter authored by John Phelps developed out of a five-year professional
engagement in Tonga that was not initially conceived as a research project. In the
course of the project though, three central and pragmatic questions arose for Phelps
that, in time, both motivated and shaped his inquiry which took the form of an
action research project with an auroethnographic turn. Methodologically, the piece
follows indigenous scholarship and developed a culturally embedded operational
standpoint that focused on story and a knowledge production process that made
sense in the cultural context of the Tongan education system in which Phelps
worked. Phelps engages action research by subjecting his own meaning-making as
a professional teacher to scrutiny. The actual structure of the thesis reflects and
represents Phelps’ own journey from practice to what might be called the will to
research, through to developing a way to understand data that is personally
meaningful/useful and culturally appropriate.
Conclusion
The idea of practice has long been a preoccupation in social science research, and
we think this is particularly true of much research in education. While considerable
early work in education-related social science research involved psychologically
oriented modes of inquiry, since the 1970s there has been a notable shift toward
studies that take their inspiration and framing from sociological and cultural forms
of analysis. This development of more diverse theoretical and methodological
approaches in educational research still maintained the centrality of the acting
subject and the applied contexts of practice.
The work in this section demonstrates how practice itself can be the ‘motor’ of
research in the sense that it is the location from which research questions are generated.
This is the case in the work of Fitzallen, Reaburn and Satariyan et al. They begin with a
pragmatic problem, not set explicitly in a political context. At the same time though,
the inevitably political idea of change sits beside the foundational idea of practice.
Practice them becomes both the motor and the object of change itself. It is practice that
poses the problems and it is through an intentional form of inquiry into practice that
change is affected. This reflects Stenhouse’s (1975) classic definition of action
research as critical inquiry into practice made public. For some projects, such as that of
Webb, the political work of the research can evolve to become more explicit over time.
Yet for others, an inquiry into practice can be explicitly political from the outset as is
the case with the work of Kezabu in this section. For Kezabu the stone in her shoe was
born out of deep-seated dissatisfaction with current educational practice and the
impact that had on both the human and more-than-human world. Her work also
elucidated fundamental epistemological problems concerning how to motivate the
production and integration of place-based indigenous knowledge into classroom
practice, which inevitably raises questions about who may speak in educational
spaces, whose knowledge counts and how this knowledge is counted.
How to structure theses in such a way that honours the pragmatic while at the same
time motivating honest critical reflection and a commitment to improvement in
teaching and learning is an ongoing and persistent problem. We would argue, and this
is probably the case across the somewhat arbitrary sections into which the editors
have organised the work in this volume, that finding a way to answer this problem is
the methodological task that faces most doctoral students in education. While the
action research cycle is relatively simple and straightforward, practice is not. Nor
does practice offer an easy and reproducible framework for organising a thesis. This
is the dilemma that doctoral students in education must solve as they work through
how they will conduct their inquiry, how they analyse the data they gather along the
way and how they will write up their conclusions. Conducting research into practice,
thus, is both an art and a science, which requires the active construction of a
methodology that answers research questions by taking practice to a new level.
Such work inevitably moves beyond the structural to consider questions of
interpretation and representation. Given that educators practical knowledge is most
often revealed in narrative form (Hart 2008), how a researcher might interpret and
represent such narratives in an authentic and trustworthy manner is of central

concern. In an action research context where research data is often generated dia-
logically, and where the researcher is considerably invested in the process, there is a
need to reflexively recognise the value-laden subjective nature of research
exchanges. How to present those exchanges in ways that recognise the subjectivity
of peoples’ perspectives, experiences or practices is a challenge that accompanies
decisions made regarding thesis structure. In action research, as in all social science
research, representational decisions are made related to who is represented in the
research, what that representation looks like, and how such representations con-
tribute to the overall conclusions of a thesis. The chapters that make up this section,
either explicitly or implicitly, wrestle with issues of representation through the
structural configurations of thesis documents.
The relationship between the research question and literature is taken up by
Kember in the final chapter of this book. In much action research, the practical
problem is the starting point; theory emerges from the research act itself, and lit-
erature tends to be employed following a less theoretically-driven inquiry. In an
important sense, this orientation follows both the critical pragmatism inspired
through the 20th century in educational research by Dewey (Kadlec 2007), and Marx
and Engels’ (1998/1845) foundational 19th century invocation that the point is not to
study the world, but to change it. Yet, we find in these chapters dealing with the
actual structuring and writing up of the thesis, that theory and literature appears to
play a role throughout the process and it is used in a number of different ways
throughout the research process. Rather than theory driving practice or practice
driving theory what we find is a process in which practice is understood, and indeed
challenged, through inquiry that is theoretically informed. Doctoral work is ulti-
mately theoretical in the sense that some kind of quality knowledge claim is a
generally accepted standard for judging the strength of a dissertation. What the
action research movement has helped to introduce is the idea that professional
practice itself is an appropriate venue for research and that its improvement through
reflective inquiry is both valuable for the profession and its practitioners, but also for
academic knowledge more generally. Additionally, the action research tradition
provides researchers with an embedded or integrated professional strategy for pro-
moting collegial conversations which lead ultimately to managed, intentional,
democratic social change (Carr and Kemmis 1986; Greenwood and Levin 2006).
References
Archer, M. S. (2000). Being human: The problem of agency. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press.
Archer, M. S. (2012). The reflexive imperative in late modernity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press.
Biesta, G. (2015). On the two cultures of educational research, and how we might move ahead:
Reconsidering the ontology, axiology and praxeology of education. European Educational
Bourdieu, P. (1989). Social space and symbolic power. Sociological Theory, 7(1), 14–25.
Carr, W., & Kemmis, S. (1986). Becoming critical: Education knowledge and action research.
Corbett, M. (2001). Learning to leave: The irony of schooling in a coastal community
(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Department of Educational Studies, University of British
Columbia, Vancouver.
Fenwick, T., Edwards, R., & Sawchuk, P. (2011). Emerging approaches to educational research:
Tracing the socio-material (1st ed.). Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, New York: Routledge.
Giroux, H. A. (1988). Teachers as intellectuals: Toward a critical pedagogy of learning. Granby,
MA: Praeger.
Greenwood, D. J., & Levin, M. (2006). Introduction to action research: Social research for social
change. SAGE Publications.
Haraway, D. (1988). Situated knowledges: The science question in feminism and the privilege of
partial perspective. Feminist Studies, 14(3), 575–599.
Hart, P. (2008). Elusive participation: Methodological challenges in researching teaching and
participatory learning in environmental education. In A. Reid, B. B. Jensen, J. Nikel, & V.
Simovska (Eds.), Participation and learning: Perspectives on education and the environment,
health and sustainability (pp. 225–240). Dordrecht: Springer.
Kadlec, A. (2007). Dewey’s critical pragmatism. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.
Kemmis, S., & McTaggart, R. (2005). Participatory action research: communicative action and the
public sphere. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative
research (pp. 559–603). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Labaree, D. F. (2003). The peculiar problems of preparing educational researchers. Educational
Researcher, 32(4), 13–22. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X032004013.
Marx, K., & Engels, F. (1845/1998). The German ideology, including theses on Feuerbach and
the introduction of the critique of political economy (Paperback edition). Amherst, NY:
Prometheus Books.
McKernan, J. (2013). Curriculum action research: A handbook of methods and resources for the
reflective practitioner. Routledge.
Mills, C. W. (2000). The sociological imagination. New York: Oxford University Press.
Neilsen, L. (1994). A stone in my shoe: Teaching literacy in times of change. Winnipeg, Manitabo:
Peguis Publishers.
Sciences, 4(2), 155–169.
Stenhouse, L. (1975). An introduction to curriculum research and development. Oxford:
Heinemann Educational Publishers.
Timmermans, S., & Tavory, I. (2012). Theory construction in qualitative research: From grounded
theory to abductive analysis. Sociological Theory, 30(3), 167–186.
West, G. B., & Crookes, G. (2017). Critical practitioner research in language education under
difficult circumstances. In S.-A. Mirhosseini (Ed.), Reflections on qualitative research in
language and literacy education (pp. 139–155). Cham, Switzerland: Springer International
Publishing.
adjunct professorship. Corbett’s work focuses principally on rural education and he is a global leader
in this field. He has studied youth educational decision-making, mobilities and education, the politics
of educational assessment, literacies in rural contexts, improvisation and the arts in education, the
position of rural identities and experience in education, conceptions of space and place, the viability
of small rural schools, and ‘wicked’ policy problems and controversies in education.
Allen Hill is a Principal Lecturer in Sustainability and Outdoor Education at ARA Institute of
Canterbury, Aotearoa New Zealand. Dr. Hill joined the team at ARA in July, 2016 from the
University of Tasmania, Australia, where he holds an adjunct Senior Lecturer position in the
Faculty of Education. Dr. Hill’s professional career can be characterized by an enduring
commitment to the development of people through education coupled with a strong concern for
issues of justice, sustainability, transformation, and citizenship. How education can engage people
with meaningful outdoor learning experiences and contribute to a sustainable future through
connecting people with each other and with the places they inhabit is at the heart of his research
and teaching interests.
Chapter 12
Students’ Understanding of Statistical
Inference: Implications for Teaching
Robyn Reaburn
Research Question
What is an appropriate structure for reporting a study of tertiary students’ under-

standing of statistical inference, following an Action Research paradigm?
This thesis arose from my own experiences as a student and then later an instructor
in inferential statistics at the tertiary level. As a student it had taken some time for
me to understand the logic behind the procedures I was following. In particular I
was completely bewildered by the notion of p-values and confidence intervals,
which just happen to be the basis of much of the work in statistics. However, by
following the procedures and learning the right words to say I received high grades.
Once I became an instructor in an introductory statistics course at university it did
not take long for me to realise that the students were having the same problems in
understanding as I had had. These students, like I had before them, used the
formulaic methods they were taught, and used the words they were given, to cover
up their lack of understanding. For example, it is possible to say ‘The 95% con-
fidence interval for the mean blood glucose level for athletes at this university is
between 5.0 and 5.4 mmol/l’ without any idea of what is meant by this. If the
calculations and the terminology are correct then full marks can be obtained.
Once I began my literature search it was immediately obvious that this problem
in statistics education had been known for some time. For example, in 1988
Garfield and Ahlgren had commented on instructors being aware that many of the
R. Reaburn (&)
School of Education, University of Tasmania, Launceston, Australia
e-mail: robyn.reaburn@utas.edu.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_12
122 R. Reaburn
students in introductory statistics courses did not understand their courses. In

general, when any topic in mathematics becomes difficult to understand students go
into ‘number crunching’ mode, plugging quantities into a computational formula or
procedure without forming an internal representation of the problem’ (p. 46).
There are, however, issues that are peculiar to statistics that do not occur in other
mathematical topics. Yilmaz (1996) has pointed out that randomness and the dis-
tributions of sample statistics are abstract and harder to understand than many
instructors realise. In addition, the probabilistic, hypothetical reasoning used in
inferential statistics is non-intuitive, and after many years of aiming to get the
‘right’ answers in mathematics, students can find the concept of working within a
non-deterministic world difficult.
The aim of the research described in the thesis was to try and increase students’
understanding of p-values and confidence intervals in a first-year, introductory
statistics course in a tertiary setting. I first came to the research with the question:
Was it possible for students to develop an intuitive understanding of these topics?
As planning for the research developed the research questions were refined to:
1. What are students’ understandings of probability and stochastic processes on
entering university? Are there any differences in understandings between those
students who have studied statistics in their previous mathematics courses and
those who have not?
2. What are students’ understandings of p-values at the end of their first tertiary
statistics unit? How did these understandings change over the time of the study?
3. What are students’ understandings of confidence intervals at the end of their first
tertiary statistics unit? How did these understandings change over the time of the
study?
What Were the Methods, Theories and Paradigms

Employed?
In this research I was going to be the instructor and researcher, therefore Action
Research was the obvious choice. Before the research could be started, however,
I needed to clarify the attitudes and beliefs I was bringing to this research.
The Nature of Knowledge
Before becoming a researcher in education I had been a researcher in the scientific

environment. Therefore I was well used to the scientific paradigm. Within this
paradigm is the idea of positivism, where it is considered that the only phenomena
worth recording are those that be measured. I do not share this positivist view. I do,
however, subscribe to Popper’s (1963) criterion of ‘falsifiability’ (p. 37) of the
nature of valid science. With this criterion ‘statements or systems of statements,
12 Students’ Understanding of Statistical Inference: Implications … 123
in order to be ranked as scientific, must be capable of conflicting with possible, or

conceivable observations’ (p. 39). A ‘theory that is not refutable by any conceivable
event is non-scientific’ (p. 36). Therefore any hypotheses I was going to use needed
to be able to be refuted, even if all the evidence that was going to be gathered was
not necessarily measurable. Because of the nature of the data that was collected, the
research used both qualitative and quantitative analyses.
Within the scientific paradigm is the standard scientific experiment where con-
ditions are controlled, treatments are given in known amounts, are replicable, and
contain controls. The objects being studied are randomly allocated to each treat-
ment. This cannot be achieved in education research; even if students are randomly
allocated to different classrooms each class is unique—it has within it a series of
interactions between the individuals that cannot be replicated.
It is argued, however, that educational research is still able to provide genuine,
and indeed scientific, knowledge and this is behind the idea of the design experi-
ment (National Research Council [NRC], 2002). Within a design experiment,
hypotheses are proposed and a series of situations are designed to test these
hypotheses that are then confirmed, refined or refuted (Steffe et al. 2001) during a
period of reflection. If the hypotheses are refined or refuted alternative hypotheses
are then generated which are again subject to test (Shavelson et al. 2003) in a new
cycle of the experiment.
Action Research
From the previous section it is evident that the design experiment is based on a
series of cycles where hypotheses were tested, confirmed, refined and refuted and
then tested again. This is also a characteristic of Action Research (AR) and this
procedure was followed throughout this research. Where the design experiment and
AR differ is that the design experiment is collaborative between the researcher and
practitioner whereas AR is solely practitioner based.
‘Action Research is any systematic inquiry conducted by teacher researchers,
principals…other stakeholders in the teaching/learning environment to gather
information about…how well they teach and how well their students learn’ (Mills
2007). AR can sit within the critical paradigm of educational research, where the
aim is of ‘reducing prejudice and increasing democratic behaviours’, such as that
proposed by Kurt Lewin (Noffke 1994, p. 10). AR can also have a practical focus,
where it is ‘assume[d] that teacher researchers are committed to continued pro-
fessional development and…that teacher researchers want to systematically reflect
on their practices’ (Mills 2007, p. 7). As this research was being used to reflect on
and improve teaching practice, this thesis fitted into this practical paradigm.
124 R. Reaburn
Constructivism
This research was also based on a constructivist theory of learning. There are many
variants of this theory, but they are all based on the idea that students take in knowledge
and adapt it in the light of their own prior knowledge and experience (Krause et al.
2007). It was my experience both as a schoolteacher and university instructor that
students seemed to interpret instructions and learning materials in different ways to what
was intended. In the area of statistical inference it is reflected in the common belief held
by students that a p-value is the probability that the null hypothesis is true. This belief
appears in the educational literature as being a frequent misconception that other
instructors, with other materials, also face (Gliner et al. 2002). It became apparent that
merely telling students that this was incorrect even with explanation did not change this
belief. Perkins and Simmons (1988) state that students resist changes to their previous
ideas, and will even prefer to hold a view of the world that is internally inconsistent than
to make such changes. Strike and Posner (1985) explain that it is indeed very difficult to
change a student’s ideas and it may take time to do so.
With these ideas in mind one of the teaching and learning strategies introduced
into research was that of computer simulation with the use of guided discovery
learning (delMas et al. 1999; Lane and Peres 2006). The students were asked to
predict an outcome, then simulated the problem with the use of a computer, and
then compared their answer to what happened later—a ‘query first—answer later’
strategy suggested by Lane and Peres (2006). This was particularly successful in
introducing students to the Central Limit Theorem which states that if the sample
size is large enough sample means belong to a normal distribution. The exercise
was set up so that students would believe that sample means would have the same
distribution as the parent population from which the samples had been taken. They
were then surprised to see that the sample means belonged to a normal distribution
(the familiar bell curve). For each topic in the course the ideas were explored in the
computer laboratory before they were introduced in a formal lecture.
Ethical Issues
Having the instructor and the researcher as the same person leads to ethical issues
that do not necessarily arise in other forms of research. Any research where there
could be a perception by the students that they were being coerced into participation
or that their marks could be affected by non-participation would not be approved by
the Social Sciences Human Research Ethics Committee. I wanted to administer two
questionnaires to the students and to use some answers from their formal tests. The
solution was to have a person from another faculty hand out and collect the consent
forms and questionnaires, and have the students use their student ID numbers only
to identify their tests. After the students’ grades for the course were officially
published I was then given their ID numbers and their questionnaires.
These restrictions were reasonable but had an unexpected consequence. This was
that the number of students who participated varied from seven to 26 over the four
cycles of the AR and the reasons for this variation cannot be known. This variation
has been queried by the reviewers of all the publications that have arisen from this
research.
Another ethical issue arises from the lack of objectivity that could have resulted
because of my emotional investment in the research. The potential for this lack of
objectivity arises anytime the researcher and instructor are the same person
(Hammersley 1993). Therefore it was important that the coding protocols were
worked out before an analysis of the data was commenced. It did turn out that some
student answers were unexpected and had to be added to the coding, but overall the
protocols remained as originally planned. It was also of assistance that the ques-
tionnaire and test answers to be analysed were in short answer format; this helped
immensely keeping consistency in the analysis of the data.
Structure
Whilst the thesis roughly followed the traditional presentation of literature review,
methodology, presentation of results, and discussion, adaptations had to be made.
The first adaptation was that of having three chapters for the literature review so that
the differing facets behind understanding probability and inferential statistics could
be described and analysed. Because the thesis was about student learning and
understanding another chapter describing learning theories was included. As
computer simulation was important feature of the research a chapter on the use of
guided discovery learning and simulation was added. In addition, part of the
quantitative analysis was carried out by Rasch Analysis (Masters and Wright 1997)
therefore a chapter on measurement theory and the basis of Rasch Analysis was
included. Such an analysis placed the questionnaire items on an interval scale in
order of difficulty.
Some weeks were spent pondering how the results would be presented. I decided
that the results also needed to be divided into more than one chapter. The first two
results chapters consisted of a qualitative and a quantitative analysis of the two
questionnaires that had been administered to the students. The next chapter
described the analysis (quantitative and qualitative) of the development of students’
understanding of p-values over the cycles of the research, and last chapter of results
described the quantitative and qualitative analysis of the students’ understanding of
confidence intervals.
Whilst the results chapters appear on the surface to be straightforward, the
cyclical nature of the research meant that some of the findings needed to be
included in the methodology chapter. It was otherwise difficult to make sense of the
description of the refinement of the teaching hypotheses and changes to the inter-
ventions without describing what had happened before. With my supervisor, I had
126 R. Reaburn
Table 12.1 Structure of the thesis: Students’ understanding of statistical inference: Implications
for teaching
Contents page
Part A Introduction, Literature review and Study design
Chapter 1 Introduction: Why do this research?
Chapter 2 Literature review Part I: Statistical reasoning
Chapter 3 Literature review Part II: The nature of learning
Chapter 4 Literature review Part III: Measurement in the social sciences
Chapter 5 The use of computer technology in statistics
Chapter 6 The study design
Part B Results
Chapter 7 Results of the quantitative and qualitative analysis of the first questionnaire
Chapter 8 Results of the quantitative and qualitative analysis of the second questionnaire
Chapter 9 An analysis of students’ understanding of P-values
Chapter 10 An analysis of students’ understanding of confidence intervals
Part C Discussion and conclusions
Chapter 11 Discussion with implications for teaching
Chapter 12 A personal reflection
decided that clarity was more important than tradition. This combination of the
results and methodology, however, was not liked by one of the examiners but
remained as is for the final publication of the thesis. As a result of these issues
(thoughts) etc. The final thesis had the layout shown in Table 12.1.
Commentary
Whilst discussing AR in a teaching context, Mills (2007) states that ‘The act of
putting information on paper for you peers necessitates honesty, clarity, and
thought, thereby encouraging you to create a better product than if you had simply
made a mental note of your action research as you left school at the end of the day’
(p. 164). From my experience this is certainly true; a great deal of thought was
required to achieve the clarity I wished to achieve. I also had to admit that some of
the interventions in the cycles did not work as well as I had hoped. The relatively
straightforward structure of this thesis does not reflect the weeks of thought (whilst
walking my dog) as I wrestled with how to present the mass of information required
to explain the context for the research, and how to report all of the findings. The
structure as presented here was the last in a series of several attempts.
In summary, this chapter describes the challenges involved with the planning,
the ethics and the writing of this thesis. It demonstrates how the resulting product,
whilst seemingly simple, can be the result of much trial and error.
References
delMas, R., Garfield, J., & Chance, B. (1999). A model of classroom research in action:
Developing simulation activities to improve students’ statistical reasoning. Journal of Statistics
Education, 7(3). Retrieved from http://www.amstat.org/publications/jse.
Garfield, J., & Ahlgren, A. (1988). Difficulties in learning basic concepts in probability and statistics:
Implications for research. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 19(1), 44–63.
Gliner, J., Leech, N., & Morgan, G. (2002). Problems with null hypothesis significance testing
(NHST): What do the textbooks say? The Journal of Experimental Education, 71(1), 83–92.
Hammersley, M. (1993). On the teacher as researcher. Educational Action Research, 1(3), 425–445.
Krause, K., Bochner, S., & Duchesne, S. (2007). Educational psychology for learning and
teaching. South Melbourne, VIC: Thomson.
Lane, D., & Peres, S. (2006). Interactive simulations in the teaching of statistics: Promise and
pitfalls. In Phillips B (Ed.), Developing a statistically literate society (Proceedings of the 7th
international conference on teaching statistics, Salvador, Brazil) [CDRom]. Voorburg, The
Netherlands: International Statistics Institute.
Masters, G., & Wright, B. (1997). The partial credit model. In W. van der Linden & R. Hambleton
(Eds.), Handbook of modern item response theory (pp. 101–122). New York: Springer.
Mills, G. (2007). Action research: A guide for the teacher researcher. Upper Saddle River NJ:
Merrill Prentice Hall.
National Research Council. (2002). Scientific research in education. Washington DC: National
Academy Press.
Noffke, S. (1994). Action research: Towards the next generation. Educational Action Research,
2(1), 9–21.
Perkins, D., & Simmons, R. (1988). Patterns of misunderstanding: An integrative model for
science, math and programming. Review of Educational Research, 58(3), 303–326.
Popper, K. (1963). Conjectures and refutations. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Shavelson, R., Phillips, D., Towne, L., & Feuer, M. (2003). On the science of education design
studies. Educational Researcher, 32(1), 25–28.
Steffe, L., Thompson, P., & Von Glaserfield, E. (2001). Teaching experiment methodology:
Underlying principles and essential elements. In S. Carver & D. Klahr (Eds.), Cognition and
instruction: Twenty-five years of progress (pp. 205–226). Mahwah, NJ: Laurence Erlbaum and
Associates.
Strike, K., & Posner, G. (1985). A conceptual change view of learning and understanding.
In L. West & A. Pines (Eds.), Cognitive structure and conceptual change (pp. 259–266).
New York: Academic Press.
Yilmaz, M. (1996). The challenge of teaching statistics to non-specialists. Journal of Statistics
Education, 4(1). Retrieved from http://www.amstat.org/publications/jse.
Robyn Reaburn is a lecturer in Mathematics Education at the University of Tasmania. Her Ph.D.
thesis, Students’ Understanding of Statistical Inference: Implications for Teaching, examined
students’ understanding of confidence intervals and P-values in a first-year tertiary statistics
course. This thesis was undertaken at the University of Tasmania under the supervision of Jane
Watson, Kim Beswick and Rosemary Callingham. Previously she has taught in high schools, in
Technical and Further Education, and at the Australian Maritime College. In addition, she was a
lecturer in statistics in the Discipline of Mathematics at the University of Tasmania, where her
interest in this Ph.D. arose. She also has a Masters Research degree which examined the
relationship between pollution levels and visits to the Launceston General Hospital by people with
respiratory illnesses. Prior to becoming an educator she worked in hospital laboratories
specialising in haematology.
Chapter 13
The Design and Implementation
of a Short Course, Focusing
on Metacognition, to Develop Writing
Skills for University Students for Whom
English Is an Additional Language:
An Action Research Study
Adnan Satariyan, Bronwyn Reynolds and David Kember
Research Question
What is an appropriate structure for reporting a study of designing a short course to

develop the writing skills of EAL university students to cope with the university
assignments when following the interpretive and critical paradigms and adopting
action research methodology?
The aim of this research was to design a constructively aligned short writing course
for English as an additional language (EAL) learners, to encourage a perceived
level of competence in writing academic assignments for their discipline.
The course was designed and implemented through eight reflective action research
cycles totalling eight teaching sessions. This also enabled me, as the teacher/
researcher, to reflect on and improve my pedagogical practices, along with
improvements for the EAL participants’ writing skills.
A. Satariyan (&) B. Reynolds

University of Tasmania, Tasmania, Australia
e-mail: Adnan.Satariyan@utas.edu.au
B. Reynolds
e-mail: Bronwyn.Reynolds@utas.edu.au
D. Kember
e-mail: David.Kember@utas.edu.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_13
130 A. Satariyan et al.
Most EAL students spend many years of formal English instruction at school
and/or language institutions. They, however, tend to lack proficiency in English
language skills to complete written assignments with academic rigour, when
English is the medium of instruction. The impetus for developing a short course for
these EAL learners, therefore, was to support them academically and to implement
change and improved practices in this area.
The results from this study identified the need to develop a short writing course
with some attention also given to improving EAL students’ metacognition (thinking
about thinking). The course was developed in accordance with the principles of
constructive alignment. This was to ensure that intended learning outcomes for the
course were effective, clear and purposeful and that learning activities were
developed in alignment with these outcomes. To examine the progress of partici-
pants’ learning, their final written assignments were assessed using the Structure of
the Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO) Taxonomy framework. Changes in
epistemological beliefs were also considered when examining the knowledge
development of the participants during the course of intervention. The action plan
implemented was effective in developing participants’ writing proficiency, along
with gaining more sophisticated epistemological beliefs about the knowledge of
writing skills over the eight teaching sessions/cycles. The shift in participants’
epistemological beliefs appeared to be related to the improved learning outcomes
and the quality of their writing, which were assessed by the SOLO Taxonomy. This
may have also contributed to the development in the quality of participants’
knowledge of writing skills.
The findings also showed that participants learn writing skills better in a more
experiential and discovery-based approach, rather than focusing on the mechanics
of writing (i.e. rules for punctuation, capitalisation, spelling, and grammar). A shift
in participants’ epistemological beliefs, the development of their learning outcomes
through the use of the SOLO Taxonomy, the quality of their final written assign-
ment, and their perceptions concerning the teaching sessions provide supporting
evidence for the effectiveness of the course.
The study appropriated a very demanding challenge in addressing the needs of
EAL students, who received English instruction throughout their schooling, yet
were still unable to write assignments to the expected standard. It seems that
students have a very small amount of time available to undertake a supplementary
bridging course. The design of this course, therefore, needed to attain in eight
sessions what their schooling had been unable to achieve.
A reflective action research model (Satariyan and Reynolds 2016) was implemented
within a class of four undergraduate EAL learners. Participants in the study were
invited to attend eight teaching sessions. Each session was then considered as one
13 The Design and Implementation of a Short Course, Focusing … 131
action research cycle. An analysis of each cycle included four reflective steps—plan
of action, implementation of action, observation and interpretation, and recom-
mendations for future actions. All teaching sessions were based on an identified
teaching or learning issue with respect to writing skills. An additional focus was the
participants’ need to reflect on and revise a plan of action to implement and evaluate
in order to affect improvements for future actions/cycles.
The teaching sessions, with a focus on metacognitive strategies, were designed
to provide information about academic writing skills applicable for these EAL
students. The first three teaching sessions focused on brainstorming the essay
question(s), the key features of an academic text (personal opinion and academic
position), the difference between description and analysis and the development of
critical thinking and problem solving skills. The next three sessions focused on
developing participants’ inductive and deductive thinking, including the importance
of the student voice in assignments. The final two sessions included a greater
emphasis on practical and concrete skills required to write academic assignments at
university level.
Through the reflection on the different philosophical underpinnings of educational

research, I was able to discover my own purpose for undertaking research.
I discovered that I had aligned my practice of EAL writing skills with the critical
paradigm. That was because I wanted my practice to effect change, develop stu-
dents’ writing skills and generally I would have liked to see how pedagogy related
to developing cognitive and meta-cognitive writing strategies and how these
developments affected university English as additional language learners’
(EAL) perceptions about their writing skills. The methodology employed in this
study was action research, which draws on the paradigms of critical theory. McNiff
and Whitehead’s (2005) claim about action research has motivated and supported
the idea. They assert that action research is an approach to personal and professional
development that enables practitioners to evaluate their own practice. In addition,
Whitehead (2009) and McNiff and Whitehead (2000) assert that action research
constitutes a look at the questions in the class of things, which disturb us, and try to
find a solution. The teacher’s position is not only as teacher but also as researcher.
The teacher can develop professional competence as well as improve students’
learning through action research (McNiff and Whitehead 2002; Satariyan and
Reynolds 2016).
Structure
This research study involved four parts that were consistent with a macro level
action research cycle. The first part (A) concerned my initial reflection and was
about creating a link between my journey as an EFL learner and the recent expe-
riences with teaching English to EFL and ESL learners. After identifying the action
research problems in part A, I considered the aspects that needed to be incorporated
into the plan of action for the mini course. This resulted in an extensive literature
review, which was included with the theoretical framework in part B. The next part
(C) was the action cycles and within that I had a series of micro cycles for the
teaching sessions. Each micro cycle included four stages: the plan of action; the
implementation of action; observation and interpretation (micro level); and rec-
ommendations for future actions. Finally part D was the concluding reflection in
which I reflected on the process of the action research (macro level) and plan for the
mini course implemented in part C.
The structuring of chapters and style of writing for this action research thesis was
quite different to the traditional construction of a thesis. I needed to work out a more
appropriate trajectory to explore the multi layers, elements and complex nature of the
study. My supervisors informed me that the chapters found in a traditional thesis,
such as an introduction, literature review, methodology, data analysis, results, dis-
cussion and conclusion would be best located in different places in the thesis and
written in a narrative style. So I knew I had to rework parts of the structure, of a
traditional thesis that I had already drafted, into easily digestible and story-like parts
and chapters. Supervisory meetings were an opportunity for me to discuss my pro-
gress and advise my supervisors of any problems in relation to the process of my
thesis writing. It was suggested that chapter one, for example, ought to be about
setting the scene and telling the story about the issue. It should explain the rationale
for the course of action and how it differed from other modes of teaching. Chapter
two should include how I investigated the issue, which previously had been dis-
cussed in chapter one. Another consideration, for example, was that Part C of
the thesis should reflect the actions that were implemented. It needed to include the
details about the teaching sessions, the tasks set/discussed with students, the
preparation and what I delivered from my lesson plans. It was not easy for me to
move away from the traditional format of writing to an action research style of
writing and thesis construction. I moved to a structure consistent with the four steps
in the action research cycle, which included initial reflections, building towards a
plan, action, and concluding reflections. Within the action part, I also used a four-part
structure including a plan of action, an implementation of action, observation and
interpretation, and recommendations for future actions. The chapters within each part
required a different writing style. I laboured over each part in the first chapter
particularly, and it took a few iterations to master a narrative style of writing. Other
chapters generally followed more easily once this style was understood.
Contents page
Part A Initial reflections
Chapter 1 My story
Chapter 2 The initial reflection and trigger for my Ph.D. investigation
Chapter 3 The second reflection
Chapter 4 My research dimension and questions
Part B Building towards a plan
Chapter 5 Shifting paradigms in pedagogy of writing skills
Chapter 6 The theory of learning applied in this study
Chapter 7 Review of metacognitive literature
Chapter 8 Description of the plan
Part C Action
Chapter 9 First Cycle
Chapter 10 Second cycle
Chapter 11 Third cycle
Chapter 12 Fourth cycle
Chapter 13 Fifth cycle
Chapter 14 Sixth cycle
Chapter 15 Seventh cycle
Chapter 16 Eighth cycle
Part D Concluding reflections
Chapter 17 Reflection on curriculum design and pedagogy of the short course
Chapter 18 Impact of the course on the participants
Chapter 19 My Journey
Chapter 20 Contribution to new knowledge
Commentary
Upon commencing this research, I actually had limited knowledge of action

research. I had been familiar with more positivist and naturalistic perspectives. In
fact, I was a naturalist with a scientific background in research. Being encouraged to
read more about action research, however, and listening to some action research
stories from my supervisors, paved the way for me and I started to feel quite excited
about the possibility of conducting my own research using this method.
Traditional research, also known as experimental or quantitative research, as I
remember it as a student while completing a masters’ of the TEFL program, is a
systematic process that demands a standard scientific method. In my masters’ thesis,
I identified a problem, formed some research questions, reviewed the research
literature and conducted the research, analysed the findings and then provided
responses for the research questions. Traditional educational research is generally
conducted by researchers or scientists from outside the organisation, whose goal is
to remain objective and offer generalised truths (Stringer 2014).
My initial Ph.D. proposal included a qualitative case study methodology. Like

most other qualitative researchers, my Ph.D. proposal was primarily exploratory.
I was interested in gaining an understanding of the academic challenges concerning
writing skills for ESL students. After I had reviewed the recent literature on the
topic, I decided to write my second chapter titled ‘review of literature’ (as in the
traditional style of thesis writing). My story changed before the data collection
process. There was a change in my supervisory team as one of my supervisors was
unable to take the lead due to his retirement status. That was when I was introduced
to action research as a methodology. I believed quantitative and/or qualitative data
would have been beneficial to my initial research proposal. However, would it
expedite change and improvement within my EAL classroom? Could it help my
practice? This was when I thought an action research study could prove to be highly
beneficial in my practice, by promoting my pedagogical skills and fostering positive
attitudes towards the writing skills of my EAL students.
Action research created a strong interface between theory and practice (Johnson
2012) and helped me to develop new knowledge about my classroom teaching and
practices (Hine 2013). During the action (implementation) stage, for instance,
I developed my teaching practice every session by observing and reflecting. My
findings were then used to revise the teaching materials for future sessions (cycles).
Implementing action research, in this study, also facilitated my empowerment
(Fueyo and Koorland 1997). According to Zeichner (2003) teachers are empowered
when they are able to collect their own data that can be constructively used for
making future decisions about their classrooms. My participation in the determi-
nation of classroom objectives and discussions enabled me to exercise professional
judgment about what and how to teach. This is an example of how action research
helped me to become empowered. My research findings have shown that the
writing skills of the EAL participants have been improved due to my pedagogy,
which helped to personalise my teaching to the needs of each participant. As
Sweetland and Hoy (2000) affirm, when teachers take actions and make changes in
relation to teaching and learning, student achievement is enhanced. This action
research study was an effective way to improve my professional growth and
development (Hine 2013). I believe the traditional methods of teaching writing
skills did not provide sufficient time, activities, or content to increase knowledge or
affect my practice. Action research has offered a way for me to reflect critically on
my teaching (Birman et al. 2000; Cain and Harris 2013; Hodgson et al. 2013),
stimulate change in my thinking and practice (Zeichner 2003), and promote
self-improvement and self-awareness (Judah and Richardson 2006).
The findings of the study were reported in a literary narrative, with reference to
the participants’ perceptions and contributions (Leedy and Ormrod 2010). Ferrance
(2000) states that in the educational field ‘action research specifically refers to a
disciplined inquiry done by a teacher with the intent that the research will inform
and change his or her practices in the future’ (p. 1). The connection between this
statement and the goals of the research project undertaken are that the research
would lead to a change in my teaching practice and improvement in students’
academic writing abilities. This action research study has traced my development in
beliefs about knowing and teaching over the eight teaching session course. As I
participated in this practice, my personal epistemological beliefs changed because
of the changes in my teaching practice (Brownlee 2003).
The functionality of an action research, as a strategy for this research study, lies
in the emphasis on change through research (Blaxter et al. 2007). This research
study not only investigated and described a problem experienced in practice (like a
case study would do), but it also focused on how the necessary action, to resolve it,
was achieved. This action was ‘researched and changed’ (Davis 2004, p. 6). Davis
also emphasises another feature of action research, which is the constant need for
critical reflection throughout the process of the research. Critical reflection can be
obtained by regular feedback during the process of the action research. The feed-
back gained from the participants and the cycles, in this study, led to either positive
confirmation of the applied plan of the course or a change of direction. The sys-
tematic observation and interpretation stage also linked in with the cyclical pattern
of action research (Blaxter et al. 2007; Satariyan and Reynolds 2016). I believe that
now I have achieved a more effective practice through changing my role in the
classroom. By carefully listening to the needs of participants, I have improved my
role as a facilitator in a classroom setting. During this action research process, I
often found myself in a dual role with my academic goals and responsibilities. I tried
to create change in the participants’ thinking and approach to learning (epistemo-
logical beliefs) as a type of evolution in the way students learn in the classroom.
I became frustrated and discouraged as I was lost and did not know how to start
writing about my journey. The role of my supervisors in encouraging action research
as an integral part of my academic development should not be neglected. Their
constructive feedback, comments and suggestions helped me to find an appropriate
writing structure for this action research journey. It nearly took three months for me to
determine what style would be the most appropriate for my action research project.
I used to send the drafts of the chapters to my supervisors prior to every supervisory
meeting. Supervisors also monitored my progress in every supervisory meeting. They
helped me to set an agenda that gave a structure for what I needed to mention and
helped me to not forget to consider any important issue in relation to my intervention
and journey. In this way, my supervisors acted as critical friends by helping me to
develop my action research thesis writing skills. It was important for me to seek advice
from my supervisors in the process of collaborative inquiry to advance the developing
research effort. I found that it was extremely helpful to have some ‘critical friends’
who worked with me to help define the research problem, formulate the questions,
collect and analyse the data, and discuss the data and outcomes of the study.
Step by step, I tried to develop my understanding of writing the thesis in
accordance with an action research style. As another example, I was always
advised, in my masters’ of TEFL program that the convention in scientific methods
of academic writing was to write with minimal reference to myself as an author.
The reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present work ‘objectively’, as the
work of an unbiased researcher. So, one of the features of the traditional thesis
writing was a general absence of the first person pronoun ‘I’. Moreover, I had to
remove the abundant use of passive voice e.g. ‘it is shown’ or ‘it is implied’, or to
use phrases referring to my study, e.g. ‘the present study’, ‘this study’. Readers of
scientific papers are interested primarily in scientific facts, not in who established
them. This was very difficult, as my supervisors often said to me, ‘it is your
journey; you need to narrate that in a story type style’. They often reminded me that
an action research project required narrative and self-reflective methods of writing.
Therefore, I came to the understanding that self-reflective action research projects
are usually written up in the first person. Undergoing these changes was difficult.
I needed to undergo a perspective transformation equivalent to the change in
epistemological beliefs of my participants.
Generally, this journey is very consistent with the action research process.
Kemmis and McTaggart (1988, p. 5) define action research as:
Action research is a form of collective self-reflective [inquiry] undertaken by participants in
social situations in order to improve the rationality and justice of their own social or
educational practices, as well as their understanding of these practices and the situations in
which these practices are carried out.
In struggling to write my thesis I undertook a journey of discovery with respect to my

own writing. I had to unlearn a lot of what I had been previously taught and master the
very skills I was trying to teach in the short course. My journey improved my practice as
a teacher and researcher and considerably enhanced my academic writing skills. The
journey developed my understanding of EAL teaching, research methodology and
academic writing to the extent that I experienced a major transformation in my per-
spective. My self-reflective inquiry was guided by supervisors acting as critical friends.
References
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Brownlee, J. (2003). Paradigm shifts in pre-service teacher education students: Case studies of
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Psychology, 3, 1–6.
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Educational Action Research, 21(3), 343–358.
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Education.
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promise of action research in the context of state mandated teacher professional development.
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Deakin University Press.
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Jersey, USA: Pearson Publishing Company.
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David Fulton Publishers.
Satariyan, A., & Reynolds, B. (2016). A reflective model for action research: An evolving
pedagogical trajectory. In S. Fan & J. Fielding-Wells (Eds.), What is next in educational
research? (pp. 21–29). Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publishers.
Stringer, E. T. (2014). Action research (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, California, USA: Sage Publications.
Sweetland, S. R., & Hoy, W. K. (2000). School characteristics and educational outcomes: Toward
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Adnan Satariyan has completed a thesis on Second Language Education. The chapter about his
thesis was based on a PhD degree in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL),
completed at the University of Tasmania, Australia under the supervision of Bronwyn Reynolds,
David Kember and John Williamson. He has been a managing editor for the Journal of Language
and Translation in Iran and an AMEP/SEE program trainer and assessor at Max Solutions in
Australia. His research interests centre on research methodology, pedagogy of literacy skills,
psycholinguistics, problems of second language teaching/learning, and action research and
classroom-based studies.
Bronwyn Reynolds is a senior lecturer in the Faculty of Education at the University of Tasmania.
Her research interests include curriculum and leadership in early childhood education, positive
learning environments, action research and working with students for whom English is an
additional language (EAL). This chapter evolves from a doctoral student’s dissertation that focuses
on developing a short course to support the writing skills for EAL university students.
Chapter 14
Intersections of Indigenous Knowledge
and Place Based Education: Possibilities
for New Visions of Sustainability
Education in Uganda
Kevin Kezabu, Jenny McMahon, David Kember and Allen Hill
Research Question
What is an appropriate structure for reporting a study of Indigenous Knowledge and

place based education, following the critical paradigm, and adopting participatory
action research?
This doctoral research was guided by the following research questions:

• How can Indigenous Knowledge, practices and values intersect with place-
based education in Ugandan secondary schools?
K. Kezabu (&)
e-mail: kevin.kezabu@utas.edu.au
J. McMahon
School of Education, University of Tasmania, Newnham Campus,
Launceston, TAS 7250, Australia
e-mail: jenny.mcmahon@utas.edu.au
D. Kember
A. Hill
Ara Institute of Technology, City Campus—Madras Street, PO BOX 540,
Christchurch, Otautahi 8140, New Zealand
e-mail: allen.hill@ara.ac.nz; allen.hill@utas.edu.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_14
140 K. Kezabu et al.
• How can teachers use place-based education pedagogies to influence their learners
to reconnect to their community/culture and places in Ugandan secondary schools?
• How can community elders contribute to place-based education in their com-
munities in Uganda?
This study pursues the intersection of Indigenous Knowledge (IK) and
place-based education in Ugandan secondary schools. In particular, how teachers
use place-based education pedagogies to influence their own as well as their
learners’ reconnection to their communities, cultures and places towards a more
sustainable future. Given the fact that the role of community elders of guardianship
and instruction of IK has been weakened by the formal education system (Semali
1999; Smith and Sobel 2014), this research also explored how community elders
can contribute to place-based education in their communities.
The participants carried out the following three IK learning activities to intersect
IK and place-based education into the formal education setting. The participant
elders were the educators in these activities. The first IK learning activity was the
formation of the Bulungi Bwansi clubs (For the good of the land) in which the
students and teachers restarted the traditional practice of community service, a
practice that had been abandoned just like IK due to the colonial influence. In this
activity, the participants and the students learnt how to make briquettes for cooking,
an alternative to charcoal, in order to save the trees that are threatened by the
rampant charcoal burning trade. When they learnt these skills, the participants and
students took these skills to the communities and trained the people to make their
own skill in addition to telling people the dangers of cutting down trees for char-
coal. The community trainings were part of the Bulungi Bwansi activities.
The second IK learning activity that the participants carried out was to visit and
learn about the Indigenous sacred places. The intention was to relearn the traditional
respect for nature which has been forgotten with the disregard of the IK by the
formal education system. The participant teachers and their students visited the
sacred places where they learned about the historical significance of these places
through historical narratives retold by the participant elders.
And the third and last IK learning activity that the participants carried out was
the learning about the Indigenous foods and plant values around the school
grounds. The elders led the participant teachers and their students around the school
grounds explaining the medicinal values of the Indigenous plants and demon-
strating how some of Indigenous crops were used as well as how they used to be
looked after.
Through these IK learning activities, the participants deliberately integrated IK
into the formal education system. The teachers as well as their students reconnected
to their cultures and places; and in addition, the elders were involved in the edu-
cation of the young people, a role that had been taken away from them by the
formal education system.
14 Intersections of Indigenous Knowledge and Place … 141
The Genesis of This Research
The doctoral research was born out of the student researcher’s encounter with
Environmental challenges in the country and also the people’s lack of environ-
mental awareness or attachment to place as shown by the unsustainable economic
choices that the majority made.
The Student Researcher’s Narrative
Back home in Uganda, in February 2011, I came face to face with community vs gov-
ernment conflict regarding management of the forest resources. In Mukono, the area I lived,
boarders Mabira forest which is one of the largest forest reserves in Uganda. Mabira forest
is in the same region as the source of the Nile and Lake Victoria, one of the largest fresh
water lakes in the world. In this town, my neighbor’s husband who was a timber trader lost
his life, while saving his son from the National Forest Authority Police squad. The police
shot him as he tried to obstruct them from arresting his son who had been cutting trees
illegally from Mabira forest reserve for the family business.
I witnessed the riots as they raged in the town for three days, bringing to a standstill
businesses, schools and transport because of this incident. Moreover, there had been other
clashes between the police and the townsfolks over police arresting the timber thieves and
confiscating timber that had been illegally cut from the forest. The people that I talked with
believed that the government was unfair in giving the license to cut trees to a few indi-
viduals and not the local people who lived near the forest. In supporting the timber thieves,
the local people did not realize the damage that the timber thieves were doing to the forest,
the ecosystems and its impact on their own well-being.
When I worked as a university lecturer at one of the local universities, I was involved in
writing workshops held for teachers at the three University constituent colleges in the different
regions of the country namely; Mbale, Arua and Kabale. In Mbale, I visited the slopes of Mt.
Elgon where they’d had mudslides due to heavy rains on the badly deforested slopes. I talked
with a resident of the area who would not heed the government call to evacuate the dangerous
area on the slopes of the mountain. This elderly lady narrated her story, a narrative that has
been told by generations, about her tribal right to the Mountain. I also saw the problem of
waste disposal in Mbale, the same problem facing many towns in Uganda.
In Arua, I saw malnourished children whose mothers, according to the nurse in the pediatric
section of the hospital, had to walk long distances to look for food. The nurse told me that
for an income the fathers of these children cut down trees to burn charcoal which they then
sold and spent the money on alcohol and gambling. I saw hundreds of heaps of charcoal
bags sold along the roads, indicating the extent of the deforestation. It was hard to not
connect the deforestation, the lack of food with the malnutrition in the area. This is hap-
pening in an area through which the Nile, with all her agricultural potential, flows on her
way to the Egypt.
As a teacher educator, I realized that there was an opportunity to start a change in the
education system of Uganda so that environmental education is incorporated in the cur-
riculum. I also realized the potential of the integration of our IK and place-based education
in changing the hearts of the people towards their communities, cultures and places. This is
the reason I chose to work with teachers and community elders in this Participatory Action
Research (PAR) project.
In this project, all the participants shared the same problem; they all wanted to see a
change in the Ugandan education system. The current formal education system was
disempowering to all of them. The teachers struggle with an exam driven cur-
riculum which is hardly relevant for them or for their students’ futures. The elders
have been made irrelevant and dismissed by an education system that disregards the
IK. PAR is therefore suitable for this project because it empowers people. McArdle
and Reason (2008, p. 6) rightly affirm that PAR aims to ‘restore to the oppressed
peoples the ability to create knowledge and practice in their own interests’. For this
reason, we used dialogue-rich methods that empower, motivate, increase
self-esteem and develop a community solidarity (McArdle and Reason 2008). We
used group discussions, group interviews, active observation, and diary notes.
Since PAR is participatory in nature, the research student worked with the
participants as co-researchers in the research project. The co-researchers in this
project were as follows; three elders, two community members who facilitated in
the IK learning activities, five teachers and the student researcher. They all actively
worked together in understanding how they could contribute to the integration of IK
into their education system in their different roles in the community. MacIntosh
et al. (2007, p. 373) urge that ‘researching with people means that they are engaged
as full persons and the exploration is based directly on their understanding of their
own actions and experience, rather than filtered through an outsider’s perspective.’
The participants got equally involved the project and made sound decisions about
the procedure of the project.
Here is how the participants/co-researchers followed the PAR cycles of plan,
action and reflection. The first phase was the ‘Planning’ phase. The student
researcher invited participating elders and teachers for a Professional Learning
Development (PLD) workshop. In this workshop, the student researcher presented a
paper on the intersection of IK and place-based education as ways of sustainability
education in Uganda. The community elders also presented papers on their areas of
expertise in the Kiganda IK. After the paper presentations, the teachers, through
group discussions planned on how the IK of the community elders fit into their
practice.
The participant teachers and elders planned on when they could all implement
the IK into the formal education setting. A survey was administered to all the
participants at the end of the workshop to find out whether they were satisfied with
the PLD workshop and if they were willing to continue to the next phase of the
project, the action phase.
Five teachers out of the 25 teachers that had attended the first PLD workshop
were willing to continue to the second phase, which is the ‘action’ phase. In the
action phase, the participants were actively involved in the integration of IK and
place-based education into the formal education setting. The teachers invited the
participant elders to their classrooms where the elders facilitated the classes in the
various IK learning activities surrounding the elders’ areas of expertise.
The participants went on excursions with the students to sacred places where the
elders told historical narratives about these places. The elders also taught the stu-
dents and the teachers the medicinal, spiritual and food values of various
Indigenous plants around the school grounds of the participant schools. The elders,
through historical narratives, taught the students and the teachers about the spirit of
Bulungi Bwansi (For the good of the land) and how one historical Ssekabaka
(Ssekabaka is the title of a deceased King of Buganda. The title of the current King
is Kabaka.) introduced the drumbeat of Saagala Agalamidde (I don’t want idlers) to
summon the people for community service in Buganda. As a result, Bulungi Bwansi
clubs were formed in all the participating schools with the aim of students going out
to the communities to carry out community service.
The co-researchers actively observed these IK lessons while also making diary
entries of the significant aspects of the lessons in their personal diaries. The diary
entries were later shared and discussed during the participants’ group meetings.
These lessons were also audio recorded and parts of which replayed during the group
discussions for the teachers’ reflections on the significant parts of the IK lessons.
One such part was the elder’s historical narratives of the sacred river, Ssezibwa.
The next phase in the PAR cycle was the ‘reflection’ phase. Reflection took
place during the group discussions. The group discussions were conducted in two
ways; they happened during the group interviews after every lesson and every once
a week during the teachers’ Nyama Kyoma meetings. The meetings were named
Nyama Kyoma because the participants met in a relaxed informal environment and
enjoyed roast beef and goat meat on pokes, a local delicacy known as Nyama
Kyoma. An informal environment is important for group meetings because it helps
to boost the participants’ self-confidence (Kindon et al. 2007). Meeting off the
school grounds created a relaxed non-judgmental atmosphere where the participant
teachers met as a team of experts in charge of improving their own practice.
The group interviews were guided by an interview schedule and were conducted
at every end of an IK lesson facilitated by a community elder at the participant
school. It is important for reflection in PAR to be systematic and deliberate
(Duenkel and Pratt 2013; Kemmis and McTaggart 2005). These group interviews
involved the participant teacher(s) at the school, the facilitating elder, a participant
teacher from another participating school who came to observe and take part in the
IK lesson, and the student researcher.
During these group interviews, the participants reflected on the action in the IK
lesson that just ended; evaluating the success and shortcomings in the implemen-
tation of IK and place-based education in the formal education setting. Goodnough
(2008, p. 435) rightly asserts that ‘group reflection fosters group and individual
learning.’ All the participants were willing to learn new knowledge and skills for
them to ably integrate IK into the formal education setting for the benefit of their
communities.
Group discussions also took place during the weekly Nyama Kyoma meetings.
Every Wednesday evening, the teachers met to critically reflect on how they
brought the IK that they had learned into the curriculum. They discussed in detail
how the different elders’ IK fit into the different topics in the Lower Secondary
Luganda syllabus. They also discussed the best teaching methods to use for the
topics that were integrated with IK. The teachers also shared their diary entries plus
samples of students’ work to learn together and from each other. Duenkel and Pratt
(2013) urge participants to be continually immersed in an active learning process.
Critical reflection helped the participants to improve their understanding of the
research process and as a result, they made better decisions for their next cycle.
Riding et al. (1995) contend that ‘insights gained from the initial cycle feed into
planning of the second cycle, for which the action plan is modified and the research
process repeated.’ The decisions made during these group reflections because of the
insights gained from these discussions directed the next course of action. PAR is as
such an ongoing process.
PAR was used in this project because according to literature it is acknowledged for
improving practice and it is also the kind of research design acknowledged in sit-
uations that require democratic change (Johns 2008; Stringer 2014; Titchen 2015).
In this regard, Kurt Lewin’s principles of action research were applied to the
improvement of workers’ output and motivation in a coal mining industry in Britain
after the second world war (Bradbury et al. 2008). This research is founded in the
critical paradigm, which seeks to address issues of social justice and marginaliza-
tion (Scotland 2012). It sits under critical place inquiry as it deals with a people’s
struggle to finding solutions to their disconnection from culture and place (Tuck and
McKenzie 2015).
PAR was especially suitable for this project because this project involved the
participants/co-researchers embracing their Indigenous Knowledge, and together,
finding ways of bringing it into the formal education setting. Reason (1998, p. 3)
upholds the importance of participation in action research by asserting that
‘Participation is fundamental to human flourishing,—and it requires the exercise of
intentional human agency to encourage and nurture its development.’ This research
paradigm was most suitable because participation is a fundamental value in the
Kiganda society as reflected in the historical narratives of the Saagala Agalamidde
drumrolls and the spirit of Bulungi Bwansi. In the historical narratives, when the
people heard the drumrolls, they had to go for Bulungi Bwansi. Participation is
deeply embedded in the cultural ways of the people.
Structure
The structure of the thesis follows the Action Research cycles of planning, action,
observation and reflection.
The first part, ‘Planning’, outlines the planning on the macro level bringing to the
fore the impetus for the study. The second part, ‘Action’, shows how the plan was
implemented highlighting the strengths and challenges of PAR. The third section,
‘Reflection’, takes on the metaphor of the Saagala Agalamidde drumrolls to reflect
on the actions of the co-researchers and the effects these actions had on the project.
The Saagala Agalamidde drumrolls, according to the elders’ historical narra-
tives, were used to summon the people to Bulungi Bwansi activities in their
communities during the precolonial times. Since colonial times, these drums have
been silent and so has the communal spirit of Bulungi Bwansi in the region. The
metaphor demonstrates how the participants worked together to reawaken the
sleeping drums as well as the spirit of Bulungi Bwansi in the participating schools
and communities.
Part A: Planning consists of four chapters, which provide the situational,
scholarly and methodological contexts of this research project. Chapter 1 lays the
foundation for my motivation for a Ph.D. in Environmental Education. In this
chapter, I narrate how I develop critical awareness of the environmental situation in
my country. Chapter 2 clarifies the context of this research by explaining the
environmental as well as the educational situations in Uganda. Chapter 3 lays the
literary background to how the Ugandan people relate to their places. This chapter
maps the trend of the people’s relationships to their lands and natural environment
from the pre-colonial to the post-colonial times. Chapter 4 introduces the
methodology utilized in carrying out this research. This chapter also explains the
suitability of PAR to the aims of this research and to the Ugandan Environmental
Education context.
Part B: Action and Observation consists of four chapters which describe the
actions of the participants and provide the detailed methodological procedure of the
research project. This section also contains mine and the participants’ observations
of the action. In addition, there are also reflections-in-action on the twists and turns
in the action. Chapter 5 recounts the process of the project in relation to the
character of PAR and the uniqueness of the Ugandan education context. This
chapter also introduces the pragmatics of the actions that the participants took in
their integration of IK into the Ugandan formal education setting. Chapter 6 reports
the first action that the participants took in their integration of IK in the Ugandan
formal education curriculum. This involved the formation of the Bulungi Bwansi
clubs in the participating schools in which the participants took students out to the
community to carry out community service activities. Chapter 7 reports the second
action that the participants took in the integration of IK in the Ugandan formal
education curriculum. This involved the participants taking students out to
Ssezibwa falls, a sacred place, to learn about and listen to narratives regarding this
place. Chapter 8 reports the third action that the participants took in the integration
of IK into the Ugandan formal education curriculum. This involved participants
taking students out to the school grounds to learn about the Indigenous plants and
the plants’ medicinal values. Even though they are numbered progressively, these
actions took place concurrently.
Part C: Reflection consists of four chapters that present my critique of the
actions that the participants take in their integration of IK in the Ugandan formal
education curriculum and also their practice of place-based education in the
schools. Significantly, this section is presented in the form of a metaphor of the
traditional Kiganda Saagala Agalamidde (I don’t want Idlers) drumrolls. These
historical drumrolls were used during the precolonial times to summon people to
community service. This metaphor is appropriate because it reflects the spirit of
community altruistic service that highlights the co-participants’ motivation for this
project, as well as the activities that the co-participants involved their students into.
Chapter 9 presents my critique of the participants’ endeavors to bring the com-
munity into the classroom as a way of integrating IK into the formal education
curriculum. Chapter 10 presents my critique of the participants’ endeavors to bring
the classroom into the community as a way of integrating IK into the formal
Ugandan education curriculum. Chapter 11 presents my critique of the partici-
pants’ endeavors to bring the community into the curriculum as a way of integrating
IK into the formal Ugandan education curriculum. Chapter 12 presents my con-
cluding thoughts on this research project and projects a picture of the future pos-
sibilities of the integration of IK and place-based education in Ugandan schools.
Contents page
PART A: PLANNING
Chapter 1. The Journey to My Environmental Consciousness
Chapter 2. The Ugandan Context
Chapter 3. Literature on Place
Chapter 4. Towards a Participatory Action Research Inquiry
PART B: ACTION AND OBSERVATION
Chapter 5. The Messiness of Participatory Action Research
Chapter 6. Bulungi Bwansi and the Eliminate-Charcoal Community Project
Chapter 7. Obuwangwa Ne Nnono/Re-Discovery of the Sacred Places
Chapter 8. Obuwangwa Ne Nnono/Re-Discovery of the Kiganda Indigenous Foods
and Plant Values
PART C: REFLECTION
Chapter 9. The Reawakening of the Saagala Agalamidde Drumrolls
Chapter 10. The Resounding Saagala Agalamidde Drumrolls
Chapter 11. Sustainability of the Drumrolls
Chapter 12. Conclusion
Commentary
This structure is consistent with PAR in such a way that it shows the cyclic nature
of plan, act, reflect, re-plan which is consistent with Action Research projects. This
structure highlights not only the challenges of PAR through the messiness of the
research process but also its strength in its flexibility as the participants critically
reflect on their situations to pave way for implementing change in the rigid exam
oriented education system of Uganda.
References
Bradbury, H., Mirvis, P., Neilsen, E., & Pasmore, W. (2008). Action research at work: Creating the
future following the path from Lewin. In The SAGE handbook of action research: Participative
inquiry and practice, 2 (pp. 77–92).
Duenkel, N., & Pratt, J. (2013). Ecological education and action research: A transformative blend
for formal and nonformal educators. Action Research, 11(2), 125–141.
Goodnough, K. (2008). Dealing with messiness and uncertainty in practitioner research: The
nature of participatory action research. Canadian Journal of Education, 31(2), 431–458.
Johns, T. (2008). Learning to love our black selves: Healing from internalized oppressions.
In P. Reason & H. Bradbury (Eds.), The Sage handbook of action research, participative
inquiry and practice (473–486). London: SAGE.
Kemmis, S., & McTaggart, R. (2005). Participatory action research: Communicative action and the
public sphere. In N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research
(3rd ed., pp. 559–603). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Kindon, S., Pain, R., & Kesby, M. (2007). Participatory action research approaches and
methods: Connecting people, participation and place (iBooks). Retrieved from https://www.
apple.com/au/ibooks/.
MacIntosh, R., Bonnet, M., Marshall, J., & Reason, P. (2007). Quality in research as “taking an
attitude of inquiry”. Management Research News, 30(5), 368–380.
McArdle, K. L., & Reason, P. (2008). Action research and organization development. In T.
G. Cummings (Ed.), Handbook of organization development (pp. 123–136).
Reason, P. (1998). Political, epistemological, ecological and spiritual dimensions of participation.
Studies in Cultures, Organizations and Societies, 4(2), 147–167.
Riding, P., Fowell, S., & Levy, P. (1995). An action research approach to curriculum development.
Information research, 1(1), 1.
Scotland, J. (2012). Exploring the philosophical underpinnings of research: Relating ontology and
epistemology to the methodology and methods of the scientific, interpretive, and critical
research paradigms. English Language Teaching, 5(9), 9–16.
Semali, L. M. (1999). Community as classroom: (Re) valuing indigenous literacy. In What is
indigenous knowledge (pp. 95–118).
Smith, G., & Sobel, D. (2014). Place-and community-based education in schools. Routledge.
Stringer, E. T. (2014). Action research (4th ed.). Los Angeles: SAGE.
Titchen, A. (2015). Action research: Genesis, evolution and orientations. International Practice
Development Journal, 5(1), 1–16 (16p).
Tuck, E., & McKenzie, M. (2015). Place in research. [electronic resource]: Theory, methodology,
and methods. New York; London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
Kevin Kezabu has completed a thesis entitled Intersections of Indigenous Knowledge and
Place-Based education: possibilities for new visions of sustainability education in Uganda. The
chapter about her thesis was based on the same Ph.D. thesis completed at the University of
Tasmania under the supervision of Jennifer McMahon, David Kember and Allen Hill. Before
coming to Tasmania for her doctoral studies, Kevin had been a secondary school teacher and later
a university lecturer in Uganda where she experienced the disconnection between the education
curricular and the people’s cultures and its effects on the environment. Bridging this disconnection
is the motivation behind her Participatory Action Research project for her Ph.D.
Jenny McMahon completed a thesis investigating the short and long term effects of body
practices on swimmers. The chapter about her thesis was based on a Ph.D., completed at the
University of Tasmania under the supervision of Professor Dawn Penney and Associate Professor
Maree Dinan-Thompson. As a former Australian representative swimmer, Jenny experienced
harmful coaching and body practices which had serious and long term effects on her health and
wellbeing. Her own experiences as an elite swimmer provided the impetus for her to find out more
in relation to other swimmers’ experiences. Dr. McMahon continues to work at University of
Tasmania as a Senior Lecturer in the School of Education. She has extensive publications centring
on athlete abuse, educating parents in sport and coach education.
Allen Hill is a Principal Lecturer in Sustainability and Outdoor Education at ARA Institute of
Canterbury, Aotearoa New Zealand. Dr. Hill joined the team at ARA in July, 2016 from the
University of Tasmania, Australia, where he holds an adjunct Senior Lecturer position in the
Faculty of Education. Dr. Hill’s professional career can be characterized by an enduring
commitment to the development of people through education coupled with a strong concern for
issues of justice, sustainability, transformation, and citizenship. How education can engage people
with meaningful outdoor learning experiences and contribute to a sustainable future through
connecting people with each other and with the places they inhabit is at the heart of his research
and teaching interests.
Chapter 15
‘I Only Look Forward to Mondays’.
Facilitating Creative Writing Groups:
Ageism, Action and Empowerment
Joan Webb
Research Question
What is an appropriate structure for reporting a study of how residents in aged care
facilities benefit from creative writing experiences, following the critical paradigm,
and adopting action research?
This study examines the changes which occur when introducing frail aged residents
in aged care facilities (RACFs) to creative experiences, specifically poetry and short
prose. This occurs qualitatively by working with groups of residents in two
Tasmanian RACFs. The theoretical background, research and methodology of this
project examine how participatory creative activities, which produce both indi-
vidual and communal writing, are beneficial to the wellbeing of residents in aged
care facilities in Tasmania.
I decided to volunteer to run two creative writing classes in aged care facilities.
As a trained teacher, I believed I knew how to form good relationships with
students of all ages, but I had always been in control of curriculum and student
learning. At the start of this new experience I felt I was in a negative learning zone,
as there was no cross communication and residents only hung their heads silently.
I became aware that the philosophy of Action Research had much to teach me, but it
J. Webb (&)
University of Tasmania, Launceston, Tasmania, Australia
e-mail: joan.webb4@bigpond.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_15
150 J. Webb
was a gigantic step for me to see myself as a facilitator, and an equal partner with
my research participants. As I wrote the story, I wanted it to be an uninterrupted
read, but what would I do with the philosophical sections which added such a rich
understanding of the effect that external attitudes had on the whole persona, par-
ticularly when they were at their most vulnerable. Then other issues arose, such as
widespread, unconscious ageism in this society. I also realized that until the frail
aged felt empowered to present their ideas to the world that continued on its busy
way outside the institution, their valuable contributions, as a normal section of
community would be invalidated.
First Contact
I arrived on the first morning with a bag full of popular and amusing poems and
short stories. I intended to get to know the six members of our new creative writing
group 1, and find out what sort of poetry and prose they enjoyed. Then would come
the exciting part, when they created their own work. Instead the diversional ther-
apist Jane, had arranged for me to have a tour of the establishment, and planned to
introduce me to possible attendees. The first contender was lying in bed and put up
a silent resistance to her persuasive assurances that he would enjoy listening to me
reading poetry to the group. She was asking him to make a commitment by putting
his name down, and he clung on to the remnants of his independence by refusing to
co-operate. I had no intention of reading throughout the session and he had no
intention of listening to me. The second experience had a profound and lasting
effect on me. The tour continued and I followed Jane as she unlocked a door to a
bare room, which was the entrance to the dementia section of the facility. One
person was sitting on the edge of a chair. As he turned I saw it was an old friend of
mine whom I knew had been in this institution for about two months. His family
told me they had hung his paintings round his room. We threw our arms round each
other and I burst out enthusiastically, ‘Of course Jane you know all about James.
He is such a wonderful artist; he ran the local art society and has organised art
exhibitions throughout Tasmania for over forty years’.
Jane smiled and nodded as I praised this remarkable man who had kept par-
ticipatory involvement in art alive in the community for almost half a century. She
indicated that it was time to continue our tour and as we left she said she did not
know James was an artist but she would put art materials in his room the next day.
I have pondered on this brief crossing of paths ever since. Who comes into an aged
care home? Is it a list of ailments and medications, allergies and physical needs? Is a
staff meeting held, however briefly if busy, to inform them of the new arrival’s
personal and social needs? Is a new resident introduced to the immediate staff and
one or two people who may have similar interests, or do they enter an aged care
home and remain a person with no past and only a medical and medicated future?
What is essential about being human?
15 ‘I Only Look Forward to Mondays’. Facilitating Creative … 151
The Early Sessions
I gave considerable thought to my first session. I wanted both groups to write their
own stories and poems but I knew this would probably not happen on the first day,
so I brought along a wide selection of poetry and prose which I hoped would
entertain. I intended that we would introduce ourselves and talk about our interests,
our likes and dislikes, and how they visualised the classes developing. I brought
several copies in bold 16 font on a variety of humorous and dramatic topics and
some amusing short prose.
The room was filled by a very large table, round which Jane and an assistant
were attempting to place six wheelchairs with residents. The room was uninvitingly
cool as I joined the group with a small recorder which I placed in the centre of the
table to catch all the words the group might speak. I introduced myself, and when I
asked them their names, Jane said their names for them. I explained that the
recorder was for our private use, as what people said was often worth remembering.
The six residents sat in silence with heads on chests. I received no response to
questions about favourite authors or poets. I introduced the well-known poem The
Highwayman by Alfred Noyes, an exciting and romantic tale, usually popular with
older audiences, and asked if anyone would like to read. Jane read. The session
continued with a wide selection of discarded or apparently not enjoyed poems and
stories until lunchtime brought a relieved end to our meeting.
This group’s silent wish to become invisible continued throughout the next
session. I felt Jane’s dominant approach was destructive to self-confidence, but then
I hastily reminded myself that bad workmen blame their tools. This was my class,
so I must do better. I bought name stands so that I could always ask questions to a
name. Although I only asked the most elementary questions, I repeatedly heard the
reply, ‘I can’t do this’ or ‘This is too hard’. I plodded on, refusing to believe that
people who held responsible positions in the community only a few years ago,
could not now become involved in simple conversations. At every opportunity Jane
would fill the silent gap. I believe she thought she was hiding their embarrassment,
because they were incapable of responding.
On the fourth session Jane was too busy to attend and Hope had a piece of
crumpled paper in her hand. Did I dare to believe that she had written something to
share? Hope said it was too rude and I assured her that rude was my favourite thing—
and here is her poem.
“Write me some prose or verse” she said
Our leader must be off her head.
Brainless am I with naught to say,
No prose or verse has come my way,
My nails are bitten to the quick,
I’ve thought so much my brain is sick,
Odd words float just above my head,
152 J. Webb
Solid as rock, heavy as lead,

“Have pity” is my anguished cry,
“All words are dying, let them die”.
Our little group of six relaxed and laughed. The barriers were coming down and
no opportunity must be lost. I put my second plan into action. Nothing is more
important than ourselves, so we should have fun with a few sessions finding out
about the origin of our names. With the aid of books on etymology, each person
looked up the meaning of their name and everyone was intrigued at the choices
their parents had made.
Issues with Aged Care Facilities
As the trust grew between us, a different sort of poem emerged which disturbed me.
Here is part of an example from a blind lady
Last night I called out
“Where am I? What is the time?
Is anyone there?”
A grumpy voice said,
“Don’t be so silly,
You’ve only been in bed an hour.”
I discovered she had never heard of audio books, or had earphones with her
favourite music recorded. These, and the use of other aids such as a radio are
inexpensive items which make a blind person’s life more tolerable. The public
library visited regularly; I was surprised at the lack of co-ordination.
The more I came to know the group, the more I understood the system. For
example, one man had lived and had his family living in the area. He would talk
about them taking him out to get him new glasses, to doctor’s appointments or to
meet other needs. My assessment of how the Home met residents needs was that if
the resident had a close relative to take them to appointments and meet his/her other
needs, their lives could be lived within the institution satisfactorily.
As I told the story of volunteering to work in two residential aged care homes, I
became concerned about some of my experiences. I am not implying specific faults
in the two aged care facilities I worked in. Indeed I must emphasise that in my
opinion they are both of a high standard in Tasmania. My experiences indicate the
level of ageism which confronts the frail aged, both residents and non-residents on a
daily basis in our society, and is so destructive to confidence and general
well-being.
From Volunteer to Thesis Writer
It seemed logical that the residents’ interviews should be part of the thesis.
I discussed this with them and they were guaranteed anonymity. Firstly they signed
the relevant forms, and the RACF and each resident was given a different name. We
talked one to one for up to an hour or more, and the next day I read back to them,
privately, what they had said. Did they wish to change, take out or add anything?
When each resident was completely satisfied, I put what they said into the thesis.
For the thesis writer, always question your actions and study what your partners
say to you. The importance of reflection cannot be over-emphasized and when you
develop a rapport with your partners in research, you will find that respecting their
views and mutually sharing ideas is empowering; it enriches the process.
We continued together in this vein, as my dominating directives gradually dis-
solved into listening to other opinions, encouraging new ideas, and trying out some
of the excellent suggestions of group members.
The first issue that concerned me was the physical environment in aged care in
Australia, which could prevent residents benefitting from and growing with the
creative experience. The title of this project, ‘I only look forward to Mondays’, was
said to me one day by Hope, a resident in Group 1. I was saddened by the remark;
however, it drove me to investigate further the lives of residents in aged care
facilities. Residents in the ‘high care’ unit I worked in had their own rooms with
en-suites and if they were able to, would walk or be wheeled to meals and activities.
There were forms of entertainment on most days, which consisted of watching a
film, playing cards, having an arranged visitor, bingo, musical groups, mystery bus
tours and religious activities. It was explained to me that the Home could not afford
to use staff for a small ratio or one to one residents, as although the federal gov-
ernment made activities compulsory, there were no additional funds provided for
them. I needed to find a solution to this problem. It is important that those in charge
of the frail aged are aware that none of the activities offered encouraged creativity.
Being kept occupied must not be mistaken for intellectual and creative stimulation.
Surely volunteers could train volunteers in how to introduce creativity to the frail
aged? A program could be planned which, over a period of, I suggest, three months,
would assist volunteers to be facilitators, encouraging equal partners to share ideas.
I started to investigate what was happening abroad as I was interested in the
successful models that promote creativity for the frail and aged worldwide,
including U.S., the U.K. and some inspirational activities operational in parts of
Australia.
When I decided to volunteer to run two creative writing classes in aged care
facilities, I was sure it would be easy to form good relationships with the residents.
I was confused and dismayed to be faced with a negative, non-contributing silence.
I felt I worked hard to break down the barriers, but when I examined it, I knew they
too worked hard to achieve a mutual appreciation of what we were trying to do. As
my work with the frail aged developed I became conscious that I was influenced by
the philosophy of Action Research, but it was a gigantic step for me to see myself
154 J. Webb
as a facilitator, and the class as equal partners, having mutual learning experiences.
I have therefore separated—by using interjections—the experiences and the phi-
losophy, which jointly led me to reflect on my actions, analyse the problems arising
and change my mode of thinking. Events, and my increased understanding, led me
to explore beyond the confines of our meetings.
What Was the Methodology?
Action Research is used as a methodology. Its flexibility enabled the project to

grow, broaden intellectual concepts and deepen my understanding of arising issues.
As relationships developed between residents, and between residents and myself,
we changed with each newly shared experience. Action Research is responsive to
change and the cyclical process assists in reflecting on what has occurred, which
enables critical planning to improve the creative process. The cycle of ‘plan, act,
observe and reflect’ encouraged me to work collaboratively with members of the
two groups, whose attitude changed with a reduction in tension, a fear of ‘getting it
wrong’, a growth in confidence and a sense of humour. Our developing communal
reflection led us to the next cyclical challenge.
This study encompasses the role of creativity in Australian RACFs and there is
critical examination of the broader setting of Government policy and planning, in
relation to the wellbeing of residents in RACFs. The focus of the study enlarges to
the international field for examples of creative expression in other countries that
perceive the value of creativity and are using this as a method that aims to benefit
the frail aged in institutions.
It is widely held there is an important relationship between the physical brain
and human expressions of creativity. My investigations and experience with my
two creative writing groups concurred: factors that reduce creativity are lack of
confidence, negative feedback and domination of existing dogma. Using data from
the creative writing groups, and research beyond these experiences, factors were
identified that affect outcomes from writing groups. Action Research underpinned
the project beyond the confines of the room in an aged care facility, to the capacity
for growth in the frail aged, where environmental, social and political circumstances
permit.
This study qualitatively examined the changes that occurred within the group,
when residents were introduced to creative experiences. Action Research was the
methodology used, as its flexibility enabled the project to grow, broaden intellectual
concepts and deepen my understanding of arising issues. Action research is
responsive to change and the cyclical process assisted me to reflect on what had
occurred, which enabled critical planning to improve the creative process. The cycle
of ‘plan, act, observe, reflect’ encouraged me to work collaboratively with members
of the groups. Our developing, communal reflections led us forward to the next
cyclical challenge. Issues outside the sphere of the facilitator, such as unsatisfactory
dietary provision, over medication, pain, or poor general health may distract from a
resident’s creative thought.
By allowing the story to flow freely while the interjections explored participatory
and critical aspects of significance the attention of the reader was held, and
important aspects of Action Research were explored and absorbed.
Action Research: From Practical to Critical
In the initial parts of the project, my action research was best classified as practical.
I read Valsa Koshy’s excellent textbook Action Research for improving practice: A
practical guide (2005). I had noted her advice that the main role of Action Research
is to facilitate practitioners to study aspects of practice—whether in the context of
introducing an innovative idea or in assessing and reflecting on the effectiveness of
existing practice. My problem seemed to involve both these concepts and I had to
improve my practice, but I needed more understanding of Action Research.
I connected with the spiral diagram of Kemmis and McTaggart (1999); this simple
framework of planning, acting, observing and reflecting, developing into a spiral
made sense.
I had worked in depth at the planning stage—or should I say, I worked hard at
what I decided to present to the group. Then I acted upon the plan, observing the
response, and after the session I reflected on what had occurred. The design drew
my attention to the fact that the spiral had stopped because there was no response to
observe from the residents. What became clear to me was that participation was
missing in this diagram. I added this essential ingredient and made the poetry group
central to my diagram. Kemmis and McTaggart (2007, pp. 280–283) are concerned
that many researchers used the spiral of cycles as the dominant feature in Action
Research, whereas they believe research has a number of key features as important
as the spiral.
As the project proceeded and I became concerned about issues within the
RACFs, the Action Research took on a more critical nature. Action Research is a
process of learning within a group, which, because of its participatory nature, brings
about change. Kemmis and McTaggart (2007) describe the change as a deliberate
social process designed to help collaborating groups of people to transform their
world.
Carr and Kemmis (1986) promote Action Research as a means of social change.
Although writing mainly on education, their ideas are intended to extend to other
groups and are easily adapted to the creative writing groups with which I am
involved. The authors identify change as a major result of Action Research
methodology. They claim it is emancipatory, causing an understanding within the
group and with the group and facilitator, which can be empowering.
156 J. Webb
I needed to use figures from quantitative reports to examine conditions in aged care
homes nationally. A section on aged care facilities critically examines the wider
picture of government policy and responsibility for conditions and services within
aged care establishments. This exposed unexpected figures, an example of which is
below:
The Australian Government released a document on 13th October 2013 titled
‘Depression in residential aged care 2008–2012’ (Australian Institute of Health and
Welfare 2013). It is stated that 52% of permanent aged care residents had symptoms
of depression compared with 10.3% of people over 75 years living in the
community.
International progress in the provision of creative experiences is also clearly
defined by the interjection technique. One example of U.S. reaction to costs of
creative activities may be of interest to the Australian government (Hanna and
Bernstein 2008) who state that the U.S. government foresaw that by introducing
creative activities, an estimated saving of approximately thirteen billion dollars a
year, just for those older Americans eligible for Medicare D. would be made.
Structure
I decided to separate my story with bordered orange boxes. A talented friend gave
up many hours of her time putting these into the text, but life never goes according
to plan. Some of the boxes were a few lines long, others stretched over one or even
two pages. The thesis looked unbalanced and the story disappeared into the sacred
passages of academia. I therefore decided to try another idea. When writing the
thesis I thought of it forming a number of chapters which could be divided into two
sections. I told the story as it occurred and where relevant added chapters which I
called interjections. In this way the story maintained its integrity while analysis of
my experiences and the wisdom and philosophical views of experts in the field
jointly led me to reflect on my actions, analyze the problems arising, and change my
mode of thinking. Events, and my increased understanding, led me to explore
beyond the confines of our meetings.
I aimed to show the reader the journey my frail, aged colleagues in two aged care
facilities and I took together, from the first day we met through to a climatic
moment in our relationship, when their books of poetry and prose were published.
Secondly, I was interested in the successes in creativity for the frail aged
worldwide, including U.S., the U.K. and some inspirational activities in operation
in parts of Australia.
The structure chart illustrates one appropriate method for structuring a thesis
which has a story to tell, and strong philosophical arguments for pursuing relevant
research if the environment is conducive to learning. This will enable a project to
grow communally and as different situations occur, to provide well researched

sources to re-enforce or develop a theory which will grow with co-operative par-
ticipation. The Interjections support the flow of story, while the intellectual and
philosophical input (so essential in influencing the actions of the writer) guides this
project throughout its journey to its conclusion.
Thesis structure
CHAPTERS INTERJECTIONS
Preview: Thesis Structure
PART 1: Practice meets theory
CHAPTER 1: The Beginning of the
Story
A: Theoretical Reflections, Methods, Guidelines
and Analyses
CHAPTER 2: The First Meetings
B: Reflection in Action Research
CHAPTER 3: Reactions to the First
Sessions
C. The Action Research Cycle
CHAPTER 4: Attempts to encourage
participation
D. Participant and Action Research
E. Interviews as Method
CHAPTER 5:
Getting to know the Creative Writing
Groups
CHAPTER 6: The Sessions continue
F. Perspective transformation
CHAPTER 7: Developing
relationships
G. The nature of outcomes of Research
CHAPTER 8: Confronting ageism
H. Emancipation: from Participation to Critical
Action Research
CHAPTER 9:
Diverse Formats: Haiku and Musical
experiences
CHAPTER 10: Concerns and
observations
CHAPTER 11:
Principles behind organising a
creative writing group
(continued)
158 J. Webb
(continued)
PART 2: ISSUES WITH AGED CARE FACILITIES
CHAPTER 12: Interrogating power
structures
I. Empowerment through Action Research
J. Caring for residents in RACFs - disease and
cure
CHAPTER 13:
An interview with the Manager of
Group 1
K. A brief analysis of the interview with the
Manager of Group 1.
L. Transcending circumstance
CHAPTER 14: Interview with Dr.
Patricia Baines
M. A brief analysis of Dr. Patricia Baines
interview
CHAPTER 15: Conclusion
References
Appendices—including 2 books of
poetry
Commentary (by David Kember)
Finding an appropriate structure for Joan to present her thesis was a challenging
exercise. She, herself, is a creative writer and a very good story teller. She started
writing by telling the story of her experiences in trying to interest the residents of
two RACFs in creative writing, which led to the two books of poetry by the
residents. Her experiences led on to her reflections on issues of concern within the
RACFs.
To retain the coherence and the gripping read of Joan’s study, the thesis structure
has two streams. The stream on the left of the above table is Joan’s story presented
chronologically. Part 1 tells the story of Joan’s attempts to involve the residents in
creative writing groups. It includes some observations and concerns about issues in
the RACFs. Part 2 explores these issues.
The other stream contains a set of appropriately placed interjections which
introduce theory and relevant literature. Part 1 introduces action research. It is
arranged to show Joan’s discovery of action research as she progressed from
practical action research, improving her practice as a facilitator, to a critical action
researcher, interrogating power structures within RACFs. Part 2 concentrates on
analysing issues within the RACFs.
References
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2013). Aged care statistics series: Depression in
residential aged care 2008-2012 (Report no. 39). Canberra ACT: AIHW.
Carr, W. & Kemmis, S. (1986). Becoming critical: Education, knowledge and action research
(p. 164). Lewes, U.K.: Falmer Press.
Hanna, G., & Bernstein, S. (2008). Creativity matters: Arts and aging in America. Monograph.
Americans for the Arts Research and Development Field partners, National Center for Creative
Ageing, affiliated with George Washington University, Washington D.C. Retrieved May 12,
2014 from www.creativeaging.com.
Kemmis, S., & McTaggart, R. (1999). The action research planner. Geelong: Deakin University.
Kemmis, S., & McTaggart, R. (2007). Research communicative action and the public sphere. In N.
Denzin & Y. Lincoln (Eds.), Strategies of qualitative inquiry. London: Sage.
Koshy, V. (2005). Action research for improving practice. A practical guide. London, UK: Paul
Chapman Publishing.
Joan Webb completed her Ph.D. thesis in 2016, on the importance of creativity for the frail aged
in Residential Care Facilities (RACF). She is indebted to David Kember, Rosemary Callingham
and Allen Hill for their supervision of her project at the University of Tasmania. Webb was
working in various aspects of Adult Education, such as the long term unemployed, intellectually
disadvantaged, exceptionally bright students with prolonged gaps in their studies, and she took a
particular interest in School for Seniors. Being a part of creative writing experiences, with groups
of people mainly over 70 years old, who enthusiastically and trustingly shared their thoughts with
each other, was an exhilarating experience. She decided that frail people in the 80 plus age group
often lacked the opportunities available to younger or fitter people, and she therefore volunteered
to run classes in residential aged care homes (RACF’s).
Chapter 16
A Journey Around Tongan Education
W. John Phelps
Research Question
What is an appropriate structure for reporting a project which was meant to help
educators in a Tongan education system improve the standard of teaching and
learning in the system’s schools by adopting action research and autoethnography
in a pragmatic way?
I didn’t start with a research question, actually. I started with a project, a five-years
long project. As the project progressed, three questions emerged and, in due course,
these questions became the research questions on which my doctoral thesis was
based. They were:
1. What changes might be suggested to the leaders of the system which could
enhance the quality of education.
2. What cultural factors affect the degree to which changes are implemented?
3. What are the most realistic strategies for improvement and how might the
system implement them?
The journey around Tongan culture and education which is the basis of this
thesis is best described in a chronological, pragmatic manner which includes both
action research and ethnographic approaches. The journey was a cyclic process of
observation-decision-action which resulted in gradual change. I, as a visiting
W. J. Phelps (&)
e-mail: tabphel@gmail.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_16
162 W. J. Phelps
education consultant, pondered on the ways in which Tongan culture could affect
education change and teacher performance.
The journey was also about a growing awareness of the need to have a culturally
sensitive approach to data collection; the methodology described later explains this
more fully.
Story-telling is a significant facet of Tongan culture, so my recommendation
section at the very end of the thesis takes the form of an imagined conversation. It
derives from the expressed views of the education leaders whom I interviewed and
seeks to consider ways in which changes in an education system may be imple-
mented in ways which acknowledge the long and proud culture of this Pacific
kingdom.
I point out that the work on the thesis and its related data gathering started more
than three years after I began working in the wider, five-year project. So, the study
begins in the middle of the journey. I did not start with the traditional review of
existing literature, partly because there is a scarcity of writings about education in
Tonga but mainly because of the way my journey evolved.
This thesis is part of my own story and that of the people with whom I worked
and researched in Tonga. The research paradigm I used is action research and seeks
to distil an understanding of education change in the Free Wesleyan Church of
Tonga Education System. In essence, there are cultural factors which make edu-
cational change difficult to enact and, from an outsider’s perspective, this can be
difficult to comprehend. From an insider’s perspective, however, cultural identity
and cultural roles have helped to define and articulate Tongan values and to
describe who the Tongan people are. Culture has also provided a rich social net-
work which has helped to sustain the Tongan people as they transition and interact
with the wider world.
There are, therefore, elements of historical research [such as that by Campbell
(2001)], and ethnographic research [such as that by Thaman (2007)] embedded in
this semi-longitudinal study of education and leadership through my work with
teachers and school principals. This thesis, therefore, does not follow the traditional
positivism model that is more linear in focus; rather it follows the action research
paradigm that knowledge formation is iterative and that investigators need to
explore the narrative and the discourse from a number of perspectives over time.
In part, this action research study tells of my growing awareness that, if the
people of any culture (in this case, Tongan) wish to make changes in a facet of its
society, it is by no means assured that somebody outside that culture can contribute
significantly and directly to that change.
In 2009, as a volunteer education consultant with an Australian non-government
agency, I was invited by the head of the Free Wesleyan Church of Tonga Education
System to ‘improve’ the classroom skills of its teachers and to design a five-year
strategic plan for the System. So, the first major question I asked was:
1. What changes might be suggested to the leaders of the System which could
enhance the quality of education in that system?
16 A Journey Around Tongan Education 163
The answer starts with a description of Tonga—its geography and its history, its
social and hierarchical structure and various aspects of its culture, including two
key facets, religion and education. There is limited academic literature related to
Tongan education but there are historical documents and policy statements to which
reference is made throughout the thesis. This action research takes into account the
experiences and understanding of the stakeholder teachers, school principals and
education officers.
The description of Tonga is followed by an outline of my own experience during
five three-month visits which I made to the country over five years. Among other
things, this experience led me to conclude that the issues I had been encountering
could be addressed in a descriptive research thesis.
During those visits, various aspects of Tongan culture were acting both for and
against the so-called ‘improvement’ sought by the senior officers of the education
system. Therefore, a second question emerged:
2. What cultural factors affect the degree to which changes are implemented?
A culturally appropriate process of ascertaining the desired knowledge and
views was designed and carried out. This process included interviews with nineteen
education officers, school principals and deputy principals. The results include
interview responses which demonstrated a deep knowledge and understanding of
the issues involved and an implied preparedness to be involved in the changes many
of the interviewees regarded as desirable. Most of the telling comments were about
attitudes, hierarchy, limited resources to implement change, leadership that was
linked to Tongan values and an economy that struggled to sustain its people using
Western criteria.
Thus, the final question I address in this thesis is:
3. What are the most realistic strategies for improvement and how might the
System implement them?
For the most part, the answers came from the leaders of the education system—
the principals, the deputies, the education officers and the people who have cultural
‘authority’ to bring about change. A problem is that they are in tension. Do they
look to an education system that is modelled on western values and expectations or
do they keep with a Tongan education system which respects the past, hierarchy
and traditional teaching methods focussed on drill and examinations? Tonga is in
transition and the tensions of that transition are reflected in the voices of the
participants in this action research study. It appears that schools are struggling to
construct ‘relevance’ for their students, as more of them leave the kingdom for work
and other opportunities in Australia, New Zealand and the USA.
The evidence from this study suggests that the solution to the teaching and
learning problems perceived by the education leaders lies within themselves,
according to their own comments. Outsiders have a role to play but it is, at most, a
secondary one. A Western system cannot be imposed and Tongans are unlikely to
accept a solution which is inconsistent with their values. Western ideas and
164 W. J. Phelps
resources may be offered to the Tongan education leaders but they are empowered
to select from this array and, in the end, work together with a range of stakeholders
to find the best fit that respects their values and provides opportunities for the future
of their young people. The possible contribution by other Pacific educators is
another story.
Throughout this project, I have used an action research approach. This approach
was used, not just in the data collection and analysing stages, but from the time I
first arrived in Tonga and before I was actually involved in preparation for my
thesis. It was largely about observations and then making decisions, initiating
actions, observing changes and making further decisions, thus continuing a cycle.
Action research is a process and typically concerned with big issues over a long
time scale. It is a strong methodology as it is looking at the whole, the gestalt, of
what is happening over time rather than simply a glimpse at a particular moment. It
links a range of multi-dimension variables that work within a large dynamic system.
The method I used was also somewhat akin to autoethnography (i.e. containing
elements of autobiography and ethnography). Autobiography in that it is about my
own experiences, ethnography in that it is a study of a culture’s practices, values
and beliefs for the purpose of helping those within the culture to achieve certain
ends. Ethnographers do this by becoming participant observers. This is what I
sought to do through action research.
Because of the intercultural sensitivity I had acquired over several years
involvement in Tongan education, I was aware of the likely reluctance of educators
to voice opinions because of the cultural constraints against what might be regarded
as ‘disrespect’ or even ‘showing off’. So, while interviews were to be the end-point
and most valuable part of the methodology I used, I believed that some preliminary
steps were needed. So, I decided on a three-part procedure. The first part involved
nine education officers, all of whom I had worked with for some time. This stage
had those officers identifying and discussing aspects of culture which might impact
on teacher performance. One officer not involved in the discussion was the head of
the education system because I expected that his presence would inhibit the others.
That discussion resulted in the identification of 35 relevant aspects of Tongan
culture and began a process of increasing ease in voicing opinions.
The next step built on the first one. A larger gathering of 44 educators, most of
whom I knew quite well, then met to discuss those aspects and to use a group
activity (which I have called a phi-sort) with which they were familiar. This
activity, a prioritising one, meant that the participants discussed the aspects in a
situation where they needed to justify their views to a few colleagues (there were
four people in each group). The significance of these first two stages was that they
were preparations for the third stage—interviews.
I needed a number of first- and second-stage participants to be involved in some

interviews. There were four criteria for the involvement of participants:
• They were leaders in the education system (They were principals, deputy
principals or education officers).
• They had considerable skill using the English language (I could not speak
Tongan and the presence of a translator would probably have stifled
conversations).
• They needed to be based on Tongatapu, the main island (Financial and time
constraints would have made participation from educators on other islands
difficult to arrange).
• They had to be volunteers who understood the project and the process (Of the 44
participants in the phi-sort, 19 volunteered to be involved in interviews).
19 seemed to me to be a suitable number for this stage so no ‘selection’ among
the possible participants was necessary. The interviews were conducted at sites easy
for the interviewees to attend—in the schools where they were based or in the
system’s head office. The interviews lasted for 45–60 min and were audio recorded
with the interviewees’ consent. The interviews were later transcribed by a non-local
typist and were used as the basis for my conclusions and recommendations.
What Were the Theories and Paradigms?
My work in Tonga began with an involvement in observations of teachers at work;

these were followed by decisions about future directions and then by resulting
actions; then there was another round of observations and so the cycle continued in
an action research process.
A useful word to describe the whole process is autoethnography. It is about my
own journey in a culture which was foreign to me but which I was asked to help
change.
I learned quickly that an outsider is unlikely to effect much change in such a
culture and it became clear that, if any change were to come about, it would do so
because the Tongan educators themselves saw the need for it and were ready to act
to bring it about. So, throughout the thesis, the views of the Tongans are paramount.
Outsiders such as me could offer some options and skills but the will to change
cannot be imported.
This last point is, I guess, pragmatism. All the theories, all the literature, all the
research findings would be of little avail unless the desire and the will existed.
Tonga and its education system are in transition between traditional ways and
western ways. It is possible that a Pacific approach (as distinct from a uniquely
Tongan one) might assist this transition and this is touched on briefly.
166 W. J. Phelps
Structure
The structure of the thesis was guided by two principles.

The first of these principles was chronology. After an explanation of the context
in which the investigation took place (geography, history, government, social
structure and several other facets of life in Tonga), is the story of how I became
involved, increasingly, in an attempt to help bring about some changes in the
System. My five visits are portrayed, indicating my growing awareness of some of
the difficulties involved in bringing about change and about the gradual changes
which emerged. The formal, thesis-related research began in the midst of the
project. So, the process is described.
My second principle was sequentially. Three research questions emerged and
these are considered as both I and the local stakeholders became more familiar with
the relevant issues. The questions are addressed under the Parts (i.e. Method, Analysis
and discussion, Conclusion) which reflect the main elements traditionally included in
a thesis
Contents page
Part A Overview of intention, rationale and research question
Part B Introduction
Chapter 1 Culture and education change
Chapter 2 Tonga context
Part C Method
Chapter 3 The review, the plan and the implementation
Chapter 4 Three stages of research
Chapter 5 Identification of aspects of Tongan culture
Chapter 6 Phi-sort: prioritising
Chapter 7 Interviews
Part D Analysis and discussion
Chapter 8 Identification of aspects of Tongan culture
Chapter 9 Analysis of phi-sort
Chapter 10 Analysis of interviews
Part E Conclusion
Chapter 11 Bringing about the changes
Chapter 12 Quo vadis—an imagined conversation
Throughout the thesis, photographs are used to highlight issues. Photographs are
data, especially in a paper about Tonga where there is not a significant literature on
the issue under consideration. Pictures are a way of validating and supporting in an
academic sense the other data gained through observations and interviews. For
instance, the photo of a sign outside a Mormon school declaring that only English is
spoken in that school says more about cultural imperialism than any words could
do. The unstimulating nature of a classroom is more clearly apparent in a pho-
tograph than it would be in words.
Similarly, vignettes are also used to amplify several issues. Tongan fatalism, for
example, is demonstrated in a vignette about the impact of a ferry disaster; the
education system’s obsession with sport is demonstrated with some rugby stories.
As mentioned above, because story telling is a part of Tongan culture, I have
ended this thesis with an imagined conversation between a fictitious education
consultant and a fictitious head of the education system. This conversation is called
‘Quo vadis?’ which might be translated loosely as ‘What is the next step?’
Commentary
The structure of this thesis reflects my journey through Tongan education. It begins
with a description of the context in which I worked as an education consultant. This
is followed by a recounting of my five visits to the kingdom and the decision to use
my work as the basis of a doctoral thesis, become a researcher and ‘start’ a research
project. Then follows a description of the method I used to ascertain the views of
the education leaders with whom I worked about their perceptions regarding
changes in the education system. Finally, I discussed some conclusions I reached
about the relevant change process. Throughout all these steps, I referred frequently
to literature sources about matters as they arose.
It was important, of course, to indicate the connections among Phi-sort results,
interviewees’ comments, my conclusions and the recommendations. A simple and
clear example of these connections is the issue of the large number of faifekau
(ordained ministers) working as teachers:
Phi-sort Ranked as of ‘medium significance’
Interviewee ‘As the number of faifekau has risen, the quality of teaching has
plummeted. They are a bad influence because they are not
committed’.
Conclusion ‘Church and education leaders can simply choose to not
appoint/ordain any more. It’s almost wholly in their hands’.
Recommendation ‘Convince the Head of the Church not to ordain any more
faifekau’.
References
Bromfenbrenner, U. (1992). Ecological systems theory. Jessica Kingley Publishers.

Bruner, J. (1996). The culture of education. Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Harvard University
Press.
Campbell, I. C. (2001). Island kingdom: Tonga ancient and modern. Christchurch, NZ:
Canterbury University Press.
Chadwick, C., & Valenzuela, S. (2006). Culture, change and educational improvement. Retrieved
from www.academia.edu/4401161.
168 W. J. Phelps
Ellis, C. Adams, T. E., & Bochner, A. P. (2011). Autoethnography: An overview. Forum

Qualitative Social Research, 12(1).
Evans, M. (2001). Persistence of the gift: Tongan tradition in a transnational context. Ontario,
Canada: Laurier University Press.
Hargreaves, D., & Hopkins, D. (Eds.). (1994). Development planning for school improvement.
London, UK: Cassell.
McCoy, M., & Havea, S. D. (2006). Making sense of Tonga, Nuku’alofa. Tonga: Training Group
of the Pacific.
McNiff, J. (2001). Action research and the professional learning of teachers. A paper presented at
the Qattan Foundation, Palestine.
Moala, K. (2009). In search of the friendly islands. Honolulu, USA: Pacifik Foundation Express.
Nabobo-Baba, U. (2012). Transformations from within: Rethinking Pacific education initiative.
The International Education Journal: Comparative Perspectives, 11(2), 82–97.
Nisbett, R. (2003). The geography of thought—How Asians and Westerners think differently and
why. London, UK: Nicholas Brealey.
Thaman, K. (2007). Partnerships for progressing cultural democracy in teacher education in Pacific
Island countries. In T. Townsend & R. Bates (Eds.), Handbook of teacher education:
Globalisation, standards and professionalism in times of change. Dordrecht, Switzerland:
Springer.
John Phelps has completed an EdD thesis about education change in Tonga for the University of
Tasmania under the supervision of Ian Hay and David Kember. Before this thesis, he was principal
in Tasmanian schools for 32 years, including a stint in an aboriginal settlement on an island off the
Tasmanian coast. After his principal days were over, he became an education consultant and
worked in UK (where he specialised in positive behaviour management) and elsewhere for
13 years. One interesting role was to design and supervise the construction of a school in a village
in the highlands of West Papua. Then he ‘retired’ and worked as a volunteer helping to bring about
education change in Tonga. His thesis is based on his work and experience in this South Pacific
kingdom. As a stage performer, John is probably the only person to have played solo roles with all
three of Tasmanian Theatre Company, Tasmanian Opera Company and Tasmanian Ballet
Company!
Part D
Interpretive Methods
Chapter 17
Ways of Working in the Interpretive
Tradition
Angela Thomas and Michael Corbett
The literature regarding the process ‘ordinary’ researchers

engage in as they struggle to make sense of qualitative data is
sparse (Kendall 1999, p. 749).
Abstract The kinds of specialised questions that tend to be generated in educa-

tional contexts are intimately connected to professional practices, with the aim of
understanding the complexities of social, discursive and textual practices within
those contexts. This chapter presents an analysis of a range of difficult-to-categorise
qualitative work that spans grounded theory, through post-structural analysis to
structural linguistics, and which the authors in this section have used to address
such complex and contextualised questions. What draws the work together is the
notion of interpretation. The social, linguistic and psychological phenomena which
form the heart of these questions raises challenges for researchers as they develop
interpretive analyses that honours agency, multiplicity and difference. This chapter
showcases and analyses the approaches of nine researchers as they undertake this
kind of interpretive work. In the process, it also highlights the evolution of research
methods, as new ‘emerging’ and continuously expanding forms of educational
research driven by an ever-increasing range of educational problems, contexts, and
interpretive tools to understand them.
Introduction
In the social sciences today perhaps the most pressing problem is that of finding
ways to account for the resilience and power of structure while at the same
time recognising and accounting for agency (Archer 2000; Bourdieu 1992; Giddens
1979). There have been a wide range of ways that the structure-agency nexus
A. Thomas (&)
e-mail: angela.thomas@utas.edu.au
M. Corbett

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_17
172 A. Thomas and M. Corbett
is theorised in contemporary educational research including structural theory,

poststructural and postmodern theory, critical realism (Murphy 2013) as well as
the way that contemporary qualitative research is haunted by poststructuralism,
deconstruction (Lather 1991; Saint Pierre 2014) and other theoretical and
methodological critiques of the interpretivist paradigm (Denzin and Lincoln 2011;
Giddens 1976).
Historically, this debate resonates with the rise of social research in the 20th
century alluded to by Callingham and Hay in their chapter in this collection.
Positivist and post-positivist forms of social research arose from the nineteenth
century pursuit of a science of society, which would, as Auguste Comte imagined,
position social analysis as the ‘queen of the sciences’. In this foundational imagi-
nary, the social sciences would build upon the comparatively simple inquiry in the
physical and natural sciences to provide a calculus for social order. The positivist
traditions in the social sciences derived largely from the Durkheimian sociological
tradition combined the quantitative methods of the natural sciences with ethical and
moral arguments that the social is both self-generating force that can be understood
through rational inquiry and a necessary collective consciousness that could replace
religion and tradition as a source of human solidarity.
Interpretive forms of social research arise from similar roots in the sense that this
tradition reacted to grand structural functional imaginaries such as those of
Durkheim and the analytic and theoretical traditions he inspired (c.f. Parsons 1950;
Lazarsfeld 1961), arguing instead that qualitative analysis might support an
understanding of social life that situates a conscious, interpreting agent at the centre
of the process (Blumer 1986; Mills 2000; Wrong 1961). This tradition is traceable
back to Descartes, Kant, Hegel, Nietzsche, Husserl, Merleau-Ponty, Heidegger and
epistemological and ontological positions in social philosophy, analysis and
research that have struggled to come to terms with the problem of the perceiving
subject marginalised in positivist traditions. In the United States, the important
work of the Chicago School of sociology was influenced by anthropology,
European hermeneutic and phenomenological traditions, and by the American
pragmatism of Pierce, James, Mead and Dewey which has taken Anglophone
educational scholarship in a direction which is more closely aligned with profes-
sional practice than in continental European academic contexts (Biesta 2015). More
recently, the what has been called the linguistic, spatial and material turns in the
social sciences have generated new ‘emerging’ and continuously expanding forms
of educational research that we explore in the final section of this text.
In most forms of educational research conducted by higher degree students in
Australian and North American education faculties today, we see the centrality of
problems of practice rather than theoretically-driven, abstract conceptual, standard
empirical or system analyses. We follow this pragmatic impulse here drawing on
our experience as researchers and research supervisors to offer an interpretation of
the ways in which RHD students face interpretive challenges that do not fall neatly
within one or another established paradigm. Finding one’s way to and between
theory and method is generally a journey into what the actor network theorists
describe as ‘the mess’ (Law 2004) where established theoretical categories are not
17 Ways of Working in the Interpretive Tradition 173
only unhelpful, they are often actually the hegemonic frameworks that blinker deep
and nuanced analysis of specific educational problems as they appear on the ground
in practice (Latour 2007). Each of the chapters in this section develops a particular
set of responses not only to the substantive problems they take up, but also in the
way that they problematise the transparency of data.
Educational research typically begins with a question, which informs (and even
drives) the theoretical and methodological approach. The kinds of specialised
questions that tend to be generated in educational contexts are intimately connected
to professional practices, with the aim of understanding the complexities of social,
discursive and textual practices within those contexts. Perspectives on
knowledge-building in education are also centred on illuminating the issues,
boundaries, and challenges in institutional practices in order to improve and
transform education. Often this requires working at the borders, navigating ethical
issues and recontextualising events from multiple perspectives. This leads HDR
students on a search for new more flexible ways to understand and frame the
complexities of practice. In other words, more unstructured and unique forms of
interpretation and judgment are often at the heart of this process. This typically
involves the construction and justification of methodologies that are nonstandard
and that support and justify contextualised interpretation. In this search, established
prescriptions can not only be unhelpful, they can actually prove problematic, or at
least challenge the student and supervisory teams to think carefully about how this
particular inquiry will stand up to scrutiny in established fields of inquiry.
This chapter presents an analysis of a range of difficult-to-categorise qualitative
work that spans grounded theory, through poststructural analysis to structural lin-
guistics. Each of the pieces, in different ways, illustrate the struggles RHD students
encounter in the space in-between formulating structured analyses of social, lin-
guistic and psychological phenomena in education, on the one hand, while on the
other hand developing interpretive analysis which honours agency, multiplicity and
difference. Methodologies that focus on interpretation also face the additional
challenge of reflexivity and developing an intentional awareness and account of the
interpretive process of writing and representing social phenomena. But this is much
easier said than done, and the analytic habits and traditions that mark and reflect the
positivist legacy of social research linger. The notion that researcher input is a form
of bias is not easily replaced by one of conscious reflexivity, or accounting for
inevitable researcher bias. It also needs to be said that qualitative research is still
emerging as a legitimate form of social research and this emergence itself is haunted
by persistent calls for an ‘education science’ (Kvale 2008) that is evidence-based
according to the ‘gold standard’ of the double blind experiment (Lather 2004), or
that represents a positive and pragmatic analysis of ‘what works’ (Biesta 2007,
2010) as represented by masses of quantitative meta-evidence (Glass 2016; Hattie
2008). These chapters also illustrate how, in the qualitative tradition (or dare we say
paradigm), the ghost of positivism and the dream of transparent analytic procedures
that are not reliant on either apriori theory or interpretation continues to stalk the
academic corridors.
In the final section of this chapter, ‘interpreting interpretation’ we suggest that

what these analyses have in common is the way that each of them represents an
ongoing conversation with Glaser and Strauss’ idea of grounded theory or the
notion that data can generate theory through some form of more or less standardised
analytic rigour. Animated as they are by a deep understanding of lived experience,
and a deep immersion in some field of practice, these analyses all veer away from a
distillation of a single truth about education to suggest a multiplicity of truths,
which is, in our view, the important contribution of qualitative research over the last
half century and an indicator of its future promise as a disruptor of the authoritarian
drift in the field.
Diverse Interpretive Paths
Each of these chapters illustrates an interpretive path in which theory is employed at

various junctures in the analysis, sometimes at the beginning, sometimes emerging
in and through the process of the research itself and sometimes at the end of the
process where theory is arrived at through a thoughtful encounter with data. The
way that theory and method interact differently in these chapters illustrates how
structure emerges through the exploration of a particular problem, within its equally
particular context, and how the interpretive choices made by different authors give
form to the analysis. What is apparent from this work is that it is difficult to
categorise in any formulaic way, how theory and method work together and how
these doctoral theses are structured. As much as doctoral students may wish for a
template or a set of guideposts to orient their research, the research act itself
inevitably presents problems and possibilities that then become part of the way the
thesis ends up being structured. This is the particular problem of developing a
methodology that sensibly addresses a problem of practice, which is consistent with
what emerges as the knowledge claim or a theoretical ‘take’ on the problem itself.
We offer the following table to illustrate the way that theory emerges in a way that
is unlike the linear vision presented in most research methodology textbooks. In
other words, theory enters actual doctoral research in different ways and at different
times in the research act.
The role of literature in the nine chapters in this section is varied, including:
theory as method, theory to drive method, theory throughout method, and theory as
signposts. This is illustrated in Table 17.1. MacDonald and Hunter used an
arts-based methodology as both theory and research. To interpret the ways that the
dual roles of artist and teacher impacted on one another, the data consisted of an
interwoven collage of narrative based on interviews, anecdotes, reflections, prose
and imagery. Deleuzian theoretical concepts of ‘becoming’ and the ‘rhizome’
supported the narrative method. Here, theory is method and it orients MacDonald
and Hunter in and through their research, ultimately structuring the thesis as both an
analysis of becoming and as an act of becoming in itself.
Table 17.1 The role of literature in interpretive research

Researchers Theory as Theory as driver of Theory during and after
method research research
Beasy ✓
Emery and ✓
Fielding-Wells
Hugo ✓
Kitchener, Williams and ✓
Kilpatrick
Koirala ✓
McDonald and Hunter ✓
McMahon ✓
Thomas ✓
Zarmati ✓
Thomas, Beasy and McMahon all used theory to drive method. Thomas used
theories of the teaching of linguistics to drive his research, and used linguistic
analysis tools to analyse data. He also critically examined the role of testing in
educational contexts moving toward a more critical framing of the problem of
standardised testing in terms of its fairness to differently positioned youth. Beasy
used social epistemology to frame her study, with sustainability theory and
Bourdieu’s theories of habitus, capital and field used as a research lens to under-
stand participants’ social constructions of reality. In Beasy’s work, Bourdieu’s
theories in conversation with hermeneutics, also informed the analytical framework.
McMahon combined theories from sociology, sport ethnographic research, and the
conceptual analysis of power to contextualise the study. These theories were used
as an analytical lens to examine the data, and thus, in different ways, they contribute
to the structure of the theses and to the arrangement of chapters and analysis
Perhaps most common across the chapters was the use of theory before, during
and after the method. Koirala used a combination of social capital theory, second
language learning and integration theory to initiate his study and develop his
analytical framework. However, following the data collection, critical lenses such
as feminist theory and critical race theory were employed to shed further light on
the data. Emery and Fielding-Wells describe how their literature review was written
in two parts: before the data collection, in order to contextualise the research, and
after data collection to extend and transcend the work with respect to other
scholarly evidence and ideas. Zarmati prepared her literature review over three
distinct chapters to capture several interpretive lenses: school history content in the
curricula, the pedagogy of teaching history, and museum education, but then she
generated new theory to interpret her findings and to articulate and theorise how
history is actually taught in Australian museums. Kitchener, Williams and
Kilpatrick describe how the initial literature review on social justice ‘lay fallow’
during fieldwork, and new theory emerged from the data, through a grounded
theory approach to social justice research. Hugo used a range of youth studies
‘sensitising concepts’ (such as bullying and mental health) as interpretive signposts

in her research. Her conceptual framework evolved over the course of an
autoethnography, as a result of sustained reflexivity and engagement with experi-
ence, the literature, and writing itself as a poetic act. In all cases, theory and method
were seen as flexible and iterative in the research process emerging from the data
but also from the very process of the personally transformative research act itself.
Methodological approaches across the chapters include arts-based approaches,
autoethnography, ethnography, grounded theory and linguistic analysis. The range
of methods is illustrated in Table 17.2, whilst the data sources used are illustrated in
Table 17.3. Arts-based and ethnographic approaches centred on telling the partic-
ipants’ stories. MacDonald and Hunter employed a combined arts-based, narrative
and autoethnographic methodologies, and a new method of a/r/tography to create a
metanarrative of experiences of three participants to show relations between artist,
teacher and researcher. Hugo used autoethnography to map her own changing
positions to give voice to her lived experience as a grieving mother. She used poetry
at pivotal moments in her autoethnography to express her grief, and these poems
were then discursively and reflexively treated, in order to capture the lived reality of
her pain. McMahon similarly sought to express the body pedagogies experienced
by three elite swimmers by presenting her data in a ‘theatrical’ format in three acts.
Koirala presented rich descriptions of his ethnographic study of the language
learning of Bhutanese refugees through narrative. In each case, these researchers
sought to capture the lived experience of participants through story. Table 17.2
visualises the range of methods employed across the chapters.
Grounded theory was used explicitly in several studies. Emery and
Fielding-Wells discovered that the grounded theory method emerged and was
shaped through the data collection phase of the study. Data sources included
fieldwork (classroom observations) and interviews, and the writing of memos
Table 17.2 Method in interpretive research

Researchers Arts-based Auto-ethnography Grounded Linguistic Hermeneutics
methods and ethnography theory analysis
Beasy ✓
Emery and ✓
Fielding-Wells
Hugo ✓
Kitchener, ✓
Williams and
Kilpatrick
Koirala ✓
McDonald and ✓ ✓
Hunter
McMahon ✓
Thomas ✓
Zarmati ✓
Table 17.3 Data sources in interpretive research

Researchers Textual data Observations/ Interviews Narrative Reflection
sources (i.e. field work
work samples)
Beasy ✓
Emery and ✓ ✓
Fielding-Wells
Hugo ✓ ✓
Kitchener, ✓
Williams and
Kilpatrick
Koirala ✓ ✓
McDonald and ✓ ✓ ✓
Hunter
McMahon ✓ ✓
Thomas ✓
Zarmati ✓ ✓
(a grounded theory technique to inform theorisation) as Table 17.3 illustrates.

Analysis was ‘free-coding’ data into categories, and required an iterative process
between data and theory, creating analytical maps (Figs. 18.1, 18.2 and 18.3).
Similarly, Kitchener, Williams and Kilpatrick used constructivist grounded theory to
examine equity in vocational education and training contexts for learners experi-
encing disadvantage. They used interviews and the process of writing memos. Data
were coded following every five interviews, before she returned to the field to collect
new data and ‘test’ the categories emerging from the data categorisation. Both
studies required multiple site visits and ‘testing’ of emerging theories and the
‘messy’ process of moving back and forth between theory and method.
Zarmati used substantial theoretical grounding to contextualise her study, but
observed that the gap in the research was so significant that she found herself
moving into grounded theory to identify and interpret what she observed in the
educational context of the history museum in Australia. Her data collection
included observations and interviews, and she also coded her data during the
process of data collection, commenting that the iterative approach between theory
and method was critical for her study. Beasy also collected data using interviews,
but used a more typical approach of using the themes drawn from her literature
review to frame the coding and categorisation of this data. However, she also aimed
to integrate the multiple voices of her participants through a co-construction of
knowledge, using their own language to create her interview questions, as opposed
to relying solely on the language drawn from the literature. For both of these
studies, coding and categorisation of data depended on interpreting and then testing
their interpretations as they captured the experiences of participants.
Thomas’s study stands out as quite different to the other studies in this section.
He employed a highly-structured approach for his primary data analysis, which
involved a linguistic analysis of children’s writing samples produced under

Australia’s national standardised testing program (NAPLAN) exam conditions.
However, his analysis then led him into new and unexpected interpretive spaces and
he came to question the NAPLAN testing process, and the disjunction between
what was valued by NAPLAN examiners, the conditions and effects of the
NAPLAN testing process on teachers and students, and the lack of authenticity of
the artefacts produced by students under such conditions.
The interpretive paradigm has at its heart the idea of multidimensionalism and
multiple perspectives from which a problem can be viewed and understood which is
a way of responding to the promise of more positivistically-oriented forms of social
research which tend to offer more one-dimensional approaches, relatively simple
and largely technical ways of producing and validating knowledge claims, and a
sense in which the work is structured for reproducibility and replication. What we
find in these interpretive chapters is a group of researchers at the centre of a
non-replicable process of learning and writing that reflect complex situations,
relational processes, and brief, relatively unique moments in time.
Interpreting Interpretation
A central theme in the chapters in this section relate to what might be described as
the ‘theory after’ school of thought. This is the idea that theory somehow emerges
from an engagement with data, and from experience in the research act itself. This
is opposed by the more deductively oriented notion of ‘theory before’ where
hypotheses that are derived from apriori theory are in some way tested. Many
contemporary interpretive methodologies in the social sciences can be traced to
Glaser and Strauss’s classic Grounded Theory (1967), which developed a set of
analytic procedures that systematically derived theoretical propositions from a
careful analysis of qualitative data. In this way, theory is ‘grounded’ in the data,
emerging through the careful coding, memoing, and thematic categorisation pro-
cesses. In some respects, each of the pieces in this chapter is wrestling with the
ghost of grounded theory whether or not they mention it explicitly.
The critiques of grounded theory are well known. Suffice it to say here that the
most significant of these, in our opinion, is the sense in which there is an internal
contradiction in a theory that purports to attend to the nuance of social situations
and their complexity and which at the same time strives to derive general theoretical
principles from them just the same. This is the problem that Emery encountered in
her analysis of the idea of cultural wellbeing and the search for ‘shared meanings’
of what this idea might be. She found herself increasingly dissatisfied with the
‘smoothing over’ of difference that grounded theory seemed to force her toward.
This led her to recognise that data do not speak for themselves in transparent ways,
and that she had latitude to think about what sort of interpretation of the data made
the most sense. Ultimately she arrived at the conclusion that each situation was
messy and unique. This led Emery to Clarke’s (2005) situational analysis which
allowed her see that rather than finding shared meanings, it was imperative to
identify the ways in which cultural location in fact shapes the way that wellbeing is
understood.
Zarmati too began from a grounded theory perspective. This chapter represents a
common practitioner’s skepticism about the value of theory and perhaps a residue
of the positivist dream for a transparent or neutral form of analysis. Her chapter is
also one that focusses on a developing realisation that a kind pure or transparent
interpretation is not possible when she realised early on that she had encountered a
‘theoretical minefield’ when she thought she was examining a simple and practical
problem of practice. In a sense this is an account of a beginning researcher’s
theoretical awakening, or the recognition that there is no place outside theory from
which to conduct a neutral investigation. Here the ghost of positivism rears its head
again and yet, like Emery, Zarmarti was able to develop an interpretive approach
that allowed her to gain an understanding of how people define reality and develop
theory that is grounded in an inductive engagement with qualitative data.
Rather than searching for a single authoritative story, Kitchener begins with the
assumptions that truths are multiple and that theory itself is situated and con-
structed. Her journey is one that leads from a grounded exploration of an educa-
tional equity problem, to a position that is explicitly theoretical and also explicitly
political. What she seems to have discovered in the research act is how her inter-
pretation that proceeded from a relatively open-ended analysis of data itself came to
be framed in theoretical terms as she became immersed in her data. Like Zarmati,
there is a theoretical awakening or as Kitchener puts is, ‘I did not set out to
undertake a social justice topic; the journey took me there’. Here, we find a journey
from data to theory and a thesis that comes to be structured around that journey
leading to more general conclusions.
Indeed, each of these chapters is a particular kind of journey that begins with a
practical research problem or a ‘stone in the shoe’ (Neilsen 1994) derived from
experience. Where the journey of RHD work leads is unpredictable and it can and
often does lead to a reframing of the initial problem. This is what Thomas describes
in his chapter that tells the story of a movement from a practical problem of practice
(how to improve standardised test performance), through the pragmatics of
developing a game-based mechanism for solving that problem, and finally to a
complete paradigmatic reframing of the problem itself. Part of this shift is toward an
explicitly political critique of the ‘game’ of testing itself and Thomas’s research
demonstrated to him that it is simply unfair. So, like Kitchener, he develops a social
justice critique from his engagement in the pragmatics, complexities and the
messiness of social research.
Beasy also arrives at her research topic because of a proverbial stone in her shoe,
which is a teacher’s realisation that things are not as they seem and that her
curriculum contains problematic assumptions about the idea of sustainability. Thus,
she moves theoretically to the work of Bourdieu (1984, 1990) to make sense of this
disjuncture and theory becomes for her, an explicit lens for making sense of her
data, and of course, her experience. Bourdieu’s theoretical tools (i.e. capital,
habitus, field) become interpretive instruments that allow Beasy to understand, like
Emery, how culture and social location of research participants shape a researcher’s
understandings. Social position here is not a variable, it is a lived geography where
participants shape their understandings of past, present and future, which are critical
to the way they understand, sustainability. As is the case for other chapter authors,
theory and method are, in a sense, inseparable as an interpretive, invested and
political stance arises from the research act.
The work of Bourdieu draws analytic attention to the wider significance of the
ordinary and to the central idea of practice, which sits prominently in interpretive
approaches to educational research. What is there to be interpreted if not experience
or practice? Each of the pieces in this chapter is an account of engagement,
emergence and resolution. This is perhaps most evident in the accounts of
McMahon and Hugo where personal pain and struggle form the backdrop of the
accounts. One of the most significant developments of the interpretive tradition is a
retreat for the myth of value-freedom, neutrality and distance in social analysis that
is the centerpiece of positivist-inspired educational research. McMahon’s analysis,
which draws on the emerging autoethnographic tradition, is a proactive account of
how research can be used to take oppressive practices, in this case in high-level
athletics, and desublimate them, rendering the research act an emancipatory and
pragmatically political practice where the research participants’ voices are central.
Interestingly though, McMahon’s approach, which she describes as a ‘theoretical
autopsy’, employs theory after to make sense of her data. This is an approach that
resonates with the general idea of grounded analysis, which remains a central point
of confluence around which a considerable body of dissertation work seems to
gather.
Conclusion
The crucial relationship between theory and data is what brings these chapters
together as similar, yet unique interpretive journeys undertaken by HDR student
researchers. It is well understood how most doctoral students struggle with theory
and how to place it in their analysis. This leads to deeper and more challenging
questions about how they link theory and method to construct a methodology that is
convincing and powerful enough to answer research questions in a legitimate way.
The process of structuring a doctoral thesis in these interpretive chapters is an
interpretive act in itself and the key decisions that authors make are not easily
prescribed in advance, but rather fleshed out in the process of inquiry which is an
interpretation an intellectual field applied to a concrete situation or problem of
practice, which links to the section on action research and to the critical tradition.
Much interpretive research complexifies and critiques the simplicity and linearity of
common educational practices like the mass data gathering and truth-formation
exercise represented by a national standardised testing scheme illustrated in
Thomas’s chapter.
The interpretation of interpretive studies draws large themes out of located,

nuanced studies that offer a challenge to authoritative macro analysis focusing on
some form of practice. For MacDonald and Hunter, this practice involved complex
identity work in which teachers straddle different social worlds, sometimes with
competing and very different social norms and performative expectations. Using art
as method is an important field of inquiry here and the Deleuzian deconstruction
that this inquiry effects is a fascinating exploration of the process of becoming
teacher and becoming artist that bridges very nicely to the final section of this book
on emergent theory. This too illustrates how interpretive forms of social research
are not easy to pin down structurally as they tend to be in standard research texts,
which for many students become authoritative explanations of how research is
‘supposed to be done’. As they work their way through the journey of dissertation
research and writing, this normative framing is precisely what they find they need to
get beyond and even abandon.
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Angela Thomas is a senior lecturer in English Education at the University of Tasmania. Her
research interests include children’s literature and literary adaptations, social semiotics,
multimodal discourse analysis and the fusion of literature and new media. Her publications
include: Youth Online (Peter Lang, 2007); English teaching and new literacies pedagogy:
Interpreting and authoring digital multimedia narratives (with Len Unsworth), (Peter Lang, 2014);
and articles on topics such as: picture books, digital fiction and gender. Her current research
involves examining and interpreting the stories of Tasmanian convict women using Augmented
Reality and locative storytelling.
historical and geographic traditions. He has worked in the School of Education at Acadia
University in Canada since 2002 with a three-year sojourn at the University of Tasmania (2015–
17) where he held a research professorship in rural and regional education, and where he continues
to hold an adjunct professorship. Corbett’s work focuses principally on rural education and he is a
global leader in this field. He has studied youth educational decision-making, mobilities and
education, the politics of educational assessment, literacies in rural contexts, improvisation and the
arts in education, the position of rural identities and experience in education, conceptions of space
and place, the viability of small rural schools, and ‘wicked’ policy problems and controversies in
education.
Chapter 18
Fluid Methods to Make Sense
of an Unknown: An Emergent
Grounded Theory Study
of Cultural Wellbeing
Sherridan Emery and Jill Fielding-Wells
Research Questions
What is an appropriate structure for reporting a study of educators’ perceptions of

cultural wellbeing, following an interpretive paradigm, and a grounded theory
methodology?
I was interested in studying the concept of cultural wellbeing in the context of

education, an interest which arose through my own concerns that the contributions
of culture (variously interpreted) to wellbeing were neither sufficiently understood,
nor engaged with in classroom communities. Children’s wellbeing is recognised as
an important outcome of education according to the Melbourne Declaration on
Educational Goals for Young Australians (Ministerial Council on Education,
Employment, Training and Youth Affairs 2008), and researchers have led calls for
more holistic approaches to children’s wellbeing in Australia’s education system
(Eckersley et al. 2006; Fraillon 2004). Some education policies appear to have
responded to these calls, for example the Council of Australian Government
strategy document, Investing in the Early Years, which emphasises in its first
S. Emery (&)
College of Arts, Law and Education, University of Tasmania,
e-mail: sherridan.emery@utas.edu.au
J. Fielding-Wells
Learning Sciences Institute, Australian Catholic University,
Brisbane, QLD, Australia
e-mail: jill.wells@acu.edu.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_18
184 S. Emery and J. Fielding-Wells
organising principle ‘a focus on the whole child, across cognitive, learning,

physical, social, emotional and cultural dimensions and learning throughout life’
(Council of Australian Governments 2009, p. 4, emphasis added). The contribu-
tions of so-called cultural dimensions of wellbeing were of particular interest to me.
I sought to understand teachers’ perceptions of the emergent concept of cultural
wellbeing. This chapter outlines the process of designing this study which
employed grounded theory, a methodological approach advocated for conducting
research in an area where there has been little exploration of the contextual factors
that affect individuals’ lives (Crooks 2001).
The research arose from a social constructionist epistemology which assumes that
people construct knowledge through daily interactions in the course of social life
(Burr 2015), and especially through shared language. Beyond constructing
knowledge, Dillon (2014) asserts ‘[i]ndividuals collectively create an objective
social reality and make sense of their subjective experiences of that reality’ (p. 306).
Ideas of cultural wellbeing connect with people’s experiences of their social real-
ities, and Dillon’s perspective affords a view that shared meanings of cultural
wellbeing may be created collectively by individuals. This perspective was the basis
for the initial choice of constructivist grounded theory (CGT) (Charmaz 2014).
Grounded theory is closely associated with symbolic interactionism which
emphasises human agency, language, and interpretation (Reynolds and
Herman-Kinney 2003), offering potential insight into socially constructed ‘reality’.
Methods
A Method and Thesis Structure to Harness Complexity

and Adaptation
The methodology and methods for this study evolved over the course of the project
as I came to understand that the topic of cultural wellbeing was more complex than
I had initially thought. In effect I was operating in the spaces between the concepts
of culture and wellbeing and in a space where educators face a significant amount of
ambiguity and complexity.
18 Fluid Methods to Make Sense of an Unknown … 185
Literature Review
The literature review was conducted in two parts. A preliminary review of literature
relating to culture and wellbeing and intersections between the two areas was con-
ducted at the outset of the study. This informed the development of the research
questions and the research design. The second review of literature was conducted
following data analysis, once the strong concepts had been identified in the data. This
doubling up of literature review work is usual with grounded theory studies according
to Bloomberg and Volpe (2008) who indicate that initial literature review work is
conducted to place the study in context and to appraise the researcher of former
studies that have been undertaken in the field. The later literature review, driven by
the theorising process, provides the opportunity to compare the results of the analysis
with other scholars’ evidence and ideas, to show how the theorising ‘extends, tran-
scends, or challenges dominant ideas in [the] field’ (Charmaz 2014, p. 305).
Flexible Data Sources: Interviews, Observations and Memos
The methods employed for this CGT study included interviews and classroom
observations, memoing and constant comparison of data, coding and literature. Data
was sourced from interviews conducted with 21 educators across a range of edu-
cation settings. To enrich the data, I conducted participant observation in two
classroom communities where I engaged in a process of intensive interviewing
(Charmaz 2014) with educators over extended periods of time (approximately one
year in each case). These various forms of observation and participation in diverse
classroom communities were important for informing the work of ongoing data
collection and analysis that is part of constructivist grounded theory methodology.
The conversations with some participants continued beyond the data collection
phase through to the culmination of this study, with educators making contact with
me to continue the conversations, emailing me unsolicited correspondence about
their own evolving understandings of cultural wellbeing, and co-presenting the
research findings back to the education community. These ongoing relationships
remain one of the highlights of the research journey for me.
Throughout the data collection and analysis phases of the research I recorded and
wrote memos interrogating the literature and the data as I engaged with the com-
plexities of cultural wellbeing. Ongoing memoing is a vital data source which informs
the theorising process in CGT (Charmaz 2014). The following sample memo was
produced as I reflected on the origins of the research and sought to clarify the study’s
engagement across discourses of wellbeing and culture in education.
Reflective Memo: December 2016 (Sherridan)
Part of the deeper motivation behind my study was my concern with social trends in
contemporary Australian society where indicators of health and wellbeing reveal that many
young people are not faring well (Eckersley et al. 2006; Australian Institute of Health and
Welfare, 2012). I wondered about the entanglement of schooling in this situation, the
cultural nature of human development (Rogoff 2003), and the potential for the ecosystem of
schooling (Hannon et al. 2011) to create conditions for enhancing the wellbeing of young
people. Accessing educators’ perceptions of cultural wellbeing offered a way to find out
from those at the frontline of schooling about the processes and interactions of schooling,
and hopefully to learn from educators how processes of schooling might be improved
towards this goal. According to Hall (1997), through our communications “we are able to
build up a shared culture of meanings and thus construct a social world which we inhabit
together” (p. 18). At the outset of this study, the objective (as defined by the research
questions) was to form shared meanings of cultural wellbeing and consider the ways that
educators support cultural wellbeing in classroom communities.
While this study did not focus on ‘the culture’ of any single ethnic group of people, but was
a broader study of cultural wellbeing as a concept, I understood that the idea of cultural
wellbeing in Australian education policy has been significantly advanced by ongoing efforts
of the Indigenous education community in Australia. Aboriginal educators and researchers
have consistently called for holistic approaches to wellbeing to be prioritised in education.
Thus, while this study sought to understand cultural wellbeing in a broader sense rather
than specifically in relation to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, the findings
and implications of previous research by Indigenous scholars including Atkinson (2002),
Yunkaporta (2009), and Walter et al. (2017) was influential.
A Flexible Thesis Structure
I developed the following thesis structure as a type of ‘harness’ for holding the
analysis both together and apart, enabling constant connection with the educators’
perceptions and the social processes and structures at work in the situation. Due to
the emergent nature of the research, this structure needed to be flexible enough to
accommodate changes, which was enabled by shaping the thesis into four parts.
Thesis contents page

Part A Locating the research
Chapter 2 Locating cultural wellbeing in literature
Part B Revealing the form of a concept
Chapter 3 Emergence through teachers’ perspectives
Chapter 4 Forming grounded theory
Part C Tracing cultural wellbeing
Chapter 5 What is cultural wellbeing in a classroom community?
Chapter 6 How do educators create conditions for cultural wellbeing in classroom
communities?
Part D (Re)locating cultural wellbeing
Chapter 7 (Re)locating cultural wellbeing in schooling
Chapter 8 Conclusions and implications
From Constructivist Grounded Theory to Situational Analysis
As the study progressed into increasingly complex territories, I was drawn to the
visual mapping tools of Situational Analysis (SA) (Clarke 2005) to support the
interrogation of the data, an analytical approach which Clarke describes as in
keeping with the tenets of CGT. To contextualise the complexity of the study, I
recount an experience of conducting classroom observations from early in the
fieldwork phase of my doctoral study. At the commencement of the data collection
phase I spent one term conducting fortnightly observations with one Tasmanian
secondary school teacher (‘Mrs. Shelby’) who taught across subjects including
history and religion. What I discovered first during the observations, however, was
the complexity of the classroom situation. My researcher’s reflections on my first
observation in Mrs. Shelby’s Year 7 religion class demonstrate the challenges I faced
exploring for cultural wellbeing as the following excerpt reveals:
Researcher’s journal: Week 2, Term 1, 2015
The first religion class of the school year for Mrs Shelby’s Year 7 class was conducted in
the computer lab. This was not Mrs Shelby’s choice and she explained it was connected
with mandated requirements of meaningful integration of technology in all curriculum
areas. Mrs Shelby told me she had spent the night before re-planning the lesson and the unit
plan for the term to accommodate this decision in order to make meaningful use of the
computers. At the start of the class students were assigned their task of researching online
the number of followers of each of the world’s major religions and producing a spread-
sheet and a pie chart displaying their findings.
A group of boys stationed in the corner of the room appeared highly involved in their
computer task, but it was clear to me that it wasn’t the spreadsheet that was the source of
their engagement. While Mrs Shelby helped some other students I walked over to the boys
and discovered that they were playing a virtual weapons game in another window open on
their computers, bidding for and opening caches of weapons – rocket launchers,
Kalashnikovs and grenades amongst their bounty. Whenever Mrs Shelby returned to their
side of the classroom they simply flicked back to their Excel spreadsheets which were
slowly being populated with data being gathered by their group. Outside the classroom,
jackhammers were drilling up concrete, and when a test of the school’s alarms joined the
cacophony, the classroom sounded like an actual war zone. I wondered how could I
possibly learn about cultural wellbeing in this classroom? (Researcher’s field reflections,
February 2015).
The above scenario was one of many similarly complex circumstances occurring
in the classroom communities where I conducted initial observations, which
exemplified how environmental and systemic issues impacted upon the situation.
With complexity threatening to overwhelm the study of cultural wellbeing, I
re-visited methodological literature as the following section details. I identified
Situational Analysis (Clarke 2005) as an approach which would enable me to retain
the tenets of CGT, which values the experiences and perceptions of the participants,
while helping me to navigate the complexity of educators’ situations.
The Analytical Process
The analysis involved multiple cyclical phases. First, the interview and observa-
tional data was coded using free-coding. These codes were sorted into focused
codes to develop an initial framing. Through the constant comparison of data, I was
able to identify gaps which informed the theoretical sampling (Charmaz 2014) of
further participants for data generation to ‘flesh-out’ the analytical frame. This first
phase of coding and classifying was productive for initially considering and cate-
gorising the large body of interview data of teachers’ perceptions of cultural
wellbeing in classroom communities, and their practices and pedagogies for sup-
porting cultural wellbeing. However the distilling of the findings into categories
smoothed over much of the messiness of the data, de-emphasising the deeply
interwoven processes of cultural wellbeing which educators emphasised. This led to
the search for analytical strategies which supported the tenets of CGT, while
accommodating a more integrated, processual analysis. Clarke’s situational analysis
(2005) afforded this and in a second analytical phase, descriptive accounts of the
key concepts were produced, drawing upon the interview data to generate insights
into the interactions and processes operating in classroom communities. The third
phase of analysis employed social worlds/arenas analysis (Clarke 2005) to theorise
from the educators’ accounts of cultural wellbeing.
This layered analysis enabled the identification of both personal and structural
aspects impacting upon a teacher’s opportunities to address cultural wellbeing in
the classroom. For example, personal factors such as extensive classroom experi-
ence, and the undertaking of postgraduate studies, appeared to enhance teachers’
personal resources for supporting cultural wellbeing. Furthermore, structural and
systemic aspects of schooling influenced educators’ perceptions of their capacities
for supporting cultural wellbeing, including the influence of socio-economic status
(SES), and likewise mandatory accountability measures and standardised testing.
Situational analysis provided a supportive process for theorising from the data
through the mapping strategies which are outlined below.
Mapping the Analysis
Situational analysis involves a series of mapping techniques, and three of Clarke’s

maps were employed in the data analysis: both ‘messy’ and ‘ordered’ situational
maps, and social worlds/arena maps.
Situational maps (Figs. 18.1 and 18.2) highlight the major human, non-human,
discursive and other elements influencing the situation of the classroom community
as framed by those in the situation as well as the analyst (Clarke 2003, p. 559). The
abstract situational map (Fig. 18.1) is deliberately messy and changes as the data
analysis progresses.
Fig. 18.1 Abstract situational map of educators’ perceptions of cultural wellbeing (messy/
working version) (based on Clarke 2003, p. 562)
Fig. 18.2 Abstract situational map of educators’ perceptions of cultural wellbeing (ordered/
working version) (based on Clarke 2003, p. 562)
I formed the messy map after the initial grounded coding of the first three
interviews, by noting down the many elements that were pertinent in the educators’
accounts of cultural wellbeing. As more interviews were conducted other elements
were added and the outcome was a map which remains very manipulable.
From the elements on the messy map, and the analytical memos I composed
throughout the interviewing phase, I developed an ordered version of the abstract
situational map (Fig. 18.2) following Clarke’s (2003) model of the Abstract situ-
ational map—ordered/working version (p. 562). The ordered version of the situ-
ational map was useful for creating a higher-level view of the topics from the messy
map to begin to see important structural and systemic processes ‘at work’ in the
educators’ accounts of cultural wellbeing.
The third type of map used in the analysis, the Social worlds/Arenas map
(Fig. 18.3) ‘lay[s] out all of the collective actors and the arena(s) of commitment
Fig. 18.3 Social worlds/arenas map for Mrs. Shelby (based on Clarke 2005, p. 118)
within which they engage in the situation’ (Clarke 2003, p. 559). While the
interview data was generated with educators across a range of education sectors, I
developed the social worlds analysis focusing solely on the school sector. At this
level of the analysis I worked with the data from interviews conducted with school
teachers and educators working in programs conducted within schools.
The social worlds/arenas map serves as a heuristic for gathering together the
social worlds that form a background to the perceptions and actions of participants
in the study. By way of example, I revisit the experience of Mrs. Shelby, whose
Year 7 religion class was introduced in the earlier researcher’s journal entry. The
social worlds/arenas map in Fig. 18.3 considers Mrs. Shelby’s situation as a teacher
of more than 25 years experience in a Catholic secondary school in Tasmania, and
the web of social worlds in which she was entangled. The social worlds maps of the
other school teacher participants very closely resembled Mrs. Shelby’s social
worlds map, with only minor differences (for example, school sector or teachers’
professional association).
Social worlds analysis brought many aspects of teachers’ worlds together,
including micro-meso-macro level aspects, which James (2013) argues can be
mapped as part of wider social worlds in the situation (p. 49). This was important
for considering more deeply the teachers’ perspectives of cultural wellbeing, and
understanding what influences how they create conditions for cultural wellbeing in
their classroom communities. Social worlds/arenas mapping revealed discourses of
performance management and assessment regimes within the education system as
mechanisms conditioning educators’ classroom practices, which impacted upon
their capacities for supporting cultural wellbeing. Bourdieu’s (1984) concepts of
capital, habitus and field were used to interrogate the dialectical relations between
social world structures and agents (teachers) to enhance the theorising of cultural
wellbeing.
Commentary
Situational analysis enabled me to embrace aspects of the situation in classroom

communities, beyond the war games and the alarms directly impacting on the
processes and interactions in the classroom. Using the social worlds mapping (part
of Clarke’s suite of situational analysis maps), I was able to interrogate the analysis
of educators’ individual situations collectively, a process which revealed that
educators interviewed in low SES schools often reported being constrained in their
capacities to support cultural wellbeing, while in higher SES schools, educators
typically reported having access to cultural capital and decision making capacities
to enable them to support cultural wellbeing.
A working interpretation of cultural wellbeing in classroom communities was
produced from the analysis of educators’ perceptions. Cultural wellbeing was
interpreted as the positive benefits that accrue through participation in the ways of
the life of the classroom, and the interactions between members of the classroom,
and cultural practices which take place in learning environments. Wellbeing ben-
efits produced from interactions in classroom communities included: forming
connections and relationships; opportunities for identity formation and symbolic
exchange; and enhancing social and cultural capital. Through the resonances with
Bourdieu’s (1984) concepts of capital, habitus and field, the working interpretation
of cultural wellbeing acknowledged that classroom communities are part of broader
social and structural systems that reproduce social inequalities and privilege.
The thesis structure outlined in this chapter served as a device for holding the
analysis both together and apart, enabling constant connection with the educators’
perceptions and the social processes and structures at work in the situation. One
criticism of earlier models of grounded theory is the reduction of complexity that
was necessary to delineate a basic social process and formal theory (Clarke 2005).
Combining constructivist grounded theory and situational analysis produced a
flexible methodology that harnessed the data, enabling me to represent its com-
plexity through the multiple layers of analysis. Throughout this work the thesis
structure served as a useful tool for organizing the analysis while I ebbed and
flowed through various phases—sometimes engaging more deeply with the sys-
temic and structural aspects, which were an ‘absent presence’ (Shilling 1993,
p. 114) in the educators’ interview data; at other times reconnecting with the
educators’ perceptions of cultural wellbeing at face value. In this way, both method
and theory were allies in this study of cultural wellbeing, helping to retain the
complexity of educators’ perceptions, while at the same time enabling a range of
different views of cultural wellbeing to be brought into focus.
I developed the thesis structure in the process of being asked to write a proposal
for this book chapter. What I needed was something sufficiently ‘loose’ that could
serve as an anchoring place for the different layers of cultural wellbeing that were
coming through in the data analysis process but hadn’t yet been formulated into a
coherent text. Developing the proposal for this book chapter and the subsequent
chapter drafting and editing stages have consequently been important threshold
stages in the development of my thesis, providing opportunities for scholarly
conversations about structuring the thesis and feedback about my methodology
from multiple reviewers. I would like to acknowledge the contributions of this book
project as being ‘in the situation’ of producing the thesis, and particularly I express
my gratitude to my supervision team (Dr. Mary Ann Hunter, Dr. Janet Dyment and
Dr. Jill Fielding-Wells) for their support through this messy, emergent thesis
journey. I also thank the reviewers for their engagement with this chapter (Dr.
Valmae Kitchener, Dr. Danielle Williams and Professor Sue Kilpatrick). An excerpt
of their review appears below.
A supervisor’s perspective—Jill Fielding-Wells
I joined the supervision team to provide support with Sherridan’s methodology
since my preferred methodology is grounded constructivism and I too employed
grounded theory methods in my Ph.D. study in the field of mathematics education.
Grounded theory can be very messy, and it is one of those methodologies where it
is not done until it’s done. It can be terrifying because everyone around you is
writing full drafts of chapters while you feel as though you are flying back and forth
between chapters making a mess.
It can be very tempting to break away from the process of constructivist
grounded theory when it becomes messy. However it’s important to know that the
methodology is the safety net and to have faith in that safety net. Memoing is one of
the foundational aspects of grounded theory, and one that is important to engage
throughout the process of theorising through the messiness.
Sherridan’s journey has been a rather unique methodological approach in edu-
cation research, bringing together constructivist grounded theory and situational
analysis to explore the emergent concept of cultural wellbeing.
Commentary (Valmae Kitchener, Danielle Williams, Sue Kilpatrick)
Kitchener (‘A journey around rigorous subjective research in the 21st century’)
(Kitchener et al. 2018) and Emery (‘Fluid methods to make sense of an unknown:
An emergent grounded theory study of cultural wellbeing’) used constructivist
grounded theory and grappled with ways of expanding basic social process to
broader multiple worlds. Each identified similar problems but dealt with them in
different ways. Kitchener, like Emery, had used the philosophy and method of the
constructivist grounded theory of Charmaz (2014) and integrated aspects of Clarke
(2005), especially situated interpretivism as theoretical perspective. Emery appears
to have successfully used Clarke’s situational maps integrated with Charmaz’s
(2014) methods of constant comparison. Kitchener and Emery together appear to
have identified, as a matter for further exploration, how micro, meso and macro
perspectives can be integrated with theories of basic social processes.
References
Atkinson, J. (2002). Trauma trails, recreating song lines: The transgenerational effects of trauma
in Indigenous Australia. Spinifex Press.
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2012). Social and emotional wellbeing: Development
of a children’s headline indicator. Cat. no. PHE 158. Canberra: AIHW. http://www.aihw.gov.
au/publication-detail/?id=10737421524.
Bloomberg, L., & Volpe, M. (2008). Completing qualitative research: A roadmap from beginning
to end. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction: A social critique of the judgement of taste. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
Burr, V. (2015). Social constructionism (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
Charmaz, K. (2014). Constructing grounded theory (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Clarke, A. E. (2003). Situational analyses: Grounded theory mapping after the post-modern turn.
Symbolic Interaction, 26(4), 553–576.
Clarke, A. E. (2005). Situational analysis: Grounded theory after the postmodern turn. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Council of Australian Governments. (2009). Investing in the early years—A national early
childhood development strategy. Commonwealth of Australia. Accessed from http://www.
startingblocks.gov.au/media/1104/national_ecd_strategy.pdf.
Crooks, D. L. (2001). The importance of symbolic interaction in grounded theory research on
women’s health. Health Care for Women International, 22(1–2), 11–27.
Dillon, M. (2014). Introduction to sociological theory: Theorists, concepts, and their applicability
to the twenty-first century (2nd ed.). Chichester, UK: Wiley.
Eckersley, R., Wierenga, A., & Wyn, J. (2006). Flashpoints & signposts: Pathways to success and
wellbeing for Australia’s young people. Canberra: Australia 21.
Fraillon, J. (2004). Measuring student well-being in the context of Australian schooling:
Discussion paper. The Australian Council for Educational Research, 2, 1–54.
Hall, S. (1997). Representation: Cultural representations and signifying practices. London, UK: Sage.
Hannon, V., Patton, A., & Temperley, J. (2011). Developing an innovation ecosystem for
education. San Jose: CA: Cisco & Innovation Unit UK.
James, F. (2013). An exploration of grounded theory with reference to self and identity of
part-time, mature learners in higher education. Doctoral dissertation. University of Hull.
Kitchener, V., Williams, D., & Kilpatrick, S. (2018). A journey around rigorous subjective
research in the 21st century. In D. Kember & M. Corbett (Eds) Structuring a thesis to be
consistent with the paradigm and methodology: Challenging conventions in education and the
social sciences. Springer.
Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs. (2008). Melbourne
declaration on educational goals for young Australians. Melbourne: MCEETYA. Retrieved
from http://nla.gov.au/nla.arc-93985.
Reynolds, L., & Herman-Kinney, N. (2003). Handbook of symbolic interaction. Walnut Creek,
CA: Alta Mira.
Rogoff, B. (2003). The cultural nature of human development: Oxford UK: Oxford University Press.
Shilling, C. (1993). The body and social theory. London: Sage.
Walter, M., Martin, K., & Bodkin-Andrews, G. (2017). Indigenous children growing up strong: A
longitudinal study of aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander families. London, UK: Palgrave
McMillan.
Yunkaporta, T. (2009). Aboriginal pedagogies at the cultural interface. Ph.D. thesis, James Cook
University.
Sherridan Emery is soon to submit a thesis exploring cultural wellbeing in classroom

communities. The chapter was based on the development of an emergent methodology that
supported a doctoral study undertaken at the University of Tasmania supervised by Dr. Mary Ann
Hunter, Dr. Janet Dyment and Dr. Jillian Fielding-Wells. This exploratory study of cultural
wellbeing was inspired by Sherridan’s involvement in a number of research projects in Tasmania
which have focused on the affordances of arts based education and sustainability education. These
collaborations have resulted in the publication of a recent Springer Brief ‘Education, Arts and
Sustainability: Emerging Practice for a Changing World’ (Hunter, Aprill, Hill & Emery, 2018).
Sherridan’s doctoral study pursues some of the themes that emerged from her earlier Master of
Education research project entitled ‘Arts for Sustainability’ which explored connections between
education for sustainability and arts based education. Sherridan works in the area of wellbeing
research across national and international wellbeing studies.
Jill Fielding-Wells is a Senior Research Fellow at the Learning Science Institute, Australian
Catholic University and formerly a lecturer in Mathematics Education in the Faculty of Education
at the University of Tasmania. Previously a classroom teacher, she completed her Ph.D. in
Argument-Based Inquiry in Mathematics while transitioning to the higher education sector. Jill’s
research interests in mathematics learning include argumentation practices, students use of
evidence and reasoning, student communication and representation, and inquiry-based learning.
She is also keenly interested in student engagement and motivation in mathematics. Much of Jill’s
research has drawn on constructivist grounded theory and it is in this capacity in which she has
acted as Ph.D. supervisor to one of the contributing authors.
Chapter 19
Exploring Interpretations
of Sustainability Across Diverse Social
Contexts
Kim Beasy
Research Question
What is an appropriate structure for reporting a study exploring how sustainability

is interpreted and embodied across diverse social contexts when following an
interpretive paradigm and using a hermeneutical approach?
I embarked on this research to hear and explore stories of sustainability that were
not being told in the discourses of sustainability I was accustomed to. Although the
concerns which arise from today’s sustainability discourses are of relevance to
everyone, these discourses belong to socio-cultural and historical contexts that are
not universally inclusive, nor can they be generalised. The challenge of confronting
sustainability in the 21st century is undeniably a global one but it will, by necessity,
also be different in different social locations.
At the Brundtland Commission in the late 1980s, sustainability was declared a
priority for countries around the world in the calls for sustainable development to be
on national policy agendas. The term reached consensus through a purposively
broad definition: ‘Humanity’s…ability to make development sustainable to ensure
that it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
K. Beasy (&)
School of Education, College of the Arts, Law and Education,
e-mail: kim.beasy@utas.edu.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_19
198 K. Beasy
generations to meet their own needs’ (United Nations 1987, p. 15). The interest in
sustainability had been fueled by growing environmental health related concerns,
visible and invisible pollutions as well as the depletion of natural resources
including species loss across the globe (MacNaghten and Urry 1998; Meadows
et al. 1972; United Nations 1987). Since this time, there have been varied attempts
at the incorporation of sustainability into the policy landscape. For instance in
Australia, the National Department of Energy and Environment now includes a
number of policy documents addressing topics of relevance in the interest of pur-
suing sustainability. For example, ‘Living Sustainably: the Australian
Government’s National Action Plan for Education for Sustainability’, released in
2009 by the Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, which
outlines commitments to incorporating sustainability into education.
Discourses of sustainability have also extended into the public sphere.
Individuals and communities are now encouraged to reduce their impacts on the
environment (Macnaghten and Urry 1998; Okereke 2006). Actions include recy-
cling resources, sustainable or ethical consumption practices, purchasing solar
panels, buying local products and composting at home among others (Australian
Government 2013; Castro 2004). While each individual action reduces environ-
mental impacts, sustainability actions are yet to be successfully embedded in all
domains of society: government, business and the private sector.
Discourses of sustainability have largely emerged from, advanced capitalist
societies representing English speaking, white, middle class perspectives (Foucault
1982; Gough 2014; Plumwood 2002). This is despite recognition that inclusivity of
the whole community is needed to create sustainable solutions for a world of wicked
problems (Berlach and Chambers 2011; Fischer and Black 1995; Gough 2014). In
this study, I sought to explore how sustainability was interpreted and practiced across
a range of social locations; therefore, I spoke with people who were not actively
included in the formation of sustainability discourses (Gough 2014; Macnaghten and
Urry 1998). I avoided using ‘sustainability’ to frame the empirical work in the study,
instead opting for a more relatable framing: ‘the future’. An assumption of the
research design was that a futures frame would be a concept that participants across
the social locations could find meaning in. However, the initial impetus for my
interest in this research project came from my experiences in teaching sustainability.
Practicing and teaching to the principles of sustainability had been a part of my
life for a long time. I had been immersed in the history, the current debates and the
politics of sustainability for as long as I could remember. I had been working and
teaching at the University for over five years when I was approached to teach into
the VET environmental sustainability unit. This was the first time I had taught
outside of the University system. The students I taught were required to complete
the unit as a component of their Vocational Education and Training (VET) course.
I began this course in a similar way as I had in my teaching practice at the
University: ‘what does sustainability mean to you?’ On this day, the response I
received to this question was a room full of blank expressions with the comment
‘we’ve never even heard of sustainability—that’s something to do with trees isn’t
it?’ Yet, as we went through the course material, I realized that my interpretation
19 Exploring Interpretations of Sustainability Across … 199
and experiences of doing and understanding sustainability were different to my

students in the room. However, I observed that in many cases, the descriptions of
the personal practices students discussed in relation to the course material aligned
with many of the fundamental principles of sustainability. After this experience, I
began to wonder; are we (sustainability professionals) missing something here?
What discourses of sustainability are privileged and consequently, what discourses
are silenced? This experience prompted the beginning of my research journey.
In this doctoral project, I used a Bourdieuian theoretical framework and drew

heavily on the theory of habitus as a guiding method as well as an interpretative tool
(Nash 1999; Reay 1995, 2004). I found that having a theoretical framework helped
in my thinking about what methods would be most appropriate to answer the
research questions I had constructed. I was guided by three research questions
throughout my research journey:
How do people from different social contexts conceptualise sustainability and how is this
embodied in their lives?
How does social location influence approaches to questions of sustainability?
How are sustainability discourses understood, and are they made meaningful in participants
lives?
I was able to think through participant recruitment and consider how I may be
able to access a sample population that included people from a diverse range of
social contexts using Bourdieu’s concepts. For example, he discusses the way that
capital influences a person’s positionality in social space. Capital is theorized in
three forms: Economic capital which is ‘immediately and directly convertible into
money and may be institutionalized in the form of property rights’ (Bourdieu 1986,
p. 47). Cultural capital is identified as the embodied dispositions of the mind and
body as well as material objects and institutional attainments (for example educa-
tion) (Bourdieu 1986). Social capital relates to the networks and memberships of
individuals (Bourdieu 1986). With this in mind, I approached local neighbourhood
houses who were able to connect me with a range of pre-formed community groups.
I was interested in observing practice and investigating people’s conceptuali-
sations of what is important to sustain into the future. I determined that these
objectives would be most suited to qualitative research methods. Initially I had
intended on following a contemporary ethnographic methodology, utilizing par-
ticipant observations as my main source of data collection. However, I was unable
to use participant observations due to recommendations received from the ethics
committee. The participant observations were a fundamental component of the
initial research design and significant to the characterization of the research as
ethnographic (Atkinson et al. 2001; Hammersley and Atkinson 1995).
200 K. Beasy
Consequently, I had to reconsider the methodology I was using and think about
how I could still address my research questions with the methods that had gained
approval, focus groups and semi-structured interviews. I investigated methodolo-
gies that valued discursive practices and the interpretive processes of human
interaction. This led me to the hermeneutics methodology.
Hermeneutics emphasises discourse in processes of meaning-making. It is
concerned with understanding, not explanation of experience (Moules et al. 2015).
Ricoeur (1981, p. 146) makes the point that ‘an inscription of speech…guarantees
the persistence of speech’, highlighting the power of discourse to perpetuate and
reinforce in social space by the mere act of inscribing it. Hermeneutics was an
appropriate methodology because the project sought to explore the applicability of
the assumed understandings of sustainability in sustainability discourses as well as
what is received by multiple audiences who are largely voiceless in the develop-
ment of them.
Focus groups as method provided access to multiple voices in a way that was
logistically possible given time constraints. There were also advantages in the
dynamic that the group created. In the group setting, the voice of an individual is
negotiated and intersected by the voices of others, providing opportunities for
co-construction of knowledge (Longhurst 2003; Marková et al. 2007). The focus
groups provided an opportunity to learn and adopt key terms used by participants in
preparation for the semi structured interviews. Research suggests that the language
used to describe phenomena from an outsider’s perspective can be different to the
common language used by people from different cultural spaces (Gobo 2008;
Hammersley and Atkinson 1995; Spradley 1979). An objective of the project was to
be open to other ways of knowing and performing sustainability and so I chose not
to frame the study directly with the language of ‘sustainability’.
In addition, I drew on phenomenological and ethnographic interviewing tech-
niques in the development of the interview questions. I found these techniques
useful in constructing questions because of the considerations afforded to the use of
predetermined concepts, ideas and language of the researcher (Spradley 1979;
Carspecken 1996; Thompson and Coskuner-Balli 2007). For example, I developed
semi-structured interview questions accorded with the language used by partici-
pants in the focus group from each social location (Johnston et al. 1995).
In hermeneutic research, the process of analysis is synonymous with interpre-
tation (Moules et al. 2015). The process of interpretation in this project was
inherently messy, undefined, iterative and emergent. It involved multifaceted
engagement with the transcripts, the literature, and current research on the topic and
with my interpretations of the data (Moules et al. 2015). In response to this, I drew
upon a number of conceptual tools to help in the identification of themes in the data,
including two cycle coding (Marková et al. 2007) and at the same time employed
writing as method (Olson 1986; Reither 1985; Colyar 2009; Green 2015).
The research was positioned within a critical constructivist paradigm, which offers
an account of the ways social realities are created (Denzin and Lincoln 2005). In
asserting the temporal and cultural situatedness of knowledge, critical construc-
tivists’ position knowledge and phenomena as socially constructed in historical,
social, cultural, economic, and political contexts (Kincheloe 2008). Central in the
research process, issues of equity and perspective were positioned as paramount by
seeking to understand how socio-historic aspects influence and shape an object of
inquiry (Agger 1991).
While qualitative research lends itself to constructivism, this paradigm was
specifically identified for the alignment with the aims and intentions of the research
questions. The research was explicitly concerned with people’s constructions of
reality and their relative experiences; therefore, a critical constructivist approach
aligned with the objectives of this research.
I found that clarity in my own ontological positioning was an important reflexive
consideration. I align with a relativist ontology, which assumes that reality is
constructed intersubjectively through the meanings and understandings developed
socially and experientially by actors (Denzin and Lincoln 2005). The way that I
conceive of reality influenced the questions I asked participants and my interpre-
tations of the data. For example, I asked participants what meaning they gave to
terms such as ‘sustainability’ and ‘community’, however, I purposefully placed
these questions towards the end of the interviews to reduce the influence of my
positioning onto participants. Having some questions in the interviews exploring
terms prevalent in the dominant discourse were useful in responding to research
question three.
Understanding participants’ social constructions of reality and interpretations of
how sustainability is embedded in their life was central to the research questions. In
line with this objective, a theory that explored the dialectic of agency and structure
was sought. The research employed Bourdieu’s theories of habitus, capital and field
as they offered the research a lens that recognized the agency of people while at the
same time acknowledged this as complex because of the contexts and conditions in
which a person is subject (Bourdieu 1977, 1990a, b).
Habitus considers personhood as a shifting positioned body in social space. The
theory acknowledges the complexity and ever-changing nature of an individual, but
at the same time recognizes the shared understandings accorded to positions in
social space (Bourdieu 1984, 1990a; Lizardo 2004; Marcoulatos 2001). While
Bourdieu has not been the first to consider the interconnections between actors and
societal structures (see works by Berger and Luckmann (1966) and Giddens
(1979)), his work has been influential in sociology. Habitus is theoretically posi-
tioned together with capital and field in a triad of theories that were put to work in
this research through exploring life world constructions within the context of larger
social phenomena concerning questions of sustainability.
202 K. Beasy
To remain consistent in research approach, I employed a social epistemology.

This is concerned with the social dimensions of knowledge or information, in
comparison to classical epistemologies that have traditionally been concerned with
pursuing truth (Goldman 2006). Social epistemology seeks to identify the social
forces and influences responsible for knowledge production. It considers society as
central to the knowledge-forming process. This was well suited to the research
because it was an exploration of other ways of knowing ‘sustainability’.
Structure
The structure of the thesis was aligned with the research questions of the project.
Through an alternative thesis structure, I found I was able to better reflect the ideas
of the participants and the themes that presented in the research. I was able to
structure my writing in a way that allowed me to tell a story and at the same time,
respond to the research questions I was investigating.
I combined my thesis introduction with my literature review in Chapter 1. I did
this because I felt that this improved the ‘set up’ of my project in relation to the
literature. I also combined my theory and methodology in Chapter 2, as in this
project, theory was a core, entangled component of my methodological frame as
well as analytical tool. Chapter 3 detailed the methods used in the research and
positioned participants contextually in the study through large extracts of the
interview scenes.
In part B, I presented my findings according to the dominant themes I identified
during analysis. In Chapter 4, I presented the interpretations from participants of what
a good life meant for them. This addressed ‘how is sustainability conceptualised’
which was a part of my research questions. Chapter 5 spoke to the component of my
research questions of ‘how is sustainability embodied’, while Chapters 6 and 7
explored two overarching themes that were present in the data and relevant in
questions of sustainability more broadly, addressing predominantly research
questions 2 and 3. Below is my condensed thesis structure.
Part A Framing the Study

Chapter 2 Conceptualising the Research
Chapter 3 Research Design
Part B Discussion of Findings
Chapter 4 A ‘Good Life’: Interpretations of Sustainability
Chapter 5 Practices of Sustainability: ‘That’s all you can really do…’
Chapter 6 Spatial Relations in Questions of Sustainability: ‘It depends on how you look at
it’
Chapter 7 ‘Time Rich’ … in the Future: Implications for Sustainability
Part C Synthesis
Commentary
The structure of my thesis is aligned with the objectives of the research questions
and with the hermeneutic methodology. Moules et al. (2015) describe eloquently
how hermeneutic writing must always be understood as never complete, but always
a storying of the ongoing, fluidity of the phenomena under examination.
Hermeneutic interpretations involve answering questions that could be answered
differently with different interpretations (Moules et al. 2015). In this way, the
structure of my thesis allowed me to bring forth the best interpretations that best
answered the questions I was exploring (Madison 1988).
The journey of this doctoral study provides an interesting account of the Ph.D.
journey and the importance of staying true to the research objectives while main-
taining ontological and epistemological consistency through theory, methodology,
research design and thesis structure.
Methods were chosen that aligned with the theoretical and methodological
approach and were well suited to the research questions. Methods included focus
groups, semi-structured interviews and participant observations. However, partici-
pant observations were removed from the assortment of methods based on rec-
ommendations received from the ethics committee.
This was an unforeseen hurdle of my candidature. It is common to speak to
fellow Ph.D. candidates who have had hurdles (of more or less significance), along
the way. The experience of having to re-define my methods and methodology
reminded me of the importance of perspective while doing a Ph.D. To remain
engaged with the project, yet to also see it for what it is. That is, a learning process.
I found the research journey to be like an uphill climb. When climbing you are
often out of breath from the lack of oxygen or from the physical exhaustion. You
are always mindful of where you are stepping, sometimes tripping and falling down
battered and bruised. Yet, you continue, because you know the view at the top and
the sense of achievement from having made the climb will ultimately be worth it.
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Kim Beasy has completed a thesis on interpretations of sustainability across diverse social
contexts. The chapter about her thesis was based on a Ph.D. completed at the University of
Tasmania under the supervision of Michael Corbett, Aidan Davison and Allen Hill. Kim’s research
is interdisciplinary and is centred on key themes of inclusion and diversity. She now works at the
University of Tasmania in the School of Education teaching and researching contemporary issues
that underpin questions of equity and sustainability.
Chapter 20
Embracing Change When ‘Writing
for Change’: My Ph.D. Journey
Damon Thomas
Research Question
What is an appropriate structure for reporting a study that sought to understand and
interpret the valued language choices in the highest scoring persuasive texts written
by Tasmanian primary and secondary school students for the 2011 NAPLAN
writing test, and to critique the impact of such high-stakes, standardised testing on
Australian primary and secondary school teachers’ persuasive writing instruction,
straddling between positivist, interpretivist and critical paradigms, and adopting
qualitative research?
Introduction
When writing a Ph.D., it pays to expect the unexpected. This chapter reports on a
study that initially sought to create an innovative and gamified writing platform that
would enhance student performance on Australia’s National Assessment Program—
Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) writing test. Yet unexpected challenges caused
a series of significant shifts of focus, first to text analysis of successful arguments
written by the highest achieving primary and secondary school students on the 2011
NAPLAN test, and ultimately to the unpacking and critiquing of NAPLAN itself as a
high stakes game that is used as a proxy for performance and formats what con-
stitutes performance. This chapter details the study’s evolving alignment to the
interpretivist and critical research paradigms, in addition to the research methods it
employed to address a stone in the shoe issue that only became apparent as the thesis
D. Thomas (&)
University of Tasmania, Locked Bag 1307, Launceston, TAS 7250, Australia
e-mail: damon.p.thomas@utas.edu.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_20
208 D. Thomas
was being written. It is hoped that the chapter will be of interest to those currently
writing Ph.D.s, particularly those who have encountered the unexpected.
Persuasive writing must be taught in Australian primary schools from Year 1, with
this form of writing becoming increasingly prominent across the primary and
secondary school years (Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting
Authority [ACARA] 2011a). Research by educational linguists into valued per-
suasive language choices in educational settings has been skewed to the upper
secondary and tertiary levels (Christie and Derewianka 2008; Christie 2012; Coffin
2000, 2004; Derewianka 2007; Felton and Herko 2004; Humphrey 1996, 2008),
and as a result, little is known about the ways successful primary school students
structure texts and use language specifically to persuade readers. Fuelled by a
high-stakes national testing program called NAPLAN, the pressure to support
students to produce cogent arguments has never been greater in Australia (Dulfer
et al. 2012), and knowledge about valued genre and language choices in the primary
and secondary years would usefully provide educators with clarity and direction to
achieve this (Christie and Derewianka 2008).
Beyond the needs of the curriculum, there are many potential benefits in helping
young people to understand the use of persuasive writing in sustaining democratic
rights and freedoms in Australia (Crowhurst 1990; Kerkham and Comber 2013). In
an age of post-truth politics and fact checkers, a majority of young Australians lack
interest in and understanding of Australia’s political systems, and are not actively
engaging in democratic practices at a grassroots level (Evans et al. 2013). With
much persuasive writing instruction in Australian schools focusing on
NAPLAN-like tests that are disconnected from real-world issues facing students
(Wyn et al. 2014), there is much potential to reinvent how we engage young people
in meaningful persuasive writing. With these motivations at its heart, this Ph.D.
study sought to explore the current state of persuasive writing in Australian primary
and secondary schools with an emphasis on the impacts of standardised testing
procedures, and what it takes to succeed on these assessments. It did so by
responding to the following two research questions:
1. How did the 2011 NAPLAN context position young people to make particular
choices in their writing?
2. What choices were valued in the highest scoring persuasive texts written by
Tasmanian primary and secondary school students for the 2011 NAPLAN test?
Persuasive writing is considered a major form of communication fostered in
educational contexts throughout the world. Across the school years, this form of
writing gains in importance to the point where it represents the main method for
demonstrating and assessing one’s understandings (ACARA 2011a; Coffin and
Hewings 2004; Schleppegrell 2004). I have always been deeply interested in
20 Embracing Change When ‘Writing for Change’ … 209
persuasive communication, and initially began my thesis with the goal of deter-
mining how persuasive writing can be taught effectively in primary school class-
rooms. Through an interest in digital technologies, I discovered a concept known as
gamification, which suggests that elements of video games can be used to transform
non-game experiences to increase motivation and interest (Deterding et al. 2011).
At the start of my Ph.D., I set out to learn about the intricacies of persuasive
communication, and envisioned how these might be taught in game-like ways that
would engage young learners. I worked with a key member of the University of
Tasmania’s Human Interface Technology Laboratory (HITLab), upon whom I
relied to code and develop the game-like teaching experience, yet unfortunately, at
ten months into the project, it became apparent that this development would not
realistically reflect the initial vision, and so the thesis hit a major roadblock.
Discovering that my fully conceptualised, gamified, persuasive writing platform
could not be feasibly developed, I evaluated my learning over the initial stages of the
candidature and decided to focus purely on persuasive writing in educational set-
tings. I realised the linguistic content knowledge that had been developed and used
to conceptualise the gamified learning platform might in fact be flipped upside down
to unpack previously written persuasive texts. Instead of asking: How can I use my
language toolkit to get young people to make effective persuasive writing choices, I
began asking: What persuasive texts are already valued in school settings, and how
can my toolkit make visible the persuasive choices made by the writers?
In terms of texts that are significant in Australian primary and secondary schools,
it is difficult to ignore the annual NAPLAN tests, which are used politically and often
affects the levels of funding that schools receive (Wyn et al. 2014). Using the My
School website (ACARA 2016), the Australian public can freely access information
about any school’s average performance on the NAPLAN tests, which has led to a
range of controversies such as a narrowing of the school curriculum, concerns about
student health and wellbeing, and the gap between NAPLAN testing procedures and
more authentic persuasive writing contexts (Dulfer et al. 2012; Thompson 2013).
The NAPLAN tests were introduced in 2008 to assess the reading, writing, language
conventions, and numeracy skills of all Australian students in Years 3, 5, 7 and 9
(ACARA 2011b), with the key goal of discovering how effectively Australian
education systems prepare young people for literacy and numeracy demands of
contemporary society. Annual NAPLAN reports since then have shown a consistent
picture of the kinds of students who typically succeed on the tests, and those who
typically struggle to make a set of national minimum standards (e.g., ACARA
2011c, 2012, 2013, 2014). Focusing on what it takes to succeed on these tests has
received disproportionate attention within Australian schools in the recent past,
leading researchers to question the possibly negative impacts of the NAPLAN
testing on classroom practice across the country (Wyn et al. 2014).
In 2011, the NAPLAN writing test shifted focus from narrative to persuasive
texts, and so the submissions for that year’s test represented an ideal body of texts
that could be unpacked using my newly developed linguistic knowledge of per-
suasive texts. While a range of previous studies in applied and educational lin-
guistics have explored the persuasive writing choices of high scoring secondary and
210 D. Thomas
tertiary level writers, no identifiable study had sought to unpack valued persuasive
writing choices across the primary and secondary years. Given the emphasis on
NAPLAN testing in schools across the country (Dulfer et al. 2012), providing
rigorous descriptions of successful persuasive writing across Years 3, 5, 7 and 9
represented a meaningful opportunity to capitalise on 10 months of reading and
learning about persuasive writing, and aligned with the original goal of specialise in
this aspect of educational linguistics. In this way, the thesis shifted from an inter-
vention approach using design-based research (Anderson and Shattuck 2012), to a
more evaluative approach that required the analysis of texts without working with
actual participants.
To summarise this section, my initial thesis topic emerged from theories about
persuasion and new forms of teaching and learning, rather than starting out of a
challenging issue in education. After meeting a significant roadblock in the
development of a gamified persuasive writing platform, I pragmatically salvaged
aspects of the topic that were not reliant on the skills of others, but in doing so was
led to significantly alter the method of the study. Despite these alterations, I was yet
to recognise that an even more substantial shift would be required in response to a
stone in the shoe issue that would later emerge. This is outlined in the following
sections.
This study employed a linguistic textual analysis using an analytical framework

composed of systems and principles from the fields of classical rhetoric and sys-
temic functional linguistics. The functional approach posits that the meanings that
constitute any text are directly influenced by the surrounding context (Halliday and
Matthiessen 2013; Martin 2016), and as such, the contextual features of the 2011
NAPLAN test were examined to bring to light how the writing prompt, marking
criteria and testing procedures positioned students to make particular choices in
their writing. Rather than making persuasive writing into a game that would
enhance student results on NAPLAN, this approach allowed me to respond to the
study’s first research question by taking apart the high-stakes game of NAPLAN
itself. High scoring texts written by students in Year 3, 5, 7 and 9 were also
unpacked with the analytical framework at the levels of genre (i.e., whole text level)
and discourse (i.e., paragraph level) to make visible the valued choices in their
writing. The analytical framework is presented in Fig. 1.
This approach allowed me to respond to the second research question, by
bringing to light the most valued persuasive writing choices across year levels. By
analysing how various aspects of the test positioned students to make particular
kinds of writing choices in their persuasive texts, and then analysing the actual
choices made by the highest scoring students, it was also possible to compare these
choices. The performative implications here should be emphasised. My first topic
placed me in the role of a teacher/practitioner with the goal of assisting young
Level Classical rhetoric SFL
Genre Forms of persuasive discourse School-based persuasive genres

(i.e., judicial, epideictic, (i.e., hortatory exposition,
deliberative) analytical exposition, discussion)
Discourse Figurative language (i.e., schemes The ATTITUDE system of

and tropes) APPRAISAL (i.e., language that
evaluates feelings, people and
behaviours, and non-human
phenomena)
The ENGAGEMENT system of

APPRAISAL (i.e., language that
expands or contracts dialogic space
for various perspectives)
Fig. 1 Analytical framework of the study (Thomas 2015)
people to play the game and score highly on the NAPLAN test. By shifting my role
to that of a critical analyst, I could look more closely at how performance itself is
formatted in the test. This is arguably more generative as research, as I could
critique an ideological agenda instead of providing pedagogy that would promote it.
It is not simple to locate this exclusively as an interpretivist or critical study. The study
largely followed the interpretivist paradigm, as it sought to make visible valued
language choices in high scoring students’ persuasive texts. This interpretivist
dimension of the study employed qualitative research methods to interpret and
understand the positioning of the NAPLAN materials and the valued language
choices in high scoring students’ persuasive writing. It drew heavily on two linguistic
traditions—classical rhetoric (e.g., Aristotle 322 B.C./2004; Corbett and Connors
1999) and systemic functional linguistics (Halliday and Matthiessen 2013; Martin
and White 2005)—to create a multifaceted analytical framework that could unpack
the support documents and successful texts at the levels of genre and discourse (see
Fig. 1). The use of principles and systems from these theories was justified by their
prominence in the Australian Curriculum: English (ACARA 2011a) and the
212 D. Thomas
NAPLAN persuasive writing marking guide and support materials (ACARA 2013),
which are readily used by Australian teachers and students in preparation for the
annual writing test (Wyn et al. 2014). This focus of the thesis would eventually lead to
a range of research publications on the highly-valued uses of specific linguistic
choices by high scoring students (e.g., Brett and Thomas 2014; Thomas and Brett
2016; Thomas et al. 2015; Thomas and To 2016), which may be useful to educators
who are tasked with preparing students for NAPLAN testing each year.
As the study unfolded, however, it took on a more critical focus around the
impact of NAPLAN testing on persuasive writing instruction in Australian schools.
This critical take on the context emerged after the high scoring persuasive texts had
been analysed and compared with the positioning of the NAPLAN test, the testing
procedures and its support materials, and ended up being the story I felt most
compelled to tell. The subsequent analysis revealed that success on the test called
for students at all year levels—but particularly for those in the higher year levels—
to interpret and create written meanings that were far beyond the scope of the
writing prompt, marking rubric and other support materials. In other words, high
scoring students were rewarded for achieving more in their writing than what was
explicitly called for by the test and its support documents. It is likely that this is
where the cultural capital of privileged students made a significant difference to
their responses, but regardless, this finding led to the claim that the 2011 NAPLAN
materials did not position students for a high level of success on the test.
Without searching for it in the first place, this stone in the shoe issue emerged as a
direct result of carrying out the research and reflecting on the results of the data
analysis. While I remained committed to making visible the valued choices in the
highest scoring primary and secondary school students’ persuasive writing, the
findings compelled me to reflect more deeply on the state of persuasive writing in
Australian educational contexts. I dedicated time to reading literature around negative
impacts of standardised assessments such as NAPLAN. Mirroring my personal
transition from a teacher dedicated to enhancing student success on NAPLAN, to that
of a researcher interested in unpacking the structure of the game itself, the final
chapters of the thesis focused not on what it takes to succeed as a young writer, but on
how the standardised testing procedures and support documents may inadvertently
prevent this success for those who do not have the same orientations to writing as
typical white, middle class students who go to school in urban communities and have
parents with tertiary qualifications (ACARA 2014; Martin 1989). Given the study’s
findings, a range of recommendations were made to make the NAPLAN writing test
procedures a fairer, more reliable measure of students’ writing skills. In addition, the
thesis adds to a growing number of research articles (e.g., Dulfer et al. 2012;
Thompson 2013) that describe the potential negative influence of a NAPLAN testing
agenda on writing pedagogy in Australian primary and secondary schools, suggesting
that Australian students may be more effectively prepared for the test by being
engaged in more authentic and meaningful persuasive writing experiences that they
have a personal stake in. This more critical take on the issue was later described by
one assessor as ‘the most persuasive aspect of the thesis’.
Structure
The thesis structure followed a traditional design with an introduction, theoretical

foundations, methodology, analysis, discussion and conclusion chapters. Three
chapters were dedicated to outlining the study’s theoretical foundations, with
classical rhetoric and systemic functional linguistics allocated a chapter each, fol-
lowed by a third that made connections and drew comparisons between both lin-
guistic traditions. This resulted in the creation of an analytical framework that could
meaningfully interpret and critique various contextually relevant persuasive texts as
outlined in the thesis’ methodology chapter. Chapters 6 and 7 presented analyses of
the 2011 NAPLAN test materials and the selected high scoring students’ texts,
while Chapters 8 and 9 provided a discussion of the findings, a commentary on the
perceived system of inequality at play with current NAPLAN testing procedures,
and recommendations to improve NAPLAN testing and writing pedagogy in
Australian schools. This structure is summarised as follows:
Contents page
Chapter 2 Theoretical foundations: Classical rhetoric
Chapter 3 Theoretical foundations: Systemic functional linguistics
Chapter 4 Theoretical foundations: Links between two linguistic traditions
Chapter 6 Analysis of context
Chapter 7 Analysis of texts
Commentary
The study does not exclusively fit into either focus paradigm, as what began as a
largely interpretivist study was troubled by the emergence of a previously hidden
system of inequality, and so evolved into a critical commentary. The Ph.D. ended
up responding quite different research questions than what were originally planned
with a gamified persuasive writing platform, and the twists and turns throughout
beg the questions: What did the experience teach me about successfully completing
a Ph.D., and how might this be useful to others who are writing a thesis?
Writing my Ph.D. was not a straightforward process. I set out with plans to
achieve something innovative and engaging that would transform learning about
persuasive writing for young people and their teachers. I spent approximately
10 months pursuing a topic that would be deemed unachievable given the cir-
cumstances, and the subsequent changes were driven by a desire to refocus on a
214 D. Thomas
more doable topic without wasting months of learning about rhetorical and lin-
guistic features of persuasive texts. Without first realising it, the changes I made to
the study simultaneously led me to shift my role from being teaching-focused to
research-focused. In the end, the Ph.D. allowed me to provide advice to educators
across primary and secondary school years who are tasked with preparing students
for the NAPLAN writing test, yet also to present ideas about how to make the test
fairer for those who complete it, and to be brought in line with the real-world
purposes of persuasive language as outlined by Aristotle and countless rhetoricians
and linguists throughout the rhetorical tradition (Aristotle 322 B.C./2004; Kennedy
1997; Perelmen and Olbrechts-Tyteca 1969). The change from an intervention
approach to a text analysis approach led my toes to rub against a stone in the shoe
issue around the current state of standardised testing in Australia and indeed the
world. In this way, the paradigm shift from interpretivist to critical occurred as a
natural progression of the thesis writing experience, and led to further changes in
how I viewed the project, my role within it, and the ultimate aims I hoped it would
achieve. This suggests that resilience in the face of seemingly impossible challenges
and a willingness to reimagine all aspects of a given study can allow it to develop
and evolve in ways that were not initially anticipated. Not knowing all the answers
and controlling all aspects of a project are normal parts of the Ph.D. writing
experience. By embracing the unknown and unexpected, Ph.D.s can take on new
life as they are written. This is the story behind my Ph.D.
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and education (pp. 142–165). New York, NY: Continuum.
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Vancouver, BC, Canada.
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testing on school students and their families. Penrith, NSW: The Whitlam Institute within the
University of Western Sydney.
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survey of political engagement findings. Retrieved from http://www.governanceinstitute.edu.
au/magma/media/upload/ckeditor/files/DEMOCRACY%20REPORT-%20UPDATED%20
VERSION-27-6-13.pdf.
Felton, M. K., & Herko, S. (2004). From dialogue to two-sided argument: Scaffolding adolescents’
persuasive writing. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 47(8), 672–683.
Halliday, M. A. K., & Matthiessen, C. M. I. M. (2013). An introduction to functional grammar
(3rd ed.). Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge.
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Disadvantaged Schools Program.
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(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Armidale, NSW: University of New England.
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rhetoric in the Hellenistic Period 330 B.C.-A.D. 400 (pp. 43–50). Leiden, NL: Brill.
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& M. Corbett (Eds.), Rethinking rural literacies: Transnational perspectives (pp. 197–218). New
York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
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UK: Oxford University Press.
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(1), 35–58.
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Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.
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(J. Wilkinson & P. Weaver, Trans.). Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.
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Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
216 D. Thomas
Thomas, D. P. (2015). Writing for change: Persuasion across the school years. (Unpublished
doctoral thesis). University of Tasmania, Tasmania, Australia.
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persuasive writing framework. In S. Fan & J. Fielding-Wells (Eds.), What is next in
educational research? (pp. 285–295). The Netherlands: Sense Publishers.
Thomas, D. P., & To, V. (2016). Nominalisation in high scoring primary and secondary school
persuasive texts. Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, 39(2), 135–148.
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Damon Thomas is a lecturer in English education at the University of Tasmania. His Ph.D.
research examined the rhetorical choices made by primary and secondary school students who
scored highly on Australia’s standardised writing test, and critiqued the test as a form of writing
assessment. His research interests include writing development, writing pedagogy, social
semiotics, theories of persuasive communication, standardised testing and personalised learning.
Chapter 21
Teaching History in Australian
Museums: Pedagogy and Praxis
Louise Zarmati
Research Question
What is an appropriate structure for reporting a study of history museum pedagogy

using qualitative inquiry situated within an interpretive paradigm designed to
generate a grounded theory?
My research topic emerged out of two professional contexts: my work as a museum

educator where I designed, delivered and managed education learning programs in
an archaeology museum; and my work as a classroom history teacher whose stu-
dents participated in learning programs in history and archaeology museums. In this
respect, I have operated on both sides of the museum education service, both as a
provider and consumer.
As an educational provider at the University of Sydney’s Nicholson Museum
(1992–4) and the Dawes Point archaeological excavation in The Rocks, Sydney
(1995), I used the knowledge and skills I had learned as a classroom history teacher
and field archaeologist to design archaeology education programs for secondary
school students. As a teacher and consumer of education programs, I took my own
students to many museums over the years and knew what teaching methods worked
and what did not. My objective was to document the professional experiences of
museum educators and examine the pedagogical techniques they employed to
deliver history education programs to student visitors.
L. Zarmati (&)
e-mail: louise.zarmati@utas.edu.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_21
218 L. Zarmati
However, during the early months of my research, I, like many other educators,
discovered there was a vast difference between professional praxis and academic
theory. At the outset I had no idea that I was entering a theoretical minefield. What
appeared at first to be a simple, practical problem to investigate, ended up being a
difficult and messy business. A dilemma emerged after eight months of wide
reading on museum education theory: that museum education literature was dom-
inated by research in science museums, not history museums; primary, not sec-
ondary years of schooling; case studies were from America and Britain, not
Australia; and focused on learning, not teaching and pedagogy.
None of these were relevant to my professional experience, either in the class-
room or in museums, and certainly not relevant to the research I had in mind. I felt
that I was completely out of my depth and that nothing I read applied to anything I
knew or had experienced while teaching history in museums. Fortunately, my
light-bulb moment eventually came when I remembered the advice my supervisor
had given me: ‘Remember to look for the gap in knowledge; that’s where your
thesis lies’. I realized that the research questions I was posing had not been
addressed before, and that there were no academic articles on the way that history is
taught to secondary students in Australian museums; this became the focus and
raison d’être of my thesis. Although a growing body of literature prescribes
methods for training museum educators, little had been published on ‘the more
elusive ‘artistry’ of live teaching’ (Castle 2001, p. 5).
My central argument was that historians operate according to a different para-
digm and world view to scientists, and this is reflected in the different research
backgrounds and pedagogies of teaching; both bodies of knowledge operate in
completely different academic spheres with very little overlap.
My thesis examined the working experiences of educators who were teaching
history to secondary students in the ‘formal’ educational context of Australian
museums, from 2008 to 2011. I investigated the methods they used to design and
communicate history to student visitors during class excursions, and determined
whether or not they were influenced by the dominant paradigms of museology and
education theory. My aim was to observe, record and analyse their pedagogies in
order to generate a grounded theory from their praxis.
Bloomberg and Volpe (2008, p. 7) recommend that the research approach must
follow the research problem, and that the most appropriate approach is the one that
best fits the research problem; it should be open-ended and exploratory in nature.
I realized that because my aim was to allow the ‘voices’ of museum educators to be
heard as they articulated their praxis, the research method that was most appropriate
to my research problem was a qualitative inquiry situated within an interpretive
paradigm designed to generate a grounded theory.
21 Teaching History in Australian Museums: Pedagogy and Praxis 219
The overarching research question for the inquiry was, ‘how do the professional
identity, teaching experiences and workplace praxis of museum educators affect the
way history is taught in Australian museums?’. It was supplemented by three
sub-questions designed to gather relevant data from the field:
1. What are museum educators’ perceptions of their professional identity and
praxis in Australian history museums?
2. What methods do museum educators use to teach history in Australian
museums?
3. What are teachers’ perceptions of the effectiveness of the methods used to teach
history to their students in museums?
Data were gathered from my observations of the delivery of ten education
programs in nine Australian museums, and interviews conducted with twenty-five
museum educators. The perspectives of twelve history teachers whose students
participated in history education programs in Australian museums and heritage sites
provided the triangulation recommended in qualitative research, which reflects an
attempt to secure an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon from another
perspective. Triangulation is the use of more than one method or source of data in
the study of a social phenomenon so that findings may be cross-checked (Bryman
2008: 700). Data were coded using NVivo 9, and then analysed and interpreted
according to the conceptual framework generated by the research questions.
A grounded theory emerged from my analyses and interpretations of the behaviour,
words and actions of museum educators, the focus of the study.
My literature review revealed a theoretical dilemma: that studies of education

programs in history museums fall between two discursive cultures, museum edu-
cation and history education, which are informed by two distinct theoretical
frameworks. On the one hand, history education pedagogy is theoretically based
upon an historical inquiry method; on the other, museum education is based on
constructivist learning theory.
This is largely due to the fact that the pedagogy of history teaching is embedded
in the epistemology of the discipline of history, while the pedagogy of museum
education is informed by research in the discipline of science. Museum educators
(even in history museums) have traditionally based their approaches to the devel-
opment of education programs on the pedagogy of science teaching, largely because
it is science educators who dominate research and publishing on museum education.
While historical inquiry underpins the pedagogy of history education, the dis-
course of museum education is dominated by educators whose background and
training are in the sciences. As a consequence, constructivism, a theory that gained
currency in science education in the 1990s, has become the dominant discourse in
museum education.
220 L. Zarmati
Constructivist Learning Theory Versus Historical Inquiry

Method
The question of whether or not history educators used constructivist learning theory
—in the same way as science educators—to inform their design and delivery of
learning programs for secondary students in museums became central to my
inquiry.
Due to the complex and diverse nature of the theories I was investigating, I
realized that rather than adhering to the conventional structure of a literature review,
it would be necessary for me to break it up into three separate chapters. To this end:
Chapter 2 examines the impact of a range of educational theories on the con-
struction of history in Australian curricula, from the 1960s to the present;
Chapter 3 focuses on different theories and models of pedagogy and their influence
on the teaching of history in Australian secondary schools; and
Chapter 4 critically evaluates the theoretical underpinnings of museum education.
I argued that education programs in history museums fall between two physical
contexts with two discursive cultures, museum education and history education.
Even though both museum education and history education utilize constructivist
learning theory, history education is distinguished by its use of the heuristic of
historical inquiry method. This is largely due to the fact that the pedagogy of history
teaching is embedded in the epistemology of the discipline of history, while the
pedagogy of museum education is informed by research in the discipline of science.
Historians operate according to a paradigm specific to the epistemology of
history, and this is reflected in the different research backgrounds and methods of
teaching. For this reason, there is very little overlap between academic articles cited
by museum educators and those consulted by history educators. These bodies of
knowledge appear to operate in completely different academic spheres.
My analysis of museum education literature in Chapter 2 revealed it is based on
a body of research almost entirely focused on informal learning, predominantly in
science museums. Few scholars or practitioners had examined the teaching and
learning of history in history museums, particularly in light of developments in
historical thinking and pedagogical practices that had occurred overseas and in
Australia over the past twenty years.
In contrast, my thesis focused on teaching and learning history in formal
museum education programs by examining education programs offered in nine
Australian history museums. These programs were aligned to school curricula,
delivered by teacher-trained museum educators, met designated subject outcomes,
and built on students’ prior classroom knowledge and skills. They are a popular
alternative in Australian history museums to programs that require students to
undertake their own learning research or those that encourage classroom teachers
themselves to teach their own students in the museum.
Qualitative Research Method
Although the literature review identified a problem worthy of investigation, it was

not apparent at the outset what outcome would emerge from the data. I decided that
a qualitative theoretical framework was the most suitable as its inductive approach
would allow theory to emerge from the data being studied, rather than vice versa.
Qualitative inquiry is concerned with how the complexities of the sociocultural
world are experienced, interpreted and understood in a particular context at a
particular moment in time (Bloomberg and Volpe 2008, p. 80). This is in contrast to
quantitative research where researchers know in advance what they are looking for
and the objective is to identify, classify and count features, as well as to construct
statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed.
With qualitative research the researcher pursues deliberate lines of inquiry in the
field, even though the specific terms of inquiry may change in response to the
distinctive character of events in the field setting. The specific lines of inquiry may
also be reconstructed in response to changes in the fieldworker’s perceptions and
understandings of events, and their organisation during the time spent in the field
(Erickson 1986, p. 121).
Interpretive Paradigm
An interpretative paradigm helps us understand and explain the meaning of social

phenomena (Merriam 1998, p. 5). It is the study of how people define events or
reality, and how they act in relation to their beliefs; everyday human action is
regarded as meaningful and inextricably linked with social practices. The researcher
uses their skills as a social being to try to comprehend how others understand their
world and how knowledge is constructed through mutual negotiation specific to the
situation being investigated (O’Donoghue 2007, pp. 16–17).
In an interpretive paradigm objectives are generally focused on extracting and
interpreting the meaning of experience from the data (Denzin and Lincoln 2005). It
recognises the paradigmatic nature of all research: that any systematic investigation
of phenomena rests upon epistemological and ontological assumptions about the
nature of knowledge and the kinds of entities that exist (Kuhn 1970; Preston 2008).
These inherent characteristics of an interpretive paradigm, as opposed to a positivist
paradigm, made it the framework most suited to this research.
I chose an interpretative paradigm because I wanted to document and analyse a
particular phenomenenon that I had observed and experienced taking place in
museum education contexts.
Generating a Grounded Theory
The inductive method of grounded theory development provides a methodological

framework that allows the researcher to study social and psychological processes by
222 L. Zarmati
moving from the specific to the general: from initial observation, to the collection,
processing and interpretation of data and, finally, the production of theory
(O’Donoghue 2007, p. 57). It allows the researcher to identify gaps in knowledge in
the literature review and to gather, analyse and interpret data from the areas of
knowledge that have been shown to be unexplored. Its iterative nature positions
data at the centre of analysis and interpretation so that additional questions can
emerge during the investigative process.
I considered a grounded theory approach the most suited to the investigation
because it allows the researcher to generate theory from data regarding the per-
spectives held by participants in relation to something—in this case,
curriculum-linked ‘formal’ museum education programs. Its value is that it can
uncover people’s perspectives on a phenomenon (O’Donoghue 2007, pp. 19–20). It
provided a theoretical framework that supports the collection and analysis of data
across a range of variables, and it can inform both practice and theory, which is one
of the purposes of doctoral research. Its strength is its iterative approach, which
allows the researcher to explore emergent categories from the data in the first
instance and reassess their relevance in the process of interpretation and production
of theory (Glaser and Strauss 1967, 37–38). The link between interpretation and
theory was a critical element of this research design.
Grounded theory allowed me to develop a workable conceptual framework with
which to accommodate the research questions that examine the methods used by
museum educators to teach history in museums, and teachers’ perceptions of the
effectiveness of those methods. Most importantly, it provided a lens through which
to observe and record the teaching practices of museum educators in the educational
context of the history museum from three different perspectives: museum educators,
the researcher and teachers.
Structure
The structure of my thesis followed the conventional formula of a social science

thesis, with the exception of having three chapters for the literature review,
Chapters 2, 3 and 4.
Contents page
Chapter 1 Contextualisation of the inquiry
Provides an understanding of the research problem and an overview of why and
how the research was conducted. The study context, problem, purpose and
significance are presented.
Chapter 2 Theoretical foundations of school history
Part 1 of the literature review examines the impact of a range of educational
theories on the construction of history in Australian curricula, from the 1960s
to the present.
(continued)
(continued)
Contents page
Chapter 3 Ways of teaching and learning history
Part 2 of the literature review focuses on different theories and models of
pedagogy and their influence on the teaching of history in Australian secondary
schools.
Chapter 4 Theoretical foundations of museum education
Critically evaluates the theoretical underpinnings of museum education and
links the research questions with the methodology.
Chapter 5 Methodological design
Details the research design and specific procedures used to conduct the study.
The methodological framework of qualitative inquiry, an interpretive paradigm
and grounded theory are explained. The connection between the research
questions and the data collection process of gathering samples using researcher
observations and semi-structured interviews with participants is made explicit.
Chapter 6 Analysis and reporting of findings
Presents findings derived from data gathering, analysis and interpretation, and
my own observations of the museum education programs where relevant.
Chapter 7 Interpretation of findings
Provides interpretive insights into the findings of Chapter 6 and concludes with
a grounded theory about how history is taught to secondary students in
Australian museums.
Chapter 8 Conclusions and implications for further research
Presents conclusions, highlights the theoretical contribution of the thesis and
identifies related areas with the potential for future research.
Commentary
I have to admit that I found the whole process of conducting this research daunting.
When it came to choosing a research theory and methodology I was completely out
of my depth and comfort zone. My previous research (Master of Philosophy and
subsequent research papers) had been in the knowledge domains of history and
archaeology, which employ different heuristic methods of inquiry. I was not at all
familiar with social science methodologies and found myself floundering in a
quagmire of new epistemologies and knowledge.
When I started my doctorate I was suddenly thrust into the knowledge domain of the
Social Sciences, whose heuristic and research methodology were entirely foreign to
me. I was very confused and it certainly chipped away at my confidence. I spent about
8 months reading everything I could find on museum teaching and learning theory; the
more I read, the more I realized I was entering foreign territory. All the research had
been done in science and I had been trained as an historian and archaeologist.
To make matters worse, it was also difficult for me to find a supervisor (and later
examiners) who had expertise in education and the area of history museum peda-
gogy, as my topic crossed over different subject knowledge boundaries: my
research topic was about education (specifically pedagogy) and I was enrolled in a
School of History, Heritage and Society.
224 L. Zarmati
While my both my supervisors’ expertise was in museums and heritage, and they
did a splendid job of guiding me in this area, neither had the expertise in pre-tertiary
history education I needed to guide me with my analyses of history pedagogy. It
was only towards the end, after I had written the first draft of my thesis, that I was
able to find an external co-supervisor from another university who had the expertise
in history education and social science research methodology, specifically grounded
theory, that I so desperately needed. She kindly helped me on a voluntary basis.
The other breakthrough came when I found Bloomberg and Volpe’s Completing
your qualitative dissertation: A roadmap from beginning to end (2008). Bloomberg
and Volpe lead the novice researcher by the hand. Each chapter of a conventional
thesis is described in detail with step-by-step instructions on what to do, and
practical exemplars of how to write each section. This became my bible and life-
saver, and I cannot recommend it highly enough for anyone beginning a qualitative
research inquiry.
References
Bloomberg, L. D., & Volpe, M. (2008). Completing your qualitative dissertation: A road map
from beginning to end. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications.
Bryman, A. (2008). Social research methods. (3rd ed.), Oxford, New York: Oxford University
Press.
Castle, M. C. (2001). Interpreters, docents and educators: ways of knowing, ways of teaching in a
history museum, an art gallery, and a nature centre. Doctor of Philosophy thesis. University of
Toronto.
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2005). The SAGE handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed.).
Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.
Erickson, F. (1986). Qualitative Methods in Research on Teaching. In M.C. Wittrock (Ed.),
Handbook of research on teaching, (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan Publishing Co.
Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative
research (4th ed.). New York: Aldine Publishing Co.
Kuhn, T. S. (1970). The structure of scientific revolutions (2nd ed.). Chicago: University Press.
Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education (2nd ed.).
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
O’Donoghue, T. A. (2007). Planning your qualitative research project: An introduction to
interpretivist research in education. London & New York: Routledge.
Preston, W. (2008). Kuhn’s ‘the structure of scientific revolutions’: A reader’s guide. London,
New York: Continuum International Publishing Group.
Louise Zarmati completed a thesis on how museum educators teach history to students in
museums. The chapter about her thesis was based on a Ph.D. completed at Deakin University
under the supervision of museum and heritage specialist, Dr. Linda Young. Prior to that, Louise
had a varied career as a history teacher, archaeologist, museum educator and academic. All these
experiences led to her to investigate museum educators’ pedagogy and praxis in history museums
and heritage sites in Australia. Louise is currently a Lecturer in Humanities and Social Sciences at
the University of Tasmania where she educates primary pre-service teachers to teach history and
geography. She is also provides educational consulting advice to various cultural institutions, and
works on archaeological excavations as often as she can get out of the office.
Chapter 22
Social Justice and Constructivist
Grounded Theory
Val Kitchener, Danielle Williams and Sue Kilpatrick
Research Question
What is an appropriate structure for reporting a study of equity in Vocational

Education and Training (VET) for adult learners experiencing disadvantage, using
qualitative research and constructivist grounded theory as methodology.
Introduction
My research journey was around how we rigorously analyse evidence and how we
represent truth in research and government policy for vocational education and
training (VET).
I first intuitively saw ‘truth’ as multi-facetted. With new self-knowledge, I saw I
was drawn to constructivist grounded theory (conGT) because it does not seek
objectivist truth. Within a context of multiple truths, conGT researchers theorise
systematically and aim to rigorously generate theory (Charmaz 2014). Charmaz
(2014) packaged the philosophical position of constructivism with the empirical
methods of classic, or first generation, grounded theory. ConGT philosophy
recognises subjectivity, is co-constructed, and is not value-free; the methods sys-
V. Kitchener (&) S. Kilpatrick

e-mail: valmaek@utas.edu.au; valmae.kitchener@utas.edu.au
S. Kilpatrick
e-mail: sue.kilpatrick@utas.edu.au
D. Williams
School of Health Sciences, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
e-mail: danielle.williams@utas.edu.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_22
226 V. Kitchener et al.
tematically analyses action and process. Evidence is inducted from lived experi-
ences of people whom we interview.
At the cross-roads of the journey were two realisations. First, I had to integrate
philosophical and methodological perspective to fit and work (Charmaz 2014) with
policy perspectives of my study. Second, I would veer away from traditional
‘critical inquiry’ to represent social justice in ways that would draw on my pro-
fessional background—as a matter of law and of government policy. My interest
lay in the argument that inequality—as absence of equity—threatens democracy
and capitalism. This era of ‘post-truth’ is argued to be a methodological failure of
managerialistic, technocratic approaches in policy (WEF 2017). Williams mused:
‘Does this social justice study take us to the cusp of third generation grounded
theory?’ and this question imbues the journey of this chapter.
We aim to expose a complex methodological journey with reflexivity and with
strategies that helped next steps in the journey. The discussion points of this chapter
are:
• The thesis: content and structure
• Research design: perpetual motion
• Methodology and analysis: a matter of philosophy
• Structuring the thesis: how to represent the research
• Social justice research as theoretical perspective
• Concluding thoughts
There are some housekeeping matters. First, I italicise significant methodological
words that may pass under the radar because this chapter does not have space for
detail. Second, consistent with conGT, I write in first person. ‘We’ includes the
co-authors: my primary supervisor, Professor Sue Kilpatrick, and methodology
supervisor, Dr. Danielle Williams. Dr. Susan Johns was also a valued supervisor
who influenced this chapter.
The Thesis: Content and Structure
The topic is: ‘Skills policy and equity: a matter of human rights. A constructivist
grounded theory of equity in Vocational Education and Training (VET)’. It aims to
understand how to more effectively represent adult learners experiencing disad-
vantage in skills policy and how to embed equity as human rights into skills policy.
The thesis sought to understand equity learners by listening to their voices, and
those of trainers and VET policy makers. It considers skills policy in the context of
human rights law.
The content is the substantive grounded theory of ‘problematic equity’ which
moved towards a formal theory of ‘alternative equity’. ‘Problematic equity’ iden-
tified that governance of skills policy with its focus on markets, productivity and
industry demand for skills, is commodifying learners, and adversely affecting
classrooms such that the equity gaps persists. ‘Alternative equity’ theorised different
22 Social Justice and Constructivist Grounded Theory 227
ways of looking at equity and comprised ‘neo-equity’ and ‘embedded equity’. These
social justice perspectives identified, respectively, equity as it is and equity as it
should be. ‘Embedded equity’ located human rights and a respectful view of
learners’ disposition within paradigms of public administration and policy analysis.
I did not set out to undertake a social justice topic. The original topic did not bear
much resemblance to what emerged from evidence. The topic ‘Skills policy and
equity: a matter of human rights’ emerged at two different points of the journey.
I was half way through interviews when I began to theorise that evidence was
drawing me out of the sociological base of methodology and into matters of political
science for which I needed literature. Some political science had appeared in my
original literature review but now took on much more prominence. The second half
of the topic: ‘a matter of human rights’ was an epiphany after the interviewing.
Influenced by the comparison of coding of interviews of Naomi (learner) and Pat
(policy-maker) I moved towards the role of VET as it is for the learner and as it ought
to be in policy. The inducted evidence drove the theorising that equity ought to be
understood in policy in its true meaning of fairness and inclusion.
Consistent with conGT, the structure of the research was systematic and rigorous
constant comparison. The structure of chapters exemplified the methodology and
methods. A context chapter replaces the ‘traditional’ full literature review.
Philosophy and praxis are set out in the Methodology and Methods chapters
respectively. Chapter 5 is the Substantive Grounded Theory. Chapter 6, ‘Towards a
formal theory’ generates theory by comparing Chapter 5 and new literature. I began
structuring the thesis after field work although I had by this time written multiple
memos.
Research Design: Perpetual Motion
As Dunne (2011) and others researchers predicted, I found it difficult to research

within an auditing system requiring preconceived research design. The journey
changed as I came to see research design as evolving, in perpetual motion, to the
research’s end (Charmaz 2014). Literature pertaining to the original topic lay fallow
during all interviews and coding. With trepidation, I approached research design
with Charmaz’s ‘theoretical playfulness’ (p. 137) and ‘methodological eclecticism’
(p. 27). Social justice emerged as an interdisciplinary topic different from ‘critical
inquiry’ traditionally grounded in objectivist methodology.
The journey changed again when Johns suggested that I tip upside down the
original research design. The diagram now reflected a grounded, bottom-up
approach and that the heart of the study was empirical evidence from learners,
teachers and trainers and policy-makers about equity in VET. Interviews, and
memo’ed and coded observations, and analysis would come first and positioning
within literature would follow. Within this messy process, I was juggling with how
to pose and represent research questions in conGT.
The role of research questions caused much cognitive dissonance as I prepared

my conGT thesis in a traditional system. Apprehensively, I relegated research
questions to the role of reflecting evidence as it emerged. The journey was
smoothed when I re-visited the relational ‘developmental intellectual puzzle’
(Mason 2012; Charmaz 2014; Crotty 1998). I could now define the essence of my
study, and still introduce emerging new puzzles (Charmaz 2014). There was much
that paved a smoother journey as the nature of the intellectual puzzle, especially its
open-endedness, became clear. The methodology and analysis was another, rather
than the next, step in the journey.
Methodology and Analysis: A Matter of Philosophy
Sources of evidence reflected the macro, meso and micro theorising. Taking a
philosophical, and axiological, perspective eased some cognitive dissonance that
conGT may bring. It was over a year before memos and clustering joined axiology,
neglected in traditional research, with the more prominent philosophical positions of
ontology and epistemology. It was significant in my journey to see axiology as
determining and contextualizing problem, paradigm, theoretical framework, evi-
dence gathering and analysis (Crotty 1998; Guba and Lincoln 2005; Charmaz 2014).
Once I was thinking axiologically, there were three new, significant signposts on
the journey. First, at a 2013 master class, I discussed social justice with Charmaz. In
theorising to generate theory, Charmaz (2014) gave me ‘permission’ to interview
with an overtly critical, subjective, value laden stance. Second, new self-knowledge
showed me my own predilection for conceptualisation as a basis for abstraction of
theory—and possibly an inability to undertake sound research in any other way.
With memo’ed insight into my own conceptual and abstract approach, I was better
able to contextualize the approaches of other researchers.
Third, I identified the shared axiology of Glaser, Strauss and Charmaz with its
purpose of research as representing our ‘own scientific intelligence’ (Glaser and
Strauss, p. 87); each values creativity and therefore eschews grand theory and
preconception. Now I better understood how to deal with literature. Researchers are
preoccupied with the ontological and epistemological differences of Glaser, Strauss
and Charmaz but I have not found literature exploring the significance of their
axiology. Within this philosophical position, I focused on theorising to generate
theory for social justice research. I was concurrently theorising about methodology
while I was theorising about equity in VET.
Social Justice Research as Theoretical Perspective
Consistent with conGT, I analysed with comparative coding, memo’ing and clus-
tering from the first day of interviews. The systematic process was: initial (gerund)
coding; focused coding; categorizing; theoretical testing by tentative categorizing
after each five or so interviews and returning to the field to ‘test’ emerging evidence;
systematic development of substantive grounded theory; literature comparison with
substantive grounded theory; abstraction of theory to move towards a potential formal
theory i.e. theory of a generic issue or process which, with further theoretical testing by
re-interviewing may ‘cut across several substantive area of study’ (Charmaz 2014,
p. 343). I re-interviewed 5 people. But my own initial and focussed coding, and
theoretical testing, was showing that more was needed for a topic on human rights and
interpretations of individuals affected by government policy. I needed underpinning,
methodological and theoretical perspectives specific to the topic.
I constantly memo’ed around the methodological question: what is social justice
for conGT analysis? The social sciences have come relatively recently to social
justice inquiry and therefore to what evidence is needed in pertinent government
policy analysis. From the beginning, initial and focussed coding across macro,
meso and micro levels of inquiry to, and the patterns between them, had been
telling me I had to connect learners experiencing disadvantage and government
policy. Critical inquiry methodology was not meeting that need (Charmaz 2014;
Denzin and Giardina 2010; Madison 2011; Mills and Birks 2015).
Halfway through the thesis, theory emerged that policy-makers were having
problems with defining equity in a policy context. Now comparing theory with
interdisciplinary literature, I theorised social justice as speaking truth to power
where the power is government (Wildavsky 1979). This development guided me to
social justice as theoretical perspective that drew on: the philosophy of truth; the-
orising about government and public administration; theorising about ‘local’ as an
element of social justice research; and theorising about the relationship between
normative positions—The ‘should’ and the ‘ought’—and subjective research.
Denzin and Lincoln (2005) suggested that the subjective approach, endorsing the
‘ought’ perspective, was a new point in methodological history and Denzin (2014a)
has emphasised this since describing conGT as a new starting point in methodol-
ogy. A parallel consideration of the journey was strategy for representation of
research to reflect theorising about social justice as speaking truth to power.
Structuring the Thesis: How to Represent the Research
The representation of theory was arduous to the final full-stop of the thesis. The
examiners would look for established procedure but I was urged to design my thesis
to suit my research (Charmaz 2014). How does one represent subjective substantive
grounded theory at micro, meso and macro levels of inquiry? Denzin (2014b) refers
to this crisis of representation generally and to social justice research that will
engage government policy. I reflected on representation of theory and represen-
tation by chapters.
The journey was given new impetus when I drew on Williams (2012) model to
represent theory. The figure below shows the core category and the sub-categories
out of which these were formed.
The Substantive Grounded Theory

Problematic Equity
Source of model design: (Charmaz, 2014; Williams, 2012)
CORE CATEGORY
Absence of
Policy
POLICY
Insight
CORE CATEGORY
Absence of
LEARNING
Learner
Disposition
CORE CATEGORY
TEACHING
Teaching
Dilemma
With further comparison, evidence leapt out from the diagram that the core
categories across policy, teaching and training and learning were interacting. Now
seeing through the lens of symbolic interactionism, I theorised that government
skills policy was interacting with teaching and learning behaviour and outcomes;
this became a significant contribution of the research. The figure also drew me
towards the appropriate representation through chapters.
It is obvious now but the journey to structure and represent through chapters was
complicated. The final structure was a representation of theorising to generate
theory:
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Context to skills policy and equity: a matter of human rights;
Chapter 3: Methodology
Chapter 4: Methods
Chapter 5: Substantive grounded theory
Chapter 6: Towards a formal theory
Chapter 7: Concluding thoughts
Concluding Thoughts
The journey of my thesis did not follow a linear path from research questions to
structuring the thesis. The methodology developed conceptually and evolved with
the emergence of evidence about equity in vocational education and training. My
journey was as much towards new knowledge and theoretical sensitivity as it is
about human rights and skills policy. ConGT is rewarding but it meant my
supervisors had to guide me through a resistant structure. As supervisors and
candidate together, we see that more needs to be published about how to do
constructivist grounded theory; candidates need more guidance about meshing the
empiricism of Glaser with the Charmaz philosophy.
References
Charmaz, K. (2014). Constructing grounded theory (2nd Edn.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage
Publication.
Crotty, M. (1998). The foundations of social research. Sydney, NSW: Allen & Unwin.
Denzin, N. (2014a). About the book. In K. Charmaz (Ed.), Constructing grounded theory (back
page). London, UK: Sage Publications.
Denzin, N. K. (Producer) [Marc Spooner]. (2014b). Public engagement and the politics of
evidence in an age of neoliberalism and audit culture [video]. Retrieved from https://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=_ekg5FMKpYo.
Denzin, N. K., & Giardina, M. (Eds.). (2010). Qualitative inquiry and social justice. California,
CA: Left Coast Press.
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2005). Introduction: The discipline and practice of qualitative
research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research
(pp. 1–32). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publication.
Dunne, C. (2011). The place of the literature review in grounded theory research. International
journal of social research methodology, 14(2), 111–124. http://www.doi.org/10.1080/
13645579.2010.494930.
Guba, E., & Lincoln, Y. (2005). Paradigmatic controversies, contradictions, and emerging
confluences. In K. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research
(3rd Edn., pp. 191–212).
Madison, D. S. (2011). Critical ethnography: Method, ethics, and performance (2nd Edn.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Mason, J. (2012). Qualitative researching (2nd Edn.). London, UK: Sage Publications.
Mills, J., & Birks, M. (2015). Grounded theory: A practical guide. Los Angeles, CA: Sage
Publications.
Wildavsky, A. B. (1979). Speaking truth to power. California, Little, Brown.
Williams, D. M. (2012). Learning to manage: A substantive grounded theory of large bodied
women’s interactions with medical professionals (PhD thesis, University of Tasmania).
Retrieved from http://eprints.utas.edu.au/1481.
World Economic Forum. (2017). The global risks report (12th Edn.). Retrieved from http://www.
weforum.org.
Val Kitchener has completed a thesis on ‘Skills Policy and Equity: a Matter of Human Rights’.
The chapter about her thesis was based on a Ph.D. degree, completed at University of Tasmania
under the supervision of Sue Kilpatrick, Susan Johns and Danielle Williams. Val Kitchener came
to education policy research with a law degree and a career in social justice policy analysis. She
has worked in the University sector, in Australian and State government and in the not for profit
sector. Dr. Kitchener recalls the 1980s policy field when it was determined that there would be a
new public management paradigm and the public sector would be run as a business. The ‘new’
‘evidence-based’ paradigm begged the question ‘Yes, but whose evidence?’ It was this conundrum
that led to research into vocational education and training, equity, and skills training as a matter of
human rights. Dr. Kitchener works, researches and writes to promote a human rights act for
Australia and for her home state of Tasmania.
Danielle Williams is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Health Sciences. She is a registered nurse
who gained clinical experience in the cardiothoracic unit at the Royal Hobart Hospital, before
starting her research journey with an Honours degree in 2002. Dr. Williams has worked in a
number of different roles, most recently working in both industrial and research settings. She was
employed as a Research Fellow and Program Coordinator at the Menzies Institute for Medical
Research where she worked with clinicians to both develop their research skills and support them
in undertaking small research projects. As part of this role, Danielle conducted a number of
research capacity building workshops, particularly for those interested in qualitative research
methods. Before recommencing in her current role at the University of Tasmania she was
employed as a Nursing Officer at the Australian Nursing and Midwifery Federation, where she was
responsible for providing information and advice to members on a wide variety of issues,
including professional and industrial advice on any work related matters, including case
management, representation and advocacy for individual members.
Sue Kilpatrick is Professor of Education, University of Tasmania and formerly Pro

Vice-Chancellor (Students) at the University of Tasmania and Pro Vice-Chancellor (Rural and
Regional) at Deakin University. She has had university-wide responsibilities including social
inclusion, widening participation, pre-degree programs and pathways, Aboriginal outreach and
support and rural and regional engagement. Over 25 years’ experience as a researcher in rural and
regional education, learning for work and community development, have resulted in more than 280
publications, 3750 citations (Google Scholar), 100 plus research grants and supervision of more
than 20 research higher degree graduates. She holds a Ph.D. in the economics of education and is
expert at both qualitative and quantitative methods. Sue combines her academic work with
community based roles in regional development.
Chapter 23
Language Learning and Integration
of Adult Bhutanese Refugees:
An Ethnographic Study
Subhash Koirala
Research Question
What is an appropriate structure for reporting a study of language learning and

integration of refugees, mainly following the interpretive paradigm, and adopting
ethnographic methodology?
This study sought a holistic and in-depth investigation of English language learning
and integration experience of a group of adult Bhutanese refugees in Australia. The
Bhutanese refugees have resettled since 2007 as new residents of their host country
after two decades of expatriate life in the refugee camps of Nepal. The impetus for this
exploratory study stemmed from my personal experience as a Cultural Orientation
Trainer to these refugees while in Nepal and awareness of their expectations, attitudes
and dispositions related to learning and life trajectory.
The study was interdisciplinary in its approach and it took account of the complex
interplay of language learning and integration. The main aims of the study were to
examine how language learning interacts with refugee integration and how these two
processes are shaped by different social and cultural spaces refugees encounter in
their everyday life in Australia. Three different kinds of spaces specific to adult
Bhutanese refugees were mainly explored in this study: family and ethnic com-
munity, host community and adult migrant English classroom. In Australia, the
Government’s settlement program offers 510 h of free English as a second language
course through the Adult Migrant English Program to all newly-arrived refugees and
S. Koirala (&)
Widening Participation Unit, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
e-mail: subhash.koirala@mq.edu.au; subhash.koirala@utas.edu.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_23
236 S. Koirala
eligible migrants. The attention was focussed on the resources and constraints the
refugees encountered in each of the social spaces mentioned above. Moreover,
various social, contextual, cultural factors and pre-migration influences embedded in
these spaces were explored for their impact on language learning and integration.
Furthermore, in contrast to adhering to any prescribed theoretical frameworks of
how refugees should be integrated in Australia, this study examines how the concept
of integration was embedded in everyday practice of the Bhutanese refugees.
One important contribution of this study is the finding that the social capital
derived from refugees’ family and ethnic community networks not only enables,
but it also inhibits integration. This bonding social capital can function as a coping
resource for refugees against the effects of culture shock, language shock, and
racism, and can facilitate access to a range of instrumental support and information
necessary for successful transition to their host society. However, this study also
suggests that an extreme level of embeddedness within the cultural and social
frames of ethnic space has the potential to jeopardize individual mobility, host
society language learning and sustainable integration.
This study indicates that the English-speaking community in Australia is not
always tolerant and responsive to newcomers’ attempts to invest in their identity of
being a language learner. It has been found that some social contexts of the
mainstream Australian community are experienced as inclusionary, while others as
exclusionary. The investment in everyday English language learning of refugees is
thus highly dependent on access to the English-speaking social networks in the
inclusionary context where learners feel welcomed and comfortable to negotiate
meaning with the native English speakers.
This study shows that the cultural dispositions the refugee students bring to their
migrant English classes provide the primary basis for the way they approach their
learning and thus influence their agency and identity as learners. The findings
suggest that the students are likely to engage in the desired learning tasks if their
perceptions of teaching quality cohere with the actual teaching they are exposed to.
Moreover, this study suggests that in order to understand refugee integration
more fully, it is not sufficient to account only for the pre-determined set of objective
measures such as employment and educational outcomes without considering the
way in which integration is actualized in everyday experience. For refugees in this
study, what it means to be integrated into the Australian society was complex,
ambivalent and context-dependent. It was an ongoing process of contestation and
negotiation between different values, identities and practices embedded in ethnic
and mainstream Australia community.
This study employed an ethnographic approach as a methodological framework,

involving observations, interviews and a reflective journal study as the main tools
for data collection. The field work was carried out in a regional area of the State of
23 Language Learning and Integration of Adult Bhutanese … 237
Tasmania. The observations were conducted in two migrant English classrooms, in

an Australian multi-ethnic church and in the community where Bhutanese refugees
live. Then the retrospective interviews were carried out with the Bhutanese
respondents, their teachers and other service providers.
The data were analyzed using ethnographic macro and micro level analysis
techniques (Duff 2002). The macroscopic analysis examines the broader
socio-cultural contexts of the classroom and community, whereas the microanalysis
is concerned with exploring the social and cultural organization of a particular
interaction event. A combination of macro and micro analyses helped to understand
both the broader cultural context of the classroom and community and the inter-
action patterns in a particular speech event. The findings generated from observa-
tion data were supported and triangulated, where possible, by the use of data
derived from interviews and reflective journal studies.
The study was mainly informed by the interpretive paradigm (Creswell 2003)
because it aimed to understand the lived experience of refugees from the emic (or
the participants’) perspective by studying them in their natural settings. Research
questions in this study sought to gain an in-depth understanding of the process
rather than the end product. As such, the study was not aimed at testing any
pre-existing hypotheses, as in the positivist paradigm, but rather to gather data to
build theories from observations and intuitive understanding.
Given how extensive and messy the literature on second language acquisition
and refugee integration is, this study utilized a wide range of theory to analyze and
interpret the data derived from the ethnographic fieldwork; and in the conclusion of
the thesis it presented some new insights into the areas of research. The multitude of
theories used implies that the analysis was influenced by different paradigms.
The interpretation of findings was carried out using theories from the fields of
second language education, immigration, sociology and anthropology. Some of the
theories I examined and applied were the following: social capital theory, second
language learning theories, integration theory and autonomy in adult learning.
Social Capital Theory
Bourdieu (1986) defines social capital as ‘the aggregate of the actual or potential
resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less
institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance or recognition’ (p. 248). The
resources embedded in the social networks can be regarded as social capital when
these resources are mobilisable for the pursuit of individual and collective advan-
tage (Anthias 2007, p. 788). Social capital is deeply rooted in the network of
238 S. Koirala
relationships that provide access to resources to those who are in the network. It is a
collective asset of the social relationships.
This study also employed Putnam’s (2007) conceptualization of the distinction
between bonding and bridging social capital. Putnam suggests that bonding social
capital results from strong ties ‘to people who are like you in some important way’,
while bridging social capital comes from weak ties ‘to people who are unlike you in
some important way’ (p. 143). In the case of this study, bonding capital is based on
social networks within the family and ethnic community, while bridging capital is
based on social networks between refugees’ ethnic and Australian communities.
Second Language Learning Theories
Although language learning is an individual process, it occurs in a specific social

context and thus needs to be understood with reference to the sociocultural factors
embedded in the given contexts (Norton Pierce 1995; Spolsky 1988). The social
perspective on second language acquisition suggests that language is acquired
through meaningful interaction in a variety of social contexts. Hence, the oppor-
tunities to use the target language in a communicative context are crucial for the
successful language acquisition to occur.
Taking this perspective of language learning, Norton Pierce (1995) proposes the
sociological concept of ‘investment’ in contrast to the psychological concept of
‘motivation’, arguing that learner’s desire (or motivation) to invest in the target
language is not fixed and unitary. She contends that motivation is constantly shaped
by the unequal forces of social structures and the changing and complex identity of
the language learner (p. 20). She claims that, even when the learner is highly
motivated to learn the target language, the unequal power relations in the society
can impact the learner’s access to the target language community and thereby the
ability to practise the target language.
Integration Theory
Integration is a complex notion in the discourse of refugee resettlement with various

meanings associated with it. It is viewed both as an identifiable endpoint such as
employment and educational outcomes (Coussey 2000) and as a process of inter-
cultural interaction between refugees and members of their host community (Berry
1997). In this study, I used the term integration as a middle ground phenomenon
which combines both acculturation into the host community and retention of ethnic
culture and identity. This notion implies a situation of cultural mixedness, allowing
refugees to maintain multiple identities. It pays due attention to the benefits of
structural incorporation into the host society without the necessity to be virtually
indistinguishable from the mainstream culture. This notion of integration is inex-
tricably tied to the conception of multiculturalism as embodied in policy in Australia.
Autonomy in Adult Learning
The theoretical discussion in adult learning has largely centered on to what extent
the adult students should assume responsibility for their own learning and to what
extent the teachers should scaffold the development of their learning autonomy.
Knowles (1990) suggests that adult learners are responsible beings and thus capable
of self-direction of their own learning. However, criticisms have been made against
the self-directed quality of adult learners (Day and Baskett 1982). Knowles himself
admits that ‘the assumption that all adults have full capacity for self-teaching and
personal autonomy in every learning situation is generally not accepted’ (Knowles
et al. 1998, p. 172).
The study drew on these multiple theories. Most of these theories were intro-
duced and embedded in the relevant context when analyzing the findings in Part C
of the thesis, from Chapter 9 to Chapter 13.
Structure
The thesis is organized in four main parts. Part A, the introduction, comprises three
chapters. Chapter 1, the introduction, presents the personal motivation for the study,
outlines the socio-cultural background of Bhutanese refugees and sets the context
for the study. This chapter also introduces research questions and discusses the
underlying statements of the problem that led to the study. Chapter 2, the literature
review, presents a brief overview of literature related to refugee integration,
Australian immigration policy and everyday multiculturalism. The major compo-
nent of literature review was embedded in the analysis part of the thesis. Chapter 3,
the methodology, explains why and how ethnography was used as a methodological
approach for the study. This chapter also details the procedure used in site selection,
data collection and data analysis.
Part B provides a thick description (Geertz 1973) of the cultural group under
study. It introduces research participants and describes their lived experiences with
particular attention to various socio-cultural contexts in which their language
learning and integration were embedded. It comprises five chapters. The five
chapters, from Chapter 4 to Chapter 8, are respectively dedicated to the ethno-
graphic descriptions of five different contexts: the beginners’ English class, the
intermediate English class, the church visit, the integration experience of a Hindu
Bhutanese and the workplace language socialization. The ethnographic descriptions
are largely drawn from the field observation data, supplemented, where possible, by
the information from participants’ interviews and reflective journal studies. The
findings were reported as case studies in a narrative, story-telling, format.
Part C, the analysis and discussion, comprises five chapters. The five chapters,
from Chapter 9 to Chapter 13, are dedicated to the analysis and discussion of five
broad themes emerged from ethnographic findings. They include: the role of social
240 S. Koirala
networks in refugee migration, the effects of family and ethnic community networks
on language learning and integration, language learning in the host community
context, classroom language learning and the subjective meaning of refugee inte-
gration. Each chapter provides a detailed discussion of the core theme introduced in
the chapter by drawing on the relevant theories, ethnographic stories from Part B
and direct quotations from participants’ interviews. Part C also presents a number of
new insights into the topics of investigation by examining the data through multiple
theoretical lenses including feminist, race, social capital, second language acqui-
sition and cultural perspectives.
Many different theories were used to analyze the findings in Part C. The role of
social networks in refugee migration and the effects of family and ethnic community
networks on integration were examined by drawing mainly on the theory of social
capital. In Chapter 10, the positive effects of family and ethnic capital were explored
by investigating their role in facilitating access to the objective markers of inte-
gration, such as housing, transportation, health and education. Similarly, drawing on
Norton Pierce’s notion of social investment (1995), this chapter also examines how
the refugees’ cultural norms and expectations, governed by their bonded family and
ethnic networks, had a negative impact on their investment in language learning.
Furthermore, taking the perspective that the social context has a ‘strong and
traceable’ (Spolsky 1988) influence in language learning, the Chapter 10 of Part C
examines how the framework of host community context and social relationship
enabled or constrained refugees’ investment in acquiring English in everyday life.
Moreover, the Chapter 11 of Part C examines the language learning of Bhutanese
refugees in the classroom context, with particular emphasis on factors that facili-
tated and constrained their engagement in intended language-learning tasks. This
chapter also sheds light on how the students’ perceptions of teacher’s scaffolding
behaviour influenced their participation in instructional activities that aimed to
facilitate the promotion of their autonomy in their learning. Finally, the Chapter 12
of Part C examines the socio-cultural integration of Bhutanese refugees, with a
particular focus on the subjective experience of integration at the individual and
community level. This chapter also discusses the fluidity of refugee community and
culture, specifically looking at how integration was approached differently by dif-
ferent refugee subcommunities in different social contexts.
The final part of the thesis, the conclusion, attempts a synthesis of the key
findings of the study, presents the contribution to new knowledge and discusses
their implications for language teaching and integration of refugees.
The following table outlines the structure of the thesis:
Contents page
Part A Introduction
Chapter 2 A brief introduction to the literature
(continued)
(continued)
Contents page
Part B Ethnographic Stories
Chapter 4 Beginners class in English
Chapter 5 Intermediate English class
Chapter 6 Church visit
Chapter 7 A case study of a Hindu Bhutanese
Chapter 8 A case study of workplace language socialization
Part C Analysis and Discussion
Chapter 9 Social network in refugee migration
Chapter 10 Family and ethnic community networks: Help or hindrance?
Chapter 11 Host community context and English language learning
Chapter 12 Classroom language learning
Chapter 13 What is integration?
Part D Conclusion
Commentary
The structure of thesis underpins the underlying principle of ethnography. An

ethnographic study does not usually begin with a well-defined theoretical frame-
work (Hammersley and Atkinson 2007). Following the general guideline of
ethnographic research design, a non-traditional approach was used in structuring the
thesis. In Chapter 3, a brief introduction to the literature related to refugee inte-
gration offers the reader sufficient context for understanding the topic being
explored. However, a major portion of literature related to second language
learning, social capital and socio-cultural integration was embedded in the analysis
part of the thesis. Integrating literature with the themes that emerged from the data
was found effective in selecting only those literatures that were relevant to the
findings and drawing close links between findings and literature.
The structure of the thesis reflects the exploratory approach to the study. The
Part B of the thesis presents a thick description of the multiple contexts in which the
ethnographic fieldwork took place, with specific focus on the presentation of
findings in a narrative fashion. Part C unfolds the main themes and ideas evolved
out of data analysis. This study had to deal with many themes and topics. Therefore,
the chapters in the analysis part were organized according to the themes and topics.
As the themes were structured into five different chapters, the findings within each
theme were linked to the relevant literature and cross-referencing was used to link
findings and literature across different chapters.
242 S. Koirala
References
Anthias, F. (2007). Ethnic ties: Social capital and the question of mobilisability. The Sociological
Review, 55(4), 788–805. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-954X.2007.00752.x.
Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation, and adaptation. Applied Psychology, 46(1), 5–34.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.1997.tb01087.x.
Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. G. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of theory and
research for the sociology of education (pp. 241–258). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Coussey, M. (2000). Framework of integration policies. Germany: Council of Europe Publishing.
Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches
(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Day, C., & Baskett, H. K. (1982). Discrepancies between intentions and practice: Re-examining
some basic assumptions about adult and continuing professional education. International
Journal of Lifelong Education, 1(2), 143–155. https://doi.org/10.1080/0260137820010205.
Duff, P. A. (2002). The discursive co-construction of knowledge, identity, and difference: An
ethnography of communication in the high school mainstream. Applied Linguistics, 23(3),
289–322. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/23.3.289.
Geertz, C. (1973). Thick description: Toward an interpretive theory of culture. The interpretation
of cultures: Selected essays (pp. 3–30). New York, NY: Basic Books.
Hammersley, M., & Atkinson, P. (2007). Ethnography: Principles in practice. New York, NY:
Routledge.
Knowles, M. S. (1990). The adult learner: A neglected species (4th ed.). Houston, USA: Gulf
Publishing Company.
Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., III, & Swanson, R. A. (1998). The adult learner. Houston, Texas:
Gulf Publishing Company.
Norton Pierce, B. (1995). Social Identity, investment, and language learning. TESOL Quarterly, 29
(1), 9–31. https://doi.org/10.2307/3587803.
Putnam, R. D. (2007). “E Pluribus unum”: Diversity and community in the twenty first century.
The 2006 Johan Skytte Prize lecture. Scandinavian Political Studies, 30(2), 137–174. https://
doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9477.2007.00176.x.
Spolksy, B. (1988). Bridging the gap: A general theory of second language learning. TESOL
Quarterly, 22(3), 377–396. https://doi.org/10.2307/3587285.
Subhash Koirala has recently completed a thesis in Education from the University of Tasmania
on English language learning and integration of adult Bhutanese refugees in Australia. The chapter
about his thesis was based on a Ph.D. degree. Subhash has years of professional experience
working in the International Organization for Migration facilitating refugee migration, training,
mentoring and resettlement. Subhash has published a number of articles on refugee integration. His
work with the Bhutanese refugees as a cultural orientation trainer led him to pursue his Ph.D. on
refugee education and integration. After his Ph.D., Subhash has moved to Macquarie University to
undertake a Widening Participation mentoring project which would support high school students
from refugee backgrounds to facilitate their successful transition into higher education.
Chapter 24
Exposure and Effect: An Investigation
into a Culture of Body Pedagogies
Jenny McMahon
Research Question
What is an appropriate structure for reporting a study based on the lived bodily
experiences of three swimmers when following the interpretive and critical para-
digms and utilizing creative analytical practices (CAP)?
My study sought to identify and articulate the exposure and effect of body peda-
gogies (i.e. practices implemented on the athlete body) experienced by three former
swimmers that participated in the amateur and elite cultural context of Australian
swimming. Through the utilization of ‘relational analysis’ (Kirk 1999) and by
‘connecting the dots’ (Klein 2000), two distinctive time frames were central to the
study. These time frames included the participants’ bodily experiences as adoles-
cents at the time of their participation in the swimming culture and also their bodily
experiences some 10–30 years after they had left the sport enabling a link to be
drawn between the exposure and effect of body pedagogies. Across both time
frames, cultural transmission and lived bodily experiences of the swimmers were
explored and fore grounded.
J. McMahon (&)
School of Education, University of Tasmania, Newnham Campus,
Launceston, TAS 7250, Australia
e-mail: jenny.mcmahon@utas.edu.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_24
244 J. McMahon
Where Did the Research Topic Come from?
I am a former Australian swimming representative. During my adolescence, I rep-

resented my county on the world stage on numerous occasions. Throughout this time,
I was subjected to a number of body practices (i.e. daily weigh-ins; weekly skin fold
tests; punishment for weight increases) by coaches and team managers that became
normalized by not only myself but other cultural insiders (i.e. parents of athletes). It
was only after I had removed myself from the elite sporting context that I began to
reflect on my experiences as an Australian swimming representative and I began to
realize that a number of body practices that I was subjected to during my adolescence
were indeed impacting my relationship with my body as an adult woman.
After nearly ten years of isolating myself from anyone who was once part of the
Australian swimming culture because of what I can only articulate as a sense of
shame and athletic failure, I started to re-connect with former team mates on social
networking sites (i.e. Facebook). Through this re-connection, I began to rebuild my
relationships with my former team mates. Times that we once shared together as
Australian swimming representatives were revisited and a camaraderie that a cul-
tural ‘outsider’ would find difficult to understand was rekindled. Profoundly, as my
relationship with my former team mates grew, the hidden truths started to unfold. It
was at this point that I decided to share a narrative that I had written with my former
team mates. I felt that the sharing of my experiences as an elite swimmer might help
them to understand why I had distanced myself from the culture and sport. Even
though it was risky to do this, as I was potentially opening myself up to their
criticism, I felt that the sharing of my experience could provide them with the
opportunity to resonate with me or instead offer alternate perceptions of what they
believed to have occurred in the culture. Below is the narrative that I shared with
them.
I bound into the pool with a big smile on my face. I have been swimming so fast in training.
The head coach commented last week when he visited our squad. I feel like I have an
athletic purpose again. I am 25 and it has been 7 years since I have competed on the world
stage and for the first time in years, I am excited about the possibilities that lay ahead.
Am doing everything possible to make sure I succeed. I am going to a dietician to make
sure my eating is sorted. I am going to sports psychologist to make sure my head is sorted.
Making the Olympic team is a real possibility – everything is coming together nicely.
Shortly after I arrive, my coach approaches me.
Coach: “Jenny, can I see you before you hop into the pool.”
I am excited with anticipation as I know he is going to say something about how hard I
have been working. I bet he can see the changes in my body, the changes in my fitness and
the changes in my speed. However, as I approach my coach on pool deck, his expression is
serious.
Coach: “If you are serious about making that Olympic team next year, you are going to
have to lose weight. You are carrying too much weight.”
It is déjà vu as I have heard these types of comments many times before from other coaches
on the Australian swimming teams. I do not reply as I have learnt to silence my voice.
However, this time I cannot help myself.
24 Exposure and Effect: An Investigation into a Culture of Body … 245
Jenny: “What do you mean? I have been meeting with my dietician on a weekly basis for
the past two months. We have made some real progress. I am losing weight each week.”
Coach: “You need to lose more weight if you are serious. You can’t swim fast with the
weight that you are carrying.”
Jenny: “But, I have lost 6 kilograms.”
Coach: “It needs to be more; you are carrying too much weight on your bum.”
It was as though my confidence is suddenly removed and replaced with self-doubt and
self-loathing. It was like a click of the fingers or a flick of a switch. Suddenly, the session
that lay ahead no longer seems exciting. I complete it in silence as my thoughts drift back to
the 1992 Olympic trials when I missed the Australian team by 0.02 of a second. My weight
was blamed then for my failure to qualify. Heaviness encompasses my body like a blanket
has been placed across my back in the water. I realise that my training efforts mean nothing
to my coach if I do not look part.
Need to get narrower hips.
I envisage a silhouette; it is tall, willowy and ghost like in appearance. It doesn’t have a
face. The silhouette’s hips, even though it is a female, resemble that of a male. This is what
my body needs to be as I have been told, my bum is too fat. At the end of the session, I
wonder what the best way is to exit the pool without exposing myself. I feel ashamed.
I don’t want people to look at my fat body as I hop out. I do some extra laps while I think of
the best way to get out. My team-mates have hit the showers and my coach has his back
turned and is talking to a parent of another swimmer.
This is my opportunity.
I quickly get of the pool and grab my towel before he can see me, before anyone else can
see me. I cover my body and find myself scanning the pool deck to see if anybody was
watching me.
I am so ashamed of my body (McMahon 2010).
After sharing the above story with some of my former team mates, a number of
their hidden truths began to emerge and this disconcerted me. It was when my
former team mates opened up and shared their own hidden truths when the con-
ception of my thesis topic occurred. It was also the time when I realized that I was
not alone in regard to my bodily experiences and that many of my former team
mates had also struggled with trying to achieve the ideal swimmer body, something
that was drummed into us by coaches and team managers as essential to achieving
competitive performance. Below I privilege two voices of my former team mates—
voices that fuelled my inquisitiveness to interrogate Australian swimming culture
further.
“No one else knows this but I was bulimic when I was swimming. Regret everything but
didn’t know what else to do at the time? Everyone always thought I had my weight under
control but I was secretly throwing up after meals so I did not get fat and so I did not get
into trouble by the coaches” (Former team mate).
“I can remember one of the coaches on the Australian swimming team saying to me on the
morning of my race that I looked like that I had put on weight. I thought to myself…what
do you expect me to do about it now when my race is like only two hours away….what a
fool” (Another former team mate).
246 J. McMahon
Thus, it was my previous swimmer experiences and the uncovering of hidden

truths from my former team mates and their struggles with the bodies practices
imposed upon them as members of Australian swimming culture that formed the
impetus for this thesis.
How Was the Topic of Your Thesis Introduced?
The topic of my thesis was introduced in the form of an exposition chapter. The
exposition chapter was used to introduce background information of myself as a
former elite swimmer, contextual information about the Australian swimming
culture, information about the participants who were involved in the study and what
was to follow in the rest of the thesis. The exposition chapter was crucial in terms of
providing essential information for the audience. In this respect, it provided the
necessary information so that anyone (even those without a sporting background)
could pick up my thesis and engage with the content in a meaningful way.
As the background information about the Australian swimming context needed
to be extensive, I was very purposeful about how I structured the exposition
chapter. In the opening section of the exposition chapter, I included Channel Nine
commentary of my 200 m freestyle race at the 1990 Commonwealth Games. The
idea behind including this commentary was to capture the reader’s attention, pro-
viding a hook so they could vicariously share in my competitive achievement and
the meritocratic nature of swimming culture. Immediately following the Channel
Nine commentary, I included a brief biographical narrative outlining my career as a
swimmer. The purpose of this biography was to foreground my previous
involvement in Australian swimming culture making known the unique ‘insider’
perspective that I offer in regards to this specific study. The remainder of the
exposition chapter was dedicated to outlining how the impetus was born (outlined
above); the study’s importance and the research questions.
How Did You Come to Present the Theory in the Course

of Your Research Process?
Immediately following the exposition chapter, Chapter 2 introduced the reader to

the somewhat eclectic collection of theoretical literature that was used to contex-
tualize the study. Specifically the literature was drawn from various fields includ-
ing; sociological work on the body; sport ethnographic research; power and control
(i.e. Foucault). This literature was purposely chosen as the basis of a framework for
understanding the complexities of the swimmers’ lived experiences within
Australian swimming culture.
The purpose of presenting the theory as well as the primary concepts under-
pinning the research early on in the thesis was to provide an analytical lens and the
necessary tools through which the reader could interrogate the swimmers’ lived
experiences and the Australian swimming culture. It would also orientate the
audience to the issues and questions at the heart of the research reported in this
thesis. This literature was also drawn on again immediately after the data (i.e.
swimmers’ stories) were presented providing me with the opportunity to conduct a
theoretical autopsy (i.e. analysis) of their lived encounters.
What Were the Paradigms and Methodology?
Methodology
Four important considerations were paramount in the employment of the appro-

priate methodology. The first consideration related to ensuring the swimmers’ (i.e.
participants) voice/s featured as the primary data of the research. A related concern
was to ensure that power differentials experienced within the Australian swimming
culture (i.e. between coaches and swimmers) would not be replicated in and through
the research process that I conducted. Therefore, the methodological approach
needed to provide the three participants with the opportunity of what I see as
‘meaningful participation’ in the research process. In this respect, the swimmer
participants had the opportunity to participate in and through the research process in
a meaningful (i.e. having a voice in and through the research process) way, col-
laborating with me as the researcher, and thus providing a distinct contrast to the
inequitable power-relationships that I (McMahon and Dinan-Thompson 2008)
described during my immersion in the Australian elite swimming culture.
Another consideration was also given to audience. I wanted to provide the
audience/reader with the opportunity to be able to take on and read from the positions
and perspectives of the swimmers, vicariously sharing in their experiences as ado-
lescent elite swimmers and subsequently, as 30–40 year old women. The appropriate
methodology needed to allow the stories of experience—the primary data—to be
presented in such a way that would allow all readers from various backgrounds the
opportunity to access and share in the swimmers’ lived experiences.
Finally, I wanted the participants to gain some purpose from their involvement in
the research and recognized that there may be emancipatory potential in this work.
Specifically, the act of participation could provide an opportunity for the swimmer
participants to seek some clarity, gain new insight and achieve ‘order’ in relation to
their experiences. In my view, the methodology should seek to facilitate and not
deny nor overlook that emancipatory potential. Taking the aforementioned four
points into consideration, narrative ethnography and autoethnography provided
myself and the other two participants with the appropriate space to reveal our
knowing and detail our lived experiences.
248 J. McMahon
Narrative ethnography and autoethnography are both qualitative methodological

approaches that fall under the umbrella of ‘Creative Analytical Practices’ (CAP).
CAP is an overarching term used to represent the different kinds of writing as well
as alternative kinds of arts-based and performance research practices that qualitative
researchers might undertake to ensure the complexity of lived experience is brought
to the fore (Richardson 2000). CAP was established in response to the crisis of
representation, particularly where scientific modes of reporting research have been
seen to misrepresent human experience, in particular inadequately presenting or
describing the lived experiences of those we study. There is no denying that lived
experience is not only complex to understand but also difficult to represent, how-
ever CAP enables researchers to re-create lived experiences in ways that represent
their personal and social meanings (McMahon 2016; Parry and Johnson 2007). The
ability to present the swimmer’s lived experiences in a meaningful way was
paramount and narrative ethnography and autoethnography helped to achieve this.
Paradigms
This research sits across the interpretive and critical paradigms as described by
Crotty (1998), as the goal of the research is to both interpret and empower via a
collaborative narrative and autoethnographic approach. Accessing and under-
standing the swimmers’ social constructions of reality was central. This was
inherently achieved through in-depth examinations of issues through exploratory,
open-ended conversations, prioritizing holistic understandings situated in their lived
experience.
Structure
How Did You Organize Your Thesis to Present Your Data?
A theatrical mode of presentation was identified as offering a unique way to present

the swimmers’ lived experiences. My desire to represent the swimmers’ lived
experiences in this format was also fuelled by the distinct lack of representation of
swimmers’ lived experiences in other sociological and sport literature. Specifically,
my adoption of this format provided the opportunity for the swimmers’ stories to
take ‘centre stage.’ This I felt they deserved, and hopefully in turn would achieve a
high degree of audience engagement. The swimmers’ stories were organized to
collectively form three Acts that reflect the central research theme of body peda-
gogies. The first and second Act doubled as the prequel, revealing the three
swimmers’ experiences at the time of their participation in the Australian swimming
culture as adolescents. Specifically the first Act presented the swimmers’
experiences of body pedagogies occurring as a result of the discourse of perfection.

While the second Act presented the swimmers’ experience of body pedagogies
occurring as a result of the discourse of performance. The third Act was a sequel, a
continuing narrative of Act One and Act Two, detailing the swimmers’ lived bodily
experiences as adults and focused on their present day lives and feelings relating to
the theme of body pedagogies. At the beginning of each Act, a prologue was
included to provide the audience with a preface, a foreshadowing, some back-
ground information relating to the three swimmers and their lives around which the
Act was based.
How Did You Organize Your Thesis to Present Your Results

and the Themes Which Emerged from Your Analysis?
The critique chapter served as an area where I analyzed the body pedagogies
experienced by the three swimmers. The first section of the critique chapter was
dedicated to analyzing what body pedagogies the three swimmers were subjected to
as adolescents within the cultural context of Australian swimming (i.e. featured in
Act One and Act Two), and the effects of these on the swimmers at their time of
participation. The second section of the critique chapter centred on exploring the
‘durability’ (Lee and Macdonald 2010) of the body pedagogies. This was done by
analyzing how the three swimmers engaged with body pedagogies some 10–
30 years after they had left the sport of swimming. This part of the analysis focused
on the extent to which the body pedagogies that the swimmers were exposed to and
participated in during their adolescence were still being adopted (and legitimated),
or alternatively, resisted and challenged as adults. Analysis of the swimmers’ lived
experience revealed the serious extent to which they were subjected to body ped-
agogies and the subsequent effects of them during their participation in the
Australian swimming culture. It was also revealed how all three swimmers, as adult
women continued to engage with body pedagogies highlighting the durability and
detrimental effects of these bodily practices. The critique chapter thus addressed the
notions of exposure and effect of body pedagogies and illustrated the ‘durability’
(Lee and Macdonald 2010) of body pedagogies occurring through discourses of
performance and perfection.
Contents page
Exposition: Calling upon the self
Part A Situating the ethnodrama
Chapter 1 Introducing the actors and the study
Chapter 2 Situating the actors’ voices by investigating the journey of others
Chapter 3 Narrative ethnography and autoethnography: Empowering the participants’
(actors) voices/bodies in and through the research
(continued)
250 J. McMahon
(continued)
Contents page
Exposition: Calling upon the self
Part B The Ethnodrama
Act 1 Prequel – Exposure to a body focused culture
Act 2 Prequel – Exposure to a performance focused culture
Act 3 Sequel – Effects of a performance and perfection focused culture
Part C The Critique
Chapter 5 The Critique
Part D The Conclusion
Closing: Ruminations of a journey
References
process. London, UK: Thousand Oaks.
Kirk, D. (1999). Physical culture, physical education and relational analysis. Sport, Education and
Society, 4(1), 63–75.
Klein, N. (2000). No logo. London: Flamingo.
Lee, J., & Macdonald, D. (2010). Are they just checking our obesity or what? The healthism
discourse and rural young women. Sport, Education and Society Journal, 15(2), 203–219.
McMahon, J. (2016). Creative Analytical Practices. In. B. Smith & A. C. Sparkes (Eds.).
International Handbook of Qualitative Methods in Sport and Exercise. Routledge: Abingdon.
McMahon, J. (2010). Exposure and effect: An investigation into a culture of body pedagogies
(Unpublished PhD thesis). University of Tasmania, Australia.
McMahon, J., & Dinan-Thompson, M. (2008). A malleable body—Revelations from an Australian
elite swimmer. Healthy Lifestyles Journal, 55(1), 23–28.
McMahon, J. (2007). Slim to win: An autoethnography from an Australian elite swimmer
(Honours thesis). Cairns: James Cook University.
Parry, D., & Johnson, C. (2007). Contextualising leisure research to encompass complexity in
lived leisure experience: The need for creative analytical practice. Leisure Sciences, 29(2),
119–130. https://doi.org/10.1080/01490400601160721.
Richardson, L. (2000). Writing: A method of inquiry. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.),
Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 923–948). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Jenny McMahon completed a thesis investigating the short and long term effects of body
practices on swimmers. The chapter about her thesis was based on a Ph.D. completed at the
University of Tasmania under the supervision of Professor Dawn Penney and Associate Professor
Maree Dinan-Thompson. As a former Australian representative swimmer, Jenny experienced
harmful coaching and body practices which had serious and long term effects on her health and
wellbeing. Her own experiences as an elite swimmer provided the impetus for her to find out more
in relation to other swimmers’ experiences. Dr. McMahon continues to work at University of
Tasmania as a Senior Lecturer in the School of Education. She has extensive publications centring
on athlete abuse, educating parents in sport and coach education.
Chapter 25
Arts-Based Research in Education:
Becomings from a Doctoral Research
Perspective
Abbey MacDonald and MaryAnn Hunter
Research Question for the Chapter
What is an appropriate structure for reporting a study exploring the transitory and
reciprocal experience of becoming an artist and teacher, following creative con-
structivist paradigms, and adopting a hybridsed Arts-based, narrative and
autoethnographic methodology?
This chapter charts the unfolding of a dissertation project that engaged with a
hybridised, Arts-based, narrative and autoethnographic methodology. In it, disser-
tation writer Abbey MacDonald discusses the research topic, theory and methods of
the project honouring the entwined ways in which research process and product
were unfolded. This is then further contextualised by her colleague, Mary Ann
Hunter, who brings attention to the recent establishment of the field and the broader
implications and challenges of incorporating Arts-based paradigms and methods in
the academy. As a co-authored chapter, we disentangle and differentiate who is
speaking throughout by referring to ourselves in the third person (e.g. ‘Abbey’).
A. MacDonald (&)
College of Arts, Law and Education (CALE), University of Tasmania,
Newnham Campus, Locked Bag 1362, Launceston, TAS, Australia
e-mail: abbey.macdonald@utas.edu.au
M. Hunter
School of Education, College of Arts, Law and Education, University of Tasmania,
Private Bag 66, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
e-mail: maryann.hunter@utas.edu.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_25
252 A. MacDonald and M. Hunter
Research Questions that Guided Abbey’s Thesis
Abbey’s doctoral research was guided by a parallel concern and curiosity: how
might we create meaningful interaction between artist and teacher selves and
practices, and how might a particular means of inquiry resonate best with its target
audience, being artists and teachers. There were a primary guiding questions around
which Abbey’s doctoral investigation unfolded, this being:
• How do artist and teaching practices impact upon each other?
Two supporting secondary questions then facilitated burrowing into insights
gleaned from the primary question to determine:
• What benefits and difficulties eventuate from maintaining artist and teaching
practices?
• How do art teachers who identify themselves as artists negotiate the relation-
ship between art making and teaching?
In order to gain a sense of how my research paradigm and methodology evolved,
this chapter is guided by two guiding question that we use as a frame for our
meaning making and sharing:
• What is an appropriate structure for reporting a study that explores the tran-
sitory and reciprocal experience of becoming an artist and teacher?
• How can a creative constructivist paradigm enable hybridisation of Arts-based,
narrative and autoethnographic methodologies?
Abbey’s doctoral research investigated becoming an artist and teacher. In doing so,
she explored the ways that artist and teaching practices interact and the implications
these interactions had upon beginning teachers’ transition into professional practice.
The impetus for this study derived from an identified need for research to deliver
further insight into the challenges inherent to becoming an artist and teacher
(Graham and Zwirn 2010; Hall 2010).
As researcher and participant in this study, Abbey’s own experiences as an early
career teacher became data. Her data encapsulated the journey to becoming an
artist, her pre-service teacher training and the first two years of her professional
practice as an art teacher. The other two participants’ data provided perspectives of
established (15 years teaching) and master (40 years teaching) practices of
becoming and being artists and teachers.
First, through the examination of critical events (Webster and Mertova 2007;
Woods 1993), a comprehensive map of the transformative experiences of the
participants becoming artists and teachers was created, within which the critical
motivations, challenges, fears and accomplishments inherent to their unique and
entwined experiences of becoming artists and teachers were made explicit. The
decisions and events that shaped their experiences were shared through a storied
triptych (a single artwork that comprises three separate sections or panels), deliv-
ering richly interwoven ‘pictures’ of becoming artist and teacher. Second,
25 Arts-Based Research in Education: Becomings from a Doctoral … 253
expectations, implications and outcomes of how the participants (including Abbey)

managed the complex interrelationship between artist and teaching practice were
determined through the examination of their identified critical events.
This insight into the complex relations among the practices of being and
becoming and the transversality of novice, established and late-career teacher
experience is significant for its impact on approaches to teacher education, given
that ‘the more we know about how students become teachers, and the factors which
influence their development, the better we will be able to forge teacher education
programs that are genuinely educative’ (Bullough et al. 1991, p. 1). The ways in
which we come to understand the complex and entangled interactions between artist
and teacher are embraced in our interweaving of various fluctuations of rationality,
emotional responses, personal dispositions and structural locations (Day et al. 2006;
Lortie 1975; Nias 1986).
When a novice teacher first encounters professional practice, critical learning
towards their becoming a teacher and artist occurs. Abbey’s investigation was
concerned with understanding the encounters within which ways of being and
performing as artist and teacher could be articulated and, in some cases, challenged.
Typical ways of being in the world are challenged in the movement from pre-service
to professional practice (O’Sullivan 2006; Semetsky 2010). Significant within these
movements were the critical encounters that led to thoughts, decisions and actions.
By focusing on these encounters, Abbey was able to capture moments of becoming
and ‘disjunction between a past in which forces have had some effect, and a future in
which new arrangements of forces can constitute new events’ (Stagoll 2005, p. 27).
This was both powerful and pertinent to cultivating the methodological framework
for Abbey’s doctoral research, as well as for examining and rendering the reciprocal
inter-relationship between artist and teacher practice, and how this in turn shaped,
and was shaped by the becoming art teacher experience.
Attention to any particular practices within Abbey’s doctoral research, whether
they were professional, personal, artist or teacher practice, were informed by the
understanding that practices are always in a state of evolving, changing, or
becoming other (Deleuze 1995). The notion of becoming was also adopted to
conceive the processes that shaped the methodological framework of the investi-
gation. As a beginning art teacher and researcher within her study, Abbey moved
between spaces and places of being and becoming artist, researcher and teacher.
One of the key challenges Abbey faced in being participant and researcher
within her investigation was the assumption that she needed to disentangle these in
order to understand and render their relationship to and from another. The reali-
sation that she was trying to disentangle understandings, identities and practices that
were intrinsically bound and contingent marked a powerful moment in her doctoral
research journey. In working to resolve her methodology and struggling to make
herself fit within a singular and straightforward approach, Abbey found herself so
entangled and conflicted in the journey to becoming artist and teacher that her
writing intuitively shifted into a more divergent and familiar approach that aligned
with her art making practice. Confused and disheartened, she shifted into a space of
creative inquiry, problem posing and solving in order to ‘find her feet’ and attempt
to make sense of the complexities she was encountering. This was where she began
to inquire and write as she would paint (MacDonald 2012; MacDonald et al. 2017).
She started to imagine her approach to conducting the research anew, by referring to
her existing practices and propensities as an artist to help make ideas and the
potential approaches to investigating them ‘more transparent and easy to under-
stand’ (Chen 2003, p. 24). Abbey was then also able to transfer this approach into
her doctoral investigation where she employed various aspects of her artist and
pedagogical practices. In conducting the research, Abbey resolved to unfold and
represent it as genuinely reflective of both struggle and epiphany, inclusive and
constitutive of artist, researcher and teacher lenses.
In yielding to the inter-related complexities of art making, research and teaching,
Abbey moved into something of a ‘research assemblage’ whereby the interactions
between events (E) and research (R) were regarded ‘as productive of a hybrid third
assemblage R/E, with its own affective flow’ (Fox and Alldred 2015, p. 404),
constituent relations, and further data-generating activity. In this way, writing
became Abbey’s method of inquiry (Richardson 2004). As a process of inquiry this
assisted her to come to terms with the challenges of ‘performing’ as an artist,
researcher and teacher in both distinct and inter-related ways, and ultimately con-
tributed to the recognition and confidence she cultivated in her capacities as artist,
researcher and teacher.
This doctoral investigation explored becoming an artist and teacher from three
distinct participant perspectives: early career (Abbey), and established and master
artist and teacher (two other participants). Within this hybridised framework, Abbey
interwove the creative and analytic, where application of perspectives of experience
acknowledged how ‘the self does not exist in isolation’ (Griffin 1999, p. 51), and
enabled exploration of becoming through the shaping and sharing of stories.
Subsequently, this approach encouraged powerful connection-making where the
creative qualities of the study helped activate and increase reader transferability
(Huberman 1989; Webster and Mertova 2007).
A hybridised methodology was adopted, where methods integral to autoethnog-
raphy, narrative inquiry and a/r/tography were drawn together to generate a series of
intricately layered insights into becoming an artist and a teacher. Through these
methodological frames (which incorporated the emerging methodology of a/r/
tography to map the experience and relations of artist/teacher/researcher), Abbey
co-constructed, narrated and rendered the stories of herself and two other artists and
teachers into a metanarrative. Through this interweaving, constructivist aspects of
narrative research methods are solidified within ‘a collaborative venture between the
research and participants’ (Saldaña 2009, p. 111). As participant and researcher,
Abbey worked as a bricoleur (Levi-Strauss 1962), interacting with the research
process and other participants to co-construct renderings to encapsulate individual
and shared meanings. In this process, emphasis was placed upon participants’
capacity to offer unique contributions pertinent to fulfilling the overarching objec-
tives of the investigation, rather than ensuring each person, regardless of appropri-
ateness, contributed a quantifiable or equal share. It was decided that a story where
one of our voices performed as the through-line was much easier to follow, and this
aligned with the ‘truths’ of narrative accounts ‘not being in their faithful represen-
tations of a past world, but in the shifting connections they forge among past, present,
and future’ (Reissman 2001, p. 400).
In this process, it was not necessary to ensure participants’ contributions were
‘equal’. For instance, where one participant’s voice resonated well with the ‘truths’
of the personal narrative accounts, their text was selected to act as a through-line.
Such accounts were not about being ‘faithful representations of a past world’ but in
acknowledging ‘the shifting connections they forge among past, present, and
future’ (Reissman 2001, p. 400).
In collaboratively identifying the situational, temporal and social aspects of how
we perceived the relationship between artist and teacher selves, we discerned the
points of convergence for our individual, collective, and cultural stories (Clandinin
and Connelly 2000). These were drawn from our narrative field texts, which
included interview transcripts, conversational anecdotes, reflections, prose and
imagery. The design of this investigation aligned with what Beattie (1995)
describes as ‘collaborative, qualitative approaches where the concept of interacting
narratives is used to further explore the meanings of teaching, learning and pro-
fessional interactions’ (p. 66). It was in and through the layers of these narratives of
how a person can become an artist, and then how that artist can become a teacher,
that richly detailed renderings emerged.
The paradigmatic qualities of Arts Based Research (ABR) continue to evolve, as

does interest in its possibilities and contentions from academic communities (Harris
et al. 2015). As an evolving paradigm for research, ABR is interchangeably referred
to as Arts informed research, Arts informed inquiry, and Arts based inquiry
amongst other subtle variations (Barone and Eisner 2012; Knowles and Cole 2008;
Ewing and Hughes 2008). A shared understanding in relation to the ambitions of
ABR is that Arts processes can be applied to enact meaningful systematic inquiry in
social research, and that the process and forms of research and representation can be
informed by the Arts, rather than being based in the Arts or even, perhaps, being
about them (Knowles and Cole 2008).
The framework for this particular ABR study embraced a creative constructivist
paradigm, aligning with naturalistic qualitative method approaches (Hatch 2002),
for which autoethnography, narrative inquiry and a/r/tography—as a distinct form
of ABR—are well suited. This constructivist approach to research invited con-

versation about meaning and as such became predisposed to acts of collaboration.
A creative constructivist approach allowed for the production of vibrant collabo-
rations between the participants, wherein sharing of individual narratives enabled
collaboration ‘in the telling and retelling of stories of our past and in the co-creation
of stories for the present and the future’ (Beattie 1995, p. 65). In doing so, Abbey
drew from bricolage as a visual arts process, where art works are created through
the piecing together of ‘bits and pieces’ at hand, and bricolage as ontological lens,
which enabled me to ‘speak not only with things, but through the medium of things’
(Levi-Strauss 1962, p. 21).
Structure
Abbey worked as a bricoleur to build the framework for this study, where she
interwove various aspects (both methodologically and metaphorically) into a col-
lage of detailed rhizomatic complexity. To describe something as rhizomatic infers
a ‘flat system in which individual points are connected to one another in a
non-hierarchical manner, having the capacity to foster transversal connections and
communications’ (O’Sullivan 2006, p. 12). In perceiving ‘becoming’ as rhizomatic,
becoming an artist and teacher as unfolding within this investigation was imagined
as working from the centre out, capturing comings and goings rather than begin-
nings and endings (Semetsky 2006).
In perceiving ‘becoming’ as rhizomatic, Abbey imagined the investigation to
work from a centre outward—not as a linear journey of beginning to end. This
rhizomatic motif informed the collage processes adopted to create the storied trip-
tych. Abbey utilised a metaphoric construct and exploration to guide her through the
tribulations of refining methodological approaches to undertaking research, a pro-
cess which eventuated in her likening the thesis structure to the procedural stages of
creating an artwork, specifically oil painting (MacDonald 2012; MacDonald et al.
2017). Within this structure, Abbey worked towards the creation of the triptych as an
interpretive expression of data; a multimodal representation of the collective
exploration of becoming artists and teachers. The metanarrative was arranged as a
triptych, where three ‘panels’ of analysis, voice and prose were collated to show the
aligning and contrasting ways the participants experienced relations and connections
(MacDonald and Moss 2015) between becoming and being artists and teachers.
Figure 25.1 provides a visual representation of the thesis structure, in alignment
with the imagining of Abbey’s thesis as painting. It shows how the sections of the
thesis were arranged to reflect her use of tools and mediums to create a painting:
While not all ABR theses would be expected to mirror conventional thesis
structures, in its use of the painting process metaphor Abbey’s work reflected an
Fig. 25.1 Visual representation of thesis structure
alignment with standard thesis chapter organization as the following contents page
of the dissertation demonstrates:
Contents page
1: Stretching the Frame (Introduction)
2: An Existing Picture (Literature Review)
3: Preparing the Tools (Methodology)
4: Navigating the Data (A triptych of becoming artist and teacher)
4.1: Becoming – Artist
4.2: Becoming – Pre-service Teacher
4.3: Becoming – Teacher and Artist
5: The Critique - Unpacking Our Pictures of Becoming
6: Reflections and Revelations
Commentary
Throughout Abbey’s thesis are excerpts from her art-work and critical/creative
reflective writing (as above), produced as part of a process of formative problem
posing and addressing. The hybridized methodology allowed for diverse engage-
ment of artist-, teacher- and researcher identified-selves to problematise, consider
and reimagine becoming an artist and teacher from the perspectives of self and other.
It is within such creative constructivist ways of working that teachers and artists can
be drawn to reflect on and transform their own beliefs, knowledge and practice.
Arts Based Research in the Academy
Arts based research offers a creative paradigm for investigating the uncertain,
valuing the non-discursive, and noticing the usually overlooked. Used across and
within diverse disciplines—most frequently in the Arts, education, health and
sociology—Arts based methods of research do not seek to replace empiricist
approaches, but to open qualitative enquiry to new ways of representing and
generating knowledge.
Arts based research allows for non-reductive inquiry into complexity and is
found embedded in always shifting methodological innovation, for example in
areas such as visual sociology that might regularly feature video ethnography and
photo elicitation. Research processes become neither limited nor over determined
by processes of codification, hypothesizing or generalization as aesthetic principles,
values and practices are foregrounded. Arts based activity—whether used to gen-
erate data, represent data, analyze data or be data—invites multiple methodological
partners and theoretical alliances to enable valid and robust scholarship and a
unique valuing of context and the not yet known.
As Abbey’s project shows, Arts based research is not without formal and sys-
tematised ways of working and here she applied clear procedural methods familiar
to the auto-ethnographer as well as the narrative researcher. But rather than pre-
scribe a singular set of methods, Arts based research scholars have drawn attention
to and fostered a diversity of approaches that sit under its broad umbrella of
inductive principles. In giving form to this emerging field of research, Sinner et al.
(2006) identified key attributes of more than 30 dissertations of Arts based research
that had been successfully completed in the Education Faculty of the University of
British Columbia in the 10 years from 1996 to 2006–. These attributes have become
the defining foundational features of what we now recognize as ‘A/r/tography’, a
specific strand of Arts based research in the education studies field that equally
values the teacher as researcher and artist (without the professional industry cir-
cumscription of such). These attributes align fairly closely with the ten ‘funda-
mental ideas’ of Arts based research as outlined by Barone and Eisner (2012) that
centre on the role and value of the aesthetic in making and contesting meaning, the
importance of ‘enquiry-laden processes’ (Sinner et al. 2006, p. 1223), and the
raising of ‘significant questions’ whose purpose is to ‘engender conversations rather
than to proffer final meanings’ (Barone and Eisner 2012, p. 166). These principles
are made manifest in Leavy’s oft-cited handbook for the Arts based research
enthusiast, Method Meets Art (2009), now in its second edition (2015). Here,
sociologist and independent scholar and writer, Leavy offers examples of Arts
based projects in action and raises core questions and criteria for evaluation and
assessment. Key to such questions of assessment of postgraduate dissertations is the
degree to which individual Faculties are able to foster and thereby sustain famil-
iarity and confidence in the work of Arts based research which, more often than not,
serves interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary enquiry. As Leavy and others point
out, it is through continued collective efforts among researchers to build cultures of
creative research practice within and across universities that will enable robust
critical engagement and growth in the field to occur. While Leavy offers guidelines
for assessment in her text, systemic growth in the understanding of the potential of
Arts based research as a valid, critical, socially engaging and impactful approach to
generating knowledge will strengthen supervisors’ confidence and dissertation
researchers’ commitment to employing an innovative paradigm such as this.
Arts based dissertations may look and feel different to those usually showcased in
research methods classes. Yet, the characteristics of deep conceptualization, gener-
ative theorization, and impactful engagement with diverse ways of knowing offer an
enlivened new rendering of the contemporary universities’ public interface. Measures
of impact often go beyond citation indexes into the ‘heart’ of what matters as many,
though not all, cases of Arts based research require a public beyond its participants to
fully realise its expressive potential and qualities (for contemporary examples see
Harris et al. 2015). In research terms, its affect can matter as much as its effect.
We conclude by returning to Abbey’s work and the position that Arts based
researchers take in defying singular definition and claims of limited generalizable
value. Arts based theses, while often contextual and contingent, are often more than
the sum of their parts. In her now awarded, published and acclaimed work, Abbey
joins a growing critical mass of researchers internationally who, in Sinner et al.’s

words, enquire into the nature of research itself by:
continu[ing] to devise original ways to render academic research so that researchers may
muse on the aesthetics, consider the ambiguity, and reside in the divergence such disser-
tations generate.
(2006, p. 1254)
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University Press.
Deleuze, G., & Guattari, F. (1987). Dialogues. London, United Kingdom: Athlone Press.
Ewing, R., & Hughes, J. (2008). Arts-informed inquiry in teacher education: Contesting the myths.
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Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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University of New York Press.
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Press.
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metaphor can be used to refine approaches to conducting research. Paper presented at the
Australian Association for Research in Education Conference, Sydney, Australia.
MacDonald, A. (2014). Intertwined: Becoming artist and teacher. (Unpublished PhD dissertation).
University of Tasmania, Launceston, Tasmania, Australia.
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research. Qualitative Research Journal, 15(4), 445–458.
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Abbey MacDonald is a Lecturer in Arts at the University of Tasmania, where she specialises in
visual art curriculum, pedagogy and practice. Dr. MacDonald is an Arts-based researcher who
completed her Ph.D. degree in 2014 at the University of Tasmania under the supervision of
Timothy Moss and Jenny McMahon. Dr. MacDonald’s Ph.D. explored becoming artist and teacher
from a Deleuzean perspective. Post Ph.D., she works in the methodological applications of a/r/
tographic inquiry, and development of tools to support participant, researcher and teacher
engagement with and in relational art inquiry. Her research contexts include professional learning
collaboration, teacher embodiment and enactment of curriculum, and exploring intersections
between pedagogy and methodology. Dr MacDonald is a practicing visual artist and curator,
working in oils and cross media. She is Vice President of Art Education Australia (AEA).
Mary Ann Hunter is Senior Lecturer in Drama Education, University of Tasmania. Alongside
national and international consultancy work in cultural policy development, she researches in the
fields of arts education and peacebuilding with current interests in the role of curiosity in
educational at the, mentoring, evaluation and curriculum design, and applied arts encounters.
Chapter 26
Silent, Invisible and Under-Supported?
An Autoethnographic Journey Through
the Valley of the Shadow of Youth
Mental Health in Australia
Anne Hugo
Research Question
This study follows the interpretivist paradigm and uses autoethnography as both a
methodology and a method to answer the research question, How might a mother’s
autoethnographic account of her son “falling through the cracks” help us to better
understand and support Australian youth experiencing mental illness?
I wanted to explore, in a scholarly manner, how the life and death of one young
man (my younger son) might, in the words of Pelias (2015) ‘matter to a given
community, [and] how telling a personal story might function in the social world,
how sharing a tale might do needed cultural work’. My quest for meaning after the
experience of my son’s mental illness and his death unfolded against the backdrop
of youth studies. Ironically I had worked in youth studies but this did not prepare
me for my first-hand experience, as a parent, of the disjunctions between youth
mental health policy promises and the reality of youth mental illness. I began to
hope that parents, teachers, educators and others who work with young people
might find my research story useful in their own lives and relationships and that
some good could come from my account.
My scholarly purpose excluded any therapeutic aim, as my university instructed
me not to use my thesis as an opportunity for catharsis. It was certainly an
opportunity for honouring my son’s life in some way. Interestingly, after my thesis
A. Hugo (&)
School of Education, College of Arts, Law and Education,
University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS 7000, Australia
e-mail: anne.hugo@utas.edu.au; anne.hugo@gmail.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_26
264 A. Hugo
was completed, the scholar Arthur W. Frank, whom I had written to thank for his
illness narratives, asked me, ‘Did writing help? Or not?’ (private communication,
July 2017). I sought to connect ‘personal troubles to public issues’ (Mills 1959,
pp. 185, 187). Parents, along with those in the ‘helping professions’ and researchers
in many diverse disciplines, all share the same desire to improve the lives of young
people, but sometimes speak a different language when it comes to mental illness.
While psychiatrists can identify the early onset of psychiatric illness in youth (the
‘prodrome’), parents and other non-professionals can easily mistake such signs, and
so miss the opportunity for swift intervention.
While formulating my research question, I wrestled with a conundrum: if the old
African proverb, It takes a village to raise a child, is right, then what does it take to
support the child grown older and in desperate need of communal support. Where is
‘the village’ then? At the time of my son’s illness, the ground-breaking,
youth-friendly, centre-based mental health care program for young people in
Australia, ‘headspace’, existed in only one city, and wholistic models of inter-
vention for early psychosis like the Finnish ‘open dialogue’ model had not yet come
into being. My thesis vindicates ideas of such team approaches to youth mental
health, where professionals from different sectors, along with the family and others
close to the mentally ill person, all work together for positive outcomes.
I explored several qualitative approaches, including narrative inquiry, types of

ethnography and case study in order to find an appropriate methodology for my
research question, before settling on autoethnography.
As a poet I hoped to accommodate sociologist Andrew Abbott’s (2007) plea for
‘the lyrical impulse’ to be present in research writing, where the use of ‘a single
image’ is able to ‘communicate a mood, an emotional sense of social reality’ (p. 73).
One such image was crucial to the genesis of my thesis: that of a tarnished grail-like
cup, half obscured in forest undergrowth. Near the completion of my thesis, this
image returned, unbidden, laid bare as a shining, burnished bowl in a forest clearing,
a symbolic gift. Writing was the way to clear away the undergrowth, metaphorically
speaking, and retrieve ‘meaning’, and new ‘angles of vision’ (Peshkin 2001) about
youth mental health. This writing, unlike the ‘writing up’ a student traditionally
undertakes at the late stage of their thesis, is the ‘method of inquiry’ (Richardson
1994). As a methodology, such writing begins early, and sets method in motion.
Autoethnographic writing seeks to achieve the research purpose of the interpretivist
paradigm, namely, ‘to understand’, and to that end it dictates the thesis structure. As
the container for ‘subjective knowledge’ (Denzin and Lincoln 2018, p. 761),
autoethnography dovetails with an interpretivist approach, and when completed, it is
the vehicle for achieving research ‘results’ and ‘interpretation’.
Autoethnography can ‘allow for the production of new knowledge by a unique
and uniquely situated researcher’, offering ‘small-scale knowledge’ to ‘inform
26 Silent, Invisible and Under-Supported? An Autoethnographic … 265
specific problems and specific situations’ (Wall 2006, p. 4, drawing on Denzin and
Lincoln 1994, p. 17). As a methodology, autoethnography emerged in the latter part
of the last century, during successive changes or ‘moments’ in qualitative inquiry
that continue to this day. In the third, ‘blurred genres’ moment, autoethnography
‘overlaps with, and is indebted to research and writing practices in anthropology,
sociology, psychology, literary criticism, journalism, and communication’ (Holman
Jones 2008, p. 208). ‘In the fourth—the crisis of representation’ (Denzin and
Lincoln 2000a, p. 3, 2000b)—autoethnography was influenced by the crucial
question, ‘How should I be toward these people I am studying?’ (Schwandt 2000,
p. 203). This was a crucial question for me writing about my lost son. In the
postmodern moment of qualitative research, autoethnography was seen as a ‘cre-
ative analytical practice’ (Richardson 2000) that could integrate analytical science
with the creative arts (Adler and Adler 2008, p. 15).
Autoethnographies typically traverse a longer time frame than traditional
ethnographies (Altheide and Johnson 2011, p. 584). Mine spans three decades,
which include my 15-year working life in youth studies, my son’s 21 years of life,
the 10 years following his death, and my four-year thesis journey. While the field of
youth studies provided a neat conceptual framework, I had a very practical need for
an organising principle for my disparate, scattered data which was based in primary
printed and handwritten sources, personal journaling, poetry, artefacts, photographs
and a variety of other material. Creating my autoethnography had as much to do with
‘compiling’ as it did with actual writing—research work that was not always visible
to my supervisors, who kept asking me, What was my data, and, How much data did
I have? Eventually they began asking, Where was my data? Did I have any data? I
prevaricated, because in truth, I was battling to organise my material—a word more
descriptive of my data, which sometimes was as physical and tactile as cloth.
Autoethnographic practice is a refracting crucible whereby the researcher, in the
process of writing an autoethnography, also performs what goes by the name of
data collection and data analysis in a traditional thesis, and performs an interpre-
tation of that data too. My thesis therefore depends on my own autoethnographic
account of what happened in our own small family for its analysis and interpre-
tation. This illustrates how the term ‘autoethnography’ refers not only to a
methodology, but also to a method; it is both a process and a product (Meerwald
2013, p. 45; Reed-Danahay 1997). The autoethnographic text, the product resulting
from autoethnographic practice, becomes a further part of the researcher’s data.
Rather than using time or theme as organising principles for my autoethnography
and literature review, I used the idea of perspective. This gave me three vantage
points from which my ‘lived experience’ and its tacit knowledge could be used. The
first two perspectives were ‘mother’ battling to help son, and my ‘youth studies’
self. These ‘selves’ inform the first autoethnographic Chapter 4, and my Literature
Review. The third perspective, that of an ‘autoethnographic self’, emerges in
Chapter 5 and eventually pervades all chapters. Using a multifaceted self (youth
studies self, mother self, researcher self) echoes Cortazzi’s (1993) idea of ‘the self
now recalling then, the self now interpreting the self then from the present self’s
perspective …’ (p. 12). This layered ‘positionality’ and the notion of a fluid self
266 A. Hugo
suited my use of autoethnography, with its ‘uncertain, fluid, and becoming sub-
jectivities’ (Adams and Holman Jones 2011, p. 110) and far from being problem-
atic, helped me to develop verstehn.
This stage, of writing the autoethnography, corresponded to the second of the six
stages that Moustakas (1990) speaks of as typical of any heuristic research project:
‘immersion’. The immersive stage follows after what Moustakas calls ‘initial
engagement’. It did not always produce writing that I could happily share. My very
patient and understanding supervisors (advisors?) hinted I was at risk of not
completing my thesis in time, since it appeared I had still not written the
autoethnography. Yet I was deeply engaged with my autoethnographic process,
organising my unconventional material into my own form of data sets, debating
with myself what I would exclude, and making decisions about how best to present
material in autoethnographic form. Sometimes I felt overwhelmed by both the
quantity and the grief-laden nature of this material. However, once I had organised
my fragments and first drafts – my ‘battle texts’—I could move from the ‘im-
mersive’ stage to subsequent stages of ‘incubation, illumination, explication, and
culmination in a creative synthesis’ (Moustakas 1990; Wall 2006, p. 4).
During the immersive stage, I used storyboarding to draw the map I could see in
my mind’s eye, one I knew I must ‘translate’ well for travellers to my text. I needed
to fit my data into the countryside of the Youthland I knew so well from my work in
youth studies—the backdrop of my conceptual framework. Across that terrain, the
separate train tracks of my son’s life and mine were headed for disaster. I saw with
hindsight the stations and signal posts which should have rung alarm bells. I labelled
these turning points with my ‘sensitising concepts’ which soon morphed into themes
and leitmotifs for the thesis. I was choreographing the autoethnography’s separate
movements—working out story and key events on a figurative stage, setting scenes,
deciding what elements from youth studies to use as backdrop—as my conceptual
framework. Here, I grappled with theory. From a critical standpoint, how would this
piece of data, that vignette, this exemplar, that poem, help address the wider cultural
questions of my thesis? My storyboard was literally my ‘space for knowing’, for
doing ‘spatial thinking’ (Koro-Ljungberg et al. 2009, p. 696). I was writing into the
unknown. I learned to allow, and even trust, writing into the dark.
In this mapping and interrogation of my data, my autoethnographic method turned
hybrid, experimental in its wandering like a bower bird into the realms of poetic
inquiry and narrative inquiry, taking elements from here and there if they suited my
(autoethnographic) purposes. I found it especially expedient to borrow a method from
narrative inquiry, namely, Clandinin and Connelly’s (2000) idea of a narrative ‘three
dimensional inquiry space’. That I was drawn to use a method from narrative inquiry
shows how porous the boundaries are between methodologies like autoethnography
and narrative inquiry—but then both methodologies share a common interpretivist
epistemology, and researchers like the autoethnographer Art Bochner (2000, 2012)
work seamlessly in narrative inquiry. Many I respect advised me to remove all
mention of the use of a method native to narrative inquiry, since my stated approach
was autoethnography. Yet in truth it had been helpful to my process to see, in a
methodology I was not using, the ‘dimensions’ of what was happening on my map.
In Clandinin and Connelly’s three-dimensional inquiry space I saw almost literally a

triangular trellis or frame on which to grow my autoethnography. It was a way to give
structure not to my thesis, but to my autoethnography.
The first of Clandinin and Connelly’s inquiry spaces—‘the backwards and
forwards, temporality of experience’—helped to structure the first part of my
autoethnography, ironically titled ‘My chronology of knowing’, where a non-linear
‘temporal framework’ (Bochner 2000, p. 270) based in memory work is asyn-
chronous, because my knowledge of my son’s life lagged behind. Here, ‘fast for-
ward’ moments and short exemplars or ‘artefacts’, placed out of sequence as text
boxes, presage later significant events.
The second and third dimensional inquiry spaces have obvious parallels with
autoethnography’s dual focus on the ‘inward, internal conditions’ and the ‘outward,
external conditions’ where autoethnography’s cultural ‘I’ operates. The ‘outward,
external conditions’, of school, work, home life and most of all, hospital and
medical settings, contrast with the ‘inward’ experiences of my own life and my
son’s. Insights come through poems scattered throughout the autoethnography,
where the ‘internal conditions’ reveal their larger, cultural meanings.
By using these ‘dimensions’ autoethnographically, my experience of youth
mental health extends beyond the frame of the personal out into research contexts,
to the ‘external conditions’ of culture explicated in the final Discussion Chapter.
At the start of my study, I put myself through ‘epistemological bootcamp’ (Staller

2013) in order to find out which research paradigm and which methodology best
suited my aims and research question. I found myself positioned at ‘the left end of
the continuum [valuing] humanistic, openly subjective knowledge’ (Denzin and
Lincoln 2018; Ellingson 2011), using qualitative inquiry as an approach and
autoethnography as a methodology.
An interpretive paradigmatic approach and a subjective epistemology suited both
my topic and my methodology. Autoethnography as a means to gaining under-
standing in youth mental health revealed deeper themes within my topic such as
shame, and stigma. Although I was not using critical theory, I needed a critical lens
to help me to raise questions about what might be done to effect change in young
people’s lives when they suffer mental illness. I therefore chose to use critical
autoethnography (Holman Jones 2016) of all the many types of autoethnography
that have evolved (such as analytical, evocative, or interpretivist, collaborative,
performative, dialogic, and other forms at the fringes of qualitative inquiry). To
define critical autoethnography, Adams et al. (2014) borrow words from Jim
Thomas’s (1993) Doing critical ethnography: it is a method that ‘facilitates ‘social
consciousness and societal change’, aids ‘emancipatory goals’, and negates
‘repressive’ cultural influences’ (Adams et al. 2014, p. 147, note 40).
268 A. Hugo
A defining feature of critical autoethnography is ‘citationality’ (Holman Jones

2016), where references to external, cultural contexts and to the literature interact
with theory, in order to articulate ‘ideas, feelings, understandings, and calls to
action’ (Holman Jones 2016, p. 234). Inserting the literature into the fibre of the
story helped me write my thesis and echo the process of discovery-while-writing
and the ‘procedural nature’ of this kind of research (Ellis et al. 2011, p. 278).
Autoethnographic elements are interspersed within the literature review, just as the
literature is interspersed within the autoethnography and other chapters.
Unlike many students, I wrote my methodology chapter first, not the literature
review chapter. While I had examined the literature for my research proposal, I
worked with the literature while creating the autoethnography, drawing on research
resources to underpin my writing. The literature review serves as a prelude to the
autoethnography, providing the theoretical background to the fields of study over
which the autoethnography ranges. An advantage in writing the literature review
chapter late in the piece was that it used the autoethnographic voice already
developed for the thesis as a whole.
Structure
Using the overarching paradigm of interpretivism meant I was writing the

autoethnography in order to understand. To enable the autoethnography to reflect
on my research question, the contents of the autoethnography had to be tightly
framed. However, the autoethnographic method is exploratory not explanatory, and,
as David Kember writes in Chapter 40, ‘exploratory projects mitigate against
detailed planning’.
In terms of research design, autoethnographies can be seen as ‘case studies that
follow the tradition of ethnographic research’ (Duncan 2004, p. 29). My study
could be seen to use a case study design frame, where my story and my son’s as
single cases nested within each other are presented autoethnographically.
The first autoethnographic Chapter 4 traces the often non-linear account of my
son’s life, from migration to Australia in babyhood, through schooling, university
and his eventual death. His death is not the end-point of the autoethnography—a
second autoethnographic Chapter 5 explores the ‘broken dialogue’ in mental health
policy and service settings, laying bare a disjunction between the lay and profes-
sional views of mental illness. Chapter 6 maintains an autoethnographic approach,
instead of explicitly listing implications for practice, policy and future research in a
traditional format.
The thesis begins with a traditional thesis structure, with an ‘Introduction’
followed by ‘Literature review’ and ‘Methodology’ but from then on, the tightly
integrated nature of autoethnography as methodology, as method and as a text,
dictated the thesis structure. To aid the reader, I provided a clear outline of the
thesis structure in Chapter 1 (Introduction).
Contents page
Chapter 2 Literature review: An ‘ecology of knowing’
Chapter 4 My chronology of knowing: An autoethnography
Part 1: ‘Normal’. Everyman. LIFE.
Part 2: An anatomy of fear
Chapter 5 An analysis of silence
Part 1: Working with silence
Part 2: Interpreting my son through a foreign language
Chapter 6 Discussion: An ‘ecology of understanding’
Chapter 7 Coda: Quests and journeys: The woundedness of youth
Chapter 8 References
Commentary
My theoretical and conceptual framework was based in youth studies, where many
disciplines share an interest in youth but have very different paradigmatic and
theoretical approaches, providing fruitful points of tension for a qualitative inquirer
to exploit. I used ‘sensitising concepts’ (Tracy 2013, p. 28) for building my con-
ceptual framework, but in an inductive study, a conceptual framework can evolve
(Leshem and Trafford 2007). My sensitising concepts had supplied the ‘general
signposts’ (Leshem and Trafford 2007, p. 96) to set my study in motion and
storyboard the autoethnography. However, they were the ‘what’ but not the ‘why’
of my study, and once I began writing the autoethnography, my sensitising concepts
fell away like scaffolding. In their place, organising concepts emerged, derived
from my wrestling with my research question. Here I found the ‘through-lines’ or
leitmotifs for my study: the idea of ‘knowing’ and its converse, ‘un-knowing’, were
soon followed by other pivotal organising concepts that took me into deeper ter-
ritory where underlying issues, like ‘shame’ and ‘stigma’ revealed themselves.
These leitmotifs helped structure the thematic or topical content of the thesis and
ultimately helped my critique of Australian youth mental health.
By keeping myself open to what emerged as I wrote my autoethnographic text,
the direction of the research became determined by my autoethnographic
methodology rather than by a predetermined conceptual framework. By far the most
difficult section of the thesis to write was the autoethnography, which required
writing the autoethnographic text and also writing ‘about the process of writing and
the context in which that writing occurred’ (Wall 2008, p. 40). I needed to ‘show
not tell’ my ‘methodological transparency’ (Koro-Ljungberg et al. 2009, p. 687)
without seeming to pop up like a meerkat to tell a meta-story about how I wrestled
with this or that problem of method or of data, which was often excruciatingly
270 A. Hugo
difficult. Writing an autoethnography is hard to do well, and for the would-be

autoethnographer, ‘abandonment is … a common practice’ (Bruni 2002, p. 32;
Denshire 2014, p. 842). However, once the autoethnography was written, I could
write other chapters with ease as I had found a consistent autoethnographic voice.
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Anne Hugo worked as a librarian and editor at a national youth information clearinghouse based at
the University of Tasmania prior to embarking on a master’s by research degree there. Her
experience in youth studies and as a mother watching her son’s unravelling mental health
underpins her thesis, which was completed in 2017 under the supervision of Dr. Kerry Howells
and Dr. Sharon Thomas. Anne is also a published poet (writing as Anne Kellas). Her collection,
The White Room Poems, was shortlisted in the Tasmanian Premier’s literary awards, also in 2017.
She teaches poetry, mentors writers, and gardens passionately.
Part E
Emerging Theories
Chapter 27
Emergent Theory and/as Doctoral
Research
Michael Corbett and Bill Green
Abstract In this chapter we provide a conceptual context for this last section of the
book, as well as an overview of the chapters contained in it. In particular we discuss
the key concept of emergence, as what we see as a distinctive feature of more recent
kinds of doctoral research. This is research that is increasingly marked by its
engagement with new and emergent theory, on the one hand, and also, on the other
hand, by its own emergent character—its movement toward understanding, and
relatedly, its heightened awareness of writing as a practice. In such work, research
is writing, moving towards its own articulation and hence more often than not it
constitutes a form of discovery in its own right. This presents particular challenges
for doctoral researchers and their supervisors, but in our view opens up the field
considerably.
Introduction
In this chapter, we want to foreground notions of practice and emergence in

thinking about education research and, in particular, doctoral studies. This is to
build on what seems to be a new sensibility in the field, emerging over the past two
or three decades, which is increasingly open to theory. More often than not this
work is increasingly innovative and even transgressive in what it takes to be
research and its development. Theory is seen as itself a practice, and indeed a way
of thinking and writing. Engaging with theory, with new and emergent theory,
becomes therefore, a form of theoretical practice. Doctoral work framed thus,
involves working differently, with different research practices. What would it mean
to understand research as a particular kind of writing practice? What changes if we
M. Corbett (&)
B. Green
Charles Sturt University, Bathurst, Australia
e-mail: bigreen@csu.edu.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_27
276 M. Corbett and B. Green
see writing as practice, but also research as writing? What are the implications and
challenges for research education?
Elsewhere, it has been suggested that research and its associated scholarship is
usefully understood in terms of ‘emergent methodologies’ and the so-called com-
plexity turn (Green 2015). ‘Understanding research as practice … involves focusing
on the practice of research, on how research unfolds, how it is done, or gets done,
on doing research’ (p. 6). Moreover: ‘[T]here is always an emergent quality to
research-as-practice’ (Green 2009, p. 13; cited Green 2015, p. 8). This was seen to
be relevant, in varying ways and to varying degrees, in research more generally—
although it is something rarely acknowledged. But it is especially evident in newer
kinds of work, including doctoral research. With that in mind, the contributors in
this section were provided with the Green paper, as a possible reference-point for
their chapters, although that was not prescribed. In what follows, we provide a
commentary on the framing principles for the section as a whole, before going on to
consider the chapters themselves.
Becoming Research: On Emergence in Education Research
The idea of emergence is fundamentally about explaining complex phenomena in

ways that recognize and attend to the always-becoming, yet more or less stable
appearance that these phenomena take. Deleuze and Guattari (1983, 1987), for
instance, offer a dynamic way of thinking about the more or less durable entities
that have been framed within the social sciences, humanities and philosophy as
social, political, psychological or economic structures. To focus principally on the
stability, durability and even permanence of psychological, social, economic, nar-
rative or linguistic structures for instance, tends to imagine human world that is
largely predictable. As Giddens (1979) pointed out in his early work, sociology is
not innocent and it represents a social act or intervention in itself. Thus, a structural
framing of human activity and collective life subsequently creates a residue in
which social research tends to support established arrangements of power, and even
the very power imbalances that structural analysis purport to unmask (Foucault
1980; Rancière 2004).
Durable patterns of conduct and institutional practice appear in this poststruc-
tural(ist) framing as fundamentally unstable constructions that morph through time
and across space, influencing what social actors do but never determining anything.
Structures may be said to exist but, as E. P. Thompson (1978) quipped, comparing
the structural Marxism of Louis Althusser to Newton’s physical model of the
universe (the ‘orrery’), if we take our structural model building too seriously we
inevitably create an ‘orrery of errors’. As an historian, Thompson reacted strongly
to the popularity of structural theory as a foundation for understanding and
explaining agency both contemporary and in historical context. His magisterial
study, The Making of the English Working Class used exhaustive historical
27 Emergent Theory and/as Doctoral Research 277
documentation to construct a nuanced picture of how the agency of diverse people

living and working in similar historical circumstances resulted in patterns of living
that generated common, yet never static practices and alignment of interests. Class,
for Thompson, is a collection of creative cultural practices, rather than a position
within an economic machinery that more or less determines behavior and
possibilities.
For the purposes of our work here, the idea of emergence relates to what is
different about the chapters in this section. In some ways, there is little difference
between some of the work in this section and that in other sections, particularly the
Interpretive section contributions. For the pieces we categorise here as ‘emergent’,
theory and the act of writing itself plays a central role in the constitution of the
research act. There is less of a tendency in these pieces to imagine, imply or, indeed,
to posit that theory is derived thematically (either deductively or inductively) from a
more or less formal qualitative, quantitative, or even quasi-positivistic treatment of
data as much educational research, including many of the pieces in this collection
do. In other words, as Green (2015) argues, this work can be traced back to older
traditions of scholarship that predate both the qualitative-quantitative paradigm
wars and the positivist traditions that arose in the last half of the 20th century aimed
at creating a linear, philosophically unsophisticated and technocratic formula for
doing social research (Giddens 1973, 1976). It is the writing itself and the schol-
arship that supports the writing and the ideas that are generated in the process of
scholarly inquiry that shapes the inquiry and the writing that are central here. At the
same time, such work can be understood as part of a new ‘postmodern’ framing of
research and scholarship, across the cultural and intellectual field.
The idea of emergence itself reflects a way of approaching the research act that
explicitly recognizes and attempts to account for reflexivity, not only in terms of the
way that the researcher is necessarily implicated in research, but also in the sense
that the ideas that the researcher employs themselves inflect and structure the nature
of the inquiry and also how findings are interpreted. To paraphrase Deleuze and
Guattari (1987), such research is ‘becoming’ research—that is, most of these pieces
are not so much offering a picture of social phenomena as they ‘are’ (contrast the
study of a ‘social being’ and a ‘social becoming’) but, rather, an account of research
as an intervention in social life that is immersed in the situation. This process itself
is understood to influence the situation’s relentlessly dynamic and always unpre-
dictable unfolding. The theoretical supports for this work are poststructural (and
post-foundational), and this orientation neither imagines a stable and structured
social world, nor does it seek to produce one in the research act itself.
Because it is nonstandard and emergent, and we think because these pieces in
various ways confound the kinds of standard procedures outlined in typical research
training books and manuals, they are necessarily theoretical in orientation. There is
much that needs to be explained in an emergent study, particularly how the
researcher journeys into a becoming-problem or research question, and navigates
through it toward and end that can pass as academic research. Most of the chapters
in this section directly address this struggle as candidate and supervisor navigate
and negotiate a project that doesn’t so much follow standard research conventions,
as challenge them, and sometimes play with them.
In most standard research texts, work of this sort either does not appear, or gets
gestured toward near the end of the text and certainly after the beginning researcher
has been shown the ropes of standard quantitative and qualitative social research.
The approach in standard social educational research training texts is typically
formulaic, and so work that is postformal or poststructural is difficult to encapsulate
in what amount to reassuring ‘how-to’ manuals for beginning researchers. For this
reason, we offer in this section a wide selection of different pieces that have as their
central theme the idea of emergence, along with a certain skepticism about edu-
cational phenomena that purportedly exist more or less durably, outside time and
space. The challenge of getting to grips with the dynamic nature of social life has
been a persistent problem for social research and various theoretical developments,
particularly since World War 2, which have sought to cope with the complexity
introduced into social analysis, for instance by the Frankfurt School and its critique
of Enlightenment rationality (Horkheimer and Adorno 1994) and perhaps more
importantly by French social and cultural thought from 1968. Not surprisingly,
some forms of French social theory (notably Foucault, Bourdieu and Lefebvre)
remains central to much of the work in this section.
Beyond the histories of social thought that influence contemporary social research
landscapes, we are fundamentally interested though in providing something that
might be useful to HDR candidates confronted with the challenge of developing an
original work that analyses some educational phenomenon. The business of doing
emergent, deconstructive, arts-based, or poststructural research is typically built in
and around a relationship between a supervisor (or supervisory team) and a HDR
candidate. The work tends to be very particular, non-standard, and quite divergent
from the formulaic structure imagined in standard research texts. As David Kember
points out in the introduction to this book, the editors came to conceptualise this
collection precisely because so much of the work of HDR supervision is not teaching
students to follow the standard scientistic research plot, but rather to develop ways of
working which effectively and authentically provide a structure for answering a
complex question, and typically a question relating to a problem of practice.
Structuring Poststructural(ist) Work
Thus, in a text that addresses the structure of the doctoral dissertation, these
emergent pieces challenge the orthodoxy of the view that there is any central
organizing principle that might be identified characterize this type of HDR work.
What is the structure of a poststructural thesis seems a strange question, when posed
in this light. And yet, as we read and consider the work in this section, there do
seem to be some ‘structural’ features that they share.
First of all, each of the pieces works quite deliberately and intensively with
forms of theory that are themselves emerging. Theory is not used to generate
hypotheses, but rather to inform and, indeed, infuse the methodology. Each of these
pieces uses theory to challenge more static ontological and epistemological pre-
sumptions that tend to lend structure to more conventional theses. They are exer-
cises in writing as ‘method’, as Green (2015) writes, and in this sense they provoke
a particular type of writing through a complex engagement with ideas before,
through, and after the research act.
Secondly, each of these pieces identifies in some way as poststructural work.
What the pieces in this collection shows, though, is the diversity of work that
appears under the banner of poststructuralism, or ‘post-theory’, and how this
movement contains a diversity of theoretical and methodological approaches. The
work of Michel Foucault is generative for a number of the pieces in this section, and
the theoretical tools and methodological provocations he suggested remain fertile
ground for the researchers represented here. We also see in this work the rise of new
materialist theories represented by Karen Barad’s feminist ideas (Barad 2007), as
well as through the impact of the spatial turn in social science research.
Thirdly, the pieces in this section tend to be more theoretically adventuresome
and methodologically innovative, but also less engaged in the support of existing
structures of professional practice and institutional schooling itself. They are also
more explicitly theoretically driven; or as Yoon puts it in her chapter in this section,
theory serves as a ‘pivot’ that animates the writing and thereby giving it shape. The
work in this section is diverse and propels away from the idea that there might be an
innocent technical–rational format or generic methodological template for the
conduct of social research into which theory can simply be slotted, or out of which
theory is supposed to emerge. Theory is central to the research act in emergent
work, and it is consciously implicated in the product it generates. What emerges
from this analysis are some fundamental questions about what is going on in
education that return the reader perhaps to older ideas of critical scholarship which
seeks to challenge structured understandings and the traditionally tight articulation
of educational research, curriculum, assessment and pedagogy—though they might
also be seen as working at the edges of the permissible and the intelligible, the New.
These pieces tend to make relatively few concrete suggestions for the improvement
of school systems or educational delivery, instead raising broader questions about
educational practices and institutions and how they change and move, rather than
how they are structured.
The Chapters
The nine chapters in this section are not easily ‘framed’ or categorized, for reasons
that follow on from our remarks above. Yet there are common features to such
emergent work, perhaps most notably a deliberate attempt to think through an
explicitly theoretical lens in advance of all else. Each uses theory in one way or
another to take ordinary educational objects and subject them to critical scrutiny
that both exposes and critiques the generally unacknowledged taken-for granted or
commonsense assumptions that give the object its shape and character. Each uses
theory to ‘make the ordinary strange’, as Ben Highmore (2002) put it, in his
analysis of cultural theory and everyday life.
Zehntner, Earl, Kelly and Buchanan, for instance, take up ordinary educational
phenomena such as coaching, literacy, food and the central idea of ‘the child’ and
subject each of these to critical analysis, using the theoretical work of Foucault as
both a guide and a provocation. Zehntner puts it very clearly when he acknowl-
edges that Foucauldian theory shapes the questions he asks, the way he asks them,
and the analysis that results from his own experience as a swimming coach.
Likewise, for Earl in her examination of school food practices, it is the discursive
treatment of food by differently situated actors that shapes her inquiry. Food is not
inert; it is a perspectival construction and a lens for looking at schooling. Foucault’s
theory actually infects and infuses Earl’s writing process, pointing throughout the
research process to how discourse shapes school food practices. Theory is thus
performative and generative, rather than serving as a descriptive tool.
Kelly’s work looks at another familiar idea in educational discourse, that of
literacy, not from the usual angle of either measuring or accounting somehow for its
presence/absence, or critiquing this sort of evaluation from a (critical-)humanistic
perspective that views literacy as an unquantifiable social practice. Rather, he looks
at literacy a mechanism for forming society and citizens and the ‘conditions of
emergence’ for particular discourses relating to literacy, using Foucault’s
genealogical approach to trace the rise of educational objects that now appear
mundane. In a similar vein, for Buchanan it is the appearance of the ordinary notion
of ‘the child’ as a theoretical construction, and particularly the emergence of forms
of what she calls ‘liberatory’ discourse in two different historical periods with
respect to the education of children. But this is not simply an exercise in historical
analysis—there is a performative emphasis in this work on producing knowledge
that opens new possibilities and which serves as a ‘lever’ rather than a ‘mirror’, as
she puts it. Both of these analyses seek to disrupt hegemonic configurations of
power, truth and knowledge to emphasise and promote, instead, a focus on emer-
gent potential rather than structural dead-ends.
The work we highlight here uses theory, and particularly Foucault’s ‘toolkit, to
show how historical and policy discourse are narratives, and ones which can be
narrated otherwise, highlighting the possibility of ever-emerging alternative story-
lines. This work also seeks to reframe the present as a metaphorical knife-edge
emerging from the past and cutting into the future. Something that appears to unite
the different pieces we categorise as ‘emergent’ is a tendency to posit findings as
openings for further questions and action, rather than as end-points, results or
findings that support progressivist and positivist narratives of continuous
improvement.
Additionally, we see more of an inclination to blur the lines between research
and writing itself, which is somewhat similar to some of the work in the inter-
pretivist section of this book. Indeed, in her phenomenological analysis of school
choice practices, Yoon develops the idea of imaginary capital, which takes the
commonplace idea of aspirations which has been subject to considerable critical
and poststructural scrutiny and seeks to understand what it is exactly that public
school students imagine when they think about their futures, with respect to the idea
of school choice and the urban educational geographies that choice opens
up. Choice itself becomes the object of inquiry as Yoon explores how students
project themselves forward imaginatively into educational spaces where their own
imagined capital might be transformed.
The mobile nature of the contemporary education subject underlies several of the
pieces in this section, including the imagined mobilities described by Yoon as well
as the mobile and precarious lives of youth on the margins studied by O’Dowd.
Higginson and McLeod’s chapter takes up a study of young people from mobile,
transnational families and how they make sense of ‘time, place and history’. This
work understands schooling for these youth and their families as a liminal ‘glocal’
space in which subjectivities and aspirations are understood transnationally. How
the children of this emerging global workforce think about place and space in the
context of a Melbourne suburb is the location for understanding the production of
subjectivities in contemporary Australia. Indeed, a central methodological chal-
lenge is to develop adequate theory, method and inquiry structure to understand the
multiscalar temporal and spatial perspectives of these research participants as they
remember their pasts and imagine their futures. This work extends that of McLeod
and Yates (2006) a decade earlier which explored the complexity of ‘making
modern lives’ by working with mobile, transnational research participants.
These works also share more or less clear political commitments, and the chapter
offered by Rodruguez-Castro uses decolonial and critical rural geography to analyze
how women in rural Columbia understand space and place. She begins with a
deconstruction of myths and tropes that have been used to characterize rural women
who are not seen as victims of neoliberalism, but rather as agents in negotiation
with neoliberalism. This work is participatory and performative, rather than eval-
uative, and what emerges from this negotiation are particular conceptions of space
and place that actively struggle for land and control of working/living conditions.
In another chapter that explores quotidian negotiations and emergent geogra-
phies, O’Dowd’s work is situated in what she describes as the messiness of the
everyday lives of marginalized youth whom she met in the course of researching the
project she thought would become her doctoral research. The precarity of the lives
and organizational structures that interested her literally fell apart through the early
stages of the research, and so O’Dowd essentially followed-up what transpired with
these youth after the collapse. The piece is not so much an exploration of resilience
found in Rodriguez-Castro’s chapter so much as a reflexive interrogation of a
researcher’s own desire to understand and to theorize ‘wicked’ problems whilst in
the middle of the instability of becoming lives on the margins. The ethical challenge
of representing and responding to and in the lives of disempowered, difficult lives
became for O’Dowd, a disruption of the very idea that educational research, as it is
typically practiced, could make a difference without a deep ethical engagement on
the part of those privileged actors who hold power (including most researchers).
Rodriguez-Castro’s work is one example of new work in critical geographies

that are central to recent developments in social theory, and the emergence of the
spatial turn itself. Her analysis both maps and unsettles emerging global policy
configurations. The chapter by Lewis takes poststructural and interpretivist theory
together in a policy sociology aimed at understanding the emergence of a global
educational geography and policy-scape. The development of global measurement
tools such as PISA and TIMSS provide the key mechanisms for what he calls
‘comparison as a mode of governance’. Lewis’ particular interest though relates to
how this new educational geography becomes ‘glocal’, in the sense that it has
specifically engineered local effects and support tools such as PISA for the OECD
schools program. Rather than a hierarchy of governance, Lewis analyses what he
calls a heterarchy of governance, operating simultaneously at multiple levels to
create an emerging multidimensional educational landscape of governance, policy
and practice.
Finally, the work of Wolfe and Rasmussen and Doyle both engage Karen
Barad’s work, and specifically the idea of agential realism. Doyle’s piece takes up
the well-studied field of professional learning to query the learning struggles of
beginning health-care workers in the process of learning to do health care. Drawing
on new materialist ontologies, she focuses on the importance of machines and the
data they produce to constitute authoritative realist definitions of health care and
how this ontology sits uncomfortably alongside discourses of human agency,
empowerment and choice which are also central to contemporary health frame-
works. Doyle attempts to decentre the privileging of linguistic practices in health
care education to attend to embodied engagements and material practices. She
attempts to get at the ‘seamless knowing’ that competent health professionals enact,
largely unintentionally, habitually and extra-linguistically. Practice thus appears as
a dance with and around bodies and configured objects in the health care configured
that neophytes come to know intimately. Learning is coming to know how to be
(and how to act) in these settings.
Wolfe and Rasmussen employ Barad’s ideas to use arts-based research to develop
an eclectic ‘filmic methodology’ which includes re-active documentary, along with
more traditional interviews and focus groups. The project takes up girls’ experience
of schooling and, particularly, those ubiquitous, sedimented educational practices
that ‘beckon students to differentiate’, and which all too often perpetuate inequity.
The work itself represents a refusal of representation, that means taking research
itself and the methods involved as real things in themselves. For Wolfe, research is
not about representing realty, but rather about creating it. Here we encounter work
that diverges from the standard social science research format, refusing to separate
words and things (similar to Doyle’s work, in some respects), but also to perform
how current conditions materialize and play out. This is described as challenging
work for both supervisor and candidate, who each wondered separately how such
work might be understood and evaluated, given the prevailing ontological and
epistemological orthodoxies in the contemporary academy.
Conclusion
What the diverse work in this section also has in common is an explicit commit-
ment to using theory intentionally and provocatively to make something new and to
encounter surprise. This differs for the typical positivist approach which also tends
to be explicitly theoretical in the way that previous research is used to establish a
‘gap’ in knowledge which the research act will attempt to fill, while at the same
time generating a hypothesis to be supported or rejected in pretty much binary
fashion. The idea that theory is somehow tested in the research act in a relatively
linear, valid and reliable way is at the heart of such an approach. Theory is either
correct or incorrect. In the work in this section, we find beginning researchers
engaging, and indeed struggling with, complex, contemporary social theory and
exploring through their research process what good it might be to them and what it
might allow them to see. As such, theory is a tool for problematising the world and
the very act of research more than simplifying and clarifying the complexity of an
emergent social world. In other words, there tends to be a conscious recognition in
this emergent work, as is the case in many of the pieces in the interpretive section,
that theory makes the world while at the same time describing and analyzing it.
Something often overlooked in doctoral education and educational research
more generally is the issue of writing. That is, working one’s way through the trials
and tribulations of candidature and towards the submission (and examination) of a
doctoral dissertation which is fundamentally a matter of producing a text, within a
distinctive written genre, or institutionalised form of writing. In this sense, doctoral
research is writing. This is even more the case, or perhaps more explicitly the case,
when it comes to working within the terms and frames of what we have called here
emergent theory. Such work is more often than not a struggle with language, with
words and sentences, and larger text-structures, a matter of working with concepts,
yes, but even more so with conceptualisations, with thinking through meanings and
effects. Writing thus, is as much discovery and invention and learning, as it is
anything else. We forget this at our peril, as doctoral researchers and as supervisors.
The chapters gathered together in this section present different accounts of how this
is realized, in reflecting back on what was done, or as interim reports along the way.
We commend them to you.
References
Barad, K. (2007). Meeting the universe halfway: Quantum physics and the entanglement of matter
and meaning. Durham: Duke University Press.
Deleuze, G., & Guattari, F. (1983). On the line. (J. Johnston, Trans.). New York: Semiotext.
Deleuze, G., & Guattari, F. (1987). A thousand plateaus: Capitalism and schizophrenia (1st ed.)
(B. Massumi, Trans.) Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Foucault, M. (1980). Power/knowledge: Selected interviews and other writings, 1972–1977.
New York: Vintage.
Giddens, A. (1973). Capitalism and modern social theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Giddens, A. (1976). New rules of sociological method: A positive critique of interpretative
sociologies. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press.
Giddens, A. (1979). Central problems in social theory: Action, structure and contradictions in
social analysis. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Green, B. (2009). Introduction: Understanding and researching professional practice. In B. Green
(Ed.), Understanding and researching professional practice (pp. 1–18). Rotterdam: Sense
Publishers.
Green, B. (2015). Research, practice, emergence; or, emergent methodologies in cultural inquiry
and educational research, Fusions, 7, December, pp. 1–11.
Highmore, B. (2002). Everyday life and cultural theory: An introduction. London and New York:
Routledge.
Horkheimer, M., & Adorno, T. (1994). Dialectic of enlightenment. New York: Continuum.
McLeod, J., & Yates, Lyn. (2006). Making modern lives: Subjectivity, schooling, and social
change. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Rancière, J. (2004). The philosopher and his poor (A. Parker, Ed., C. Oster & J. Drury, Trans.).
Durham, NC: Duke University Press Books.
Thompson, E. P. (1978). Poverty of theory: Or an Orrery of errors. New York: Monthly Review
Press.
education.
Bill Green is Emeritus Professor of Education at Charles Sturt University, Bathurst, New South
Wales, Australia. His research is addressed particularly to literacy studies and curriculum inquiry.
He has had a long-time involvement in research and scholarship in doctoral education, with a focus
on research supervision. His most recent book is Engaging Curriculum: Bridging the Curriculum
Theory and English Education Divide (Routledge, 2018).
Chapter 28
The Way that Things Are Done Around
Here: An Investigation
into the Organisational and Social
Structures that Contribute to Structural
Power Within the Australian Swim
Coach Education Pathway
Chris Zehntner
Research Question
What is an appropriate structure for reporting a study of relational structures in a

coach education pathway, following social constructivist and critical enquiry per-
spectives, and adopting narrative and auto-ethnographic approaches.
This investigation sought to investigate relational experiences of Australian swim

coaches engaged in a formal education process that was embedded within the coach
development and accreditation pathway. The impetus for this investigation stem-
med from my personal experiences in the Australian Swimming coach development
pathway and what I considered to be a fractured coaching self. This investigation
also responds to the significant rise in coach burnout (Altfeld et al. 2015), as well as
the identified need for coaches to develop reflexivity (Cassidy et al. 2009; Denison
and Avner 2011). This investigation sought to extend knowledge in regard to the
relational and structural elements that influence coach practice within Swimming
Australia’s prescribed coach education process.
C. Zehntner (&)
Faculty of Education, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS, Australia
e-mail: chris.zehntner@utas.edu.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_28
286 C. Zehntner
By utilising narrative ethnography and autoethnography, stories of experience were

recounted, recorded and analysed in order to reveal; the social and relational
structures that influenced the (re)production of coaching practice in and through the
coach education process, and points of tension and resistance experienced by
mentee coaches that undertook this pathway. Thematic analysis of the narratives
progressed as a two-step process. In the first step of this process I focused exclu-
sively on the content presented and recorded examples for conflict or instances
where tensions arose (Riessman 2008; Smith and Sparkes 2012). In the second
stage of analysis, I scrutinised, explained and theorised from a disciplinary per-
spective instances of tension. In particular, themes and commonalities were drawn
from the data to identify passages that indicated the presence of structural and social
impediments, such as power and/or factors that could lead to conformity and/or
coaching docility (Smith and Sparkes 2012).
The theoretical perspectives utilised to analyse the narratives included the work of
post structural theorist Michel Foucault, sociologists Pierre Bourdieu, and Erving
Goffman. By utilising an authoritative interpretative voice alongside extracts from
stories, I developed linkages to conflicting discourses, the research question and the
literature (Chase 2005). In this way, connections were made and findings were
presented in the form of a realist tale, which foregrounded the voice of the par-
ticipant and made connections between stories, the research question and theory, for
more on this see Sparkes 2005 and Sparkes and Smith 2014.
My grounding epistemological framework is that of constructionism as I res-
onate with the suggestion that meaning is ‘constructed by human beings as they
engage with the world they are interpreting; we do not create meaning, we construct
meaning’ (Crotty 1998, p. 3). The constructivist epistemology is embedded in the
theoretical perspectives of social constructivism and critical theorist perspectives
which are brought to bear in this investigation.
It is important to note here, as Denzin and Lincoln (2005) pointed out, that
qualitative inquiry can take the form of multiple interpretive projects with overlap
and commonality throughout. Sparkes and Smith (2014) elaborated on this when
describing commonalities and differences between the social constructivist and the
critical theoretical perspectives focus on challenging conventional social structures
and illuminating ‘the relationship between power and culture’ (Crotty 1998,
p. 157).
28 The Way that Things Are Done Around Here: An Investigation … 287
Structure
See Table 28.1 Table of Contents.
Commentary
How I Came to Theory
The structure of this thesis provides the reader with perspective both on how the
researcher is connected with the research and how the research process took place.
In order to provide the reader with an understanding of how my experiences shaped
the methodology I included a backstory prior to the research questions (see
Table 28.1, Structure above). In the back story I elaborate how I embodied some of
the basic paradigmal assumptions utilised in the research process. I related how an
extended period of indwelling on stories of experience shaped my understanding of
how knowledge about relational experiences of coaches can be acquired (episte-
mological beliefs) and subsequently shaped how I engaged with narrative data.
Table 28.1 Table of Contents

Contents page
The backstory—Personal impetus
Part A Introduction, Literature Review and Method
Chapter 2 Literature Review
Chapter 3 Methodology and Method
Part B Participant and Personal Narratives
Chapter 4 Introducing the Coaches
Chapter 5 Jaime
Chapter 6 Bailey
Chapter 7 Nick
Chapter 8 Micah
Chapter 9 Quinn
Chapter 10 My Personal Story
Part C Narrative Analysis
Chapter 11 Thematic Development
Chapter 12 Coach Communication
Chapter 13 Power and Discipline in Coach Education
Chapter 14 Social Structures in Coach Education
Part D Conclusions and Recommendations
Chapter 14 Conclusions and Recommendations
288 C. Zehntner
Dovetailed with this process of indwelling was an interest in the post structural philosopher
Michael Foucault. My growing understanding of how discourse shapes human relationships
meant that I began to scrutinise how power is associated with sports coaching cultures. My
personal impetus profoundly shaped the development of the research question for this
investigation and the epistemological underpinnings of the methodology (Zehntner 2016,
p. 3).
In this way I foreshadow how my theoretical orientation shaped the research

problem. Put simply I came to theory first to understand my fractured coaching self
and second to understand the perceived organisational and social structures evident
in coach learning. This close relationship between me (the researcher) and the
research indicates that my values align with constructivist epistemology where I
seek to understand and interpret from a personal point of view (Guba and Lincoln
1994; Sparkes and Smith 2014).
The paradigms approach as described by Lincoln (2009) was utilised as it
provided orienting information about my standpoint as a researcher and commu-
nicates the relationship I (the researcher) have with knowledge. Sparkes and Smith
(2014) suggested that the basic assumptions of a paradigm are embodied by the
researcher and can therefore be hidden from the view of the outsider. For this
reason, an elaboration of my theoretical orientation highlights how I shaped the
research problem. This approach may seem contrary to the intuitive suggestion that
the methods of inquiry are chosen first but it is precisely this epistemology that is
embodied in my consciousness as elaborated in the ‘Impetus’ for this investigation.
This process should not be considered purely inductive and references Miles and
Huberman’s (1994) inductive-deductive continuum. As such the route was influ-
enced by a series of inductive and deductive processes, otherwise referred to as
abductive reasoning. This is described by Taylor et al. (2009), as the ‘dialogue
between data and theory undertaken throughout the research process’ (p. 242). Put
simply, the analysis moves ‘between everyday meanings and theoretical explana-
tions’ (Ryba et al. 2012, p. 85) of personal and participant experiences in such a
way that the process of interpretation is acknowledged. In particular I acknowledge
that I cannot separate myself from learned theoretical knowledge and begin with a;
…more deductive approach where I start with both; a considered stance with regard to the
orientation of the research (elaborated in the research questions), and an organising
framework (bracketed theoretical themes) when grouping or coding data (Zehntner 2016).
Where Does the Literature Go?
The structure of the thesis and the use and positioning of literature was influenced
by the multiple theoretical frameworks employed. A traditional literature review,
positioned as Chapter 2, considered three broad themes; first I reviewed literature
relating to swimming and coach education which provide background and orienting
information to the reader. Second I reviewed the broad theoretical themes that had
28 The Way that Things Are Done Around Here: An Investigation … 289
been identified by scholars in aligned fields. This was part of the deductive
development of bracketed theoretical themes. Third, I introduced the theorists and
outlined broadly the theoretical frameworks that I would later apply in the inter-
pretive part of the investigation Part C, Narrative Analysis. This initial foray into
the literature was purposely grounding rather than exhaustive. It was decided that
due to the use of three different but complementary theoretical frameworks a
detailed examination of literature would precede each discrete analysis (Chapters
11–13). In this way the reader with the benefit of grounding and orienting infor-
mation, from the traditional literature review, and having just read the narratives is
then provided with a more detailed review of the particular theorist before the
narratives were analysed via the realist tale (Sparkes 2005; Sparkes and Smith
2014).
How Does My Thesis Define Research?
My thesis reflects what Bill Green (framing chapter) and Lauren Richardson refer to
as writing as research (Richardson 1994). Though it could be argued that the telling
of stories, first orally and the subsequent indwelling and immersion in these
embodied experiences, forms the beginning of the research process. In this thesis,
writing in the form of stories of experience and through the telling of a realist tale
(Sparkes 2005), becomes a way of knowing, or as Richardson suggests, a ‘method
of discovery and analysis’ (1994, p. 32). With reference then to the epistemological
underpinnings of this investigation; my engagement with the world that I am
investigating, first through the telling of stories and second through the crafting of
the realist tale demonstrates how I am (re)constructing meaning that is relevant and
meaningful to the field.
References
Altfeld, S., Mallett, C. J., & Kellmann, M. (2015). Coaches’ burnout, stress, and recovery over a
season: A longitudinal study. International Sports Coaching Journal, 2(2), 137–151.
Cassidy, T., Jones, R., & Potrac, P. (2009). Understanding sports coaching: The social, cultural
and pedagogical foundations of sports practice (2nd ed.). London, UK: Routledge.
Chase, S. E. (2005). Narrative enquiry-multiple lenses, approaches, voices (3rd ed.). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
process. St Leonards, NSW: Sage.
Denison, J., & Avner, Z. (2011). Positive coaching: Ethical practices for athlete development.
Quest, 63(2), 209–227.
Denzin, N., & Lincoln, Y. (2005). Introduction: the discipline and practice of qualitative research.
In N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed.,
pp. ix–xix). London, UK: Sage.
290 C. Zehntner
Guba, E., & Lincoln, N. (1994). Competing paradigms in qualitative research. In D. N &
L. Y (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 105–117). London, UK: Sage.
Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook.
London, UK: Sage.
Richardson, L. (1994). Writing: A Method of Inquiry. In N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (Eds.),
Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Riessman, C. K. (2008). Narrative methods for the human sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Ryba, T. V., Haapanen, S., Mosek, S., & Ng, K. (2012). Towards a conceptual understanding of
acute cultural adaptation: A preliminary examination of ACA in female swimming. Qualitative
Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 4(1), 80–97.
Smith, B., & Sparkes, A. (2012). Narrative analysis in sport and physical culture. In K. Young &
M. Atkinson (Eds.), Qualitative Research on Sport and Physical Culture (Vol. 6, pp. 79–99).
London, UK: Emerald Group.
Sparkes, A. (2005). Narrative analysis: Exploring the whats and the hows of personal stories.
Qualitative Research in Health Care, 1, 191–209.
Sparkes, A., & Smith, B. (2014). Qualitative research methods in sport, exercise and health: From
process to product. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge.
Taylor, I. M., Ntoumanis, N., & Smith, B. (2009). The social context as a determinant of teacher
motivational strategies in physical education. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10(2),
235–243.
Zehntner, C. (2016). The way that things are done around here: An investigation into the
organisational and social structures that contribute to structural power within the Australian
swim coach education pathway (Doctoral thesis, University of Tasmania, Launceston,
Australia). Retrieved from http://eprints.utas.edu.au/23001/.
Chris Zehntner completed his thesis on the organisational and social structures that contribute to
structural power within the Australian swim coach education pathway. The chapter about his thesis
was based on a Ph.D., completed at University of Tasmania. The research degree is based in part
on personal experiences from over 20 years of swim coaching in regional and metropolitan
Australia. Chris is currently researching the effect that social structures have on coach education
and athlete wellbeing across a number of sporting contexts.
Chapter 29
Are We All Foodies Now?
An Ethnographic Exploration of Food
Experience in Primary Schools
Lexi Earl
Research Question
This chapter deliberates on the way a thesis might be organized when it involves
food, education, and sociology. It explores the following research question: what is
an appropriate structure for reporting a study of food experiences and food edu-
cation programmes in three different primary schools, following a Foucauldian
analysis of discourse, power and knowledge, and adopting an ethnographic
methodology?
This research project examined food experiences in three different primary schools
in the East Midlands, England. In recent times schools have increasingly been
expected to become sites of food education—through cookery clubs, in-class
teaching, food growing programmes and even animal husbandry (Dimbleby and
Vincent 2013). The study explored food experience across the whole school, and
through the school day, to examine how policy is enacted, and how schools are (or
are not) becoming diverse sites of food education and experience. The study
examined how particular discourses have begun to frame food experiences and how
L. Earl (&)
School of Education, University of Nottingham, Jubilee Campus,
Nottingham NG8 1BB, UK
e-mail: lexi.earl2@nottingham.ac.uk; lexiearl@yahoo.co.uk

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_29
292 L. Earl
these discourses (of obesity, of nutrition, and of foodieness) have begun to intersect
food education programmes in schools in multiple, fascinating ways. The study
adopted a foodscapes lens in order to explore food through the whole school.
The topic grew out of an interest in the way people learn about food. I have been
immersed in food cultures my whole life, growing up in an extended family of
cooks, bakers and eaters. Food was an important way we gathered together and I
spent a lot of time in my summer holidays talking to my aunts in their kitchens, or
watching my grandmother make coconut ice, shortbread and chocolate biscuits to
give away at Christmas. After spending time training and working as a pastry chef, I
returned to academia, interested in the politics of food. My growing interests in food
politics led into the world of food gardens, and food security, and from there into
education. Everywhere I looked it seemed that chefs were focusing on teaching
people how to grow and then cook food, and this process fascinated me. The
research was therefore an exploration of how this growing/cooking/learning
occurred in ordinary schools, ones that were not attached to celebrity chefs.
I adopted an ethnographic approach, utilizing multi-sited ethnography (Keller 2004)

across three different field sites. I intended to build on other ‘ethnographies of
eating’ (Burgess and Morrison 1998b; Pike 2010; Metcalfe et al. 2011; Pike and
Kelly 2014) and extend my focus outside of the dining hall. Rather than following
Atkinson et al.’s (2008) narrow definition of ethnography as fieldwork focusing on
‘social action’, I was more closely aligned to Pink’s (2009) sensory ethnography
and paid attention to the embodied and emplaced experiences I had (Ellingson
2006; Pink 2009). I understood ethnography to be a methodology—a guiding plan
of action that incorporates a wide range of methods (Crotty 1998; Pink 2007)—and
whilst participant observation written up as field notes formed the main part of data
formulated through the experience, I also conducted a number of interviews, and
ran focus groups with Year Five children focused on the co-construction of maps of
the school foodscape.
The decision to undertake ethnography occurred after various conversations with
Pat Thomson, my supervisor. In my original proposal, I talked about interviewing
and observing but not specifically about ethnography. As my MA had been in
International Relations (and my undergrad in PPE), I had not encountered ethno-
graphic work before. Rather, I was used to approaches that focused on developing a
hypothesis that had to be proved/disproved or using questionnaires that could be
quantified. Ethnographic research was therefore revelatory. It also made sense to the
project that I ultimately chose to pursue because I was not a teacher nor was I
British and so undertaking research work in British primary schools would lead me
into unknown territory of which I was totally unfamiliar. As I ultimately wrote in
29 Are We All Foodies Now? An Ethnographic Exploration of Food … 293
the methods chapter of my thesis, schools were both strange and yet familiar
(Delamont 2008). Strange in that they were culturally unfamiliar to me, full of
people who had had decidedly different life experiences to my own, because my
research was based in English schools, and I come from a South African back-
ground. And yet they were familiar places—I recognized my own schooling in
them. There were aspects of school life that I recognized from my own time at
school. It therefore made sense to choose a methodology that would enable me to
spend time getting to know these strange-yet-familiar places.
During my time in the field, the research question changed too. Initially, I went
into schools with the question: ‘what are children’s experiences of food in school?’
I was very focused only on the food experiences children had. However, after a few
weeks in the field, I decided that this question was too narrow—it was restricting
me from other narratives and stories that I could see were occurring around food—
those of the dining hall supervisors, the cooks, the farm-school teachers, the
cookery teachers. I therefore revised the research question to ask: ‘What is the
experience of food at school?’ This shift in focus allowed me to explore other
people, events and incidents that were happening to do with food—it broadened the
researcher-observational gaze. This is reflected in the discussion on school cooks in
Chapter Eight of the thesis, for example. The refined research question allowed a
view of the whole school as a place of food learning, with different actors and
experiences taking place within its borders. I was able to explore more ideas around
food, for example, looking at how food did/did not cross age boundaries and
formed part of a whole school culture—a view that highlights the importance of
emplacement and shows how food experiences are situated in particular places.
This was another reason for the portraits chapter, that wrote portraits of the indi-
vidual schools, which I discuss in the Structure section below.
The number of schools in the study changed during the course of the project.
After six weeks in the field I experienced a crisis of fieldwork. The two schools in
the original study were not offering or developing food education programmes in
the way that they had talked about during the recruitment stage. Whilst the lack of
programmes was interesting in itself, it did not allow me to say anything particu-
larly new about school food experiences that remained centred on the dining hall.
This has been written about in some detail by others (c.f. Morrison 1995; Burgess
and Morrison 1998a; Pike 2010; Metcalfe et al. 2011; Pike and Kelly 2014). Pat
and I talked about this development in detail in a supervision meeting. During this
time, I had also been contacted by another school that said they were interested in
participating in the project. I therefore changed the project design to incorporate the
third school. This was not an easy decision and Pat and I had several conversations
about how to do this, and what it would mean for the project, and ultimately my
thesis.
294 L. Earl
Whilst in the field, a foodscapes lens was used to guide the participant observation,
following food through the school day. This lens was chosen right at the outset of
the research, as a way to look at more than the dining hall or classroom (where food
is traditionally eaten/taught). A foodscape is a way to look at a particular place/
body/location through a food-focused lens (Adema 2007). A school foodscape
might be made up of the dining hall, where eating takes place; the kitchen, where
food is made; the classroom, where food is taught through lessons on ‘healthy
eating’ or ‘bread making’; and other areas of the school which might feature a food
garden, animals like chickens, or cooking facilities where children are learning how
to cook. Using a foodscapes lens, I hoped to explore the way food experiences
moved and changed through the school day—from breakfast to lessons on healthy
eating, to farming, and the way different people were involved, delivering and
experiencing these food events. I therefore followed ‘food’ around the school.
This study adopted a Foucauldian theoretical framework in order to analyse and
explain food experiences at school. The data was analysed as a whole corpus and
coded thematically. During the analysis stage, it became apparent that there were a
number of competing discourses in the policy and media rhetoric relating to school
food experiences. In order to explain how schools were incorporating these dis-
courses into their everyday practices, Foucault’s work on discursive practice was
used. The choice of Foucault occurred as a result of the analysis. We had discussed
a wide variety of potential theorists who might be relevant to the research, including
Michel de Certeau and Pierre Bourdieu, before settling on Michel Foucault. Indeed,
I had dabbled in works of both de Certeau and Bourdieu prior to and during
fieldwork. However, as I became embroiled in the analysis, and with the identifi-
cation of discourses and discursive practices, Foucault’s work became more and
more relevant. Foucault wrote widely about how we, as humans, become subjects,
and as I read and coded the data, the idea of how we are shaped by different
discourses into particular kinds of human beings, emerged as a central theme.
Foucault’s work began to help explain what I had witnessed in schools, and his
various writings served to support ideas I was developing.
To a certain extent, I wrote Foucault into the thesis through a long abstract that
Pat asked me to write as the analysis was coming ‘under control’—in the sense that
I was no longer swamped by data I couldn’t make sense of. I was no longer
‘swimming’ in data. (I cannot say the analysis came to an end and then I started
writing because as I started writing further analysis and understanding took place,
evolving into an understanding-as-writing, writing-as-understanding process).
I wrote an abstract for my thesis, as you would for a paper, that outlined the main
arguments and themes in the thesis, and realized that by doing so, Foucault’s work
on discourse was useful in understanding what was happening in the schools.
The research took place in 2012/13 and was therefore ‘bookended’ by two
different policies focused on changing school food experiences—Turning the
Tables (2005) and The School Food Plan (2013). Policy enactment (Ball et al.
2012) was used to understand how schools enact policy, how policy is decoded
from text and then put into practice, and how policy draws from already existing
practices in schools. Much of what I witnessed during my time in schools then
appeared in The School Food Plan in 2013.
My thesis therefore considered how policymaking is not a one-way process. It
examined how policies are not simply implemented, rather they are enacted (Ball
et al. 2012); that is, they are decoded from the text by various actors (head teachers,
teachers, cooks) and then put into practice. What policymakers envision is not
necessarily what takes place on a daily basis in schools and the thesis explores this
in the context of food in schools. For example, what school cooks make for lunch at
school is governed by nutrition standards, developed in Turning the Tables. These
nutrition standards are quite specific (and were, in fact, changed as part of the
recommendations of The School Food Plan). The standards dictate the amounts of
proteins, carbohydrates and vegetables that should be offered daily, as well as
restrictions on what can be offered as dessert. However, what children in primary
schools actually eat is dependent on the school cook, the school’s resources and
procurement policies, the way that lunchtime is organized, and the food culture of
the school. As such, a lunchtime meal varies quite considerably depending on the
school that you attend.
Structure
The thesis was structured to showcase the linked themes that emerged from the
analysis, rather than to spend each findings chapter discussing the experiences in
different schools. This allowed for grouping together of thematic areas and pro-
duced a more coherent argument. Themes were identified across schools, and so it
made more sense to talk about these collectively, rather than splitting the narrative
and argument into three schools. I had made connections between the schools—on
issues that were similar and others that the schools approached differently as part of
the process of understanding each school when in the field. Sometimes even
unconsciously, I found myself comparing one school with another, and trying to
understand one school’s choices in relation to others. When writing the thesis, it
made more sense to group these ideas together.
The first chapter of the thesis introduced the idea of ‘foodieness’, which was one
of the discourses being used in schools that was identified. It was important to
outline this discourse in the first chapter as this was one of the major discourses
identified but was also linked to my own background as a researcher/pastry chef/
296 L. Earl
food blogger. I therefore spent part of the first chapter talking about my own
experiences in food, and how I had come to research this particular topic and write
this particular thesis. It was important to note both these aspects of the argument
early on, as the identification of foodieness was linked to my own history as a pastry
chef and food blogger—someone immersed in foodieness. Furthermore, the critical
nature of the arguments in the thesis were the result of a very personal journey.
Assumptions I had made at the start of my Ph.D. were challenged by the analysis of
my fieldwork, and my convictions around food education had to be re-understood
in light of my findings. I had to ‘do battle’ with my own previously unexplored
ideas about food, and food education. My thesis was therefore a personal challenge
to write, as much of what I had assumed to be ‘good’ about food education had to
be critically analysed and challenged.
The thesis was foregrounded by an explanation of the Foucauldian lens, and its
application to obesity and nutrition discourse. There was no ‘traditional’ literature
chapter in the thesis. Rather, the literature was interwoven through the thesis, with
key literatures being identified in Chapters One and Two, providing a rationale for
the work and the way the work had been undertaken. A Foucauldian understanding
of discursive practice was used throughout the thesis and Chapter Two explained
this understanding in detail before applying Foucault’s work on discursive practice
to discourses of nutrition and obesity.
I decided to craft portraits of the three schools in order to highlight each school’s
unique food experience, to showcase successes in each school, and to thank the
schools for their participation, as much of the discussion throughout the thesis
focused on critique. This was of personal importance to me as the researcher, given
the critical nature of the thesis and also my own position within the world of
foodieness. This chapter was the first I wrote after being in the field and starting the
analysis. It drew on portraiture techniques developed by Lawrence-Lightfoot and
Hoffmann Davies (1997). I sought to write about the schools as whole entities,
given how the thesis focused on crosscutting themes, but this chapter also provided
a way to further understand what was happening in the schools by looking at them
as whole places. The portraits chapter draws a picture of the differing foodscape at
each school, and highlights some of the work teachers, cooks and school staff are
doing to expand children’s experiences of food.
None of the chapters in the thesis was titled (other than to be called Chapter One
or Chapter Two). Rather, the thesis was structured through the subheadings, as is
seen below. This was not decided on purpose as such. Rather, it emerged because
Pat advised me that headings are helpful to guide a reader through a text. The
subheadings therefore not only guided me as I was writing but also guided the
reader.
Contents page
Chapter 1 Jamie Oliver, Martha Payne, and School Food
Foodies and Foodieness
Popularizing Foodieness: The Rise of Food Media
Foodieness, Class and Self-formation
The Chef, The Blogger, The Researcher
Thesis Structure
Chapter 2 Section One: A Foucauldian Framework for Analysis
Section Two: Applying the Foucauldian Toolkit
Section Three: What We Know About School Food Experience
Chapter 3 Ethnography
Sensory Ethnography
Initial Research Design and School Recruitment
Fieldwork and Researcher Identity
Participatory Mapping
Mapping with Children
Analysing and Writing Up
Ethical Considerations
Chapter 4 School Meals Policy
Policy as Text, Policy as Discourse
The Wars and the Welfare State
Thatcher and the Rise of Neoliberal Governance
School Food as a Problem: Jamie, Obesity and Controlled Choice
Turning the Tables: The English Strategy on School Food
Cooking up the Solution: The School Food Plan
Analysing The School Food Plan: Ideal Meals and Cooking
Analysing The School Food Plan: The Demon Packed Lunch
Analysing The School Food Plan: The Hunger Problem
Chapter 5 Fort Basset: The Healthy School
Framley: The Farm School
Jevington: The Balanced School
Chapter 6 Food Education
Teaching Healthy Eating
Not Teaching Healthy Eating: Bread-Making at Jevington
Teaching Cooking: Framley and Jevington
Field-to-Plate Knowledge: Framley
Class Differences in Food Education
Chapter 7 Section One: The Discourse of Family Meals
Section Two: The Family Meal within the School Institution
Chapter 8 The Demon Packed Lunch and Irresponsible Mothering
The Role of the Kitchen in the Take Up of Packed Lunches
Food Cost and School Meals Cost
Chapter 9 What is the Experience of Food at School?
[1] Class, Health, Hunger and Food Experience in Schools
[2] The Difficulties of Enacting Food Policies in Schools
[3] Towards a New Understanding of Health and the Global Food System
Limitations of this project
Where to now?
298 L. Earl
Commentary
The structure foregrounded the use of Foucauldian discourse analysis and set out
the various discourses influencing school food experiences in Chapters One and
Two. The first four chapters explained the media and policy influences on food
experiences, setting the wider scene for the later fieldwork chapters, as well as
explaining the methodological choices of the research (in Chapter Three). The
policy chapter foregrounds an understanding of policy as a text and discourse,
before analyzing Turning the Tables and The School Food Plan. It was important to
set out what the policies say, and the way policies build on each other, as these two
policies framed the fieldwork chapters.
Chapter Five breaks the thesis, showcasing the portraits of the three different
school sites. As I have mentioned above, writing portraits was important to me
personally, as it broke the critical analysis of what was happening in schools and
allowed an opportunity to understand the school as a whole entity.
Chapters Six through Eight provide details of the findings from the fieldwork,
grouped together in various themes before leading to a concluding chapter. These
chapters focused on the way food education works in primary schools.
The final chapter in the thesis drew together the arguments made throughout the
book and applied them to the wider context of government, policy, and food.
Whilst this might seem like a straightforward process, the actual writing of this
thesis was roundabout and took many more months than I anticipated. It was par-
ticularly difficult after I received comments back on my first proper draft and had—
what Pat has referred to as—a ‘head in hands’ exasperated moment, particularly
about Foucault. There was a significant amount of rewriting to do in order to make
the thesis arguments make sense. I had naively thought most of the work had already
been completed. This was not the case. Pat and I met and set out the key arguments
and findings on a mind map. She helped me sort out the structure again, and we
talked through the various theoretical frameworks I was going to use. We redefined
the key discourses, and through that, the key arguments being made in the thesis.
The majority of the rewriting (and brain-stretching) took place in the last
6 months before hand-in. Much of the rewriting that needed to be done was around
my understanding of Foucault’s discursive practice and I had to spend a number of
weeks rewriting and refining Chapter Two. While the first draft had been written
from introduction to conclusion (an unusual occurrence as most PhDs write their
thesis from the middle), the rewrite jumped around. I began with Foucault because
that was the section that needed the most work and then turned to the core findings
chapters. After that, I edited the introduction and the portraits chapters before I
tackled the methods and concluding chapter.
Ultimately, the structure of the thesis was developed around the placement of
arguments and information. There was some debate, for example, of where to put the
methods chapter, as it was hard to place it in relation to the surrounding chapters. I had
to decide whether it should go before or after the theoretical discussions. It ultimately
went in after these, but before the policy chapter. This worked because it placed the
theoretical chapter and the methods chapter in sequence, before I began writing about
school policy and getting into the specifics of my data. I also toyed with the idea of a
literature chapter but decided early on that weaving the literature throughout the thesis
would be a more effective way to structure the arguments. Through the mind-mapping
Pat and I did together, after she had read the initial first draft, we developed a structure
that I could follow to write a coherent argument throughout.
References
Adema, P. (2007). Foodscape: An emulsion of food and landscape. Gastronomica: The Journal of
Critical Food Studies, 7(1), 3.
Atkinson, P., Delamont, S., & Housley, W. (2008). Contours of culture: Complex ethnography
and the ethnography of complexity. Plymouth: AltaMira Press.
Ball, S. J., Maguire, M., & Braun, A. (2012). How schools do policy: Policy enactments in
secondary schools. Kindle Edi. Abingdon: Routledge.
Burgess, R. G., & Morrison, M. (1998a). Chapatis and chips: Encountering food use in primary
school settings. British Food Journal, 1413(100), 141–146.
Burgess, R. G., & Morrison, M. (1998b). Ethnographies of eating in an urban primary school.
In A. Murcott (Ed.), The nation’s diet (pp. 209–227). Harlow: Addison Wesley Longman Ltd.
Crotty, M. (1998). The foundations of social research. London: Sage Publications.
Delamont, S. (2008). For lust of knowing—Observation in educational ethnography. In G.
Walford (Ed.), How to do educational ethnography (pp. 39–56). London: The Tufnell Press.
Dimbleby, H., & Vincent, J. (2013). The School Food Plan. London, HMSO. Available at: http://
www.schoolfoodplan.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/School_Food_Plan_2013.pdf.
Ellingson, L. L. (2006). Embodied knowledge: Writing researchers’ bodies into qualitative health
research. Qualitative Health Research, 16(2), 298–310.
Keller, C. (2004). Unsituating the subject. In S. G. Brown & S. I. Dobrin (Eds.), Ethnography
unbound: From theory shock to critical Praxis. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Lawrence-Lightfoot, S., & Hoffmann Davis, J. (1997). The art and science of portraiture.
In S. Lawrence-Lightfoot & J. Hoffmann Davis (Eds.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Metcalfe, A., et al. (2011). Concrete chips and soggy semolina: The contested spaces of the school
dinner hall. Population, Space and Place, 17, 377–389.
Morrison, M. (1995). Researching food consumers in school. Recipes for concern. Educational
Studies, 21(2), 239–263.
Pike, J. (2010). An ethnographic study of lunchtime experiences in primary school dining rooms.
The University of Hull. Available at: https://edocs.hull.ac.uk/muradora/objectView.action?
pid=hull:3511.
Pike, J., & Kelly, P. (2014). The moral geographies of children, young people and food: Beyond
Jamie’s school dinners. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Pink, S. (2007). Doing visual research (2nd ed.). London: Sage Publications.
Pink, S. (2009). Doing sensory ethnography. London: Sage Publications.
School Meals Review Panel. (2005). Turning the tables : Transforming school food, London,
HMSO.
300 L. Earl
Lexi Earl completed her Ph.D. thesis at the University of Nottingham under the supervision of
Prof Pat Thomson. Based in the School of Education, Lexi’s research examined food experiences
in primary schools in England. Lexi was a pastry chef before becoming a scholar of food and
education. She became interested in the politics of food, food security, and food education through
her work making desserts in fancy hotel kitchens. She subsequently investigated the role of food
gardens in rural food security in South Africa while studying for a Masters degree at the University
of the Witwatersrand. Lexi is currently a Research Fellow in the Centre for Research in Arts,
Creativity and Literacy at the University of Nottingham. She writes a food blog regularly at
lexislettuces.blog and bakes every week.
Chapter 30
Governing Civil Society: How Literacy,
Education and Security Were Brought
Together
Stephen Kelly
Research Question
What is an appropriate structure for reporting a study of the types of power gov-
ernments use to deploy education and literacy practices as technologies to secure
civil society?
In this dissertation, I presented a critical interpretation of ways in which concep-

tualisations of literacy have been put to use by liberal forms of government across
historical contexts. While beginning with the treatment of the literate subject in
Enlightenment Britain, the thesis is primarily focused on the effects of policy
enactments during the period of the Howard Government from 1996 to 2007. This
involved an appraisal of how literacy is valued by policy actors (Luke 2011) as an
instrument for intervention across domains of government, particularly in the field
of education. The study examined ways in which both civil society and individuals
have been represented as benefitting from being literate. It also considered how
constructions of illiteracy or forms of literacy practice seen as deviating from
acceptable norms, were posed as risks and dangers to civil society. This brought
into view ways that policy texts construct particular forms of literacy practice as
socially, economically and politically productive and can be seen as instruments of
social good and social protection. These texts were examined for ways in which
they could be considered as emergent forms of governmental practice. As I discuss
S. Kelly (&)
School of Education, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia
e-mail: skelly56@une.edu.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_30
302 S. Kelly
in the methods and theory section, the discovery of ‘emergent’ texts had a bearing
on how I came to structure the thesis.
The study did not attempt to map the history of literacy education and its relation
to the state’s formation of society and literate citizens. Rather, I chose to investigate
particular historical moments in which discourses of security were prevalent. These
slices of historical events allowed me to critically analyse the rationale of forms of
liberalism, and to consider the use of literacy as a lever of government in educational
and other social contexts. My selection of historical data responded to ways in which
conceptions of government and educational practice have a tendency to flow across
national borders. Here the influence of neoliberalising policies located in organisi-
ations like the United Nations and sponsored by national governments e.g. the US,
had a bearing on this study. Hence, while Australia is the locus of this study, my
historical map took into account ways that events in international contexts relate to
and influence this local context. Therefore, the characteristics of globalisation,
including its complexity, have a bearing on how I have read ways that being a literate
citizen are important to liberal forms of government. Importantly, this necessitated
an examination of how nation-states, like Australia, reflect upon their own purposes
and style of government, and how policy actors imagine and project particular
identities of nationhood and emblems of citizenship.
The study engaged with that type of historical-philosophical critique that Foucault
called genealogy. Genealogical critique can be considered a form of interpretation,
a way of imaginatively entering into a problem space and, by evoking the tools of
the poet, construct a counter narrative to common sense understandings of history
and the political present. To do this the genealogist seeks to discover the descent
and emergence of ways of thinking problematically about how to govern. In this
sense we may understand genealogies as critical histories of systems of thought.
The genealogy I wrote suggested that common sense understandings of education
and literacy need to be re-evaluated in the light of a history of policy inscriptions
and transformations in national and global society.
To conceptualise how this play of discursive practices (see discussion about
discourses in the next section) and strategies of power configure into an intelligible
ensemble of heterogeneous elements, a governmentality, Foucault (2000) intro-
duces the concept of problematization as a key methodological principle for critical
histories of thought. Bacchi (2012) identifies two central characteristics of prob-
lematization in Foucault’s writing; first, as a method of analysis and second, to refer
to a historical process of producing objects for thought. As a method of analysis,
problematization is in keeping with the notion of genealogy as critique. I found that
engaging with the practice of problematization was consequential for the way that
data was selected and was eventually chosen for use in the thesis. Acknowledging
Green’s use of the term emergence in the forward to this section, the following
30 Governing Civil Society: How Literacy, Education and Security … 303
discussion about problematization indicates why the structure of a genealogy can be

considered as emergent.
Bacchi (2012, p. 1) has suggested that problematization involves the act of
thinking problematically. It is to take a concern and see how the issue has been
discursively produced according to the circumstances and rules of formation in
play. If the focus is on discovering transformations of power rather than realisations
of universal truths, its objective is to denaturalise or to make strange taken for
granted practices and claims to truth. Problematization can therefore be seen as a
form of nominalism, a paradigm I discuss in the next section. When thinking
critically, problematization is a reflexive attitude, a way of examining discursive
objects that aims to decentre the human subject’s relationship to particular forms of
authority and constraints on freedom. It is a way of thinking that involves seeking to
‘see how the different solutions to [an historically situated] problem have been
constructed’ (Foucault 2000, p. 118). Critique is used to reflect on things that have
become problematic as a result of social, economic and political processes. As
Owen (2002) has suggested, this is a form of aspectival critique that bears upon the
emergence of particular kinds of thought/rationalities as they address the conditions
in which responses to a possible ‘problem’ can be given (Foucault 2000). In this
sense, the selection of texts that inform the structure of the text, is dependent on the
discovery of ‘emergent’ ways of thinking.
According to Bacchi, Foucault uses problematization in a second way, to refer to
the study of problematized objects and the historical ‘process of their production’
(2012, p. 4). For Foucault the work of a history of thought is to rediscover the root
of the diverse solutions (ways of thinking) that the general form of problematization
has made possible. Foucault is concerned here with how the specific work of
thought has developed givens into questions, and transformed ‘a group of obstacles
and difficulties into problems to which the diverse solutions will attempt to produce
a response’ (Foucault 2000, p. 118). These ‘difficulties’, can be said to constitute
the objects and processes of problematization, for example the problems of national
productivity and national rates of literacy. Foucault’s use of the term problemati-
zation signals a concern with identifying how particular historical events, beha-
viours, social practices enter into a discourse as being problematic, such as being
literate in the wrong kind of way.
The entry of literacy into the apparatus of government constitutes a problema-
tized object. Proposed solutions to problematizations mark the entry of new objects
of discourse, such as how the capability of a population as literate citizens might
improve the security of a nation. In analysing the appearance of such a prob-
lematization, it becomes important to trace how such an intervention is connected to
accompanying power relations. Bacchi (2012, p. 2) refers to this process as dis-
mantling the objects of taken for granted essences and showing how they have
come to be. When analyzing I wanted to see how these problematized objects could
be traced to a historically situated series of struggles—the historical process of
production to which Bacchi refers. The problematizing of events and their
appearance as objects of thought, can be understood as the twin processes of
descent and emergence. We might understand descent as tracing the history of
304 S. Kelly
forces at play and emergence as the arising of new ways of thinking about and
practicing the art of politics.
The analysis and interpretation of data deployed Bacchi’s ‘What’s the problem
represented to be?’ approach, to analyse and interpret ‘policy texts’ from different
periods such as the Enlightenment, and the years of the Howard Government. My
use of genealogy required me to adopt a critical disposition. It provided the means
to question the ‘interpretive’ nature of policy problematizations and the tools to
trace the descent and emergence of political texts when analysing the deployment of
a dispositif of security. Bacchi’s approach leant itself to these tasks. Bacchi suggests
that there are three propositions that are central to her ‘What’s the Problem
Represented to be?’ (WPR) approach:
1. We are governed through problematizations.
2. We need to study problematizations (through analysing the problem represen-
tations they contain), rather than ‘problems’.
3. We need to problematize (interrogate) the problematizations on offer through
scrutinizing the premises and effects of the problem representations they contain
(Bacchi 2014, p. 47).
These propositions signal an interest in the critical examination of (a) forms of rule and
their rationalities, (b) how forms of rule produce problems and (c) the effects offorms of
rule. She argues that it is possible to use public policies and policy proposals as starting
points to access the problematizations through which we are governed. In outlining the
possible uses of policy texts Bacchi suggests that policy, or policy proposals, function as
prescriptive texts that rely on a particular problematization or problematizations (Bacchi
2012, 2014). Part of my task as analyst was to see how particular problems have been
represented, and have been constituted in policy statements as something that needs to
be acted upon. This involved examining the conditions that bring policy ‘problems’ into
view. It is in the senses outlined above I would consider the structure of my thesis as the
emergent condition of critical thought communicated.
The study drew upon Foucault’s conceptualisations of discourse, power/knowledge,

governmentality and (security) dispositif. None of these concepts are simple and
each consist of several elements.
Discourse
Ball (1993, 2013) has suggested that Foucault’s conceptions of discourse and dis-
cursive formations as regimes of truth can be used to inform policy analysis.
Foucault’s exploration of the links between knowledge, power and truth help us to
critically view the relationship between state power and the use of its apparatus in the
production of neoliberal education policy and conduct of civil society. Here I argue
that the analytical project is not just to see policy as an end in itself, but as a set of
discursive practices dynamically intersecting at points in time underpinned, never-
theless, by the historical context of their production. Foucault’s theory of discourse,
discursive practices and discursive formation, helps the policy analyst to examine
claims to truth made through governmental processes and policy statements. These
claims can be witnessed as complex practices that construct, reconstruct and conceal
complex political, cultural and economic meanings. They can also point to situations
where the stakes are high, and where such processes inevitably engage participants
in controversy and contestation. In this thesis where I focused on the education
policy arena, and the field of literacy education, these stakes occupied a field of
transformation at local, national and global levels and were implicated in repre-
sentations of crisis, sustainability and security.
Governmentality
Governmentality offers the conceptual tools of biopower, biopolitics, civil society,

liberalism and security apparatus as technologies of power that are subject to
processes of recombining and adaptation. Dean (2008, pp. 176–197) refers to this as
reflexivity: the capacity for governments to reconstitute their way of governing in
the light of the risks and dangers posed by the historical moment. Dillon and
Lobo-Guerrero (2008) suggest that the techniques and discourses of biopolitical
security ‘deal with an object that is continuously undergoing transformation and
change through the manifold circuits of production and reproduction which com-
prise the very eventalness of [their] biological existence’ (Dillon and
Lobo-Guerrero 2008, pp. 283–284). This is to say that the objects of government
are contingent, subject to complexity, and uncertainty. In this environment
biopolitical government seeks to secure processes of circulation, where inevitably
the microprocesses of security apparatus intersect with geopolitical concerns.
Against this background, the subjectification of human life can be mapped against
ever-present concerns about the securitisation of state and territory. In this thesis
these theoretical foci raised questions as to what strategies were used to secure
forms of good and bad circulation, and what this meant in terms of the government
of space, uncertainty and the normalising of risk. It begged the question of what
combinations of power emerge in political transformations.
Dispositif
My thesis also deployed the concept of dispositif, sometimes referred to as an

apparatus. Dispositif conceptually unifies discourse and governmentality and
306 S. Kelly
enables a systematic description and analysis of government’s heterogeneous ele-

ments, practices, forces, rationalities and strategies. Foucault begins his definition
of dispositif by emphasising heterogeneous elements:
What I’m trying to pick out with this term is, firstly, a thoroughly heterogeneous ensemble
consisting of discourses, institutions, architectural forms, regulatory decisions, laws,
administrative measures, scientific statements, philosophical, moral and philanthropic
propositions—in short, the said as much as the unsaid. Such are the elements of the
apparatus. (1980, p. 194)
Foucault emphasises that the discursive and non-discursive aspects of an appa-

ratus constitute, in part, an historical element: those sets of institutions, processes of
subjectivation, and rules that function together as mechanisms in which power
relations become concrete. He also suggests there is no necessary demarcation
between these discursive and non-discursive elements. They are simply elements
that compose a set of forces that bear upon human subjects—their bodies and
thoughts—in space and time. Bacchi and Bonham (2014) argue that the discursive
and non-discursive can be understood as belonging to a single configuration where
‘knowledge in practices and knowledge as practices (discursive practices) sit
alongside one another as complementary perspectives, bridging a symbolic material
division’ (Bacchi and Bonham 2014, p. 191). The idea that policy discourses have
material effects has been important to this thesis. For the purposes of the study, I saw
a play of discourses/knowledges and the task of identifying sets of practices that
heterogeneously engage literacy and education across the networks of government
interest, including geopolitical concerns with neighbor states, border control and
immigration policies, and interventions in Indigenous communities.
Genealogy as a Nominalist Account of Policy Statements
If genealogy can be thought of as a form of interpretation then paradigmatically, it

can be understood as a nominalist account of claims to truth. Genealogy is less
concerned with linguistic analysis than with statements that make claims to be
normatively true. The practice of language as communicated in statement-events
form the objects of genealogical analysis. In this study I have taken Lemke’s (2003)
view that if genealogy is concerned with the critical history of thought, then
evaluative norms can be considered as discursive objects. As Bacchi and Bonham
(2014) have suggested, the analysis of discursive practices as statement-events
bridges a symbolic/material divide. The genealogist working from within a dis-
cursive formation analyses these ‘normative statements’ as objects of thought,
examining them at the limit/threshold of their use and capacity for transformation.
To follow Owen’s (2002) reading of genealogy, the task is to question how nor-
mative statements hold subjects captive to a perspective, including the statements
rendered by the analysis itself. Genealogical critique, in this sense, allows for
transformation in the definition and use of its own terms, such as the term discourse;
a quality endemic to the Foucauldian oeuvre. Hansen (2014) for example, argues
strongly for a non-normative approach to critical research, preferring a nominalist
approach to that of the project of unmasking. Rather than work within a framework
of normative standards to unmask ‘immediate representations of the world and the
hidden structures of which it is the privileged task of the researcher to discover, the
nominalist approach aims to modestly stay true to experience and interaction’
(Hansen 2014, p. 3). Here, the role of critique is to point to the ‘possibility of
‘otherness’ [and] repoliticize contemporary and pervasive modes of governing’
(Hansen 2014, p. 3). The focus is to withstand ‘a priori concept definitions’ but to
analyse the ‘struggles and strategic uses of them’ (Hansen 2014, p. 4).
Structure
Contents page
Part A Title Framing the Problem
• Context
• Introducing the research
• Purpose
• Aims and questions
• Significance
• Outline of Chapters
Chapter 2 Literature Review
• Literacy and the problem of human subjects
• Foucauldian histories of literacy and the government of population
• Literacy and critical studies of the present
• Summary and implications
Chapter 3 Discourse, Government and Dispositif
• Introducing theoretical resources
• Foucauldian Discourse
• Governmentality
• Security Apparatus
• The Dispositif
Chapter 4 Genealogy as Critique
• Introducing genealogy as methodology
• Genealogy as a critical history of thought
• Research design
• Practising Genealogy as the research of documents
• Conclusion and limitations
Part B Data and Analysis
Chapter 5 Securing Civil Society in the ‘Age of Terror’
• Connecting, literacy, education, security: a brief genealogy
• Identifying ensembles of practice during the Howard Coalition Government
• Summary
Chapter 6 Securing Human Subjects: Heterogeneous Practices
• Introduction
• The security literacy nexus: Locating heterogeneous practices
(continued)
308 S. Kelly
(continued)
Contents page
Chapter 7 Securing Virtuous Citizens for the National Interest
• Introduction
• Governing virtuous citizens: Strong Prosperous and secure
• Education for the national interest: Rudd’s education revolution
• The geopolitics of human security
• Conclusion and consequences
Part C Conclusions
Chapter 8 Conclusions
• Introduction
• Applying Foucault to the politics of education
• Literacy: A multiscalar device for securing civil society
• Limitations
• Suggestions for further research
• Concluding remark
Commentary
If the notion of descent and emergence is key to the idea of genealogical research
then it might be argued that the structure of a genealogy is dependent on the dis-
covery of conditions of emergence. There seem to be two things at play here:
genealogical research is an emergent research practice and the objects of thought
identified in genealogical research indicate conditions of emergence. The research
took into account those forms of reasoning that are characteristic of liberal govern-
ment in different historical periods and those tools that have been used in attempting
to bring programmes of governance into being. I was particularly concerned about
how concepts of security have been understood by government, and how mecha-
nisms of security have been deployed in strategic attempts to guarantee liberal
constructs of freedom and society. The study looked at how literacy policy can be
considered as one such tool and also considers those ways literacy policy has been
incorporated within ever developing frameworks of security.
In selecting texts for this genealogy, I was guided by a search for particular
events that in some way might shed light on how being a literate citizen has become
a problem of government. This search involved looking at such instances as, for
example, the Federation of Australia and its immigration policies, to the conjunc-
ture of like polices in other parts of the world at a similar time. I have examined the
rise of the language of security in political discourse from the English and Scottish
Enlightenment (1650–early Nineteenth Century) to moments of financial crisis
during the Great Depression and subsequent world conflict, to its recalibration at the
end of the Cold War as a conceptualisation of human security in the emerging era of
‘neoliberal globalisation’. This took me to the post 9/11 period, which has been
transfixed by such pervading symbols of violence in an age of terror and trans-
formations via new technologies in flows of communication. My investigation of
the recent past is focused on the Australian context, which has seen such a flour-
ishing of policy ensembles, but with reference to the influences of the global north.
In genealogy these conjunctures of forces may be considered as singularities, those
moments where the descent or traces of ways of thinking and being, creatively
recombine as emergent forms of discourse. And so in using these principles as
criteria for the selection of data, I hope to have located those struggles in which the
literate citizen is constituted and offer insights into how the human subject is subject
to emergent forms of power.
In bringing these diverse concepts together, this study considered how these
forms of knowledge, institutional practices and modes of reasoning combine at
various historical moments. The focus, nevertheless, was to see how these elements
are implicated in questions of power and the ‘variable and complex function[s] of
discourse’ (Foucault 2010, p. 118).
References
Bacchi, C. (2012). Why study problematizations? Making politics visible. Open Journal of
Political Science, 2(1), 1–8.
Bacchi, C. (2014). Analysing policy: What’s the problem represented to be? Frenchs Forest,
Australia: Pearson.
Bacchi, C., & Bonham, J. (2014). Reclaiming discursive practices as an analytical focus: Political
implications. Foucault Studies, 17, 173–192.
Ball, S. (1993). What is policy? Texts, trajectories and toolboxes. Discourse: Studies in the
Cultural Politics of Education, 13(2), 10–17.
Ball, S. (2013). Foucault, power and education. London: Routledge.
Dean, M. (2008). Governmentality: Power and rule in modern society. London, England: SAGE.
Dillon, M., & Lobo-Guerrero, L. (2008). Biopolitics of security in the 21st century: An introduction.
Review of International Studies, 34(2), 265–292. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0260210508008024.
Foucault, M. (1980). Confessions of the flesh. In C. Gordon (Ed.), Power/knowledge: Selected
interviews and other writings, 1972–1977 (pp. 194–228). New York: Pantheon Books.
Foucault, M. (2000). Polemics, politics, and problematization. In P. Rabinow (Ed.), Michel
Foucault: Ethics, subjectivity and truth (pp. 111–119). London, England: Penguin Books.
Foucault, M. (2010). What is an author? In P. Rabinow (Ed.), The Foucault reader (pp. 101–120).
New York: Vintage Books.
Hansen, M. P. (2014). Non-normative critique: Foucault and pragmatic sociology as tactical
re-politicization. European Journal of Social Theory. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368431014562705.
Lemke, T. (2003). Comment on Nancy Fraser: Rereading Foucault in the shadow of globalization.
Constellations, 10(2), 172–179. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8675.00322.
Luke, A. (2011). Generalizing across borders: Policy and the limits of educational science.
Educational Researcher, 40(8), 367–377. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x11424314.
Owen, D. (2002). Criticism and captivity: On genealogy and critical theory. European Journal of
Philosophy, 10, 216–230. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0378.00158.
310 S. Kelly
Stephen Kelly has completed his thesis titled Governing civil society: How literacy, education and
security were brought together. The chapter about his thesis was based on a Ph.D. degree,
completed at Queensland University of Technology under the supervision of Professor Barbara
Comber and Professor Annette Woods. While completing his Ph.D. Stephen worked as a literacy
consultant and leading learning consultant at Catholic Education South Australia. Stephen’s
interest in the relationship between literacy education and government policy, emerged out of his
experience as a teacher and leader in schools and consolidated during his work as a consultant.
Notwithstanding, a close reading of Foucauldian scholarship during his Ph.D. helped to provide
the tools for reading policy events and shape the direction of the research. Stephen has now moved
to the University of New England where he is working as a lecturer in English and literacy.
Stephen has since published his thesis as a research monograph titled Governing literate
populations: The political uses of literacy in securing civil society.
Chapter 31
From Developing Child to Competent
Learner: A Genealogical Study
of the Kindergarten Child
and Progressive Reform in Aotearoa
New Zealand
Emma Buchanan
Research Question
What is the most appropriate structure for reporting an historical study of the child
as a subject of early education practices in the past, following post-structural
paradigms and adopting a genealogical methodology?
This study examined changing commitments to and ideas about young children’s
nature and what their early childhood education should entail. It explored early
childhood education as an historically shifting site of reforming and progressive
imperatives. Substantively, the study focused upon the history of the kindergarten
child in Aotearoa New Zealand during the twentieth and into the present century,
and it was built upon an analysis of two pivotal moments of early education reform.
These moments were characterized as being differently liberatory, and ideas and
practices related to what I named as play-based developmental pedagogies of
freedom (late 1940s and 1950s), and sociocultural learning pedagogies of
empowerment (late 1990s and 2000s) were studied.
Themes of temporality, change, subjectivity, knowledge, and truth were central.
A Foucauldian understanding of subjects and subjectivities as being historically
E. Buchanan (&)
Graduate School of Education, University of Melbourne, Parkvile, Australia
e-mail: elbuchanan@gmail.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_31
312 E. Buchanan
variable and practically formed was integral to the thesis (e.g. Foucault 1997,
2000). The study sought to illuminate the different forms of action and ‘work upon
the self’ that were presumed and promoted as being natural or free for young
children during the periods being studied. Concepts of the child and childhood in
early education discourses were examined in conjunction with a close-up analysis
of kindergarten spaces, every day practices, and pedagogical ideas. Source mate-
rials for the study were varied, and comprised written, visual, socio-spatial, expert,
professional, practice-oriented, and advice texts.
Theory was integral to the study. Indeed, pre-existing engagements with
Foucauldian ideas and immersion in critical debates in early childhood education
informed the identification of a set of problems or puzzles to be examined through a
doctoral study. A central aim was to explore and problematize the idea that early
childhood curriculum, pedagogy, and practices in New Zealand had achieved a
‘golden’ form during the late 1990s and early 2000s. Integral to this view were
claims that the young child had finally been properly recognized and understood,
and this child was commonly called forth as a competent, social and culturally
diverse learner. Historical narrations were bound up in understandings of this period
as a golden time, and the fervency with which these understandings were taken up
in best practice shaped, I argued, children’s possibilities in education spaces. From
the outset, then, the fields with which the thesis engaged—early educational
practices, historical and critical understandings about education and childhood—
were themselves conceptualized as culturally and historically produced.
The study was a form of Foucauldian genealogy (e.g. Foucault 1984; Saar 2008).
There is much debate as to whether this approach can, or should be, described as
constituting discrete methods of analysis. As commentators have argued, a
Foucauldian analytic is less about a set of steps or procedures and more about
bringing an overarching sensibility and understandings to a corpus of texts
(Arribas-Ayllon and Walkerdine 2008; O’Farrell 2005). This was the case in this
study—overarching concerns with the subject and subjectivity—were central to the
analysis. However, in conjunction with a Foucualdian sensibility, a number of
discrete discourse analytic processes were also adopted. These included the
description and tracing of knowledge shifts in texts, the mapping of discursive
‘objects’ and practices (Graham 2011, p. 668), and a critical consideration of
‘subject positions’ in discourses in order to examine what they made possible or
constrained for young children’s liberated—free or empowered—action in early
childhood spaces (Arribas-Ayllon and Walkerdine 2008, p. 99).
A range of what are regarded as standard qualitative and historical strategies for
the interpretation of sources were also employed. These included the production of
‘analytic memos’ (Johnson and Christensen 2014, p. 660), and the comparative
analysis of documentary materials in order to gain familiarity with defining
31 From Developing Child to Competent Learner: A Genealogical … 313
discourses within and across the time frames studied (McCulloch 2004). This was
also crucial in identifying discourses and themes that were either normalized and
widespread or exceptional in some ways. Immersion in the sources, iterative
analysis and interpretation (Carabine 2001; Foucault 1984), along with extensive
processes of ‘writing [as] a method of inquiry’ were crucial to the production of
arguments (Richardson and Pierre 2005, p. 959), and integral to the form and
structure that the substantive historical chapters took.
In summary, ‘the method’ entailed theoretically framed analyses of varied source
materials in order to build knowledge about changing expert and professional
understandings of early education and young children, and to gather evidence about
how these ideas were taken-up in everyday educational practices. Inspired in par-
ticular by Foucauldian theories of subjectivity, the analysis was concerned to illu-
minate the possibilities for children’s self-knowledge and liberated action that were
being opened up and foreclosed for children in the periods being studied.
The overarching stance toward knowledge and its effects was post-structural or
post-foundational. There are, of course, many emphases within these epistemo-
logical and ontological positions (Fendler 2010). An understanding of knowledge
as a ‘material element in social life’ which has practical effects, such as the shaping
of possibilities for thought and action, was central to this project (Popkewitz and
Brennan 1998, p. 4; Foucault 2000).
More specifically, the study was informed by Foucauldian perspectives on
knowledge, scholarly practices and their purposes. Foucault (1984), writing about
genealogical histories, asserted that ‘knowledge is not made for understanding; it is
made for cutting’ (p. 88). Following Foucault, knowledge claims were not made in
order to develop a finalized account about who the young child was, is, or should
be. Nor were they made in order to support specific and prescriptive arguments
about what early education should seek to promote for children’s experiences of
themselves and process of change over time. Rather, the aim was to generate
alternative perspectives on the early educational past, and to offer aspects of a
counter-history of the kinds of experiences that might have been open to children in
previous kindergarten and early education spaces. In the spirit of Foucauldian
critique, the historical account was envisaged as a ‘lever’ in the present – as
opposed to a ‘mirror’ on the past (Fendler 2010, p. 42). By generating new per-
spectives on the past and by re-ordering established historical narratives and
interpretations, it was hoped that the genealogy could produce a cut or a break in
established conceptions of the early education child.
Foucauldian concerns with history and temporality were thus central to the
analysis. My thesis explored some of the ways in which the history of early
education had been narrated according to a story of progressive developments and
improvements, and it sought to interrogate how this had informed understandings
about the experiences of its subjects—children—at different times. An examination
of the potency of claims to know children’s nature in progressive educational
314 E. Buchanan
discourses was an important feature of the study. Changing truth claims and ped-
agogical practices were explored in order to illuminate some of the different ways
that children in early education have been supported to govern and realize them-
selves (Fendler 2010; Foucault 2000). Overall, while a number of interconnected
Foucauldian concepts guided the work—the subject, power, knowledge, govern-
ment, and ethics—of particular importance for this thesis was the conceptualization
of knowledge as an historical variable, enmeshed with power, and understood as
productive and realized in practices.
Structure
The opening chapters of the thesis comprised an introduction (Chapter 1); critical
review of literature (Chapter 2); and a discussion of the conceptual resources and
methodology (Chapter 3). Chapters Four to Eight were the substantive historical
analysis chapters. Chapter Four provided an historical overview and a mapping and
recasting of significant changes in early education policy, curriculum and pedagogy
in New Zealand, beginning in the 1930s through to the present decade. Chapters
Five through to Eight were conceived as juxtaposing pairs, in which key knowl-
edges and best practices for each of the two in-focus time periods were studied in
detail. Chapters Five and Six were concerned with knowledge and practices of
play-based developmental pedagogies of freedom as manifest in the late 1940s and
1950s. Chapters Seven and Eight focused on the reforms and practices related to
sociocultural learning pedagogies of empowerment during the late 1990s and 2000s.
Chapter Nine concluded the thesis and brought together the threads of analysis and
insights emerging across the preceding chapters, linking the concepts and questions
identified in the opening chapters with the historical arguments and contributions of
chapters Four to Eight.
Contents page
Part A Introductory chapters
Chapter 2 Review of the literature
Chapter 3 Conceptual resources and methodological approach
Part B Historical analysis
Chapter 4 A critical mapping of early childhood education policy reform in New Zealand:
1930s to the present
Chapter 5 Postwar progressivism: New knowledge, new education
Chapter 6 The ‘Kindergarten Method’ and the postwar free-playing child
Chapter 7 Millennial revisions: Reconceptualizing the child and early education
Chapter 8 Empowering diverse, thinking children: Millennial learning communities
Commentary
The thesis was produced in a graduate School of Education in Australia, and its
opening chapters followed established social science norms of presentation and
structure. There were some initial challenges in working out how to manage this
structure in light of the historical study, raising important questions about how to
navigate research practice conventions across the social science and humanities
disciplines. The first three chapters adopted social science conventions of setting
out the warrant and rationale for the study, establishing a scholarly context and an
indication of important contributions of the thesis through a critical review of
literature, and a detailing of the theoretical frames (what were called conceptual
resources) and methods. Within this established framework, the epistemological
and interpretive positions taken, along with the critical aims of the thesis were
clearly articulated in the opening chapters. Chapters Four through Eight took on a
more hybridized form, developing an historical account and narratives that were
informed and framed by extended and theorized commentary and argumentation.
These chapters also reflected analytic modes and forms that are possibly more
associated with a social science thesis informed by post-foundational theories. The
structure of the thesis and the methods of building arguments thus deliberately drew
from several disciplinary conventions. While it was an approach that presented
some challenges, it was also one that attempted to open up fresh and
cross-disciplinary ways of thinking about early childhood in the past and today.
The introductory chapter included clear opening statements about the
genealogical nature of the study and its conceptual and thematic concerns. It
included acknowledgement of my professional and scholarly investments in the
study, noting how already-theorized perspectives framed the identification of
problems for exploration; this was reflexively considered in a section entitled
‘Autobiography of research focus: Interests, provocations, and conceptual frames’.
Chapter Two, a critical review of literature, underwent many revisions. Initial
drafts were somewhat overdetermined by a Foucauldian perspective, with discus-
sion of the governing effects of different scholarly traditions concerned with theo-
rizing childhood and early education brought to the fore at the outset. Eventually,
these analyses were contextualized by taking a perhaps more conventional approach
by bringing more centrally into view literature concerned with the history of early
childhood education. The review set out major disciplinary approaches and angles
onto this field, noting important strengths as well as limitations in approaches to the
history of the young child in and through early education. The review concluded
with a discussion drawing together inspiration, gaps, and problems in the literature.
The synthesizing discussion was presented as an act of construction and argu-
mentation rather than one of unproblematic discoveries of unanswered questions or
topics in the field. A key indication of a constructivist understanding of scholarly
gaps and problematics within research was to draw together the identification of
silences and problems in the review of literature with the wider thesis provocations
that had been introduced in Chapter One.
316 E. Buchanan
Chapter Three, a two-part chapter, addressed conceptual, historiographical, and

study design issues. The first part, entitled ‘Key concepts and a genealogical
methodology’ set out my interpretation of central concepts and approaches to
historical analysis. Addressing these issues early in the thesis enabled space to put
these concepts and sensibilities to work in the substantive chapters without repet-
itive explication. In the historical chapters, there were elaborations of important
concepts as arguments were developed, but this was done so in an integrated
manner, and in such a way that it illuminated the creative, rather than simply
doctrinaire, ways that Foucauldian ideas were being engaged.
The second part of Chapter Three comprised a discussion of design issues. It
addressed methods of analysis, periodization, source materials, and ethics. These
discussions set out a rationale for the structure of subsequent chapters and, in
particular, they developed an argument for the focus on two differently liberating
moments in early education. Addressing issues about periodization, source selec-
tion and ethics was also an important way to indicate scholarly rigour. Concepts of
rigour or trustworthiness are variable, and indeed contested, in interpretive and
post-foundational research frameworks (e.g. Denzin and Lincoln 2004). It was thus
crucial that tensions and deliberations shaping the study were discussed, and that an
awareness of criticisms of genealogical work and cultural and constructionist his-
torical approaches was indicated (e.g. O’Farrell 2005; Tamura et al. 2011).
Chapter Four was a historical overview and mapping of major changes in early
education in New Zealand from the 1930s to the present decade. It was structured
around two early education policy documents (one produced in the 1940s, and one
produced in the late 1980s). This overview sought to ground the study in historical
landmarks, and to offer important empirical detail. However, in the production of a
linear overview, there was a danger that the chapter could reinforce the very pro-
gressivist understandings—that early education has gradually and cumulatively
improved over time—which were being problematized in the study. This tension
was addressed, at least in part, through the adoption of historiographical reflexivity
and by the shifting of register and analytic focus at strategic and signaled points
across the chapter. For instance, at certain points in the chapter, descriptions of
events as they have been established in scholarship and primary documents were
offered, while at other points, there were reflections on the assumptions and effects
of existing historical narratives. The concluding discussion offered an explicitly
Foucauldian perspective on the effects and problematic aspects of established
histories.
The following four chapters were, as noted, conceived as juxtaposing pairs, with
early educational reforms of the mid and late twentieth century being studied. Each
in-focus period comprised (i) a chapter that examined scholarly and professional
understandings and debates about new educational ideas and approaches at the time
(Chapters Five and Seven), and (ii) a chapter that addressed the register of practice
explicitly, examining social-spatial, visual, and written texts in order to explore
what was taken to be best practice in action (Chapters Six and Eight). The juxta-
position of two time-periods was adopted in order to destabilize commonsense
understandings about disciplinary practices, such as early childhood and
kindergarten education, gradually improving over time. By undertaking detailed

analysis of the ideas, arguments, and debates informing pedagogical reforms, these
chapters sought to offer rich accounts of the conceptual and practical ways that
children were understood, and supported to ‘be themselves’ in early childhood
spaces in the past.
Chapters Five to Eight were simultaneously historical analysis and argumenta-
tion. There was no separate or discrete discussion chapter following these, as the
nature of the Foucauldian historical interpretation demands that the argument and
historical account be interwoven. Each chapter comprised detailed and at times
up-close textual analysis that informed an overall account of central themes, pre-
occupations, understandings, and practices. Each chapter closed with a synthesizing
discussion section where an explicitly theorized register was adopted.
The discussion components of Chapters Five to Eight were important for
building analytic links and arguments across the thesis. These discussions drew
upon themes and arguments introduced in the literature review as well as con-
ceptual resources. Equally however, allowing considerable space in each of these
chapters to offer detailed accounts that conveyed the language and feel of the
arguments, ideas, and practices of the time being studied was crucial for developing
my analysis. Chapters Five to Eight thus included a considerable amount of
up-close interpretive work with visual and documentary texts, allowing a detailed
examination of the conditions in which children were thought about and educated in
kindergarten spaces.
Fendler (2010) has written about the exemplary qualities—as distinct from
legislative critique, which sets out normative principles for action—of Foucauldian
historical critique. She argues that the critical dimensions of this scholarship derive
in large part from its often literary qualities, such as rich and at times poetic prose.
Such qualities can immerse readers in particular epistemic formations, spaces and
practices, and they can, in palpable ways, suggest how subjects have formed
themselves—in interaction with others and with material and conceptual resources
—in particular ways at different times. In working to develop immersive and tex-
tured accounts of past formations of educated subjectivity, these chapters sought to
provoke reflections about what could be possible, and perhaps different, for young
children in early childhood spaces in the present.
The conclusion chapter followed conventional practices of drawing together
overall insights and contributions of the thesis as well as noting limitations and
scope for future work. Cross-cutting central themes and challenges of the study
were identified and organized into discussions of three main types of contributions
of the thesis. These contributions were described as conceptual–theoretical;
methodological, and substantive–historical. In the reflections on the contributions
of the study, connections were made with the introductory chapter to the thesis, and
to the professional, biographical and scholarly contexts that gave rise to and ani-
mated the research, thereby bringing the thesis to a close by returning to its opening
promises and questions.
318 E. Buchanan
References
Arribas-Ayllon, M., & Walkerdine, V. (2008). Foucauldian discourse analysis. In C. Willig & W.
Stainton-Rogers (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research in psychology (pp. 91–
108). London: Sage.
Carabine, J. (2001). Unmarried Motherhood 1830–1990: A genealogical analysis. In M. Wetherell,
S. Taylor, & S. J. Yates (Eds.), Discourse as data: A guide for analysis (pp. 267–310).
London: Sage.
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2004). Moments in qualitative research. In M. Lewis-Beck, A.
Bryman & T. Futing Liao (Eds.), The SAGE encyclopaedia of social science research methods
(pp. 661–662). California: Sage.
Fendler, L. (2010). Michel Foucault. Continuum.
Foucault, M. (1984). Nietzsche, genealogy, history. In P. Rabinow (Ed.), The Foucault reader
(pp. 76–100). New York: Pantheon.
Foucault, M. (1997). Ethics: Subjectivity and truth. The essential works of Michel Foucault, 1954–
1988 (Vol. 1, R. Hurley, Trans.). New York: New Press.
Foucault, M. (2000). Power. The essential works of Michel Foucault, 1954–1988 (Vol. 3). New
York: New Press.
Graham, L. J. (2011). The product of text and ‘other’ statements: Discourse analysis and the
critical use of Foucault. Educational Philosophy & Theory, 43, 663–674. https://doi.org/10.
1111/j.1469-5812.2010.00698.x.
Johnson, B., & Christensen, L. (2014). Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed
approaches (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
McCulloch, G. (2004). Documentary research in education, history and the social sciences.
London: RoutledgeFalmer.
O’Farrell, C. (2005). Michel Foucault. London: Sage.
Popkewitz, T. S., & Brennan, M. (1998). Restructuring of social and political theory in education:
Foucault and a social epistemology of school practices. In T. S. Popkewitz & M. Brennan
(Eds.), Foucault’s challenge: Discourse, knowledge, and power in education (pp. 3–35). New
York: Teachers College Press.
Richardson, L., & Pierre, E. A. (2005). Writing: A method of inquiry. In N. K. Denzin & Y.
S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed., pp. 959–978). Thousand
Oaks: Sage.
Saar, M. (2008). Understanding genealogy: History, power, and the self. Journal of the Philosophy
of History, 2, 295–314.
Tamura, E. H., Eick, C., & Coloma, R. S. (2011). Introduction: Theory in educational history.
History of Education Quarterly, 51(2), 148–149.
Emma Buchanan researches in the history and cultural studies of childhood and education, and
has worked as an early childhood educator, and teacher educator, in New Zealand. Her doctoral
thesis, ‘From Developing Child to Competent Learner: A genealogical study of the kindergarten
child and progressive reform in Aotearoa New Zealand’ was awarded the 2017 ‘Rhedding-Jones
Outstanding Dissertation Award’ by the critical scholarly network: Reconceptualising Early
Childhood Education (RECE). Her doctorate was undertaken at the Graduate School of Education,
University of Melbourne, Australia, under the supervision of Professor Julie McLeod and Dr.
Katie Wright. Buchanan acknowledges the intellectual support of both supervisors, and is grateful
for the generous feedback and contributions from Professor McLeod in the production and drafting
of this chapter.
Chapter 32
Feeling-Thinking for a Feminist
Participatory Visual Ethnography
Laura Rodriguez Castro
Research Question
What is an appropriate structure for reporting on a de(s)colonial feeling-thinking

research project?
When I first commenced my doctorate, a participatory research project with rural
women in Colombia, relational understandings of space and place provided the
initial conceptual ground. In this respect, I was influenced by an understanding of
place and space as made relationally in both specific locations and globally (see
Massey 2005; Woods 2007). Such a theorisation of space and place informed how I
conceived neoliberal globalisation, which has impacted the Colombian countryside
in the last three decades. That is not as an overarching force subsuming rural
women, but rather as a process of negotiation, recalibration and resistance which
could be explored collaboratively with the participants of the research.
Influenced by my feminist politics and my photographic training I wanted to
create a project that was rigorous, but also emergent and embedded in embodied
experiences. As such, relationality, emergence and embodiment became central
themes in designing and conceptualising my study. Firstly, I consciously rejected
any linear conceptualisations of the lives of rural women, which have often posi-
tioned them as mere victims of neoliberalism. Thus, I embarked on a journey to
destabilise my own ideas of feminism and rurality, constantly reflecting on my
position as a young, middle-class urban Colombian mestiza.1 Secondly, I compli-
cated the notions of ‘the field’ as a relational space by embracing the connection
1
It is important to recognise this, as Indigenous and black feminists have called-out for recognising
our privilege as mestiza women, which has been argued that has substituted whiteness in Latin
America (see Barroso 2014).
L. Rodriguez Castro (&)

Griffith University, 58 Parklands Dr, Southport, QLD 4215, Australia
e-mail: laura.rodriguezcastro@griffithuni.edu.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_32
320 L. Rodriguez Castro
between emotional and thinking processes as fundamental aspects of my research

(Fals Borda 2015). I did this in an attempt to establish a dialogue with the women I
encountered. Colombian sociologist Orlando Fals Borda (2015) calls this approach
to research sentipensar or feeling-thinking (see also López Intzín 2013).
Feeling-thinking has influenced my research and has stayed with me beyond the
field continuing to influence the writing phase of my dissertation.
Now, in the final stages of my Ph.D., having completed my fieldwork, I have
faced the question of what would be an appropriate structure for reporting on this
messy journey on which I embarked. In a nutshell, the research project is a feminist
participatory visual ethnography embedded in a de(s)colonial paradigm, developed
with campesinas (peasant women) and rural women in the context of neoliberal
globalisation in Colombia.
The context of Colombia is particularly complex given the nation’s history of

armed conflict, drug trafficking, United States intervention, social inequality and
illegal land grabbing. Despite Colombia’s quite distinct historical, political and
socio-economic situation it has not been immune from implementing ‘all of the key
components of a neoliberal agenda—austerity, privatization, de-regulation and
export-led growth through trade liberalization’ (Hristov 2005, p. 90). As they have
elsewhere across the world, these policy reforms have radically affected rural
people and places, particularly the peasant population. The peasant farmer has been
increasingly marginalised as land has been appropriated for mining rather than food
production, and as new incentives for the agro-industrial farmer have ignored the
small and medium farming sector (PNUD 2011).
The struggle for land is central to Colombia’s rural history and has often been
the source of violent confrontations between paramilitary organisations, insurgent
groups and the Colombian army. These confrontations have affected the population
significantly, which is demonstrated by the forced displacement of almost 6 million
people and the illegal land grabbing of eight million hectares of land in the country
(Amnesty International 2014). As such, those who rely on the land for survival—
indigenous people, Afro-Colombians, and peasant farmers—have been the most
affected by the armed conflict.
While, as a group, rural Colombian people are disadvantaged, this manifests
differently for women and men given the nation’s patriarchal context. For instance,
60.1% of peasant and indigenous women still do not receive their own incomes in
comparison to 18.6% of rural men (CEPAL 2007). As such, there is a double
invisibility for rural women in Colombia. Then, there are other intersecting
marginalisations based on race and ethnicity that directly affect the rural population
in general and women in particular.
Notably, the fieldwork of this research was conducted after a period of more than
50 years of the armed conflict in Colombia and during a time when the largest
32 Feeling-Thinking for a Feminist Participatory Visual Ethnography 321
insurgent group FARC-EP was about to sign a peace agreement with the govern-
ment (August 2016). In this period rural contexts have been at the centre of the
demobilisation of the armed actors and further actions dictated by the agreement.
I argue that in this time of transition in the country, the recognition of peasant
women as diverse political actors is pivotal to break the historical discriminations
they have suffered as a consequence of neoliberal reforms, colonialism, conflict
(including war), and patriarchy.
My doctoral study aimed to visualise, understand and re-signify campesina’s
struggles in the context of de(s)colonialism and neoliberal globalisation in
Colombia. More specifically, the research aimed to:
1. Document and validate the labour of Colombian campesina women encom-
passing the changes that have occurred in their work as a result of neoliberal
globalisation;
2. Explore Colombian rural women’s organised and informal, negotiations and
resistances to neoliberal globalisation;
3. Re-signify place as a site of resistance and agency based on the everyday lives
and accounts of Colombian campesinas in the context of neoliberal
globalisation.
The methodology for this research was a feminist participatory visual ethnography.
Fieldwork was divided in two distinct phases. The first phase involved two par-
ticipatory ethnographic case studies of the rural Colombian towns of Toca, Boyacá
located in the Andean mountain range and Minca, Magdalena located in the Sierra
Nevada de Santa Marta (world’s highest coastal range). This phase included a
period of participant observation accompanied by photographic documentation and
group interviews that encompassed photo elicitation and the collaborative organi-
sation of a photographic exhibition with the peasant women in each community.
The second phase of the research relied upon in-depth interviews with rural and
urban women activists who work closely with issues related to rural women in
Colombia. As stated, I adopted a participatory methodology and implemented a
variety of qualitative methods to navigate the field. Being a feeling-thinking,
reflexive researcher became central to my fieldwork process (Finlay 2002; López
Intzín 2013; Fals Borda 2015). This involved being conscious of my embodied
positionality in the field and recording my observations and reflections (see
Rodriguez Castro 2017). Therefore, writing in place about my embodied experi-
ences became another layer of my methodology (see Somerville 2007).
The methodology of my thesis is as central to the research as is the theory I have
engaged, as I approach research as practice (Green 2015). The concepts of
improvisation, emergence and embodiment also permeated the methodology. The
fieldwork journal accounts are marked by experiences of place, such as the weather
conditions, my own feelings of distress, happiness and admiration, the accounts of
resistance and everyday routines of the people I talked to, and the constant
adjustment of my fieldwork plans to adapt to the busy lives of Colombian cam-
pesinas. For instance, in Minca’s remote communities where there was no mobile
reception I wrote in my diary:
I went to meet Andrea at her home but found her walking on the way, so we walked
together where she was heading to sell some medicine. She liked the photos I took of her
children and her crafts.. Then I went to Milena’s and Margarita’s to ask them to pick the
photos they liked.. Rosa was not there, so I will visit her tomorrow, she seems to be busy all
the time and it can be very frustrating. Still, she seems keen for the project.. This time there
was a lot of military presence in the area. They were coming down when I was walking up..
Although armed conflict is not as present I still believe they [illegal armed actors2] have a
lot of power and control over the territory..
I go on to write: ‘What is next?’ This extract brings to the fore the messiness and
unpredictability of a methodology in motion. Despite the fact that the project was
meticulously crafted prior to entering the field, plans were constantly destabilised
and rearranged. Embodiment, reflections of the conceptual and contextual under-
pinnings of the research, the participants’ and researcher’s emotions, are all evi-
denced in this small excerpt of my diary.
The numerous layers in my methodology have led me to make the decision to
focus the first results chapter of my thesis on fieldwork experiences. These will be
presented prior to overviewing the study’s the conceptual underpinnings. This
decision reflects my commitment to contribute to research, which is emplaced and
embodied and consistent with a de(s)colonial feminist paradigm. I will develop the
argument of this decision further in the final section of this chapter.
My thesis draws upon two main bodies of literature. These are: rural geographies
with an emphasis on globalisation and peasantry, and rural women’s activism and
social movements. Given the feminist de(s)colonial epistemic focus of the research,
particular attention is given to the feminist and/or gender research that has been
undertaken with a spatial and place-based lens, and to Latin American literature that
argues for embodied and feeling-thinking research.
Paradigm: De(s)colonial Feminisms

It is difficult to explain this to a white woman when the conditions for dialogue are not
given; look, we do no agree with the imposition of hegemonic feminist criteria, but I
recognise and value all of the learning that I have acquired from all the different feminist
2
In Colombia, illegal armed actors are part of left-wing guerillas such as the FARC-EP and ELN or
right wing insurgency such as the AUC.
currents because they have provoked me to recognise myself as an epistemic subject and
therefore to think myself from the body and the space where I live to weave my feminist
ideas. With that I strengthen the conscious construction of my feminist communitarian
identity and at the same time we contribute to the feminist movement of the world. Among
other things, the step we need to take is to name our own liberated languages and cos-
movisions and the categories and concepts that we are constructing for the analysis of our
historical realities of oppression, but also of liberation as native indigenous, campesinas,
rural or of territories
–Lorena Cabnal – communitarian feminist Maya-Xinka
(cited in Gargallo Celentani 2014, p. 17, translated by author)
The powerful quotation above provides a strong platform for my thesis, illu-
minating its theoretical orientation, its central debates and its methodological
underpinnings. Foreshadowed are notions of embodiment, marginality, place-based
resistance and globalisation. Overlaying these themes is the vexed nature of fem-
inist theorising and political action. Cabnal’s insights signal that while my disser-
tation is embedded in feminism, it goes beyond the hegemonic feminisms
commonly enunciated in Western academic discourse. Communitarian feminist,
Lorena Cabnal, asserts that the white privilege of feminism has silenced or mar-
ginalised the voices of many women, including her own. The strong statement
above also speaks deeply to my own journey into understanding and working
collaboratively with peasant women in Colombia.
As a Latin American mestiza based in a Western university in Australia, I had
spent time prior to entering the field contemplating the power relationships and
inequalities between the North and the South, which Suárez Navaz and Hérnandez
Castillo (2008) argue is an essential axis for the perversion of colonialism. Having
completed my Honours project in the Andean countryside, and growing up in
Colombia, I had always been critical of seeing women’s emancipation as a compe-
tition for belonging to a neoliberal system that privileges white Western women from
the Global North. I knew there were other ways or articulating and practising femi-
nism, and these were being forged in places where women are protagonists and agents
of change. Conceptually, this meant exploring how Indigenous, Black, decolonial,
descolonial and postcolonial women, men and/or feminists contested colonisation.
The work of the academics and activists in the Red de Feminismos
Descoloniales (Descolonial Feminisms Network) in Mexico resonated deeply in my
heart. Referencing the Zapatista claim that ‘another world is possible’ they call for
rethinking feminism from global processes of descolonisation (Millán et al. 2014)
and for doing feeling-thinking research (López Intzín 2013). Using the metaphor of
being entangled, Millan et al. (2014) explain that descolonialism is not a concrete
theory, but involves the intention to explore a terrain that emerges from the prac-
tices of those committed to contest colonialism. This also means that it is separate
from the theory of decolonialism. Descolonialism is therefore a process that is alive,
playing with the openness of identities and theories and operating in the entan-
glement these different dimensions provoke. Descolonial feminists question how to
develop their own thinking that accepts concepts and theories that exist, but that at
the same time, open up spaces to think the new—from the localities and social
spaces of activism and research. In taking up descolonial feminism I have thus

engaged in a process of feeling-thinking which has included taking a critical
reflexive lens to my own feminist subjectivity.
Theories: Rural Geographies and Rural Women’s Activisms
The conceptual framework engaged in my thesis departs from the understanding of

neoliberal globalisation as a project rather than an overarching force that undeniably
changes rural places (Massey 2005; Woods 2007; El Khoury 2015). Woods (2007)
and Kay (2008) have argued that rural spaces need more elucidation through
place-based studies. Through a place-based/local approach, my thesis highlights the
agency of local rural places and how they transform and impact the project of
neoliberal globalisation.
I take up the calls from Woods (2007) and Kay (2008) more specifically via a
focus on gender and its intersections (i.e. race, class, ethnicity, rural/urban). In this
respect, I build on scholarship that has engaged gender as a lens to unveil different
experiences of rurality (e.g. Little and Panelli 2010; Bryant and Pini 2011). At the
same time, I depart from much of this scholarship given my interest is the coun-
tryside, and thus the lives of campesina women and their positioning by state and
global political actors.
I deal with politically engaged feminist studies that contest neoliberal discourses
that place rural women in positions of powerlessness and frame women’s
empowerment as ‘good for business’ within linear economical paradigms. These
studies argue for a focus on the local knowledge of women’s agency (i.e. El Khoury
2015; Rodriguez Castro et al. 2016), and the shift in focus away from normative
economic paradigms to political actions aligned to women’s everyday experiences
of rurality. In aiming to bring to the fore rural women’s agency and political
subjectivities, I also review the literature that deals with rural social movements
with an emphasis on Latin America and rural women’s activisms and feminisms.
Structure
The thesis is divided into three parts. The first part, which encompasses three
chapters, introduces the descolonial paradigm, the methodology and my fieldwork
reflections. The opening chapter concentrates on descolonial feminism given this is
the overarching paradigm informing the study. In the second chapter I provide an
overview of the methodology elucidating its design and rationale. Following this,
the third chapter draws on methodological insights derived from my fieldwork and
my navigation of descolonial feminism. This structure differs somewhat from many
dissertations which typically review the literature prior to turning to methodology.
The second part of the thesis encompasses the two chapters of the literature review.
I begin with a focus on globalisation and neoliberalism giving particular attention to

how these have shaped and been shaped by campesina women. In the subsequent
literature review chapter I move to a discussion of what researchers have reported
about rural women’s activism especially as manifest in Latin America. The third
part of the dissertation is the findings chapters in which I first, recognise campesina
women’s negotiations and resistances to rural change in Colombia based on my
ethnographic fieldwork. Second, I claim for re-signifying place as a site of resis-
tance for campesina women through the analysis of relational understandings space
embedded in their everyday lives (i.e. the home). Third, I make connections
between the local and organised resistances based on the in-depth interviews with
rural women’s social movements. The final chapter is the conclusion.
Contents page
Part A Title INTRODUCTION AND METHODOLOGY
Chapter 1 Title Feeling-Thinking for a Feminist Participatory Visual Ethnography
1.1 De(s)colonial Feminisms: ‘A world where may worlds fit’
Chapter 2 Title Methodology: From the Farm to the Photo Exhibition
2.1 Introduction: Case studies, Sampling and Fieldwork
2.2 Literature Review: Visual methods
2.3 Focus Groups
2.4 Feminist Methodologies in Rural Geography: Reflexivity and Positionality
2.5 Data Analysis
Chapter 3 Title Reflections from The Field
3.1 Embodied and Place-based Research in a Rural Context
3.2 Feminist Methodologies and Visual Methods
Part B Title LITERATURE REVIEW
Chapter 4 Title Globalisation, The Neoliberal Countryside and Peasant Women
4.1 Complicating Globalisation and Neoliberalism
4.2 Peasant Women as Subjects of Peasantry and Globalisation
Chapter 5 Title Latin American Rural Women’s Activisms: A Literature Review
Part C Title FINDINGS
Chapter 6 Title Campesinas Negotiating, Recalibrating and Resisting Rural Change
6.1 Remunerated Work
6.2 Climate Change
6.3 Territorial Struggles
Chapter 7 Title Stories, Processes and Trajectories of Place
Chapter 8 Title Organised Resistances: Colombian Rural Women’s Activisms
Chapter 9 Title Conclusion
Commentary
The structures of the thesis, its methodology, and theoretical frameworks have been
influenced by the paradigm of de(s)colonialism and the research practice of
feeling-thinking. I argue these relate deeply to the literature of feminist
methodologies that support acknowledging difference, sharing power within the

research, and reflexively acknowledging the embodied positionality of the
researcher. In my thesis, the campesina women who participated in the research are
presented visually (photographs) as the aim was to give visibility to their work and
lives. Similarly, rural women’s activisms are brought to the fore through their own
narratives.
Dealing and encountering a paradigm such as descolonialism and a research
practice like feeling-thinking occurred at the beginning of eight intensive months of
ethnographic fieldwork. Having engaged previously with feminist theory, rural
geographical studies and Latin American literature I felt there was a missing piece
in my research project, which needed to resonate deeply with the experiences of
Colombian rural women. I remember buying Fals Borda’s (2015) book ‘Una
Sociología Sentipensante para América Latina’ (A Feeling-Thinking Sociology for
Latin America) when I arrived in Bogotá, Colombia’s capital city, before heading to
my first fieldwork town in the Andes. As I started reading, the missing piece, which
was feeling-thinking, started to percolate in my mind. Then, just as I was about to
commence my second case study, I encountered the work of descolonial feminists
at the Latin American Studies Association Conference in 2016. This also pro-
foundly influenced my project.
My thesis engages with literature in a classical way in terms of rural geographies
and social movements, but the overall piece has a heart, and this is embedded in the
de(s)colonial and feminist paradigm, which is introduced in the dissertation’s first
chapter. Writing, walking, interacting, feeling and thinking are relational processes
that have followed me since I started my Ph.D. Descolonial feminism claims to be a
process that is alive, emergent and open to different journeys meaning that I did not
have a prescribed path to follow in my research process. This process resonates with
what Somerville (2007) explains as the ontology of postmodern emergences in
which there is a focus on ‘the irrational, the unfolding, the embodied and the
messiness of research engagement’ (p. 240). This emergence can be overwhelming
as a Ph.D. candidate who is asked to have a clear and consistent design and
structure to present to various committee audiences. Still, I have embraced the
emotional and epistemological underpinnings that came with choosing to do a
research project that was emergent and that relied on research as practice to unravel
and be written.
The heart of my thesis (paradigm) has shaken my own heart and thoughts as a
feminist, as a woman from Latin America and as a privileged mestiza, who is
seeking a way to conceptualise, research, and support rural women’s activism in a
way that builds bridges for dialogue. I took on the call for engaging with recon-
ceptualisations of feminism that aim to de(s)colonise as I agree that academia is
increasingly embedded in a capitalist knowledge economy that privileges Europe
and the United States (Roberts and Connell 2016). Personally, I have embraced the
counsel of Mayan Tsteltal Juan López Intzín (2013) to re-think ourselves,
feeling-think ourselves and feeling-know ourselves as human beings in order to
engage in truthful dialogues and the overall thesis is an attempt to do that.
References
Amnesty International. (2014). A land title is not enough: Ensuring sustainable land in Colombia.
London: United Kingdom.
Barroso, J. M. (2014). Feminismo decolonial: una ruptura con la visión hegemónica eurocéntrica,
racista y burguesa, entrevista con Yuderkys Espinosa Miñoso. Iberoamérica Social:
Revista-red de estudios sociales, 3, 22–33.
Bryant, L., & Pini, B. (2011). Gender and rurality. New York: Routledge.
CEPAL. (2007). Estadísticas para la equidad de género: magnitudes y tendencias en América
Latina. In V. Milosavljervic (Ed.), Santiago de Chile: Naciones Unidas.
El Khoury, A. (2015). Globalization, development and social justice: a propositional political
approach. Oxon.
Fals Borda, O. (2015). Una sociología sentipensante para América Latina. Buenos Aires:
CLACSO.
Finlay, L. (2002). Negotiating the swamp: The opportunity and challenge of reflexivity in research
practice. Qualitative Research, 2(2), 209–230.
Gargallo Celentani, F. (2014). Feminismos desde Abya Yala. Ideas y propocisiones de las mujeres
de 607 pueblos en nuestra América. Ciudad de México: Editorial Corte y Confección.
Green, B. (2015). Research, Practice, Emergence; or, Emergent Methodologies in Cultural Inquiry
and Educational Research. Fussions (7), 1–11.
Hristov, J. (2005). Indigenous struggles for land and culture in Cauca, Colombia. The Journal of
Peasant Studies, 32(1), 88–117.
Hristov, J. (2009). Social class and ethnicity/race in the dynamics of indigenous peasant
movements: The case of the CRIC in Colombia. Latin American Perspectives, 36(4), 41–63.
Kay, C. (2008). Reflections on Latin American rural studies in the neoliberal globalization period:
A new rurality? Development and Change, 39(6), 915–943.
Little, J., & Panelli, R. (2010). Gender research in rural geography. Gender, Place & Culture,
10(3), 281–289.
López Intzín, S. (2013). Ich’el ta muk’: La trama en la construcción del Lekil kuxlejal (vida
plena-digna-justa)In G. Méndez Torres, J. López Intzín, S. Marcos & C. Osorio Hernández
(Eds.), Senti-pensar el género: perspectivas desde los pueblos originarios. Guadalajara,
México: Red Interdisciplinaria de Investigadores de los Pueblos Indios de México; Red de
Feminismos Descoloniales.
Massey, D. (2005). For space. London: SAGE Publications.
Millán, M. (Ed.). (2014). Mas allá del feminismo: caminos para andar. México, D.F.: Red de
Feminismos Descoloniales.
PNUD (Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo). (2011). Mujeres rurales: gestoras
de esperanza. Cuaderno del Informe de Desarrollo Humano (pp. 1–90), Bogotá, Colombia.
Roberts, C., & Connell, R. (2016). Feminist theory and the global south. Feminist Theory, 17(2),
135–140.
Rodriguez Castro, L., Pini, B., & Baker, S. (2016). The global countryside: Peasant women
negotiating, recalibrating and resisting rural change in Colombia. Gender, Place & Culture,
23(11), 1547–1559.
Rodriguez Castro, L. (2017). The embodied countryside: Methodological reflections in place.
Sociologia Ruralis. https://doi.org/10.1111/soru.12172.
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Education, 20(2), 225–243.
Suárez Navaz, L., & Hernández Castillo, R. A. (Eds.). (2008). Descolonizando el Feminismo:
Teorías y Prácticas desde los Márgenes. Madrid, España: Catedra.
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tution of rural place. Progress in Human Geography, 31(4), 485–507.
Laura Rodriguez Castro is a Ph.D. Candidate for the Doctor of Philosophy at Griffith University,
Australia. She is due to complete her thesis by March 2018 under the supervision of Professor
Barbara Pini and Associate Professor Sarah Baker. The chapter about her thesis was based on her
Ph.D.’s participatory research that involved visual ethnography with campesina women in
Colombia in the context of globalisation. Her main research interests are in the areas of feminism,
rural studies and de(s)colonialism. She combines her research practice working as a teacher and
research assistant. She is also involved in community activism and freelance writing and
photography.
Chapter 33
Girls’ Tales: Experiences of Schooling:
Making a Re/Active Documentary Film
Melissa Joy Wolfe and Mary Lou Rasmussen
In this chapter we outline the emerging, in process structuring, of a doctoral study

focusing on girls’ negotiation of the experience of schooling in Australian secondary
schools. This study incorporated a re/active documentary film (Wolfe 2017a) and
interview clips as data creation with a written thesis. It applied Karen Barad’s new
materialist theory, agential realism, as a ontoepistemological framework.
The thesis explored female experience encountered while attending Australian

secondary schools. An empirical study was undertaken that included a qualitative
online survey (153 participants), followed by individual, semi-structured, filmed
interviews (14 participants including myself [Melissa]) and a focus group
(11 participants). Two intergenerational participant groups recount pedagogical
interactions, experienced as affective encounters in the classroom, in a direct per-
formative dialogue that was filmed. The older generation were selected because
educational researchers have claimed that ‘the 1970s to 1990s was an era of sig-
nificant and well documented social change for countries such as Australia, and
gender reform in schools was one part of that’ (McLeod and Yates 2006, p. 30) and
I [Melissa] was a schoolgirl product of this era. The second-generation were chosen
M. J. Wolfe (&)
Faculty of Education, Monash University, Office 161B, Building 19,
Clayton Campus, Ancora Imparo Way, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
e-mail: melissa.wolfe@monash.edu
M. L. Rasmussen
School of Sociology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
e-mail: marylou.rasmussen@anu.edu.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_33
330 M. J. Wolfe and M. L. Rasmussen
as recent graduates from secondary school; a group of females that I [Melissa] had
been teaching.
Melissa selected the participant groups to allow for a consideration of
post-feminist (Ringrose 2015) assumptions that gender equity has been achieved
over time in education and, perhaps, even exceeded. This is framed against the
reality of on-going gender inequity for these females in everyday life. Melissa
sought a comparison regarding negotiations of feminine attributes as embraced by
these two generational groups and ways this was re/productive of reductive
assemblages of inequity.
The intergenerational participants’ filmed testimonies enable some insights into
why entrenched gendered pathways for schoolgirls still persist despite implemen-
tation of gender equity programmes in Australia for the past forty years. By
including target groups from different generations, this work illustrates how little
progress has actually been achieved in educational equity, despite the rhetoric. The
importance of this research lies in unveiling practices that continue to be productive
of inequity as a material, social, economic, physical and psychological consequence
for students. This thesis demonstrates ways the link between gender, sex and
sexuality persists incessantly and anchors all we do and think, creating boundaries
and hierarchies.
As the supervisor involved in this project, at a practical level, I [Mary Lou] was
concerned about the amount of labour involved in the joint production of a film
and a written thesis. Melissa’s background in visual arts meant she was competent
in relation to the technical and aesthetic production of the film. I would not
encourage doctoral students to pursue a similar path without this level of expertise
already in place. The words of my own supervisor, about aesthetic experiments
gone awry within theses, were on my mind. What if the film was awful but Melissa
insisted on proceeding with its production? How was I going to get this thing
examined? As it turned out, the film is incredibly engaging—to the point where
getting colleagues involved in internal milestones to critically engage with ideas in
the written thesis proved somewhat challenging as they just wanted to talk about
the film.
I [Melissa] encountered Barad (2007) new materialist theories at around the end
of the second year of the research through Mary Lou’s university reading
group. This group of HDR students and academics met every two months to discuss
recent emerging theoretical and conceptual papers. Barad’s theoretical framing
immediately spoke to my pragmatic, political and feminist aspirations as well as
appealing to my creative notion of what research is, or could be. Most importantly
Barad’s concept of onto-epistemological diffractive research allowed me to bring
theoretical approaches together, not in conflict but as additional, ‘based on a
transdisciplinary and conversational approach’ (Geerts and Van der Tuin 2016).
The filmic methodology was developed disregarding the notion of film as a truth
document. I wanted to underscore the idea of film as a projection that allows the
creation of a non-prescribed reality through a dialogical research encounter. Filmic
methodology (Wolfe 2017a) draws from the research domains of education,
33 Girls’ Tales: Experiences of Schooling: Making a Re/Active … 331
sociology and the creative arts and was the major contribution to knowledge
eventuating from this doctoral research.
Both of us [Melissa and Mary Lou] highlight here the difficulties of articulating
just what ‘filmic methodology’ was and why it was in fact, a major contribution to
knowledge. I [Melissa] also struggled as I was constantly being asked to explain the
significance of this process to my supervisors and to members of faculty assessing
the competence of the thesis during university mandated milestones. What I came to
understand as the difficulty, was that I did not have words to express a language of
affect that is not signified in language. I was attempting a non-linguistic commu-
nication that is the embedded film clips or what Haraway (2015) calls ‘otherwords
and worldings [that] help us reimagine our current urgencies, and perhaps open up a
possibility of collaboration and of research’ (p. 14). I [Mary Lou], as the superviser,
found that re/viewers of the interviews and the emerging thesis were inclined to
interact with the filmed interviews drawing on their understanding of documentary
filmmaking. Re/active documentary (Wolfe 2017a) deliberately abandons such
approaches. I [Mary Lou] found this frustrating because of the prominence given to
the visual in dialogue about the project. The equally innovative theoretical work
Melissa was producing in the written thesis was sometimes not addressed, or it was
critiqued because it was not seen to sufficiently articulated with the film. Educating
readers and viewers about how they might interact with the thesis artefacts in
concert was something that involved quite a lot of explicit attention during the
supervision process.
The study examines the process of sedimentation of pedagogical routines and
practices that create inequity in secondary school. Assemblages examined evolve
around the underexplored consequence of affect and, specifically, the affect of
shame within classroom encounters (Wolfe 2017b). The filmic methodology
employed explicitly engages in affective ways that educational practices beckon
students to differentiate themselves. The interview/research process is re/engaged in
and deconstructed with the co-participants, as they engage with themselves through
the da(r)tafact (Renold 2017) that is the film. Participants experience moves as
experience is re/crafted, through the engagement and production of the film as
research. This research practice effectively draws attention to a bodily ethic that
notices the pedagogical impact on bodies (as affect) and the impact of non-linguistic
communication within schooling with co-participants.
The thesis promotes an ethic that notices the impact entities have on each other,
in relation, as differentiation that promotes hierarchical inequity. It attempts to enact
a noticing of contextual arrangements that create inequity through a diffractive
thinking through of material-discursive practices to enable greater equity for all
students. This consideration may allow, and promote, desires for alternative ways of
knowing what it is to be a successful girl at school and beyond.
Retrospective Reseach Question for the Study
During this study, the following research questions emerged.

1. What everyday material discursive practices did participants encounter at sec-
ondary school, and what were the material consequences of this intra-action?
2. What is the role of affect, in particular, the affects of interest and its auxiliary
negative affect shame, in the production of inequality?
3. How do educational assemblages (as linking and fluxing sets of discursive
practices) enable agential cuts of difference (difference which produces peda-
gogies of inequality) that extend, through the assemblages, to everyday life?
Retrospectively narrating the emergence of the research questions is not
straightforward. The final iteration the thesis was informed by the questions above.
Getting to this point of clarity about what the research is actually investigating is an
unfolding process. It is informed by a diffractive reading, conversations with peers,
academic discussion (such as the reading group) and by the processes of supervision.
The research questions are informed by accounts given by co-participants of their
experiences whilst at secondary school intra-acting with my [Melissa’s] own sec-
ondary school experience (as student and teacher), read through theoretical and
practical discussion with Mary Lou and the academic community. In the beginning of
the research I [Melissa] intentionally avoided fixed questions, as I was unsure of what
I was actually researching. As I [Mary Lou] recall, the research began with Melissa’s
interest in how affect at school may materially impact on female students. At the early
stages of this Ph.D. thesis Melissa was perplexed by a problem that could not be fully
articulated as she lacked the theoretical resources. Melissa spent the first year of her
Ph.D. studies just reading and making sense of theoretical sources.
On the one hand it is usual to say that methods are techniques for describing reality.
Alternatively, it is possible to say that they are practices that do not simply describe
realities but also tend to enact these into being (Law 2009, p. 239).
In this research project, the subjective production of a filmic product, an artefact,
was/is the creation of a productive reality as, indeed, is the written thesis. These
artefacts are intrinsically and irrevocably derived from my [Melissa’s] bodymind
(Pitts-Taylor 2016) as researcher undergoing (Dewey 2005), and all participants
enact this reality as method, that brings it into being. Law (2009) explains that all
method practices can be understood as performative and calls for researchers to
articulate what our methods actually ‘do’ and for what purpose. This is articulated
here as how filmic methods used in this project are forever in-action and intra-act
through the dissemination process in unprescriptive ways. I asked what was
‘happening’ in the research and what did/does this research do?
Stages of Research
1. Online Survey—153 target respondents

2. Video Interview—14 participants including researcher
3. Focus Group—11 participants including researcher
The stages of research were designed to work together, as a set of encounters that
were unpredictably productive. The original Facebook distributed online qualitative
survey was primarily intended to source participants for the filmic data collection.
Its secondary purpose was to create a generalised map as ‘a cartographic experi-
ment’ (Ringrose 2015, p. 395) of qualitative perspectives. The survey elucidated
questions not previously considered relevant to this project as ‘maps are not static
representations, but tools for negotiating, and intervening in, social space’ (Shaviro
2010, p. 6). The third purpose was to collect the demographic data of respondents.
The focus group was envisaged as a relational space for participants to re/produce
ontoepistemological (Barad 2007) meaning as intra-action with the research.
The survey allowed participants’ thinking to emerge and informed the refine-
ment of interview questions. The survey data was also used to support diffractive
thinking/reading through other data sets created. The focus group allowed the
participants to reflect on their earlier individual interviews in context with other
participants, and to discuss the affective experience of undergoing the research and
interrogate ways they had not always been able to truthfully express themselves in
these interviews. Which isn’t to say the focus groups were necessarily more
truthful, but rather points to the way in which the conversations in the focus group
helped participants to apprehend ways people/selves narrated their affective expe-
riences, filtered through context—a step that participants are often not complicit in
within the research process.
The three-ways of producing data allowed for a variation and multi-contextual
response with participants. Data selected for discussion in this thesis was that which
appeared puzzling, contradictory and disturbing (affectively) to the researcher and
the co-participants.
Melissa’s project was one of a few creative projects coming out of the Faculty of
Education at Monash University with quite innovative structures. I [Mary Lou] had
become involved in a number of these projects because of my theoretical interests,
not because of any expertise at all in the creative arts. I attest that the process of
supervising this thesis was pleasurable and agonistic; sometimes it may have been
pleasurable because it was agonistic. The ideas that emerged, largely due to
Melissa’s voracious reading, really pushed both of us into new areas, which can be
intimidating as a supervisor but also energizing (working through new texts and
being challenged to think differently and read different types of theoretical work).
I envisage that the number of creative theses within the discipline of Education will
continue to proliferate, partially because of the incredibly positive reception given
projects like Melissa’s, which have won awards in Education and in Visual Arts.
On a more banal level, supervisors and university administrators wondered how
it was possible to assess something like a film, using the structures in place for
assessment of a dissertation in Education both in our faculty, and in the University.

There was no structure within our Faculty that allowed for the examination of a film
on its own merits, along with an exegesis. The structure of this thesis makes me
[Mary Lou] think that there needs to be more options for the co-production of
transdisciplinary theses explicitly involving supervisors from different faculties.
This could also allow for more flexibility in the production of theses as artefacts in
the humanities and social sciences. We [Melissa and Mary Lou] both attest that this
particular thesis was strengthened by the engagement with theory that enabled an
emerging methodology to materialise—without the dissertation the contribution to
knowledge would have been significantly diminished. The structure of the thesis
was also fundamental to the process of choosing examiners who I [Mary Lou]
thought would be receptive to a thesis that was non-traditional, theoretically and
methodologically.
The study utilises Barad’s (2007) new materialist ontoepistemological framework

that rejects the representational link between words and things, instead offering an
exploration of how situated, discursive practices relate to material phenomena or,
rather, how material practice as performance matter. In this study, the participants’
knowing allows an accounting of ‘multiple instances’ (MacLure 2013, p. 660). The
central theme throughout this thesis is a tracing of ways entanglements between
entities regulate agency, in this case, schoolgirl agency.
This pragmatic, feminist research is grounded in ontological experience of
relations with the world, what Maggie MacLure might call ‘materially informed
post-qualitative research’ (2013, p. 658), entangled with concerns of social justice,
power relations and ethics, and is necessarily political. It is not so much about what
is but how what is has come to be and moves to materialise how what is can come
to be in other ways.
In this research data-events are ‘unfoldings in action and we do not know the
possible effects’ (Ringrose 2015, p. 407). The intra-active research process is one
whereby neither the participants nor the researcher know in advance how that
process might play out. This is political because it is not anticipating a particular
type of gendered script—but at the same time insists that gender matters and notices
the effects of gendered differentiation. Therefore the filmic methodology is capable
of enacting a different understanding of gendered processes that emerge as a
‘complex, affirmative, experimental ontology of becoming’ (Pierre 2013, p. 652).
The encounters described by the female participants take place in secondary
school and are interrogated within a framework of historically relational taxonomies
that bind participants affectively. The historic discourse is examined in a literature
review that considers the contextual educational and political field that these
encounters exist with. The encounters described are everyday, commonplace,
normal and banal and this work attempts ‘making visible [that] which was
previously unseen’ (Foucault 1980, p. 50), not just for the phantom audience but
also for participants, as the same thing but with a different slant. This rendering of
experience illustrates ways practices named as banal and everyday are productive of
disadvantage in education assemblages.
The filmic methodology (Wolfe 2017a) employed is a critical and productive
engagement with interdisciplinary practices concerning more than a visual pro-
jection. It practically applies Barad (2007, p. 88) argument that representations do
not reflect reality and undertakes a productive model of thinking. It engages a
non-representationalist process in performative mode where the practices we enact
as researchers are productive and ‘practices of knowing are specific material
engagements that participate in (re)configuring the world’ (Barad 2007, p. 91) and
where ‘thinking enables rather than represents being’ (Pierre 2013, p. 652). Rather
than deciphering truth claims through a hierarchical organisation of qualitative
coding and thematic analysis this research works to highlight what is felt and
understood by the researcher (and participants and virtual audience) in relation to
the fluxing materialisation of data. This is the rationale for including hyperlinks to
filmed clips within the written thesis to allow the reader to engage in non-linguistic
(affective) and non-prescriptive ways with the data. The research developed as a
‘non-technique and non-method that is always in a process of becoming as theories
interlink, intensify, and increase territory’ (Pierre and Jackson 2014, p. 717). At
times, I [Melissa] was unsure where the research was heading and what the methods
would achieve but I allowed questions to emerge from the process itself. In this
way, my work aims, alongside the work of French sociologist filmmaker Alexandra
Tilman (2014), to extend ‘sociology by confronting it with another way of thinking,
[utilising] other grids that aid to analyse the world’ (p. 18). Thus, thought processes
may be destabilised and open up to other ways of knowing. By being able to risk
not knowing what I was doing, other ways of doing and other data emerged and
became visible. Such a creative process requires a relationship between student and
supervisor that is able to apprehend this ‘not knowing’, within the supervisory
relationship, and beyond.
Structure: A Thesis in Two Parts
The product of this doctoral study is three, thirty-minute episodes of a re/active

documentary (Wolfe 2016a) film and a written thesis that engages with filmic dia-
logues embedded through hyperlinks in the written thesis. Both parts are distinct and
separable but speak to one another. However, the written thesis is not an explanation
of the film nor the film an illustration of the text. The two works sit conjointly in a
complementary movement and the research is the method as process. The written
thesis was developed simultaneously with the film production but both are situated
as texts of alternate languages. The film production is a research apparatus like any
other that selects, excludes and measures and the written text diffractively clarifies
this process of ‘mattering’ (Barad 2007) although neither is sedimentary.
The two parts evolved together, but apart, as a process from the same emergent
point. The two parts are distinct but entangled and together and/or separately they
form a dialogue. The written thesis investigates a field of study while the film Girls
Tales (Wolfe 2015) is an affective encounter with this field that enables an expanded
understanding referenced in the text. The written text is envisaged to converse with
an academic audience while the film enables a much broader conversation within the
wider educational community and its stakeholders. The intention was for the film to
be used in pre-service teacher education as a conversation starter regarding conse-
quences of pedagogical encounters. The film enacts the unspoken as felt encounter
and allows for concepts of affect that are not considered prescriptive or fundamental
to the individual, or as a purely exterior force, but are assumed as the productive
effects of the encounters between bodies (organic and non-organic). This intra-action
is ontologically productive and material and not purely linguistic.
Thought processes developed and felt in the doing of the film are elaborated on
in the written work, including the processes undertaken that led to the film’s final
form. The written text analysis includes hyperlinks to filmic data to ensure a
non-prescriptive encounter for the reader that enacts the new materialist theories
engaged in the thesis. It is noted this filmic data in the hyperlinks is not necessarily
from the film. For the film itself to stand-alone as intended as a pre-service teacher
resource, it is structured to follow a narrative documentary format. It is perpetually
in synthesis and has become my major contribution to knowledge. The films and
embedded film clips explicitly enact Barad’s agential realism by refusing repre-
sentation and enacting reality in encounter of the ongoing present.
Contents page
Preamble—telling tales
Chapter 1 Introduction: situating the research/er as of the world
Chapter 2 Ontoepistemology
Chapter 3 Schooling assemblages as assemblages of truth
Chapter 5 Schoolgirl Shame
Chapter 6 Bullying assemblages; inciting appropriate desire
Chapter 7 Traversing assemblages of gender and class in senior secondary Mathematics
Chapter 8 Educative assemblages affectively binding dreams of hope
References
Dewey, J. (2005). Art as experience (Trade pbk. ed.) (pbk ed.). New York: Perigee Books.
Foucault, M. (1980). Power/knowledge: Selected interviews and other writings, 1972–1977.
Brighton, Sussex: Harvester Press.
Geerts, E., & Van der Tuin, I. (2016). The feminist futures of reading diffractively: How Barad’s
methodology replaces conflict-based readings of beauvoir and Irigaray. Rhizomes, 30. https://
doi.org/10.20415/rhiz/030.
Haraway, D. (2015). A curious practice. Angelaki, 20(2), 5–14.
Law, J. (2009). Seeing like a survey. Cultural Sociology, 3(2), 239–256.
MacLure, M. (2013). Researching without representation? Language and materiality in
post-qualitative methodology. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 26
(6), 658–667. https://doi.org/10.1080/09518398.2013.788755.
McLeod, J., & Yates, L. (2006). Making modern lives: Subjectivity, schooling, and social change.
Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press.
Pierre, E. A. (2013). The posts continue: Becoming. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in
Education, 26(6), 646–657. https://doi.org/10.1080/09518398.2013.788754.
Pierre, E. A., & Jackson, A. Y. (2014). Qualitative data analysis after coding. Qualitative Inquiry,
20(6), 715–719. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077800414532435.
Pitts-Taylor, (2016). The brain’s body: Neuroscience and corporeal politics. Durham and London:
Duke University Press.
Renold, E. (2017). ‘Feel what I feel’: Making da(r)ta with teen girls for creative activisms on how
sexual violence matters. Journal of Gender Studies. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2017.
1296352.
Ringrose, J. (2015). Schizo-feminist educational research cartographies. Deleuze Studies, 9(3),
393–409.
Shaviro, S. (2010). Post-cinematic affect. Winchester, UK; Washington, USA: 0 zero Books.
Tilman, A. (2014). On the confines of industrial work, the free parties. A socio-filming reflection
on a temporary deviance. (Ph.D.), Université d’Evry, Unpublished.
Wolfe (Writer), M. J. (2015). Girls’ tales: Experiences of schooling. ACT Australia: Ronin Films.
Wolfe, M. J. (2017a). Post-qualitative filmic research in education: Utilizing a “Re/Active
Documentary” methodology. Qualitative Inquiry, 23(6), 427–437. https://doi.org/10.1177/
1077800416673660.
Wolfe, M. J. (2017b). Refracting schoolgirls: Pedagogical intra-actions producing shame.
Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 38(5), 727–739. https://doi.org/10.
1080/01596306.2016.1143451.
Melissa Wolfe works as a senior lecturer in Visual Art, Media education, and Creative Methods.
Her Ph.D. entitled Girls Tales: experiences of schooling was awarded the International Visual
Sociology Association Prosser ECR award (2016), the Mollie Holman award (best education
thesis, 2016, Monash University) and a commendation award from the Australian Association for
Research in Education (2017). She was awarded and the AARE ECR Award (2016). Melissa’s
research in schools utilizes a creative filmic methodology, engaging with theories of affect, that
takes account of gender, socio-economic status and public pedagogical practice. Melissa’s 2015
film, Girls’ tales: experiences of schooling, was developed as a pre-service teaching aid and was
released in December 2015 through Ronin Films. Melissa’s feminist research interests in education
encompass a filmic synthesis of aesthetics, affect, gender, and participatory creative methods.
Mary Lou Rasmussen is located in the School of Sociology at The Australian National
University. She is part of the ARC Discovery Project Queer Generations, investigating the
experiences of two generations of LGBT young people in Australia. She leads an ARC Discovery
Worldviews of Australian Millennials. She is co-editor, with Louisa Allen, of the Handbook of
Sexuality Education (2017, Palgrave) and her monograph, Progressive Sexuality Education: The
Conceits of Secularism (Routledge) has just been released in paperback.
Chapter 34
Intricacies of Professional Learning
in Health Care: The Case of Supporting
Self-management in Paediatric Diabetes
Sarah Doyle
Research Question
What is an appropriate structure for reporting a sociomaterial study of healthcare

professional learning, when drawing from Karen Barad’s agential realist
framework?
The study examined the role for education as critical workplace pedagogy in
complex problems of health care. The study explored not how best to do health
care, but instead how health care professionals learn to do health care. In this study
I was concerned with the learning struggles (Fenwick 2008) that are in play as
health care professionals encounter and respond to workplace problems. By
attuning to learning struggles in this way, the study traced the materialization of
learning as it unfolded in moments of health care practice.
Taking the case of paediatric diabetes, the study focused on the ways in which
health-care professionals learn the work of supporting children, and their parents, to
self-manage the condition. Self-managing diabetes includes performing own blood
tests, administering own insulin and adjusting own insulin doses, and it is a for-
midable challenge for many families (Modi et al. 2012). One study estimated that
some six hundred discrete tasks must be mastered in order to implement care
regimens (Coffen and Dahlquist 2009). The role of professional support is key, and
yet a series of significant transformations in health-care means those working in this
field face considerable challenges.
S. Doyle (&)
University of Stirling, Stirling, UK
e-mail: doyle272@btinternet.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_34
340 S. Doyle
Of particular note in the study is the powerful combination of the proliferation of

digital technologies and the emphasis on positioning self-managing patients as
autonomous and active decision makers. Digital technologies expand the possi-
bilities for patients to monitor and respond to bodily functioning, and increase the
expectations that they do so (Lupton 2013a, b), thereby augmenting the effects of
self-management policy directives. For their part, digital technologies can introduce
particular new risks (Webster 2013; Petrakaki et al. 2014). These new risks prompt
the emergence of corresponding new roles and responsibilities, and the study
examines the ways in which professionals learn to work with and within such
reconfigured arrangements for health care.
By bringing concepts and approaches from educational research into dialogue
with questions of health-care practice in paediatric diabetes, the study contributes
detailed understanding of workplace problems and learning struggles. A key insight
is that professionals were concerned primarily with the highly complicated, per-
petual discernment of safe parameters within which children, and their parents,
might reasonably be allowed to contribute to diabetes management. Such dis-
cernment does not readily correspond to the notions of empowerment circulating in
the policies and guidelines intended to help professionals accomplish the work of
supporting self-management. This detailed understanding of discernment can
inform workplace pedagogies and help ensure they are better aligned to the very
specific nature of the work.
Data were generated through ethnographic fieldwork, including participant obser-

vations and interviews with health care professionals as they supported children,
and their parents, to manage diabetes. Alongside ethnographic approaches, the
study was also influenced by Mol’s (2002) concept of praxiography, which helped
make a useful distinction between a focus on health-care professional practices and
a focus on the health-care professionals themselves. Mol (2002) uses the term
praxiography to denote a shift away from the conventional ethnographic focus on
human meaning and interpretation. Praxiography offers an empirical approach that
‘encompasses molecules and money, cells and worries, bodies, knives and smiles,
and talks about all of these in a single breath’ (Mol 2002, p. 157). Focusing on
practices, including bodies and materiality, praxiography attends to the ways in
which realities are recursively performed into being through particular sets of
practices.
The careful, critical study of medicine and disease as it is enacted, rather than the
human experience of illness, offered scope to engage with what Berg and Mol
(1998, p. 3) have termed ‘the so-called hard core of medicine’. These science and
technology scholars showed ways of attending to the complicated, technical and
technological details of health-care practice, which are so important in the educa-
tional questions of professional learning investigated in this study.
34 Intricacies of Professional Learning in Health Care … 341
This study drew from a research tradition that is concerned with both the social
world and also with materiality and material effects. In such sociomaterial tradi-
tions, equivalent attention is paid to social and to material entities, and in fact the
focus of attention is on relations rather than on people or things (Barad 2007;
Fenwick and Edwards 2010; Fenwick et al. 2011). Sociomaterial approaches
unsettle what Fenwick and Nerland (2014) have called disembodied, decontextu-
alised and dematerialised ways of understanding knowledge and learning. These
approaches construe learning as enactment (Sørensen 2009; Fenwick and Edwards
2010; Mulcahy 2012), and examine the ways in which learning materialises.
Accordingly, the study of professional work practices is recognised as a useful way
of understanding ‘seamless know how’ (Hager 2013). One approach to examining
practice I used in my own study is to trace the epistemic work (Knorr-Cetina 2001)
of professionals. Following Nerland and Jensen (2014), such epistemic work can be
traced in the moments of exploration and closure as professionals handle multiple
and contradictory flows of information and knowledge.
From the field of organisation studies I have drawn on the work of Gherardi
(2006, 2010, 2012), whose attention to the ‘organising’ arrangements of everyday
work practice helped me attune to the ways in which support for self-management
is accomplished. With a focus on the ordering processes that enable a practice to be
produced and reproduced over time, Gherardi (2006) shows the ways in which a
practice becomes the established way of doing things. I have employed this
approach in order to illuminate not just the ordered nature of practices, but also the
moment-by-moment enactment of learning, as practitioners come to accomplish
work practice in unfamiliar and changeable contexts.
The concepts of epistemic work and knowing-in-practice entail sociomaterial
commitments to relational connectedness. In my study, such commitments enabled
examination of for example the insulin pump technologies and the blood glucose
tests without casting either as ‘objects’; instead, attention is focused on
‘things-in-relation’. In the words of Orlikowski (2007, p. 1437) ‘there is no social
that is not also material, and no material that is not also social’. The indeterminate
entanglement of social and material is one of the most distinctive and useful fea-
tures of sociomaterial approaches, yet also one of the most challenging. It is difficult
to avoid collapsing social and material into one and the same, or alternatively,
treating social and material as if they are each determinate entities with fixed
boundaries. Studying entanglements without resorting to disentangling is a per-
sistent challenge (Barad 2007; Leonardi 2013), both in the analysis of data and also
in the writing of the thesis.
I employed two particular concepts from Barad’s (2007) agential realist
approach to help handle the challenges. The first was her notion of diffraction,
which offers a way of patterning relational differences (Barad 2007), and which
seeks to engage in the study of entanglements without dislocating data into sepa-
rated themes. For Barad (2007), a diffractive reading of data entails reading
342 S. Doyle
theories, field notes, transcripts and so on, through one another rather than against
one another. I consider later in this chapter the implications and effects of a
diffractive approach on my writing. A second concept I employed was Barad’s
(2007) focus on examining phenomena, and her insistence that phenomena are not
only examined by investigation, phenomena are also constituted by investigation.
The key point here is that ideas matter: theoretical concepts are materially present in
the physical arrangements for investigation (Barad 2007). Investigation is recog-
nised as a boundary-drawing practice. There are no pre-existing boundaries;
instead, boundaries are actively configured and reconfigured (Barad 2007). This
recognition of boundary-drawing practices affords resolution of indeterminacy, but
only temporarily (Barad 2007). Phenomena are not permanently drawn, but instead
are produced in and through ongoing dynamic relations. Again, I consider the
implications of this aspect of Barad’s (2007) approach for writing my thesis in the
remaining sections of this chapter.
Structure
The thesis opens with a chapter that draws together the educational focus and the
health-care setting of the research. This chapter sets the scene for the interweaving
of educational and health care concerns and the ways in which both matter in this
study of learning in and for health care practice. The literatures chapter occupies a
fairly conventional position as second in the thesis, although key literatures are also
threaded in substantial ways throughout the theory chapter (three) and throughout
two of the data chapters (six and seven). The theory chapter is third, and again,
while this position is not unexpected, the differences in this thesis relate to theory as
method and methodology, and also to theory as ethics. The theory chapter is not
only concerned with ideas but with the dynamic effects of ideas. Perhaps inevitably,
the tenets of such thinking require that the methodology chapter (fourth) include
enough theory and ethics to discuss the ontological-ethical-epistemological
framework that is Barad’s (2007) agential realism.
Chapters five, six and seven present the empirical data from the research,
organised into three broad areas of interest. Chapter five examines the ways in
which technological change influences professional learning, with an emphasis on
insulin pump technologies. Chapter six analyses care regimens as always-unfolding
epistemic phenomena, invoking professional knowledge work as an ongoing
dimension of care provision. Chapter seven explores the tensions between the
troublesome notion of empowerment and the situated practice of supporting
self-management in paediatric diabetes. Chapter eight reads across the insights
generated through the data chapters, and examines the role for education in the
question of how best to help health-care professionals learn to support
self-management in paediatric diabetes. The final chapter (nine) concludes by
drawing together the various strands of argument and exploration.
Contents page
Chapter 1 Working and Learning in Paediatric Diabetes
Chapter 2 Investigating Professional Learning
Chapter 3 Theories are not just in the Mind
Chapter 4 A Diffractive Methodology
Chapter 5 Technological Change and the Emergence of Professional Knowledge
Chapter 6 Care Regimens as Always-Unfolding Epistemic Phenomena
Chapter 7 The Troublesome Notion of Empowerment
Chapter 8 Implications for Professional Education
Chapter 9 Conclusions
Commentary
I did not design the structure of my thesis in advance. Instead, the structure emerged
through the agential realist study of professional learning in health care for pae-
diatric diabetes. Barad might argue that the thesis and the study are constitutively
entangled. The work of structuring the thesis has been influenced by three key
features, which can be usefully understood through consideration of the agential
realist approach: diffracting educational and health care concerns, writing connec-
tions into and across chapters, and enacting agential cuts.
Diffracting Educational and Health Care Concerns
None of the chapters focus exclusively on issues of education or on issues of health

care. Throughout the thesis, all chapters are concerned with the study of the ways
education might best support professional learning in and for health care. The
heuristic Barad (2007) employs for such dialogue is diffractive reading, which is
explained as a process of reading ideas together and through one another rather
than against one another. For Barad (2007), diffractive reading differs from other
modes of careful reading that might read ideas against one another or against a fixed
argument, for example. Diffractive reading creates and examines patterns of dif-
ference (Barad 2007) rather than looking for recurring themes. One of the ways in
which diffractive reading can be so useful is by highlighting that the pattern entails
some form of repetition and differentiation (Hughes and Lury 2013), and this
insight helps link the concept to empirical research.
In my thesis, diffractive reading is conveyed through the persistent writing
together of concerns relating to knowledge and learning, with concerns relating to
biomedical details of paediatric diabetes and the tools and technologies of health
care. This interweaving is not the same as using health care as a tightly contained
344 S. Doyle
case study for a fixed educational question; rather, it is the careful attention to what
Barad (2007, p. 140) calls ‘differential patterns of mattering’ as educational and
health care concerns are engaged together.
The diffracting of educational and health care concerns was necessary in order to
trace the materialization of learning as it unfolded in moments of health care
practice. Mol’s (2002) praxiographic sensibilities afforded a way of exploring the
enactment of learning in specific practices of health care, and also influence the
writing of the thesis. Because a praxiographer is interested in the practices that
perform phenomena into existence, the human participants involved tend to remain
‘shadowy’ and not richly described as they might be in more conventional ethno-
graphic writing. Enacted practices are reported in detail, and so the richest
descriptions recount, for example, blood glucose results, care regimens, technolo-
gies, moments of exploration and hesitation and so on.
Diffractive approaches appreciate data as lively and perhaps even troublesome
(Taylor 2013), and prompt efforts to write in ways that respect such unruly vitality.
Alongside the careful oscillation among educational and health care concerns, the
thesis structure also needs to facilitate the reporting of myriad other relational
connections. The next section discusses ways of writing connections into and across
chapters.
Writing Connections into and Across Chapters
Entanglements are a particular preoccupation for Barad (2007), but they feature in
the work of other researchers in fields such as organisation studies (see, for
example, Orlikowski 2007) and in education (see, for example, Sørensen 2009).
Particular to Barad’s (2007) approach is her insistence on the importance of the
specificity of entanglements. What matters is not simply that social and material are
entangled, or, for example, that medicines and technologies might be entangled
with professional regulation in the emergence of professional knowledge. Insisting
on detailed examination of entanglements pushes further: engaging, for example,
with particular medicines and with specific qualities of particular medicines in
particular instances.
The first obvious effect of attention to specificity of entanglements is that the
thesis cannot simply contain discussion of this dimension of agential realism to a
single theory chapter. The second effect, perhaps more obvious once engaged in the
writing, is that entangled phenomena are difficult to pin down into paragraphs and
chapters. A related issue is the need to resolve the indeterminacy of entanglements
and to make a workable cut somewhere, but I reserve discussion of this resolution
for the next section of this chapter. For now, I focus on the effects of trying to write
as provisionally as possible, and implications for the thesis structure.
I describe writing provisionally as a way of attempting to respect agential
realism’s commitments to sociomaterial entanglements while also seeking to bring
coherence and an appropriate form of order to the thesis. For some authors, this
response might proceed in the detail of sentence structure. An example of such

creative and fluid writing is this extract from Phillips and Larson’s (2013) article
exploring a diffractive approach to using writing as inquiry:
We experienced this installment of ourselves, particularly in talking/walking/writing/
reading/thinking with the memory stories. We played data against each another – seeing
what pieces of data seemed to resist one another; watching it, as it were, roll, push, and
transform, around, over, and through itself, denying boundaries because “what is ‘inside’
and what is ‘outside’ are intrinsically indeterminate” (Barad 2007, p. 161); and we felt
ourselves roll, push, and be transformed in this process.
(Phillips and Larson 2013, p. 229)
In my own thesis, it is the structure and content of the chapters, rather than the
sentences, that became loose and permeable. This permeability affords opportunity
to write substantial connections into and across chapters, and helps manage the
need to divide the thesis into sections. For example, one challenge is how to work
with agential realism’s assertion that ontology, epistemology and ethics cannot be
considered separately but are instead relational dimensions of an
ontological-ethical-epistemological framework. My thesis does have discrete
chapters focused on theory and methodology, but the writing of those two chapters,
and several others, weaves robust connections among them all. These connections
are more than sign posting back and forth to highlight previous and forthcoming
discussions. Instead, for example, theory is discussed through Barad’s (2007,
p. 396) ‘tissue of ethicality’ and also includes methodological writing to take
account of the notion that ideas matter, and that selecting particular foci for
attention is an unavoidably ethical practice.
In the next section I consider the challenges and effects of making such selec-
tions, in terms of making workable cuts in the empirical data and the implications
for organising the data chapters.
Enacting Agential Cuts
The indeterminacy of entanglements raises many difficult questions about whether

and how to disentangle empirical data. Barad’s (2007) response is to recognise that
phenomena are not simply measured or examined by what she terms the measuring
apparatus, or in other words, the arrangements for study. Instead, thinking of/with
an agential realist concept of phenomena recognises that the measuring apparatus is
more than an observing device. Theoretical concepts are assumed to be materially
present in the measuring apparatus, and help to produce as well as to describe the
phenomenon (Barad 2007).
The measuring apparatus, therefore, is appreciated as a boundary-drawing
practice, and it is this appreciation that resolves the indeterminacy of entangle-
ments. The resolution emerges as provisional boundaries temporarily delineate the
phenomenon in particular and specific ways. This boundary drawing is not a finite
346 S. Doyle
cutting apart, but instead a dynamic enactment of a boundary that configures the
world in a particular way.
For the thesis structure, appreciating the participation of ideas and methods in
the emergence of phenomena entails reporting the data together with the thinking
that helps create the phenomenon. The agential cut is a provisional cutting together,
which in my thesis explicates particular sets or gatherings of material-discursive
practices. In the writing, data are not dislocated from theory, method and results but
instead reported in ways that help make the measuring apparatus visible and
available for interrogation. Concepts of epistemic work (Knorr-Cetina 2001) and
the organised accomplishment of work practice (Gherardi 2006) are written through
extracts of field notes, interview transcripts, policy literature and praxiographic
sensibilities.
References
and meaning. Durham and London: Duke University Press.
Berg, M., & Mol, A. (Eds.). (1998). Differences in medicine: Unraveling practices, techniques and
bodies. Durham: Duke University Press.
Coffen, R., & Dahlquist, L. (2009). Magnitude of type 1 diabetes self-management in youth:
Health care needs diabetes educators. Diabetes Educator, 35(2), 302–308.
Fenwick, T. (2008). Workplace learning: Emerging trends and new perspectives. New Directions
for Adult and Continuing Education, 119, 17–26.
Fenwick, T., & Edwards, R. (2010). Actor network theory in education. London: Routledge.
Fenwick, T., & Nerland, M. (Eds.). (2014). Reconceptualising professional learning:
Sociomaterial knowledges, practices and responsibilities. London: Routledge.
Fenwick, T., Edwards, R., & Sawchuck, P. (2011). Emerging approaches to educational research:
Tracing the sociomaterial. London: Routledge.
Gherardi, S. (2006). Organizational knowledge: The texture of workplace learning. Oxford:
Blackwell.
Gherardi, S. (2010). Telemedicine: A practice-based approach to technology. Human Relations, 63
(4), 501–524.
Gherardi, S. (2012). Docta Ignorantia: Professional knowing at the core and at the margins of a
practice. Journal of Education and Work, 25(1), 15–38.
Hager, P. (2013). Not just another brick in the wall: Response by Paul Hager. Educational
Philosophy and Theory, 45(12), 1307–1316.
Hughes, C., & Lury, C. (2013). Re-turning feminist methodologies: From a social to an ecological
epistemology. Gender and Education, 25(6), 786–799.
Knorr-Cetina, K. (2001). Objectual Practice. In T. Schatzki, K. Knorr-Cetina, & E. von Savigny
(Eds.), The practice turn in contemporary theory (pp. 175–188). London: Routledge.
Leonardi, P. (2013). Theoretical foundations for the study of sociomateriality. Information and
Organization, 23, 59–76.
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self-management: A framework for research, practice and policy. Pediatrics, 129(e473),
473–486.
Mol, A. (2002). The body multiple: Ontology in medical practice. Durham and London: Duke
University Press.
Mulcahy, D. (2012). Thinking teacher professional learning performatively: A sociomaterial
account. Journal of Education and Work, 25(1), 121–139.
Nerland, M., & Jensen, K. (2014). Learning through epistemic practices in professional work:
Examples from nursing and computer engineering. In T. Fenwick & M. Nerland (Eds.),
Reconceptualising professional learning, sociomaterial knowledges, practices and responsi-
bilities (pp. 25–37). Oxon: Routledge.
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becoming-writing conferencing. Gender and Education, 25(6), 722–737.
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classroom. Gender and Education, 25(6), 688–703.
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Sarah Doyle’s thesis focused on the materialization of professional learning as it unfolded in

moments of health-care provision for children with diabetes. The chapter about the thesis is based
on Ph.D. research funded by the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC), completed at
University of Stirling under the supervision of Professor Tara Fenwick and Professor Liz Forbat.
Sarah’s academic interests relate to issues of professional education and knowledge in health and
social care, though she has also contributed to studies of critical inquiry in teacher education and to
an ESRC seminar series exploring the participation of software code in broader educational
processes, practices and institutions. Sarah appears in one of the Scottish Graduate School of
Social Science’s ‘When Methods Meet’ films on the theme of sociomaterial approaches to
research. With a professional background in mental health nursing, Sarah has taught on medical,
nursing and counselling programmes and is currently working in a national role for the special
health board NHS Education for Scotland.
Chapter 35
Understanding New Spaces
and Relations of Global Governance
in Education: The OECD’s PISA
for Schools
Steven Lewis
Research Question
What is an appropriate structure for reporting a study of the Organisation for

Economic Cooperation and Development’s (OECD) PISA for Schools test,
following a broadly post-structural, interpretivist paradigm, and adopting a
‘toolbox’ policy sociology methodology?
This study explored PISA for Schools, a testing instrument recently developed by
the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and mul-
tiple partner organisations. Specifically, I examined how PISA for Schools helps
constitute new spaces and relations of, and for, educational governance, and
especially how these global processes can bring new local actions into being. PISA
for Schools, a local variant of the OECD’s Programme for International Student
Assessment (PISA), assesses school performance in reading, mathematics and
science against that of international schooling systems, while also promoting the
policy expertise proffered by ‘high performing’ schooling systems (e.g.,
Shanghai-China, Finland, Singapore) and the OECD itself. This reflects the
expanding scope, scale and explanatory power of the OECD’s education policy
S. Lewis (&)
Research for Educational Impact (REDI) Centre, Deakin University,
Burwood, Australia
e-mail: steven.lewis@deakin.edu.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_35
350 S. Lewis
work. Moreover, it helps extend the relevance of PISA, and the OECD more
broadly, beyond national policymakers and political leaders to encompass local
educators and schooling spaces, including at district and regional levels.
The emergence of global governance in education has been increasingly docu-
mented during the previous two decades, and global processes, discourses and
relations are increasingly recognised as influencing how schooling is understood
and practised in national and subnational schooling spaces. This has been
demonstrated through the work of non-State actors across the education policy
cycle, as well as by the growing significance of comparison as a mode of gover-
nance, which involves comparing how different national schooling systems are
positioned within a commensurate global space of measurement. While the nature
and effects of these developments have often been examined at the level of national
(and subnational/state) schooling systems, there has been less consideration given
to how more overtly school-level focused policy ensembles seek to influence, and
actually do influence, local schooling spaces, as well as globally. To this end,
I sought to emphasise the relational and productive capacities of space, and
examined the flows (material and discursive) through which educational gover-
nance is now exercised, rather than focus at the level of the global and nation-state
vis-à-vis the main PISA test.
My research revealed how PISA for Schools helps steer the local practices of
schooling through separate and yet overlapping techniques, which I theorised as
governing by (1) heterarchy, (2) respatialisation and (3) ‘best practice’. In this we
can see the emergence of new spaces and relations of educational governance, with
PISA for Schools extending the ‘reach’ of the OECD into local schooling spaces,
including whether and how educators advocate alternative renderings of ‘effective’
schooling practice. This shows how global educational governance is being
reshaped, in which matters of relations (between actors and agencies) are often
more significant than matters of location. The research also suggested how these
relations were productive through the formation of various kinds of professional
learning communities around PISA for Schools, potentially providing spaces from
which these educators might ‘speak back’ to national and state-level educational
authorities. Finally, the research contributed to methodological discussions around
how we might practise a policy sociology in which the local is acknowledged as a
relevant space of concern.
My study was informed by empirical research conducted over a fourteen-month

period, between October 2013 and January 2015, during which time I examined the
development and administration of PISA for Schools by the OECD and its partner
organisations, and its subsequent implementation in three U.S. school districts
35 Understanding New Spaces and Relations of Global Governance … 351
within the states of New York, Virginia and Texas. Much of my analyses drew
upon semi-structured interviews that sought to understand, inter alia: (1) the
motivations that prompted the development/implementation of PISA for Schools;
(2) the new forms of international evidence, relations and comparisons that PISA
for Schools makes available to participating U.S. schools and districts; (3) how
these data and evidence help to shape local understandings and practices of
schooling; and (4) the new relations, spaces and processes of educational gover-
nance ultimately made possible through and by PISA for Schools. These interviews
were undertaken with 33 key policy actors from organisations involved across the
PISA for Schools policy cycle, with a particular focus on those who were active in
the U.S. deployment of the programme. These included: the OECD Directorate for
Education and Skills; the PISA Governing Board (PGB); Australian and Spanish
government officials who worked with the OECD on educational matters; U.S.-
based philanthropic foundations that funded PISA for Schools; U.S. not-for-profit
and private organisations that helped administer PISA for Schools in the USA; the
edu-business (CTB/McGraw-Hill) acting as the U.S. accredited provider of PISA
for Schools during the period 2013–2015; and leaders from three U.S. school
districts in New York, Virginia and Texas who participated in PISA for Schools
testing. Reflecting the ‘topological’ spatialities of contemporary policymaking
processes (see Lewis 2017; Lewis and Hogan 2016; Lewis et al. 2016) and the
geographically dispersed nature of the PISA for Schools policy network, these
interviews were conducted across a diverse set of locations, including both
face-to-face and electronically-mediated formats (e.g. Skype, FaceTime).
Complementing these interviews were relevant print documents, audiovisual
materials and websites from organisations involved in the development and
implementation of PISA for Schools, including: school-level reports received by
PISA for Schools participants in the USA; other OECD documents and technical
reports related to PISA for Schools; promotional and administrative materials
associated with the U.S. implementation of the assessment; and various school and
district-based reports and stakeholder communications. These technical documents
helped to nuance the data collected during research interviews. Methodologically,
this also highlighted the frequent disparities between official institutional reports
and the potentially more candid talk of policymakers themselves.
Given that my research focused on how global testing discourses and practices
associated with PISA for Schools were ‘folded into’ more local schooling spaces,
and in order to accommodate these changing empirical realities, my research—
broadly positioned within a critical poststructural approach—was informed by an
eclectic variety of intellectual resources to help theorise new spaces and relations of
global educational governance. These included thinking around networked
(or ‘heterarchical’) modes of governance (Ball 2012; Ball and Junemann 2012),
352 S. Lewis
new topological spatialities and rationalities associated with globalisation (Allen

2011; Allen and Cochrane 2010; Amin 2002; Lury et al. 2012), and developments
associated with governing by ‘hard’ numbers (Grek 2009; Ozga 2009; Rose 1999)
and ‘soft’ examples (Simons 2015). In this instance, network governance involves
the inclusion of horizontal relationships and new non-governmental actors into the
work of the State, while heterarchy refers to the combination of these new hori-
zontal and older vertical relationships, and modes of organisation, through which
the State now functions. On the other hand, topological thinking helps us to
understand spaces that are determined less by physical location (e.g., the
nation-state) and more by the myriad relations, both material and discursive, that
flow between individuals and organisations in the development and enactment of
education policy. As such, this new ‘topology of policy’ (Ball and Junemann 2012,
p. 78) introduces additional complexities into how one might understand (and, for
that matter, research) the emergent ways in which education is globally governed.
Structure
The study presented in this thesis is separated into seven chapters. Chapter 1
provided an orientation by outlining the nature of my research, the purpose of the
study and the empirical data that inform the following analyses. It also introduced
the conceptual tools that frame how I intended to make sense of PISA for Schools,
representing both an example of contemporary educational policymaking and new
possibilities to ‘globally’ govern how schooling is locally practised.
Chapter 2 detailed the theoretical and methodological approaches that under-
pinned my research, in order to understand how the material and discursive ele-
ments of a ‘global’ policy ensemble, PISA for Schools, can be folded into more
local schooling spaces. Given the study’s broad focus around emergent modes,
spaces and relations of policymaking and governance, and the subsequent influ-
ences these exert upon local schooling practice, I necessarily employed a rather
eclectic array of thinking tools—a veritable theoretical ‘toolbox’ (Ball 1993)—that
drew upon new topological ways of understanding these spatial relations. I then
discussed how these ways of theorising relations and spaces of power have
implications for how one conducts critical policy research, especially if one con-
siders the theoretical and empirical to not be separate domains but, rather, mutually
dependent, with each recursively influencing the other. Indeed, if the topology of
policy has indeed changed then so too should the analytical tools used to make
sense of such developments (see Lingard and Sellar 2013, p. 277). I closed this
chapter with an explication of the methods used for data collection and analysis,
and suggested how my experiences as a researcher provide valuable insights into
how one might conduct a more reflexive critique of policy.
Chapter 3 positioned PISA for Schools within the broader context of the
OECD’s educational work and its increasing relevance as a global policy actor.
It first documented an organisational history of the OECD and, more recently, the
increased significance of the Directorate for Education and Skills within the
Organisation, before detailing the development and implementation of its flagship
PISA assessment. Chapter 3 closed by providing a comprehensive description of
the PISA for Schools assessment and report that provides much of the empirical
basis for my study.
Chapter 4, the first of three data analysis chapters, primarily addressed Research
Question One: What were the conditions and policy opportunities, both for the
OECD and its network of partner organisations, under which PISA for Schools was
developed, promoted and administered? Chapter 5 investigated the changing spatial
relations made possible by PISA for Schools, and thus addressed Research
Question Two: How does PISA for Schools respatialise relations between the
OECD and local schooling spaces, with respect to enabling the governance of
schooling policy and practice? Chapter 6, the last of the data analysis chapters,
addressed the emergence of new ‘soft’ governing modalities associated with ‘best
practice’ and sought to answer Research Question Three: How does the OECD use
the concept of ‘best practice’ in PISA for Schools to help govern local education
reform agendas? While each of these three chapters had its own unique focus, and
thus drew upon different theoretical and empirical resources, they all contributed to
understanding how PISA for Schools, and its enactment by local educators and
communities, enables local schooling to be shaped by more global developments.
Chapter 7, the final chapter, summarised the overall findings of the research, and
outlined its contribution to the field in terms of empirical, theoretical and
methodological insights. The research revealed the complexity around contempo-
rary processes of educational policymaking, and how a diverse ensemble of actors
and agencies within the PISA for Schools policy network necessarily brought
different motivations and agendas to the policy cycle. Moreover, the research
suggested how PISA for Schools represents new relations, spatialities and modes of
global educational governance, in which international discourses and processes are
folded into school-level spaces. I also discussed the implications of these findings,
both for how local educators might more meaningfully engage with such global
developments and how a more nuanced form of policy sociology research might be
conducted.
Contents page
Part A Introduction
Chapter 1 Understanding new spaces and relations of educational governance
Part B Theoretical and methodological tools
Chapter 2 Theorising and researching new spaces and relations of governance
Part C Contextualising the empirical research focus
Chapter 3 Contextualising global educational governance: The OECD and PISA for Schools
(continued)
354 S. Lewis
(continued)
Contents page
Part D Analysis and discussion
Chapter 4 Developing, promoting and administering PISA for Schools through heterarchical
governance
Chapter 5 Respatialising the OECD’s educational governance
Chapter 6 Governing schooling through ‘what works’
Part E Conclusion
Chapter 7 Governing schooling through PISA for Schools
Commentary
My research deploys a variety of conceptual devices to provide a coherent, if

eclectic, theoretical framework, in order to understand the new spaces and relations
of global educational governance enabled by PISA for Schools, which is neces-
sarily reflected in my thesis structure. Put simply, education policy and associated
mechanisms of governance are being increasingly realised in topological spaces not
defined by the nation, and by actors not necessarily situated in government
bureaucracies. Rather, we see a ‘complex web’ that is constructed through social
processes inherently relational and dynamic: by actors and organisations geo-
graphically distant and yet topologically near; through mobilities and flows that
constitute the very spaces in which these processes occur; and via power relations
that do not reach across space so much as reach into space. In this context, the
analysis of education policy—in terms of its development, enactment and effects—
must necessarily incorporate conceptual and methodological devices that
acknowledge these realities.
I would also consider that such relational and spatial analytical frameworks are
necessary to help overcome the ‘false dichotomies’ of place/space, and global/local,
within the comparative study of education. Rather, we should emphasise the rela-
tional and productive capacities of space, in which topological spaces are consti-
tuted through the flows between networked agents and organisations, and where
space is in a state of ‘always becoming’. While comparative education has tradi-
tionally, although not exclusively, focused on the nation-state as its unit of analysis,
more recent forays in the field have sought to employ space in a more analytical
manner (see Ball 2012; Beech and Larsen 2014; Gulson et al. 2017); that is, ‘not
simply as an object of concern but as a conceptual tool for analysis’ (Larsen and
Beech 2014, p. 201).
Informed by such theorising, these respatialisations and topological rationalities
help us to better understand new modes of educational policymaking and gover-
nance. Even while acknowledging that differences can (and frequently do) exist
between diverse theoretical resources, and that these must not be merely glossed
over, I would argue that investigating complex social phenomena like PISA for
Schools makes it somewhat unavoidable, and perhaps even necessary, to use such
an eclectic ‘toolbox’ approach. Notwithstanding the potential for difficulties here,

grappling with understanding a complex new phenomenon like PISA for Schools
requires one to bring to bear an array of critical theoretical resources, even if this
will, at times, unavoidably create some tensions between theoretical perspectives.
References
Allen, J. (2011). Topological twists: Power’s shifting geographies. Dialogues in Human

Geography, 1(3), 283–298. https://doi.org/10.1177/2043820611421546.
Allen, J., & Cochrane, A. (2010). Assemblages of state power: Topological shifts in the
organisation of government and politics. Antipode, 42(5), 1071–1089. https://doi.org/10.1111/
j.1467-8330.2010.00794.x.
Amin, A. (2002). Spatialities of globalisation. Environment and Planning A, 34(3), 385–399.
https://doi.org/10.1068/a3439.
Ball, S. (1993). What is policy? Texts, trajectories and toolboxes. Discourse: Studies in the
Cultural Politics of Education, 13(2), 10–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/0159630930130203.
Ball, S. (2012). Global education inc.: New policy networks and the neo-liberal imaginary. New
York: Routledge.
Ball, S., & Junemann, C. (2012). Networks, new governance and education. Bristol: Policy Press.
Beech, J., & Larsen, M. A. (2014). Replacing old spatial empires of the mind. European
Education, 46(1), 75–94. https://doi.org/10.2753/eue1056-4934460104.
Grek, S. (2009). Governing by numbers: The PISA ‘effect’ in Europe. Journal of Education
Policy, 24(1), 23–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/02680930802412669.
Gulson, K., Lewis, S., Lingard, B., Lubienski, C., Takayama, K., & Webb, P. T. (2017). Policy
mobilities and methodology: A proposition for inventive methods in education policy studies.
Critical Studies in Education, 58(2), 224–241. https://doi.org/10.1080/17508487.2017.1288150.
Larsen, M., & Beech, J. (2014). Spatial theorising in comparative and international education
research. Comparative Education Review, 58(2), 191–214. https://doi.org/10.1086/675499.
Lewis, S. (2017). Governing schooling through ‘what works’: The OECD’s PISA for Schools.
Journal of Education Policy, 32(3), 281–302. https://doi.org/10.1080/02680939.2016.1252855.
Lewis, S., & Hogan, A. (2016). Reform first and ask questions later? The implications of (fast)
schooling policy and ‘silver bullet’ solutions. Critical Studies in Education, 1–18. https://doi.
org/10.1080/17508487.2016.1219961.
Lewis, S., Sellar, S., & Lingard, B. (2016). ‘PISA for Schools’: Topological rationality and new
spaces of the OECD’s global educational governance. Comparative Education Review, 60(1),
27–57. https://doi.org/10.1086/684458.
Lingard, B., & Sellar, S. (2013). Globalisation, edu-business and network governance: The policy
sociology of Stephen J. Ball and rethinking education policy analysis. London Review of
Education, 11(3), 265–280. https://doi.org/10.1080/14748460.2013.840986.
Lury, C., Parisi, L., & Terranova, T. (2012). Introduction: The becoming topological of culture.
Theory, Culture & Society, 29(4–5), 3–35. https://doi.org/10.1177/0263276412454552.
Ozga, J. (2009). Governing education through data in England: From regulation to self-evaluation.
Journal of Education Policy, 24(2), 149–162. https://doi.org/10.1080/02680930902733121.
Rose, N. (1999). Powers of freedom: Reframing political thought. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Simons, M. (2015). Governing education without reform: The power of the example. Discourse:
Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 36(5), 712–731. https://doi.org/10.1080/
01596306.2014.892660.
356 S. Lewis
Steven Lewis is a Research Fellow of the REDI (Research for Educational Impact) Centre at
Deakin University. He completed his Ph.D. in the School of Education at The University of
Queensland in May 2016, focusing on the development and effects of the OECD’s PISA for
Schools, as well as emergent spaces and relations of educational governance and policymaking
more broadly. After beginning his career as a high school mathematics and science teacher in
Queensland, Steven worked as a Research Fellow on several Australian Research Council-funded
projects, based at The University of Queensland and the University of Melbourne. He relocated to
Deakin University to pursue a research-intensive trajectory as the Alfred Deakin Postdoctoral
Research Fellow, with his research focusing on how new global modes of standardised testing and
data, and evidence around ‘what works’, help to reshape local schooling practices, teachers’ work
and student learning. He has recently published in leading journals within the field, including
British Journal of Sociology of Education, Comparative Education, Critical Studies in Education
and Journal of Education Policy.
Chapter 36
Now, Then, When: Working
with Qualitative Longitudinal
and Intergenerational Research to Study
Pathways and Imagined Futures
in Transnational Times
Joanne Higginson and Julie McLeod
Research Questions
This chapter represents a dialogue between a doctoral student—Jo Higginson, and

her principal supervisor—Julie McLeod, whose broader program of work includes a
related project, Making Futures (www.makingfutures.net). The focus of Jo’s
research is the experiences of students whose families have transnational histories
of work and study; she is investigating these young people’s subjectivity and views
as they complete their senior years of secondary school and imagine their futures.
Mirroring its subject, this chapter engages with imagination and the future tense: a
prospective research journey and a possible thesis structure as, at the time of
writing, fieldwork is in progress.
Employing qualitative, longitudinal approaches, the thesis explores how a small
cohort of senior secondary students recursively navigate their pathways (Raffe 2003)
and contemplate life ahead. The larger context is the effects of globalization and its
constituent transformations of work, migration, transnational communication and
education, over the course of a generation—from when today’s parents were
themselves secondary school students, to now. The research asks whether and if so,
how, the biographical and intergenerational perspectives of these young people and
their families—with experiences of work and education across different national
contexts—might illuminate some of the impacts and inflections of globalisation on
J. Higginson (&)
Melbourne Graduate School of Education, University of Melbourne,
Victoria, Australia
e-mail: joanne.higginson@unimelb.edu.au
J. McLeod
University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
e-mail: j.mcleod@unimelb.edu.au

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_36
358 J. Higginson and J. McLeod
suburban Australian schooling. The study thus engages with mediations between
individual biography and broader social change.
In structuring the thesis, Jo must contemplate the scalar agility needed to interpret
multiple and overlapping senses of history, time and place. Methodologically, there
are challenges in exploring temporality and longitudinal processes within the rela-
tively circumscribed envelope of a Ph.D. candidature and thesis. These include
considering how to structure a thesis that has co-mingled, rather than linear and
discrete research, fieldwork and writing phases.
What Is the Study About?
Entitled Globalisation, family experiences of education and imagined futures

amongst young people in suburban Melbourne, Jo’s thesis is following the journey
towards school completion and concomitant, recursive contemplations along the
way of biography, identity, values, views and futures. The participants are young
people from contemporary skilled migrant and returnee families and their parents.
Young people’s experiences, both individually and in relation to their families’
histories and educational experiences, are explored through a longitudinal series of
interviews conducted separately with students and their parents. The interviews
seek to elicit reflections on current, past and prospective experience.
The research sites are three state schools located in mid socio-economic suburbs
of Melbourne, a fast growing city with established traditions of migration and
multiculturalism. Not surprisingly, the schools each have different histories which
in part shape their contemporary engagements with globalization dynamics. In
summary, the schools are:
• a school that began as a boys school in the 1930s, transitioning during the post
war period to become an academically oriented high school and which now has
a high proportion of students whose parents are recently arrived skilled
migrants;
• a newly established, aspirational high school that offers bi-lingual and
bi-cultural programs, which opened on the site of a former residualising sec-
ondary college, established during the early 1970s and;
• a secondary college, originally purpose-built as a progressive technical school in
the mid 1970s which has a high proportion of new migrants plus returnee Greek
families who were adversely affected by the Greek economic crisis.
Newer and often initially, temporary, forms of skills- and knowledge-based move-
ment and migration, coupled with increased access to travel, transnational media and
global communication technologies, mean that migration may be less absolute than it
was in the past. It can be understood both by those migrating and by analysts of
transnational and diasporic social life (Vertovec 2009; Quayson and Daswani 2013)
to be less of a singular event and more of a process, with ongoing experiences of and
36 Now, Then, When: Working with Qualitative Longitudinal … 359
connections to multiple places for increasing numbers of people (Rizvi et al. 2016).
Contemporary Australian education policy normatively emphasizes global outlooks
and positioning and views global connections advantageously (MCEETYA 2008;
Department of Education and Training Victoria 2014). Waves of students who have
experiences of international mobility and transnational family life may also con-
tribute to particular convergences of global influences with local school contexts, in
what Roland Robertson (1995) has characterized as ‘glocalisation’ (Lam 2006).
Common identity work, rubbing up against diverse diasporic and hybrid cultures in
school settings (Dolby and Rizvi 2008; Lam 2006) may contribute to quotidian senses
of ‘cosmopolitanism from below’ (Appadurai 2013; Skrbis et al. 2014; Mitchell and
Parker 2008). What might this mean for students’ subjectivities, outlooks and ideas
about their futures?
In terms of its broader framing, design and methodology, the project draws ideas
and design elements from Julie McLeod’s research program Making Futures:
Generational change, youth values and education project (www.makingfutures.net).
Making Futures is exploring intersections across and between biography, generation,
locality, ethics and social change (McLeod 2017). It ‘seeks to understand the socially
diverse ways in which young people make their lives over a crucial period of
schooling, and how social and personal values form in interaction with schooling,
families and location’ (McLeod 2016). Reflections on history, temporality and place
are key methodological and analytic signatures (McLeod 2015, 2017). Making
Futures also encompasses revisiting previous qualitative longitudinal studies of youth
pathways, conducted in earlier times (e.g. Connell 1959; Connell et al. 1982; McLeod
and Yates 2006). It thus considers not only social and historical change but also how
the subjects and methods of research within the history and sociology of education
have changed over time (McLeod 2017).
Jo’s focus on the globally connected suburban school both complements and is
differentiated from the school sites and themes explored in Julie’s Making Futures
project. Making Futures explores schooling and lives in an inner city neighbour-
hood, a regional city in a coastal and agricultural area and a new outer-metropolitan
fringe suburb (Making Futures 2016). The exploration of global senses of place
(Massey 1994) and transnational dynamics within Jo’s thesis draws not so much on
binary, scalar, comparative or competing ideas of the local, national and global
(McLeod 2009; Mitchell and Kallio 2017). Rather it is guided by Arjun
Appadurai’s proposition that ‘the local is itself a historical product and …the
histories through which localities emerge are eventually subject to the dynamics of
the global’ (1996: 18). Appadurai encourages us to consider both ‘how locality
emerges in a globalized world’ and also how global facts take on both local and
deterritorialised forms (1996: 19). Globalisation is acknowledged as a historical
process that has unfolded and intensified over the course of a generation, but one
that also has locally differentiated effects. Saskia Sassen (2005), for instance, asserts
that there are specific places and concentration of actors through whom the work of
globalization gets done—migration and the work of transnational actors are
amongst its constitutive processes.
What Is the Method?
Like the broader Making Futures project, the thesis employs different variants of
qualitative longitudinal research (QLR) methods. Firstly, it uses the prospective
repeat interview format, with which QLR is often associated (Holland et al. 2006)—
real time ‘tracking’ of groups of students and their families as the students complete
the senior years of secondary school. Typically, within this type of design, the focus
is on journey and process, rather than simply outcome (Thomson and McLeod 2009:
63). Analysis begins or is focused at the scale of the individual subject (Holland et al.
2006: 5). Given the parameters and processes of a Ph.D. candidature, the design is
necessarily an abbreviated version of this typical variant of QLR.
Secondly, the two projects explore cross-generational perspectives—through
consideration of parents’ own educational experiences as well as their hopes for their
children. This approach draws on Daniel Bertaux’s ideas (Bertaux and Delcroix
2000; McLeod and Thomson 2009: 112–113) of family and cross-generational case
studies as offering a means of reading the ‘social history beneath’, capturing enacted
senses of historical opportunities and constraints, as well as processes of social
reproduction, inheritance and innovation which ‘connect the intimate operations of
family life to the social and economic landscape in which they are situated’.
(McLeod and Thomson 2009: 113).
The project also considers the relationship between memory, change and the
‘historical production of locality’ (Appadurai 1996: 18–19) through a reading of
school and place-based memoirs that have been written and produced in recent times
and which recall previous generations’ experiences at the respective schools. These
recollections were not produced for the thesis, but rather for different audiences and
contexts and as such constitute a serendipitous resource. They comprise a memoir
produced by a pioneering cohort of former students, self-published as a form of
collegial reflection; an excerpt from a commercially published book by an established
author—writing on memory, time and place in Melbourne, including her student days
at one of the schools; and finally, an article written for an e-zine, shared and circulated
on Facebook, recalling the experiences of being a young teacher at the third of the
schools. These diverse sources came to Jo’s attention in somewhat opportunistic
ways and therefore there is no claim for comparability or consistency of type. Rather,
these texts, each mediating collective forms of school memory, are approached as
sources that offer angles onto the evocation of the biographical dimensions of school
experience in the presently remembered past and the local cultural, socio-economic
and academic characteristics of the schools in different times.
Both the thesis and the broader Making Futures project are concerned with
concepts of temporality and change. Temporality encompasses but is not limited to
matters of duration, memory and historical processes. In our studies, it denotes an
exploration of the multiple and mobile relationships between past, present and
future (McLeod 2017). This multi-scaled consideration aligns with broader and
emerging directions within qualitative longitudinal research, which is ‘increasingly
understood as a sensibility and orientation rather than a specific research design’

(Thomson and McLeod 2015: 245).
What Theories and Paradigms Are Employed?
Qualitative longitudinal research (QLR), in common with methods that mobilise

case studies, is faced with methodological and representational dilemmas con-
cerning the analytic relationships between the particular and the more general
(Thomson and McLeod 2015: 245). These include making or assessing claims
regarding how a particular case expresses a ‘surplus to singularity’ (Berlant 2007:
664) and speaks beyond the idiosyncratic. The approach to analysis within QLR is
typically inductive and interpretative, rather than aligned with a particular hero
theory.
Jo’s methodological approach is informed by insights drawn from Michael
Burawoy’s (2000) Global Ethnography. Burawoy and his collaborators examined
structural, social and imaginary aspects of globalization from the perspective of
specific groups of people and places, asserting that: ‘we cannot see the field without
a lens and we can only improve the lens by experimenting with it in the field’.
(2000: 28). For Burawoy, fieldwork that is both prospectively and retrospectively
informed by theory is put forward as a counterpoint to the high level of abstraction
and generalization seen to commonly characterize discussions about globalization.
A similar intention of walking with and iteratively talking back to theory is outlined
in McLeod and Yates (2006) Making Modern Lives, an account of a qualitative
longitudinal study of subjectivity and schooling in the 1990s: The 12–18 Project.
These approaches differ from grounded theory, in that theory is a consideration
from the outset. (McLeod and Yates 2006: 33).
Thomson and Kamler (2016: 41) argue against the metaphor of the lonely doctoral
journey and foreground the skills and knowledge learnt in social and institutional
settings, seeing these as forming part of the ‘wayfinding’ work of a Ph.D. student. Jo’s
thesis draws its structure and orientations from a diverse collegial reading group,
convened by Julie, that has been exploring a range of texts and concepts relating to
ideas of history, temporality and place; she acknowledges this collegial situatedness
and social constructivist learning in developing her research interests and imaginaries.
Reflecting on the relationships between globalization, temporality, place and
schooling is a key concern of the thesis. Harvey’s (1989) seminal meditations on
changes to our ‘experience of space and time’ offered a timely starting point. Harvey,
in describing late capitalism’s social and economic changes, observed that ‘during
phases of maximal change, the spatial and temporal bases for reproduction of the
social order are subject to the severest disruption’ (1989: 239). His influential
account of escalating ‘time-space compression’ underpins many early scholarly
discussions of contemporary globalization (described for instance in Steger 2013).
Subsequent literature has tended to focus more upon cultural facets, rather than
Harvey’s more structuralist analyses that were centered on means and modes of
production; it explores multifarious, subjective orientations to temporality and place.

Media, migration, consumption practices (Appadurai 1996, 2013) and political
discourse (Ong 1999) are described as propagating, shaping and complicating a
range of temporal and spatial orientations in a global era. For instance, globalization
is seen as lubricating a proliferation of nostalgias: restorative, reflective, ersatz and
postmodern (Boym 2001; Appadurai 1996; Higson 2014). Fueled by access to
synchronous global communication and media, the imagination is cast not as a form
of shirking or leisured escapism but rather as a social process and staging ground for
action (Appadurai 1996), characterized in the language of social imaginaries (Bottici
2014). In a similar vein, Arjun Appadurai views our socially constructed orientations
towards the future as ‘cultural facts’ warranting an ethnographic gaze (Appadurai
2013). As well as anchored, globalized senses of neighbourhood and locality
(Massey 1994, 2005), literature addressing transnationalism and diasporic identity
calls on deterritorialised, virtual, fluid and embodied senses of place (Vertovec 2009;
Quayson and Daswani 2013; Ong 1999).
Time’s arrow continues to travel as research projects unfold. Jo’s initial research
imaginary was unprepared for the contemporary hyper-nationalism of Brexit and
Trump, and for recent changes to Australian visa provisions for temporary skilled
migrants—all of which underscore an uneasy, mounting political salience of
globalization and migration. The often celebratory 1990s headwinds of globaliza-
tion discourse—a period that Appadurai refers to as the age of ‘high globalization’
(2013: 3)—have given way to a more anxious, uneven and turbulent ride in which
aspects of globalization attract challenge and concern from both the left and right.
This poignantly illustrates how the temporal-political location of research affects
how theories addressing social and historical phenomena can be put to work. In
Making Modern Lives (McLeod and Yates 2006), for instance, ideas about gender
and the education of girls, which had been prominent from the 1970s to the 1990s,
were examined at a time in the mid-1990s when debates were emerging around new
concerns for boys’ educational engagement and attainment.
Methodologically, the idea of looking at legacies and preceding change as well as
change in process offers opportunities to both engage with theories to understand
lived experience and to also to engage with life experience to historicise and appraise
the reach of ideas emerging in particular times. Longitudinally oriented, situated
work may be useful for reimagining the scales and explanatory potential of ubiqui-
tous big concepts. Mitchell and Kallio (2017) for instance, encourage ‘interventions’
to globalisation’s often rigid scalar categories and assumptions through disruptive
pairings—such as ‘the global and the intimate’. They observe that these terms, drawn
from different conceptual realms—the academic public and the pastoral are not
‘defined against one another, but rather draw their meaning from more elliptically
related domains’ (2017: 2).
Structure
Returning to our opening comments on the imagination of the study and the future
tense, the structure outlined here is an anticipated one that, in turn is both guiding
and responding to the fieldwork as it progresses. The introductory section sets out
the background to the study, briefly sketching aspects of the demographic, social
and policy landscape relating to globalization, migration and schooling, which has
shaped contemporary interest in this study; it briefly introduces the participants and
school sites. The literature and theory review is imagined in fairly traditional terms,
introducing concepts that can be subsequently mobilized and appraised in dis-
cussing fieldwork and findings—such as theoretical and empirical work on
transnational and diasporic identity that inform the study questions. The method-
ological section discusses some of the affordances and limitations of working with
qualitative longitudinal and narrative methods.
The chapters in the main body of the thesis turn to the field work but are never
only about the fieldwork in a reporting or descriptive sense. History, place and
temporality are key motifs for mediations between the field and theory. These
chapters aim to weave in critical discussion of research and theoretical literature,
drawing out themes of history and globalization, place, biography and subjectivity.
The thematic ideas of now, then and when aim to capture overlapping and
non-linear senses of temporality.
Contents page
Introduction
Background
Framing the study
Dialogues with theory
Methodology
Part A Now: histories and places
Schools and the historic production of locality
Global citizens and glocal spaces
Part B Then: mediations between history and biography
Generations and memories of school
Narrating the transnational self
Part C When: subjectivity, temporality and pathways
Roots, routes and imagined futures
Navigating youth pathways in transnational times
Coda
Commentary
This of course is a prospective sketch—a storyboard. Thomson and McLeod name

one of the current challenges for QLR as developing a processual imaginary with
conceptual metaphors and tools for privileging temporality that enable ‘fluidity of
movement between units of analysis, between scales and between the particular and
the general’ (2015: 246). In order to approach this kind of agile switching, Jo plans
to draw ideas from ‘film grammar’ (Arijon 1976) in working with transitions
between different temporalities and scales. In filmmaking, the camera works with
different points of view and diverse shot ranges and types to shift scales, build
exposition and shape our experience of a narrative, moving between broad estab-
lishing shots, close ups, wide and tracking shots. The filmic idea of ‘parallel
editing’ moves between characters or between the intimate subject and the larger
narrative setting, in ways that build and interweave engagement with each. ‘Mis en
scène’—the selection of ‘what lies in the frame’—uses settings and objects to
economically build a cross-temporal picture through exposition, rather than simply
narrating and telling. For instance, photographs in a room might recall rather
didactically tell a past; the bright coloured patch on a faded wall, revealed when a
certificate of credentials is removed, suggests the passage of time since they were
gained; a train ticket hints at what might happen next. In the thesis, memoirs,
photographs and narratives are similarly being explored as tangible links and traces
of the past in the present and ideas of how futures are imagined and worked
towards.
In imagining her thesis structure, Jo has envisaged a thematic engagement with
ideas of ‘Now, Then, When’: a non-linear, overlapping consideration of the present,
the past and the imagined future. Within both parent and student interviews, the aim
is to explore both past and future as understood within the present; an underlying
acknowledgement that the present encompasses what Reinhart Kosselleck terms the
‘space of experience’ and the ‘horizon of expectation’ (Boym 2000: 9–10).
Subjectivity is a project not only in and over time (McLeod and Yates 2006), but
also one that is shaped and resourced by different engagements with temporality.
Svetlana Boym for instance, reminds us that: ‘Nostalgia is not always about the
past, it can be retrospective but also prospective. Fantasies of the past determined
by the needs of the present have a direct impact on realities of the future’. (Boym
2000: xvi).
A non-linear and multi-scaled consideration of temporality aligns with broader
senses of qualitative longitudinal research. QLR analysis typically draws principles
and ideas from biographical methods (Chamberlayne et al. 2000), oral history
(McLeod and Thomson 2009) and narrative inquiry (Andrews 2007). These explore
senses of duration, development and journey, of the past held and told in the
present. Arjun Appadurai also encourages us to view the ‘future as cultural fact’
which spins on forms of difference within our social capacities and practices of
imagination, anticipation and aspiration (2013: 286). He urges ‘a systemic effort to
understand how cultural systems, as combinations of norms, dispositions, practices,
and histories, frame the good life as a landscape of discernible ends and of practical
paths to the achievement of these ends… as a map of the journey from here to there
and from now to then, as a part of the ethics of everyday life’ (2013: 292).
Jo’s sense of place aims to be similarly relational and overlapping. The aim is to
avoid replicating comparative binaries of local and global. It follows Katharynne
Mitchell and Kirsi Pauliina Kallio’s (2017) call for scalar disruptions that open up
to a consideration of the situated, relational practices of transnational geographies
and social relations. Understanding these relations and their imaginaries is a
potentially important corollary to school statements and government policy
(MCEETYA 2008) that rhetorically emphasize global outlooks and positioning,
often in ways that position the global as ‘out there’ rather than as something
entangled with everyday lives.
As Lyn Yates has argued, situatedness and change are an inextricable part of
both educational research and educational contexts (2004: 8–9). The foregrounding
of situated-ness and change is central to the research orientations of both Making
Futures (Making Futures 2016) and Globalisation, family experiences of education
and imagined futures in suburban Melbourne. Within such an approach the idea of
a conclusion might be an over-reach. Jo is thinking about the idea of a coda, rather
than a results section or a conclusion—a final piece that looks back, adds to and
extends the movements and moments explored in reaching that point—an ‘outro’,
to borrow again from film, as much as a rounding off or conclusion.
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Joanne Higginson is a Ph.D. student at the University of Melbourne, working under the
supervision of Professor Julie McLeod and Professor Fazal Rizvi. She is investigating the
educational journeys and imagined futures of senior secondary students in three Melbourne
schools and those of their parents, who have come to Melbourne as recent skilled migrants. Her
thesis is entitled Globalisation, family experiences of education and imagined futures in suburban
Melbourne. Jo also works in teacher education at Melbourne Graduate School of Education and
has three secondary school aged children.
Julie McLeod is Professor of Curriculum, Equity and Social Change in the Melbourne Graduate
School of Education and Pro Vice-Chancellor (Research Capability) at the University of
Melbourne. Julie researches in the history and sociology of education, with a focus on youth,
gender and social change. She was an editor of the journal Gender and Education (2011–2016)
and is now an editor of History of Education Review (2018–2022); she held an Australian
Research Council Future Fellowship (2012–2016) and is an elected Fellow of the Academy of
Social Sciences Australia. Publications include Rethinking Youth Wellbeing: Critical Perspectives,
(2015); The Promise of the New and Genealogies of Educational Reform (2015); Researching
Social Change: Qualitative Approaches (2009); and Making Modern Lives: Subjectivity,
Schooling and Social Change (2006). See www.makingfutures.net; www.juliemcleod.net
Chapter 37
Being Chosen and Performing Choice:
Young People Engaging in Imaginative
and Constrained Secondary School
Practices in Vancouver, BC, Canada
Ee-Seul Yoon
Research Question
What is an appropriate structure for reporting a study of school choice through the
perspectives of young people, specifically one that follows critical and interpretive
paradigms and adopts ethnography with an emphasis on social phenomenology?
Over the last three decades, the political project of school choice policy, promoted by
the Vancouver School District and the British Columbia (BC) Ministry of Education
in Canada, has become contentious. A number of local observers and critics have
contended that school choice contributes to the further fragmentation and associated
hierarchies of the education system and social structures in the urban context of
Vancouver, a major Canadian city experiencing a rapid rise in ethnic diversity, gen-
trifying urban redevelopment, and socio-economic polarization (Yoon 2011, 2013;
Yoon and Lubienski 2017). While an international body of literature on school choice
scholarship has begun to shed some important light on the insidious effects of school
choice and education markets on young people’s experiences of exclusion, inequality,
and a downgrading of one’s educational and social status (Gillborn and Youdell 2000;
Lubienski et al. 2013; Reay and Lucey 2003; Wells 2009), few have conducted
educational research into the impact that school choice has on children in Vancouver.
E.-S. Yoon (&)

Faculty of Education, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg R3T 2N2, Canada
e-mail: ee-seul.yoon@umanitoba.ca

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_37
370 E.-S. Yoon
In my dissertation, I sought to better understand how young people (ages 11–19),

who are positioned at various social, racial, and geographic locations and who have
varied social experiences, make sense of school choice policy. I focused on the ways
in which young people experience, imagine, and form certain modes of social,
spatial, and racial identification and groups, as well as on the relationships between
these groups under the mechanism of school choice. After completing an ethno-
graphic study with an emphasis on students’ lived meaning-making, that is, their
phenomenology, I concluded that current local policies of school choice provide
enriched alternative programs; however, they do so for only highly selective and
competitive groups of students. Overall, my research findings point to the reality that
school choice deepens existing social, spatial, and racial divisions; aggravates ten-
sions; and ultimately worsens existing inequalities while producing new forms of
social and educational stratification (Yoon 2015, 2016, 2017b).
What Were the Method and Methodology?
Between 2009 and 2010, I carried out a multi-sited ethnographic study with a focus
on student meaning-making of school choice policy. The focus on student phe-
nomenology directed my data collection primarily on the students (a total of 59
students) at two points of transition: from elementary to secondary school, and in the
last year of secondary school. I used semi-structured interviews to understand their
lived experiences. In addition, over a six-month period, I observed 16 school
information evenings. I also conducted participant observation at two secondary
schools. During the same time, I analyzed media and policy texts as they pertained to
the broader social, urban, and political changes in which Vancouver’s school choice
policy was evolving in order to contextualize student accounts of their experiences.
The methodological approach, which I call a critical socio-phenomenological
approach to policy studies, was used to guide the selection of the methods above. This
approach is a way to integrate critical policy, youth, and interpretive methodologies so
as to conduct a more enriched examination of the meanings and interpretations that
youths attribute to policy and its manifestations in everyday practices and structuring
processes (Rizvi and Lingard 2010; Shore and Wright 1997; Yanow 2000). For
further details, please refer to my full dissertation (Yoon 2013).
The paradigms I employed were critical and interpretive. This combined framework
was selected at the initial stage of my dissertation, after reading a considerable
amount of literature on the sociology of school choice. The combined paradigms
37 Being Chosen and Performing Choice: Young People Engaging … 371
assisted my focus on the lived meaning-making of the policy of school choice from
the perspective of students who come from different and stratified social, racial, and
cultural positions in a highly diverse city. These paradigms were the foundation for
my entire dissertation.
In contrast, the theories I employed were changed and transformed in the reit-
erative processes of linking theory and data. Initially, when I wrote and defended
my proposal, it included critical social theories (Pierre Bourdieu and Michel
Foucault) and critical youth theories (Paul Willis and Anoop Nayak). These theories
played an important role in formulating research questions. Nonetheless, after I
began to code the interviews thematically, I began to note the importance of student
perceptions and imaginations of different school choice programs and
cross-boundary (that is, outside one’s attendance area) schools with respect to their
present options and their future pathways. Their imaginations of these options and
pathways were also linked to dominant urban imaginaries of ‘good/bad’ neigh-
bourhoods, and more widely to their understandings of changing political imagi-
naries both locally and globally.
While attending to these emerging themes and patterns, which are currently
underexplored in the school choice literature, I read more to connect my data to the
literature on imaginaries and imaginations. In particular, I dipped into ideas of the
neoliberal imaginary, global imaginary, urban imaginary, and situated imaginations.
I drew from the critical policy scholarship of Rizvi and Lingard (2010) and learned
that one major function of policy is to shape the social, cultural, and political
imaginary that manifests itself in people’s everyday practices. Neoliberalism and its
expansion ‘steer a particular formation of the subjective or phenomenological
awareness of people’ (Rizvi and Lingard 2010, p. 32). I found this conceptual lens
was particularly useful for examining policy phenomenology (that is, the
meaning-making of policy) beyond the policy discourse of neoliberalism.
In addition, I included the concepts of dominant urban and national imaginaries
from critical geography and race theories. They helped illuminate how young peo-
ple’s interpretations of their possible futures and school choices are shaped in relation
to the changing and multiple imaginaries of urban neighbourhoods and Canada,
situated at the intersections of post-colonialism and multiculturalism. The analytic
processes and outcomes of my dissertation were interwoven with the readings of
critical social, spatial, and racial theories (Anyon 2008; Ball 2005, 2006).
In working between the theories of imaginaries and my student data, I began to
recognize the multiple ways in which the imaginaries play out in young people’s
everyday lives and meaning-making. In particular, I identified how the particular
classed, racialized, and spatialized local contexts in which young people were situated
interacted with their meaning-makings, imaginations, and interpretations of the
imaginaries. This led me to conceive a new theory of imaginary capital (Yoon 2017a).
I began with Bourdieu’s (2006/1986) notion of capital as embodied, objectified,
and institutionalized manifestations that identify different social groups (Bourdieu
and Wacquant 1992). I used this theory of capital to provide a basis for rethinking the
imaginary as capital by sociologically analyzing how a new, emerging, dominant
imaginary can activate the formation of new social distinctions. The new distinctions
372 E.-S. Yoon
emerge from a new imaginary that constitutes a distinctive combination of ideas,

practices, ideals, and objects which get socially and politically created. These ideas,
practices, ideals, and objects gradually get produced and reproduced in institutions
and social groups that lead to stratified, relational social status among different groups.
Those who possess and embody the highest, most prized forms of a new dominant
imaginary can claim, and are positioned with, higher status. In my study, I focused on
the rise of the neoliberal imaginary and its function as capital, and thus its role in
generating social reproduction. I call this new theory imaginary capital. An extended
discussion of this theory can be found in my dissertation (Yoon 2013, 2017a).
Using the theory of imaginary capital, I conducted a more sociological analysis
of young people’s situated imaginations and position-taking practices in the edu-
cation field, which is being reformed through neoliberalism (the logic of the mar-
ket). With the new theory as a centrepiece, I organized my dissertation chapters in a
way that seemed to flow well, as I discuss below.
Structure
Returning to the question posed at the beginning of this chapter, I would like to
discuss the structuring of my dissertation at two different levels: the macro and the
micro. In terms of the structuring of my dissertation at the macro level, it was rather
straightforward, following more or less the standard structure of going from the
introduction, to theory and methodology, to the analysis, and finally to the con-
clusion. In terms of organizing the contents within each chapter, that is, structuring
the dissertation at the micro level, I made several revisions to find a smooth flow of
ideas and data analysis that are unique to my study.
My dissertation starts with the introduction chapter, which set out the research
objectives, problems, and significance. I discussed how the introduction of new
educational policies of school choice in one of the most diverse provinces in
Canada, British Columbia, made me curious about how such policies might affect
schooling and local neighbourhoods in its largest city, Vancouver, which has
experienced a rapid rise of ethnic and racial diversity and economic inequality.
I questioned the extent to which what we see as ‘choice’ in the system is another
form of student grouping and stratification.
Since little research had been done on the contexts of Vancouver and Canada, I
turned to empirical studies done elsewhere. My literature review, which makes up
the bulk of Chapter 2, delved into the literature from the UK and the US, where
school choice reforms started much earlier than in Canada, even though the
changing urban contexts and policy reforms in those countries were quite similar to
those in Canada. I identified some of the key trends and concepts, as well as the
critical research gaps and theoretical limitations in the sociology of school choice.
The flow from Chapters 1 and 2 was sensible, as it helped show how my research
was going to fill critical research gaps in the context of Canada.
Also, Chapter 2 functioned to introduce my theoretical framework following my

review of the literature, which I organized based on themes as well as theoretical
ideas. My organization reflects a recognition of the importance of theories used to
explore certain topics in existing school choice research. The review moved from
structuralist approaches to poststructuralist approaches because the former were more
prevalent in the current literature. This theoretically oriented review created a space
where I could introduce my theory of imaginary capital. I was able to demonstrate
how my theoretical perspective is distinctive. Also, my intention was to inform the
readers early on about my theoretical framework, which was pivotal to my analysis.
After that, Chapter 3 discussed some of the local landscape of education that has
been historically shaped and is currently being reproduced in Vancouver. I believed
it would be important to discuss historically enduring politics, discourses, practices,
and policies of school choice before delineating my research design because of the
importance of the changing social, economic, and ethnic contexts of Vancouver. In
addition, the content of this local and provincial history proved to be sufficiently
rich to stand as its own chapter, so I placed this chapter before the subsequent
chapter on methodology.
My methodology chapter, Chapter 4, then discussed my research design, which
was necessary to do before discussing my study’s findings. This chapter has the
discussion of a critical socio-phenomenological approach as an interdisciplinary
methodological framework as a way to better understand the dynamics of school
choice from young people’s situated and multiple perspectives. The fine details of
my multi-sited ethnographic methods were then discussed, along with my
researcher positionality. This chapter ends with key information about the char-
acteristics of my student participants and their particular local urban contexts, a
discussion that was important to have before presenting student experiences and
perceptions in the following chapters.
My first analytical chapter, Chapter 5, focused on young people’s imaginations
of school choice and how this generated a new classification system in which they
positioned themselves and others academically and socially in a hierarchical edu-
cational and social structure. Based on my ethnographic research, I found that
young people’s meanings of school choice are class-differentiated. Among the
students I interviewed, those who were middle class or aspired to become middle
class held fast to the neoliberal imaginary of education and competitive schooling
models and sought opportunities to gain social status that gets validated through the
imaginary (Yoon 2016, 2017a).
Moving beyond the walls of schools, my second data chapter, Chapter 6, focused
on the urban imaginary and its role in the ways youths made a sense of school choice.
I examined how young people’s school choices are spatially imagined in relation to
the geography of drugs, gangs, and poverty (Yoon 2015, 2017a).
Then, in the last data chapter, widening the scope of analysis, I focused on how
race, particularly racial meanings and stereotypes in the national imaginary of Canada,
factor into school choice dynamics. In other words, it is not just academic rankings,
but also racial relationships that are formed and forming in the broader context of
Canada, which matter to how people consider and make choices (Yoon 2015, 2017b).
374 E.-S. Yoon
In wrapping up my study, in the Conclusion I argued for including young

people’s perspectives in policymaking. I also advanced my argument for under-
standing the salience of the neoliberal imaginary that underpins the youth phe-
nomenology of school choice.
Contents page
Chapter 2 The concept of the imagination in school choice research
Chapter 3 Schools as imagined communities in the local history
Chapter 4 A critical socio-phenomenological approach to policy research
Chapter 5 Class distinction, the global imaginary, and symbolic domination
Chapter 6 The urban imaginary, moral panic, and young people’s school
cartographies of security
Chapter 7 The national imaginary of Canada and racial and ethnic
classification struggles in the lived experiences of school choice
Chapter 8 Rethinking and reformulating school choice policy
Commentary
When (or if) you read my completed dissertation, it may look like it has been
always organized the way it currently is; however, it is but one variation of many I
tried. I remember spending a considerable amount of time (at least several months
toward the end of my dissertation writing) trying to arrange things in different ways
in order to see which organization would work best. This was a reiterative process,
not one that was in any way a linear process or one-time task.
Indeed, before I began writing my dissertation, I read several dissertations that
were completed in my department, Educational Studies at the University of British
Columbia. No two dissertations were alike, yet most of them had similar and
essential components, namely, an introduction, a review of the literature, an
explanation of the methodology, a presentation of the results, and a conclusion.
Understanding this commonality was an important part of getting a sense of what the
accepted forms of dissertation structures were in my department. So, the structure of
my dissertation is consistent with the dissertations that came before mine, but at the
same time, I did not use any particular template for structuring my dissertation.
Rather, I let the structure flow from my research aims and data. Thus, throughout the
writing stage of my dissertation, I worked closely with my dissertation committee in
deciding what to include and where to put different bits of my writing.
The structure of my dissertation is also consistent with the paradigms, method-
ology, theories, and subject matter I focused on. Both critical and interpretive
paradigms were pivotal to setting up and connecting different parts of my disser-
tation. The critical paradigm helped in situating the lived experiences of students
within the broader social structures of inequality and changing political imaginary of
neoliberalism. Within this, the interpretive approach was useful for focusing on the
experiences and interpretations of youths. Young people’s views of school choice
policy were analyzed along with the city’s changing political and social contexts.
This pairing was particularly useful in structuring the data chapters that flowed from
the relatively smaller context of schools to the city to the nation state.
Also, the use of social phenomenology, the lived experiences of those who are
positioned differently within social structures, was pivotal to organizing the thesis.
Instead of following the order of my research questions, my dissertation structure
followed the themes that emerged from young people’s lived experiences and
accounts.
The use of existing and newly minted theories eased the flow of my data
chapters as well. These theories helped me to frame and support the broadening of
my analytic lens from the neighbourhood to the local to the national in the era of
neoliberal globalization. Also, the notion of the imaginary functioned as a centre-
piece connecting my various chapters.
My final words on the topic of structuring a dissertation are that I do not think
there is one right way to structure it, either at the macro or micro level. This is
especially so in contemporary educational research, which has become more
interdisciplinary and mixed-methods in nature. My recommendation is that students
look at a few completed dissertations in their respective departments, consult with
their supervisory committee, aim for a structure that best fits their data, and create
the most appropriate structure for their dissertation.
References
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Routledge.
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(Eds.), Anthropology of policy: Critical perspectives on governance and power (pp. 3–40).
New York, NY: Routledge.
Wells, A. (2009). The social context of charter schools. In M. Berends, M. Springer, D. Ballou, &
H. Walberg (Eds.), Handbook of research on school choice (pp. 155–178). New York, NY:
Routledge.
Yanow, D. (2000). Conducting interpretive policy analysis (Vol. 47). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.
Yoon, E. (2011). Mini schools: The new global city communities of Vancouver. Discourse:
Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 32(2), 253–268.
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constrained secondary school practices in Vancouver, BC, Canada. (Unpublished doctoral
dissertation), University of British Columbia, Vancouver.
Yoon, E. (2015). Young people’s cartographies of school choice: The urban imaginary and moral
panic. Children’s Geographies, 14(1), 101–114.
Yoon, E. (2016). Neoliberal imaginary, school choice, and “new elites” in public secondary
schools. Curriculum Inquiry, 46(4), 369–387.
Yoon, E. (2017a). Disadvantaged youths’ imagined futures and school choice: A critical
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London: Routledge.
Yoon, E. (2017b). Neoliberalizing race? Diverse youths’ lived experiences of race in school
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Ee-Seul Yoon is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Educational Administration,

Foundations, and Psychology at the University of Manitoba, Canada. Her research aims to
understand the patterns and processes of educational inequality with a focus on the marketization
of education. She has recently edited a special issue of Educational Policy Analysis and Archives,
entitled ‘School Diversification and Dilemmas across Canada in an Era of Education Marketization
and Neoliberalization (with Christopher Lubienski)’.
Chapter 38
Research Secrets, Research ‘Messiness’
and the Complexity of Knowing: Behind
the Thesis and the Content’s Page
Mary O’Dowd
Research Questions
What is an appropriate structure for reporting a participant observation ethno-

graphic study that set out to consider the empowerment of young people at risk
from issues including homelessness and drug use? The questions addressed in my
thesis were: how do you empower young people at risk? How does a Ph.D. develop
and change, and what are the processes, influences, and implications of how
‘knowledge’ is constructed by the observer-researcher?
It is traditional to place a literature review at the start of the thesis, which implicitly
suggests that this scholarship informs what lies ahead. This approach can hide both
the development in the researcher’s thinking and the somewhat ‘messy’
re-inscribing of the literature review that is often undertaken by the student toward
the end of the thesis.
A Ph.D. does not always follow the HDR student’s initial plan but is typically
written as if it were a straightforward journey, rather than a process of going back
and forward and into a new becoming. This chapter speaks to a not uncommon
research reality where the topic and/or methodology changes to reflect new
understandings the researcher acquires in the process of undertaking a Ph.D. It
indicates how structuring a Ph.D. involves the hard work of imagining and
reimagining. The chapter indicates the ‘messiness’, complexity and non-linearity in
M. O’Dowd (&)
Central Queensland University, Rockhampton, QLD, Australia
e-mail: m.odowd@cqu.edu.au; mfodowd@outlook.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_38
378 M. O’Dowd
thesis writing. It identifies how a researcher’s politics, ethics, experiences, and

physical body (eyes, mind and heart) impact on how we (almost) know. While
ethnographic literature, including autoethnography, has explored the ethnographic
method and its messiness (Ellis 2004; Denzin 2006; Willis 2013), its relevance in
thesis writing is largely unexplored. The chapter reflects on the ‘messiness’,
complexity and non-linearity in my thesis writing.
My thesis began as a study of empowerment of young people deemed at risk. It
also became a self-reflexive study of the experience of undertaking a Ph.D. and how
that enables new understandings of empowerment to develop. While, my thesis was
initially conceived as one study, it evolved into three distinct parts as I began to
reflect on the complexity of factors that shaped how I ‘knew’ over time.
Part 1 was an ethnographic participant observation study of homeless young
people involved in a worker cooperative. The co-op was established by anarchists
and Christians who were focused on developing an alternative economic model and
providing a more just world for those marginalized, including the young people.
Profits from the cooperative were shared, as was power. The young people who
were involved had often escaped home situations of abuse and now, out of home,
were engaged in well-identified risk activities including: drug and alcohol misuse,
casual unprotected sex, petty theft, and self-harm. The young people were wel-
comed at the co-op and could participate as they wished: as members, as workers,
or as people just ‘hanging-out. The cooperative also attracted other marginalised
groups: illegal immigrants, people with mental health issues, artists and others
interested and aspiring to live another way, outside the competitive corporate
system. I was interested in researching how the young peoples’ lives could be/were
improved, and what experiences in the cooperative were acting to empower these
young people.
Over one year into the study, I began to experience the ‘messiness’, that often
exists in qualitative research. Tensions arose in the worker cooperative. The man
who did much of the administration and management, the anarchist Joseph, was
voted out and two young people became managers. As a result, the cooperative
changed; it became more like a business. The young people were still dropping in
but were no longer encouraged to be involved. Finally, the cooperative collapsed
due to financial problems and my study ended sooner than I anticipated. My
conclusions were that tensions had developed between two key groups who held
different value systems: those interested in an alternative economic and social way
(cooperatives), and the young people. The young people were problematic as they
aspired to access the economic benefits of the capitalist system but lacked skills to
achieve these; they held different values, and this undermined the cooperative.
Empowerment, I determined, could be provided by a more formal process of the
provision of skills and education.
Part 2 of the thesis began after the cooperative closed and I commenced to
analyse my data. I decided to develop the study by doing follow-up interviews with
the young people to see what had occurred in their lives over a year later. In seeking
interviews, I ‘tracked’ the young people via youth agencies that suggested where
they might be. I would ‘hang out’ on the streets waiting to see if they were around.
38 Research Secrets, Research ‘Messiness’ and the Complexity … 379
If they agreed, the interviews would take place in various settings: sometimes on the
streets or in a take-away food venue (over a ‘feed’); once in a derelict building site
sitting on empty containers as the port was passed around; and sometimes young
people would come to the house where I was staying. Typically, they would come
to the house in groups, light joints, smoke, and talk. Almost all the young people
were still on the margins of society, some homeless and/or in insecure housing.
When the follow-up interviews were completed I had, for a second time, ‘fin-
ished’ the data collection for the Ph.D. Yet, I was ill at ease with where the ‘data’
lead me. The follow-up interviews had resulted in somewhat overwhelming ‘data’:
life stories of pain and abuse (and sexual abuse came up a great deal). The young
people recounted stories of the subculture on the streets where camaraderie,
warmth, fun, theft, drug use and conflict were part of an exciting social scene.
Stealing to survive was a necessary norm. It was evident it was a sub-culture with a
spiral into greater suffering, including suicide attempts and more problems,
including arrest and engagement in the juvenile justice system.
The follow-up ‘findings’ made me uneasy with some of my earlier conclusions
about the young people in the cooperative. The young people seemed less of a
problem and their actions very understandable within the limited social world to
which they had access; for example, my questions about illegal drugs gained
responses that indicated the drugs were useful; they were not perceived as a problem.
Illegal drugs provided pain relief and escape (from memories and lives of abuse and
deep sadness). The young peoples’ use of drugs had a logic, but these responses did
not seem to be a helpful to an ‘empowering’ outcome that would enable them to
access society. I was troubled by the implications of the social world and this
‘messiness’. Rather than meld the cooperative data with the follow-up interviews I
redesigned the thesis into two parts with two perspectives on empowerment.
I then reflected on the data in Part 2 I realised I now understood these young
people’s situation in a different way. I reflected on how new literature and new
experiences with these young people were impacting on how I was able to see, feel
and so construct knowledge. This led to Part 3 of the thesis: ‘a reflexive study of the
construction of knowledge’ with I, the researcher, now also a subject in and a
subject of ‘empowerment’.
Part 3 used reflexivity and analysed my stages of ‘knowing’: how I came to
know in different ways through parts 1 and 2 and consequently in Part 3. Part 3 of
the study explicitly explored how reading and reflection was an experience that
changed my thinking. It also considered how emotional experiences created the
capacity for intellectual-theoretical changes to be embraced and new knowledge
constructed. Rather than writing over the knowledges constructed in parts 1 and 2,
in Part 3 I considered how my experiences in my research impacted on my capacity
to ‘hear’ and my interest and motivation to read other literature. I considered the
impact of my listening to the young people recounting their abuse; and developed
my understanding of how they had been further brutalised by a systemic lack of
access to a life of any real opportunity to develop their potential. Experience and
reading interacted and, had shaped and re-shaped my capacity to construct
knowledge. The knowledge constructed reflected my academic world in a
380 M. O’Dowd
relationship with my lived world with the ‘subjects’. It was not just what I read, but
what I deemed relevant in what I read, and how this lead into a knowledge that I
was able to construct.
In Part 1, the research method was ethnographic using participant observation. Part
2 used open-ended interviewing. It was influenced by feminist methods including
the use of non-exploitative interviewing and empowering research, for example the
work of Harding (1987) and Lather (1988). Part 3 used reflexivity (Clifford and
Marcus 1986; Woolgar 1988; Steier 1991) and a reflexivity influenced by deep
ecology and its perspectives of the interconnectedness of all life (Rittel 1982; Naess
1989). Reflexivity was a method and a philosophical approach that enabled deeper
thinking about the purpose of life and the role of ethics in how we live and research.
This approach enabled my capacity to think into the interrelatedness of my life and
those of the young people, and the inter-relatedness of all people and all life.
What Were the Theories/Perspectives and Paradigms

Employed?
Each part of the thesis had key perspectives. Parts 1 and 2 assumed that there was a
reality to be discovered about empowering young people. In part 1, I saw ‘at riskness’
in young people as the problem to be better understood; I considered that there were
solutions to be developed from new understandings (empowerment). I used Rigby’s
(1974) theory of alienation to explore how and why people join alternative lifestyles
(what Rigby termed, ‘alternative realities’). This theoretical framework enabled a
distinction between those members of the cooperative who ‘were dropped out’ of
society (people to whom society did not provide access, due to lack of skills and
qualifications); and people who ‘opted out’ (people who have a choice and could
enter the dominant economic paradigm, but made a considered choice to join an
alternative lifestyle). It was influenced by sociological understandings about eco-
nomics and structures that prevent mobility, such as Marx (1977) and other scholars
who theorized from that tradition (e.g. Willis 1977; Connell 1982).
It was after I completed my interviews and analysis for Part 1 but by part 2 my
praxis and theoretical knowledge of interviewing, was influenced by new readings
on ethical perspectives and a researcher’s responsibilities to the subjects. These
influenced my ethical awareness and I became more aware of how research may
exploit people (Lincoln and Guba 1985: 3). I was drawn to feminist research which
critiqued ‘standard’ research as conducted in a ‘rape model’ where researchers take,
hit and run (Reinhartz 1979, p. 95) (with data). Feminists drew attention to
empowerment as a researcher’s responsibility, primarily to their participants, before
their responsibilities to their discipline (Lather 1988; Oakley 1981, p. 58). These
writers indicated the interview should not be a one-way process where the inter-
viewer elicits and receives data but should embody reciprocity and a deeper and
more respectful relationship. I was drawn to Rappaport et al. (1984) for another
view on empowerment and interconnectedness. My capacity to think more deeply
was developed through the application of theory. I applied these ethical perspec-
tives when I re-interviewed the young people. I believe this lead to new conver-
sations as the interviews embodied exchanges which led to new understandings and
new constructions of knowledge.
Through my reading I developed a deeper capacity to listen and identify socio-
logical, psychological and ethical factors that were latent in interviews but were
significant barriers to empowerment, including the impact of the psychological
injuries resulting from physical and sexual abuse, and how these interacted with the
inflexibility of the mainstream and further disempowered the young people.
Psychological perspectives brought me to the interface of the social and the psy-
chological, and theories/perspectives on ‘healing’ after abuse, such as Rose (1990), as
well as the need for associated structural changes including in schools (e.g. Wehlage
et al. 1989) to enable the at risk to continue in school. These new understandings
troubled me as they appeared to create a disjuncture with the findings from Part 1.
I was not fully able to conceptualise how in Part 2, theory and praxis combined
to enable a new knowing: a shift had taken place in me, that resulted in a shift in
knowledge construction. The perspective of the ‘problem’ of the young people had
shifted into a problematic system that failed young people.
Part 3 used reflexivity to study my constructions of knowledge. Reflexivity drew
me to consider how reciprocity and relationship with the young people resulted in
new feelings, emotions and resulting ethical reflection that influenced how I ‘knew’.
I drew on, for example, Cell (1984), Greenspan (1988) and Harre (1986) to
understand the impact of emotion on knowledge. I drew on deep ecology (Naess
1989) and understandings of greed and need (Yates 1986). This brought me back to
empowerment, and as McQuillan (2005) stated, ‘how can one become empowered
if others define both the terms of empowerment and whether this ideal is realized’.
Structure
The thesis had 3 distinct research parts:

Part 1: A study of young people in a worker cooperative and empowerment
Part 2: A study of why the cooperative failed and why the young people were still at
risk and largely unempowered; and.
Part 3: A reflexive study of how I constructed knowledge about the at risk in parts 1
and 2.
My conclusions from Part 1 were that the young people had caused the
co-operative’s demise. They had not been ‘empowered’ as the opt-outs (leaders)
382 M. O’Dowd
were reluctant to be overt about the skills the young people lacked; and the young
people took advantage of the co-operative, leading to its demise. Empowerment
was therefore about providing overt assistance and education. By the end of the Part
2 follow-up I found most of the young people were still not ‘empowered’. Some
had died, significant numbers had attempted suicide; a few were homeless, unable
to reside in supported accommodation due to their violence when drunk. From these
largely negative findings I could identify the complexity in empowerment and the
psychological and structural issues.
In Part 3, I reflected on influences in how I saw and understood ‘reality’ in Part 1
and Part 2. I reflected on how research is an experience of and in a body, that shifts
during the research. I reflected on the impact of intellectual experiences of new
ideas (and my thinking on this scholarship) and personal experiences (these
included hearing sad stories of abuse; knowing young people who suicided and
self-harmed; and seeing the lack of change, the ‘non-empowerment’). These
experiences included how emotions influenced: how I saw, what I saw, how I felt,
how I heard and what I heard as relevant and the knowledge I created. Experience,
ethical reflection and emotion had unconsciously shifted how and what I saw and
understood. I reflected on my ‘gut’ reactions (literally) when I heard a young person
had died; the tightening of muscles; the pain that travelled to my heart; and the tears
of grief, sadness and frustration at the injustice. I considered these as transforma-
tional in my thinking and in my capacity to think in new ways. This impacted on
the literature that I deemed relevant for consideration in the study and the literature I
rejected, throughout the process.
This was dangerous or risky thinking, particularly for an aspiring academic. It
was a self-reflection and reflexivity on the humanity of the researcher as deeply
implicated in the knowledge created. By pursuing these thoughts, the reflection and
reflexivity took me away from at risk young people to a broader systemic con-
sideration of risk. I came to consider a far less problematized group of
often-unnamed people of power and wealth who engaged in ‘at risk’ behaviour by
reinforcing social systems where they retain power and maintain an injurious lack
of resources to the poor. It was a group not often investigated and problematised as
‘at-risk’ by most social scientists. These were ‘at-risk’ people because they accu-
mulated excessive amounts of capital and goods, sometimes through actions that
pollute and damage the planet and people. I reflected on how powerful discourses
enabled the apportioning of ‘blame’ and ‘problem’ to the poor and often sexually
abused young people living on the streets, who stole for survival. I considered the
significant social problems caused by wealth; wealth as an aspiration, and the status
accorded to the wealthy as a significant social problem; and how the very defini-
tions (discourses) of ‘success’ enabled the young people I knew to be named as a
‘problem to be solved’. I entered into discourse: the taken-for-granted languaging
that shapes vision, reality, knowledge and blame. I thought into over-wealthy
peoples’ norms of consuming, that shape definitions of how to live, which result in
the ecological and social world’s mutilation. If the ‘rich’ were broadly perceived as
in need of empowering, in need of counselling and therapy- to recover from their ‘at
risk’ addiction to (the drugs of) wealth acquisition; if the rich were perceived as
needing ‘help’ to overcome their substance abuse of ever more material posses-
sions, then they too would need a ‘better education’ to be citizens in the world.
In summary, the thesis disrupted the clear categories of the scientific paradigm as
a linear undertaking: research question, what the study was about, the theory, the
method, the structure, the results, conclusions and references It indicated the role
circularity and the play of imagination in research. It highlighted that research and
knowledge construction in a thesis may be messy, complex and non-linear. It was a
study of the at risk which I finally realized ‘I and We’ embody. It indicated how a
study of self, and the researcher as self, is insightful in understanding ‘knowledge’
and knowledge claims and, perhaps, epistemology.
Contents page
Chapter 1 Introduction to the Study in three parts
Part 1 AN ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY OF THE AT RISK IN A WORKERS’
CO-OPERATIVE
Chapter 2 The Research Topic and Methodology
Chapter 3 Period 1: The Shop as a Community
Chapter 4 Periods II – IV: Conflict, Disarray and Decline of the Co-operative
Chapter 5 The Co-operative as an Alternative Reality
Chapter 6 Why the Co-operative Failed and Implications for Other Alternative Lifestyles
Part 2 EMPOWERMENT
Chapter 7 Developing a Concept of Empowerment
Chapter 8 The Research Methodology
Chapter 9 The Value of the Co-operative in the Context of Rejection
Chapter 10 Socialisation in the Sub-Culture of the At Risk
Chapter 11 Abuse and Socialisation
Chapter 12 Conclusions and Implications
Part 3 DEVELOPMENT AND A REFLEXIVE STUDY OF KNOWLEDGE
CONSTRUCTION
Chapter 13 Re-visioning the At Risk in the Co-operative and the Drug Culture
Chapter 14 Re-visioning the At Risk
Chapter 15 Emotions and Feelings as Experiences Impacting on Knowledge Construction
Chapter 16 Emotions and Ethics: Research Agendas and Knowledge Construction
Chapter 17 The Literature re-viewed Through Experience
Chapter 18 Conclusions and Implications for Thesis
Commentary
There will be time…

And time for all the works and days of hands
That … drop a question on your plate
(T.S. Eliot, Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock)
384 M. O’Dowd
Blythe (1994) described a chapter outlining my intended thesis (O’Dowd 1993)

as ‘an arresting candid reinterpretation’. Fielding (1996) considered what was
needed in understanding empowerment is ‘… a notion which is at once exploratory
and courageous in its disposition, communal and reflexive in its approach, historical
and concrete in its awareness, and democratic and transforming in its aspirations’.
My thesis was liberated by an approach that involved risk, speaking back and
redefining risk to name ‘risk creators’ where ethical considerations are diminished
or avoided. Risks grow in neo-liberal times and in neo-liberal universities where
speaking back to economic rationalisation by raising ethical issues may be punished
—as economic pragmatism is absorbed as an ethic. Risk and ethics are bound
together to enable new knowledges in research.
References
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Connell, B. (1982). Making the difference: Schools, families and social division. Australian,
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Contemporary Ethnography, 35(4), 419–428.
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Rowman, Altamira.
Fielding, M. (1996). Empowerment: Emancipation or enervation? Journal of Education Policy, 11
(3), 399–417.
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Mary O’Dowd’s thesis was a study of empowerment and the at risk. Her chapter is based on her
Ph.D. thesis. The chapter’s reflective analysis, on how taken-for-granted assumptions embedded in
socio-cultural discourses were disrupted by experience and emotion, was completed at Monash
University. This Ph.D. was supervised by John Hunt. The motivation for her study arose from her
prior community development work with homeless and marginalized young people (Indigenous
and non-Indigenous), where too many of these young people suicided or died in overdoses. Since
then, Mary has had an academic career in teaching and research on social/cultural/human rights
education in three universities. Her specialization is Settler-Colonialism and fostering critical
thinking on hegemony in non-Indigenous knowledges/beliefs, to improve professional practice for:
the non-Indigenous cultural interface with Indigenous peoples. She is currently a Cultural
Consultant and Researcher specializing in this area.
Part F
Conclusion
Chapter 39
Reflections on Methodological Issues
Michael Corbett and David Kember
Abstract The book contains an extensive set of chapters which explain why a
research student’s thesis has used a structure differing from the conventional one
developed to suit the scientific method. The researchers explain how their findings,
methodological approaches, paradigmatic leanings and the theories utilised guided
their alternative structures. A common characteristic is that none of the research
students use the scientific method, which is why the conventional structure was
unsuitable. In this chapter, we reflect on the scientific method to see why it is
unsuited to social science research (and indeed not adopted by much scientific
research) and the alternative directions which have been taken. We define the
scientific method as a linear positivist approach which proceeds from a well-defined
question or hypothesis, substantiated by a literature survey, which is then tested.
The problem with this positivist approach for the social sciences is that research in
these disciplines deals with complex ill-defined issues, which are often so messy
that research students find it difficult initially to formulate research questions. Their
research, therefore, takes the form of a voyage of discovery. Interpretive researchers
recognised the limitations of the scientific method and moved towards more nat-
uralistic forms of research. In the early stages, at least, this tended to imply
movement from quantitative to qualitative research. The chapters in the book
suggest that over time there has been a degree of shift in interpretive research
aiming to derive novel theory, grounded in the data, to interpret a limited case.
Many of the researchers in this collection interpret their results in terms of
well-established theories.
M. Corbett (&)
D. Kember

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_39
390 M. Corbett and D. Kember
Introduction
The final part of the book attempts the demanding task of trying to draw together
some common threads and conclusions from the preceding 38 chapters. This final
chapter draws out the lessons learnt about structuring theses in education and the
social sciences. It also considers some implications for practice.
The main rationale for producing a book about alternatives to the conventional
thesis structure was that it was unsuited to research projects in education, which for
the most part eschewed the scientific method. What we mean here by the ‘scientific
method’ is the linear and essentially positivist approach to knowledge production that
assumes either a deductive or inductive cast. Most ‘methods’ texts for social science
research present what is essentially a recipe for inquiry that proceeds either from a
question to a specific hypothesis, typically based on established research evidence,
which is then subject to some sort of test. These test are typically quantitative in form
and in the way it operationalizes variables and understands the character of appro-
priate data. The central problems in this type of social science are effectively the same
as those in the natural sciences, and relate to reliability and validity.
For inductive analysis, the idea-type structure flips, things in the sense that
questions emerge organically from the typically qualitative research engagement
itself and the research process formulae provided by research texts typically advise
the neophyte about how to collect data in a way that is non-obtrusive and to analyze it
in a way that shares or attempts to mimic the analytic rigour of quantitative research.
Rather than driving the research and shaping questions and hypotheses, the goal of
inductive social analysis is to produce theory in some kind organic or ‘grounded’
fashion (Glazer and Strauss 1967). Like quantitative social research, the central goal
here is to produce results which mirror or reflect social reality, in a way that follows
from the phenomenological (Schutz 1967), hermeneutic (Gadamer 1975) pragmatist
(Dewey, cf Kadlec 2007) and symbolic interactionist traditions (Blumer 1986; Mead
1967) accounting for the particularities of situations and micro-geographies while at
the same time attending to the legitimate agency of ordinary social actors to build
society rather than be built by it (Wrong 1961; Mills 1958).
While simplistic notions of the linearity of what we might call the scientific
method have long been subject to critique in the natural and physical sciences
(Kuhn 1962; Watson 1969), and in the social sciences as well (Mills 1958; Giddens
1976), the residue of this reductionist and formulaic way of thinking about how to
do educational research has lingered. To a certain extent, the scientific and
social-scientific establishment has created the illusion that this enterprise is linear,
cumulative, generalizable leading to rational and even logical prescriptions for
dealing with educational problems. Calls in the United States, for instance, to focus
upon and only fund ‘education science’, which have had the effect of marginalizing
qualitative (Lather 2004; Lincoln and Denzin 2017) and other forms of research that
do not lead to positive(ist) conclusions about pragmatic questions such as how to
teach reading, for instance. In part, we think this may also be because of the way
that educational research has been, at least in the Anglophone societies
39 Reflections on Methodological Issues 391
(Biesta 2015), aligned closely with the pragmatic and immediate problems of
educational practice and system functioning. Education bureaucrats, system
administrators and indeed, teachers themselves are intensely interested in finding
out ‘what works’ and which sorts of ‘best practice’ are supported by data and the
research evidence.
What is missing here, and what we find education higher degree students strug-
gling with in their research journeys, is that they straddle the messy worlds of practice
and the academy and as a consequence, they typically want to solve problems that
they encounter in their practice. What is more, they very often enter the academy with
the belief that the application of the particular magic of the scientific method as they
understand it will support the provision of authoritative and generic solutions. This is
how things tend to be presented to them as educational practitioners when experts
arrive with in-service training about ‘what the research says’ and what it means to
them as practitioners. This approach tends to mirror how research is presented in the
popular media, for example, in the way that medical research results are presented as
though large problems are ‘solved’ once and for all. While HDR students may enter
into their research journeys with a certain amount of skepticism about the effec-
tiveness of the research gurus’ magic and visions of ‘what works’, the idea that there
is (and should be) a form of linear scientific procedure that will uncover ultimate
truths about education remains a powerful symbolic force. Students also want to ‘get
it right’ and conduct their research in a way that will give it legitimacy and power.
Thus, methods are important in and for their own sake.
Of course, what students encounter very early on is the problem of justifying
methods and relating their use to the theoretical lenses they bring to the problem.
Indeed, the challenge faced by HDR supervisors is to help students understand that
the very problems they initially pose as they enter the research process reflect a
particular orientation to the world, particular biases and assumptions: in other
words, theory. Coming to know that all social practice and all research is funda-
mentally theoretical puts to rest the idea that there could be an innocent and
transparent set of generic methods that will simply produce atheoretical knowledge
about best practice, what works, or how to teach a particular subject. Indeed, their
often new-found knowledge of the messiness and complexity of educational
practice comes to be foregrounded in the process as a foundation or thinking about
an education problem, rather than something to be sidelined in favour of the
adoption of a truth-generation procedure that can be applied to any situation. Thus,
the problem of methodology arises and it poses challenges that can never be entirely
understood by any set of textbook procedures.
This text demonstrates, we think, how the struggle with coming to terms with
theory and method together (i.e. methodology), getting to grips with the nature or
the problem to be researched, and creating a way of structuring the analysis and the
writing, are all very much improvisational activities (Corbett et al. 2016; Green and
Hopwood 2015; Law 2004). This is also a struggle that very often involves identity
transformations as the HDR student in education makes the transition (at least
temporarily) from practitioner or administrator in an educational system (practices
that can be understood as improvisation [Green and Hopwood 2015]), to a
researcher asking questions about systems and practice. The often conservative, and
even defensive, posture of public servants and system employees is often at odds
with the inquisitive and critical posture expected in social science research. So the
methodological challenge posed by the research act also appears as a challenge to
deeply established identities, commitments, histories, fields and practices. In
addition to developing research skills, the task is also to think theoretically about
issues and processes that may have been taken for granted and/or previously
understood primarily as technical matters.
What often transpires is difficult, yet innovative and creative work that can only
be accomplished by people who have deep personal, experiential, insiders’
knowledge of life in educational institutions. This deep experience often frames and
forms the particular kind of analysis that emerges from the interaction of, for
instance, a teacher or principal’s professional identity and the challenges of criti-
cally coming to grips with theory and method. We find in these chapters that this
interface creates difficulties and particularities that essentially require a different
way of working, a unique methodology, and typically, a way of structuring the
thesis that is novel. Arguing for alternative structures has, therefore, meant justi-
fying them in terms of the wide range of methodologies which are adopted in the
social sciences. This, in turn, has meant that the book has presented a diverse set of
examples utilizing a wide range of methodologies and drawing upon an even
greater array of theories. As a result, the book has, incidentally, also become
something of a methodological showcase. The purpose of this penultimate chapter
is to examine some of the emerging methodological threads which span the book.
The Scientific Method
The starting premise for the book was the observation that many HDR projects did
not use the scientific method, but still felt bound by the convention that the thesis
structure, derived to suit the scientific method, was meant to be used. This
mis-match between method and thesis structure seemed to cause so many problems
that the issue seemed worthy of detailed investigation.
As the use or non-use of the scientific method is central to the book, this
methodological chapter will feature a discussion of the scientific method. You
might feel that as both chapter authors are Professors of Education we are not well
qualified for such a discussion. However, David’s Ph.D. is in physical chemistry.
He, in a sense, drifted into education. As a very experienced supervisor, David’s
central preoccupation is in understanding better how HDR students actually work
with their data and structure their thesis projects. Michael’s path led from a 19-year
career as a public school teacher, principal and education consultant. He, in a
different sense, also drifted into the academy. Mike’s interest gravitates toward
understanding how beginning researchers come to theory and method, and how
identities transform as they make their way through the HDR journey.
For the purposes of this chapter, the important characteristic of the scientific
method is the definition of the project by precise tightly-worded hypotheses.
The hypothesis is formulated after conducting a thorough literature review; which is

why the conventional thesis structure has Chapter 2 as a comprehensive literature
review. The hypothesis is meant to produce new knowledge through some form of
testing, typically in the form of an experiment or an inferential statistical treatment
of quantitative data.
The number of hypotheses are normally limited; often to only one. The number of
variables specified in the hypotheses are also normally limited. A good illustration of
this aspect of the scientific method is the secondary school physics treatment of
gases. The properties of gases are specified by just three variables; pressure, volume
and temperature; and an equation relates the three together. To satisfy the positivist
aim of universal generalisability, this equation is designated as the ‘ideal’ gas
equation. Real gases may deviate somewhat from the ideal, but the approximation
serves to provide a simple generalisable model. Such an approach is rarely seen in
educational research, and yet, the dream of an ‘education science’ that produces
valid and reliable analysis that can be used to structure systems and to orient practice
within it remains central in public discourse, in professional literatures concerning
best and/or evidence-informed practices, and in the desires of state authorities to
know how most effectively to spend taxpayers’ dollars on educational effort.
Scarcity of Experimental Design Studies in Education
Before going on to discuss why the scientific method is unsuited to research in the
social sciences, it is first necessary to briefly discuss the claim that little social
science research does follow the scientific method. None of the theses reported in
this book did, but we were looking for theses which did not follow the conventional
structure based on the scientific method.
David did a brief survey of the degree to which educational research followed
experimental methods when he was the Coordinator of the Action Learning Project.
Several of the project teams we supported were told by their faculty research
committees that they needed to use a control group (for an action research project!).
As a result, he wrote an article (Kember 2003) arguing that experimental designs
were inappropriate for scholarship of teaching studies, which introduced innova-
tions into teaching in higher education. Part of the article looked at the prevalence
of experimental designs in educational research. It is possible to use the scientific
method without experimentation, but the findings of the survey conducted do give a
reasonable insight into the degree to which the scientific method influences edu-
cational research.
For the survey, the three most recent issues (at the time the article was written) of
four of the better quality higher education journals were examined. As somewhat
different approaches to research have tended to develop in the US and elsewhere,
two journals were from the US and two were European. Of the 65 articles, just one
had any sort of experimental design and that was a comparison between two
different instructional treatments.
The same process was followed with four of the highest rated educational
psychology journals, again split evenly between US and European journals. This
time the three most recent issues had a mean, across the four journals, of 20.3% of
articles with some sort of experimental design. Educational psychology is surely the
educational discipline most closely associated with experimental designs, and yet
the large majority of work published in its journals did not use an experimental
design.
The guidelines to authors for all eight journals examined were quite open in the
type of work or research methodology acceptable to the journal. None had any
guidelines which directly or indirectly would have encouraged or discouraged
experimental designs. If researchers producing articles in high-class educational
journals mostly choose not to use experimental designs, even in educational psy-
chology, it is hard to believe that the scientific method has much influence on
educational research. The same conclusion is likely to be tenable for most of the
social sciences, apart, perhaps, for psychology.
Does Science Follow the Scientific Method?
Before considering why little social science research adheres to the scientific
method, we will first look at the extent to which scientific research does. To address
the question posed in the heading we will address three outstanding pieces of
scientific research all of which are very well known; the discovery of penicillin, the
unravelling of the structure of DNA, and Einstein’s formulation of the theory of
relativity. None of these followed a process of formulating a hypothesis and testing
it. Instead all had a strong element of discovery to them; they were more inductive
than deductive. The ‘discovery’ of penicillin came from observations of an acci-
dental process in a petri dish. The ‘discovery’ of the structure of DNA is more like
an intriguing detective story than a classic application of the scientific method
(Watson 1969). How Einstein came up with the theory of relativity is hard to
fathom, but it certainly was not by following the scientific method.
There is indeed scientific research that follows the scientific method. It tends to
be characterized by small advances on what is already known; certainly not Nobel
prize-winning research. We think the same can be said of educational research.
Classic experimental and quasi-experimental work in education has yielded
important results, but this work has been subject to significant critique as well. For
instance, Piaget’s experimental work with small numbers of Swiss children (in-
cluding his own) was considered for many years to represent a definitive account of
cognitive development, which could, and should, be translated into developmen-
tally appropriate pedagogical guidance for teachers of children at different stages of
their school careers. While the general idea that children’s intellectual development
is central to pedagogy and curriculum, Piaget’s influential findings have been
challenged by subsequent experimental work as well as by alternative research
frameworks such as those developed in other schools to thought in educational
psychology and by educational researchers who found much more nuanced and
contextually inflected developmental paces and trajectories amongst diverse chil-
dren (Gray and MacBlain 2012; Egan 2002). Since childhood and learning are
experienced within different cultural locations and conditions, development is not a
simple cognitive function; in other words, the linear, generic, individualistic and
psychologised approach to cognition was found wanting or at least incomplete.
Another way to make this latter point is to return to the distinction between
deductive and inductive reasoning. The scientific method, as we present it here,
generally follows the path of deductively pursuing knowledge through hypothesis
testing which is rare in educational research at least in Faculties of Education today.
It is actually inductive research that develops hypotheses and theory in and through
an analysis of practice that is normal. But it is also problematic to imagine a strict
deductive-inductive binary. A good way to categorise any research is in terms of a
spectrum between deductive and inductive poles. The scientific method sits at the
deductive pole. A lot of scientific research, and most of the better quality research,
has an element of discovery and emergence, so this process may shift the research
process somewhere further along the spectrum, or indeed off this spectrum all
together toward multiplistic (Deleuze and Guattari 1987), fundamentally ‘messy’
(Law 2004), and/or anarchistic (Feyerabend 2010) forms of inquiry.
A Process of Discovery
We have established that little social science research uses the scientific method and
not all scientific research does either. It is now time to look at two reasons why
education and social science research tend to eschew the scientific method.
The first reason follows from the previous section. The scientific method is not
suited to research which adopts a process of discovery. In terms of the spectrum
between deductive and inductive poles, it is more suited to research near the
deductive end of the spectrum. The kinds of problems that this approach both
imagines and pretty much demands, are those which are relatively sealed-off from
the complexity of actual practice. Indeed, the whole point of research framed within
this methodology is to produce positive knowledge by controlling the potential for
intervening, or confounding influences to contaminate the purity of the experiment
itself. Such analysis must be conducted not in natural settings but under strictly
controlled conditions. Such conditions are impossible to manufacture in education
and when findings from controlled experiments are evaluated against the com-
plexity of actual educational practice, they often get things wrong, as was the case
with Piaget for instance (Egan 2002).
Most research students in education start their research degree after a period of
time working in the teaching profession. They become sufficiently concerned or
intrigued by some aspect of their professional practice that they want to investigate
it in depth. They want help and supervision to perform the investigation; and so
they enroll for a research degree. Chapter 11 used the stone in one’s shoe as a
metaphor for the phenomenon. Not only do most educational researchers want to
understand better the complexity of the contexts in which they work, they also want
to develop analyses that are useful to people working in the complexity of the field
as well. Quite often, as is the case particularly in the Action Research tradition, the
point may well be to improve one’s own practice by subjecting it to critical scrutiny
and some kind of public engagement with a collegial audience (Stenhouse 1975).
In our experience as supervisors, practitioners felt it necessary to investigate
their identified problem through a research degree because there was no
well-established solution available, or at least not one which seemed suited to their
context. Their project, therefore, had to be a voyage of discovery. At the same time,
it is also evident in these chapters how this work is engaged in educational practice
rather than separated from it, as is the case in more standard representations of the
scientific method. There is no attempt to develop what Donna Haraway (1988)
termed a ‘God’s eye view’, predicated on detachment from the messiness of
practice. Also following Haraway, there is instead a recognition in contemporary
education research, like the work we have included here, that multiple perspectives
on educational phenomena will provide a better sense of the inevitable complexity
and even ‘wickedness’ (Rittel and Webber 1973) of the crucial and consequential
educational problem that really matter today. Indeed, the situated or ‘standpoint’
(Harding 2004; Smith 1987) nature of research highlighted by Haraway and other
feminist social researchers serves to illustrate how methodology itself is influenced
by changing sociopolitical understandings. The same can be said of the contribu-
tions of indigenous and Africentric scholars to both understandings of power,
colonialism and established Eurocentric ways of generating knowledge (Dei and
Kempf 2014; Battiste 2013; Smith 1999).
One key part of this messiness is that research is social practice and cannot be
divorced from it (Giddens 1976). A similar rationale exists for other professional
disciplines in the social sciences.
Ill-Defined Problems
The other reason the scientific method is rarely used in the social sciences relates to
the characteristics of the scientific method discussed above. In particular, it is
because of the tendency for the scientific method to attempt to specify a limited
number of hypotheses or research questions as precisely as possible. This process
tends to simplify the nature of the issue or problem to be researched. It is an attempt
to make the problem as well-defined as it is possible to be and still be compatible
with researching new knowledge.
This section of the chapter will be illustrated with quotations from The hitch-
hikers guide to the galaxy, the well-known first book in the five-part trilogy by
Douglas Adams (1979). The first quotation indicates that research questions do not
have to be precisely defined:
‘O Deep Thought Computer’, he said, ‘the task we have designed you to perform is this.
We want you to tell us …’ he paused, … the Answer!’
‘The Answer?’ said Deep Thought. ‘The answer to what?’
‘Life!’ urged Fook.
‘The universe!’ said Lunkwill.
‘Everything!’ they said in chorus. (p. 128)
It cannot be claimed that all social science research deals with problems as
significant as ‘life, the universe and everything’. However, social science research
certainly does not deal with problems that are well-defined. Instead it deals with
problems which can be described as ill-defined, political, contested, messy or even
wicked as we point out above. The promise of big data, learning computers, and the
Stephen Hawking’s dire warnings about artificial intelligence (Kharpal 2017)
notwithstanding, metaphors like God’s eye or an all-knowing computer are today
understood to be farcical, and yet there is a strong public demand for allegedly
transparent knowledge that is transferrable to ‘end users’. This sets up tensions
concerning the partial and perspectival nature of social research and the desire for
simple, scientific authoritative and even final solutions. Researchers would certainly
not be satisfied with over-simplified solutions:
There was a moment’s expectant pause while panels slowly came to life on the front of the
console. Lights flashed on and off experimentally and settled down into a businesslike
pattern. A soft low hum came from the communication channel.
‘Now’ said Deep Thought.
‘Alright’, said Deep Thought the answer to the great question. … ‘Forty-two’ said Deep
Thought with infinite majesty and calm. (pp. 134–135)
In researching the social sciences, the issues or problems tackled are commonly
so complex that it is often very difficult to even define what the problem is.
The early stages of research degrees are often spent in intense discussion of the
topic the student brings to the table, in an attempt to distil out what it is that really
needs to be researched:
‘I checked it very thoroughly’ said the computer, and that quite definitely is the answer.
I think the problem to be quite honest with you, is that you’ve never actually known what
the question is.’ (p. 136)
And of course, Adams’ tongue-in-cheek writing expresses nicely the nature of

one of the core problems for social science research today, which is the clear
definition of problems and a recognition that research is fundamentally about
important question that are not technical and that can never be fully answered. If the
questions we want to research really can be answered with a single number, as
research on IQ and some reporting of standardized testing results would suggest,
most contemporary education researchers would see this as problematic. And yet,
when international testing results are released (for example the Programme for
International Student Assessment—PISA), the performance of entire countries is
boiled down to a single number for comparative purposes. Whether or not the
people who design and administer this massive international research project are
happy with what is done with their work, there is no doubt that this sort of research
(and what is done with it) ends up supporting positivistic and scientistic notions
about what education is, and how it should be understood and assessed. Indeed,
much HDR research in education is an attempt by ordinary system participants to
speak back to these macro framings of educational quality. And it is precisely this
simplification and distortion of the complexity and nonlinearity of education as it is
practiced and experienced that most educational researchers want to trouble because
they are often grounded in the micro-geographies that are misrepresented and
misunderstood by these macro perspectives and the placeless, acontextual authority
they evoke.
Interpretive Research
While there have been ontological and epistemological debates in the social sci-
ences and in philosophy dating back at least to the middle of the 19th century, the
social sciences started to move away from an hegemonic preoccupation with sci-
entific method during the paradigms wars that began in earnest in the 1960s in
sociology and anthropology, and in the 1970s and 80s in the field of educational
research. Naturalistic or interpretive researchers recognised that the scientific
method was largely inappropriate for dealing with social problems, and that, when
it was applied to them, the results were not particularly useful or even insightful.
A similar problem arises today as ‘big data’ is positioned as a new way to positive
(istically) answer large social questions and enter the fraught ‘Minority Report’
space of predicting future events (Levin 2018; Moses and Chan 2016)
We have discussed above some difficulties with experimental methods in edu-
cation. Likewise, while quantitative sociologists could provided large-scale areal
views of specific problems or tendencies in educational systems (for instance, the
persistent and powerful link between parental income/education and childrens’
educational outcomes [Coleman 1966; Jencks 1972]), quantitative sociologists
offered little to researchers who wanted to understand how macro-processes unfold,
let alone to education practitioners wondering what to do to make things better in
schools and communities. Even when the analysis was particularly acute or when
quantitative and qualitative methods were combined in highly sophisticated, theo-
retically informed critical studies that featured real people operating in structural
boxes (Bourdieu 1984; MacLeod 1987; Weis 1990; Willis 1981), the results were
unsatisfying to researchers and practitioners who wanted to make a difference. This
led to dissatisfaction with empiricism in educational research (what C Wright Mills
[1958] called ‘abstracted empiricism’) in which it was difficult to see any real
people making decisions in their actual lives.
In the United States particularly, but also in Australia and in the UK, this
dissatisfaction led to both more politicised and critical research (Apple 1979;
Giroux 1983; Young 1971; Connell 1993), but also, to work that employed
qualitative and anthropological methods to investigate the complexity and nuance

of social life informed theoretically by the phenomenological, pragmatist and
symbolic interactionist traditions discussed here in Chapter 17. Like the researchers
in the Chicago School of the early decades of the 20th century who explored the
complexity of urbanization and industrial transformations in the United States, early
naturalistic educational researchers also believed that the social issues they wish to
research could not be reduced to the well-defined hypotheses traditional to the
scientific research method.
Interpretive researchers believe that any worthwhile issue involving human
being was necessarily complex and ill-defined. It had many interrelated aspects, or
in scientific terms, multiple variables. A good example of early interpretive research
was the study of ordinary and extraordinary classrooms by educational researchers,
which continues to this day, in an effort not to understand the generic ‘classroom’,
but rather to understand how the multiple spaces that come under the rubric of this
concept are enacted in different contexts. Classrooms cannot be reduced to either a
spatial singularity or to a single well-defined issue. Rather, classroom life can be
examined through multitudes of different lenses. These early naturalistic researchers
moved towards rich thick description of single classrooms as case studies which,
taken as a body of work or a ‘literature’, demonstrate both the structural similarities
and an apparently infinite variety of difference represented in schools.
This approach and these literatures prove more inspiring and generative for most
educational researchers today whose central mission typically includes a sense of
reciprocity with research participants as an ethical stance, if not a personal
investment in the improvement of practice. Indeed, in some forms of educational
research in the action research tradition, intentional, reflective professional practice
is at the very centre of the research act. Importantly, the naturalistic approach which
was inspired by qualitative researchers who may not themselves have held strong
ethical principles with respect to reciprocal research practice, foreshadowed con-
temporary concerns about the relationship between the researcher and the resear-
ched which are inevitable when the hegemony of the distancing practices of the
scientific method come to be replaced by the humanism that ultimately charac-
terised most naturalistic qualitative inquiry as well as the more ecologically attuned
posthumanism that has arisen in the last decade.
Qualitative Versus Quantitative Research
The movement towards naturalistic research in the 1960s and 1970s can also be
characterised as a movement from quantitative to qualitative research. The pre-
vailing statistical methods commonly available at the time were not well suited to
ill-defined problems. Most of the statistical methods in use at the time, and indeed
most taught in statistics courses today, were developed for experimental designs.
For a control experiment design, statistics like t-tests are used to compare
measurements from the experiment and control to see if they are different to a
statistically significant extent. Extending to a biological plot design, variations of

ANOVA are used to test for significant differences across the plots. These tests
were then applied to groupings within social science data. A characteristic of these
tests is that they compare measurements for a single variable in two or more
groupings. The available statistics were, therefore, single-variable statistics which
compared values of the single variable in a limited number of groups. Applying
such statistics to complex ill-defined multivariate issues inevitably meant simpli-
fying (or oversimplifying) the problem under study.
The early naturalistic researchers preferred to use qualitative methods because
with these they could embrace the complexity of the issues they were researching.
Many of their projects were rich case studies that were investigations of situations
that ranged from individuals navigating particular problems in their lives, to student
cliques, to classrooms, to schools, to communities, and in recent years, to com-
parative multi-site qualitative analyses. They abandoned the generalisation of
positivist research in favour of rich thick description of single sites or careful and
nuanced comparisons of linked situations. While some of the methodological
approaches chosen by educational and social researchers working in these traditions
sought to distil commonalities and develop more general ‘middle range’ theory
(Merton 1968), other variants sought to theorize difference, attending to how each
situation remains unique, emergent and generative (Clarke 2005; Semetsky 2006).
Early naturalistic researchers tended not to offer broad generalisations, but
subsequent theorists have suggested that generalisation is possible from qualitative
research. For instance, Eisner (1991, Chapter 9) argues persuasively that general-
isation from qualitative analysis, even single case studies, can take place through
processes other than the formal inference of statistics. His argument is that in real
life we use the processes of attribute analysis and pattern matching to draw con-
clusions from our experiences. Attribute analysis utilises characteristics of an object
or phenomenon to identify it as a member of a class we have previously experi-
enced. Pattern matching draws upon the relationship between parts of an image or
phenomenon. If these appear to have a similar formation to one we have experi-
enced before, we might conclude that it has similar properties. In both cases we
commonly draw conclusions based on partial evidence.
In daily life we draw on these processes to make deductions related to our
previous experiences. The now classic corpus of work by the ethnomethodologists
(Cicourel 1967; Garfinkle 1967; Smith 1987) and the dramaturgy of Erving
Goffman (1959) and his followers have also developed rich ‘ground-up’ forms of
inductive theorization relating to key social processes and responses to common
material and linguistic contexts. Eisner argues that similar principles can be used to
make useable generalisations from qualitative data and indeed work like Goffman’s
(1959) Presentation of the Self in Everyday Life, C Wright Mills’ (1958)
Sociological Imagination, or Peter Berger’s (1963) Invitation to Sociology are
compelling theoretical narratives that offer useful advice to ordinary social actors
about how sociology can be helpful in improvising and composing a life, as
Bateson (2001) puts it. The conclusions may be more tentative than those derived
from formal inference, but quantitative studies often exaggerate the extent to which
they have followed the processes of formal inference.
Additionally, educational researchers tend to be people who work in education
themselves and so they are more deeply invested in the politics and pragmatics of
education as a practice and as the subject of educational research itself. There is
something a bit tribal about educational research from the point of view of outsiders
who look at it through exclusively disciplinary lenses, and we have seen how
problematic this can be for discipline-based academics examining promotion dos-
siers of education scholars in university committees. Is this scholarship or advo-
cacy? This is a question that is often asked around these tables, and it is a good
question. The point is that for education research to matter to those who work in the
field of education scholarship, is expected to be entwined with advocacy. This
pragmatic expectation of ‘end users’ and the corollary desire or educational
researchers to be relevant to practitioners presents both problems and opportunities.
What this also signals is that the neutrality and objectivity that is demanded in
ordinary science proves problematic in much educational research.
We do not wish to present a binary view, however, which separates qualitative,
situations, naturalistic educational research and positivistically aligned quantitative,
big data research. It might be noted that statistical methods have been developed
more recently which can properly deal with ill-defined issues. A good example, in
this book, is found in Chapter 10 that uses structural equation modelling to examine
some of the complexity of aboriginal education. Several of the chapters also operate
using multiple forms of data and methods that are ‘mixed’ in a variety of ways. The
use of descriptive statistical data is also very common in all forms of educational
research.
Has the Interpretation of Interpretive Research Changed?
Interpretive research started out very much as open exploration. The early natu-
ralistic researchers explored issues which those following the scientific method had
avoided. They were using new methods. This transformation stimulated and
informed a movement away from the linearity and hegemony of positivistically-
informed methods in the social sciences. We would argue that this movement has
also opened the ground for new forms of social inquiry into the nuances of both the
broad sociological categories established in empirical work relating to the structural
reproduction of social inequality (i.e. social class, race and ethnicity, sex and
gender, neighbourhood and region, etc.). These studies followed phenomenological
and pragmatist calls to attend to the nuances of agency and situation as well as to
the critical theorists’ insistence that not all social actors have equal opportunity to
achieve their aspirations. This tradition in social analysis is represented in the
interpretive section of this collection, but it must be said that much of this work has
been influenced by more contemporary developments in emergent social theory and
critical educational inquiry.
Later work has called into question the way that structural categories themselves
serve as linguistic-discursive devices that ironically reinforce the very structures of
domination that they describe. Thus, the deconstructive, postmodern and post-
structural critique has challenged positivistically-inspired as well as interpretive
forms of social and educational analysis. This movement described broadly as the
‘linguistic turn’ has subsequently been subject to critique from various quarters for
its failure to attend to the lingering consequences of structured inequality (Jameson
1991), a failure to take into consideration spatial inequality (Lefebvre 1992;
Middleton 2017; Soja 2010) and considerations of place (Cervone 2017; Tuck and
MacKenzie 2015), as well as by new emerging theorizations that turn away from
exclusively linguistic analysis toward a serious consideration of material reality
(Bradiotti 2013; Barad 2007; Latour 2007). This is work taken up in different ways
by the authors who have contributed to the emerging theory section in this
collection.
With their grounded theory Glaser and Strauss (1967) argued that theory could
be derived from the observations or data gathered. This early interpretation of
grounded theory posited that theory derived from the data was new theory. This
theoretical contribution has been, and continues to be, robust and influential in the
work in this collection, which we think reflects that of HDR students beyond the
small sample of dissertation stories we sample here. As students come to understand
that their initial assumptions about research, and how to do it, are challenged, many
find a kind of comfort in the idea that theory can be generated from the data they
‘discover’ naturalistically in the lifeworlds of ordinary social actors. For researchers
who have strong links into fields of practice, a grounded approach appears to
liberate voices not often heard, such as those of teachers, students and parents in
particular. Grounded theory provides an opportunity and a clear methodology to
advance the work of the liberal social sciences inspired by the phenomenological,
hermeneutic, pragmatist and symbolic integrationist traditions.
Many of the chapters in this book suggest that the interpretation of grounded
theory and interpretive research has shifted somewhat over time. Rather than
developing novel theory from the data, we find researchers interpreting their data in
terms of well-established theory. Indeed, in some cases one wonders whether the
chosen theory was not in mind from the outset. In other words, is this akin to theory
looking for a problem to be attached to it? This represents, we think, not so much a
contamination of the purity of grounded theory, but rather the convergence of
different theoretical and methodological traditions in the social sciences and a
problematisation of the idea that data can innocently generate theory, or conversely
that theory can innocently generate data. The idea of the innocent or neutral
observer introduced in positivist theory has been challenged opening up the rela-
tivist idea that all perspectives are located within their particular contexts. So
knowledge itself has come to be understood as multiple and mutable, a point which
has been made by feminist (Haraway 1987; Harding 1987; Smith 1987) and critical
race theorists (Dixon and Rousseau 2005; Ladson-Billings 1998; Tate 1997), and
indigenous scholars working in different national contexts (Battiste and Henderson
2000; Cajete 2003; Smith 1999; Vass 2014), among others. Indeed, this turn also
represents the deeper questions concerning ontology and epistemology and the
suggestion presented by poststructural theory and the various arising deconstruc-
tive, ecological and non-western ontologies and epistemologies (Henderson et al.
2017; Smith 1999; Snaza and Weaver 2014), critical-realist (Archer 2001; Collier
1994; Scott 2010), and materialist theories (Barad 2007; Fenwick et al. 2011) that
have arisen in recent years suggests that epistemological emphases are themselves
complicated by a return to the material as well as by emerging intersectional
complexities that defy singular categorization.
What we believe all of this means is that the idea that social research and
educational inquiry can proceed as though from a position of neutrality and a kind
of blank slate has been thoroughly problematized. At the same time though the idea
of grounding research and analysis in data remains attractive and central to how
many HDR students think about making sense of their material. As we see in many
of the pieces in the interpretive and emergent theory sections particularly, theory is
foundational in the way that these scholars go about organising their analytic cat-
egories from the very start of the analysis. Thus, theory is used more or less
deliberately and consciously as a guiding focus; it both precedes analysis and at the
same time transacts with the data produced in the research act. Finally, the problem
of the relationship between advocacy, practice, and system improvement remain
central to the research in this book.
Empiricism
A final question we wonder about concerns whether there been a decline in

empiricism as evidenced by the work we find across the four sections. Is it the case
that educationally focused social science research has moved beyond the idea that
researchers begin with hypotheses, subject them to some kind of test, and report the
results through a more or less standardized format? Without getting into the nature
of empiricism or how it relates to other post-positivist epistemological positions on
doing social research (Phillips et al. 2000), we find that much of the research across
this text retains an empiricist bent. Most of the pieces in the post-positivist section,
which are mixed-methods studies, make specific empirical claims. The work in the
action research section of the book also works empirically for the most part taking a
problem of practice and attempting to work out a better way of doing things in
quotidian practice based on the evidence gathered.
While it is more difficult to categorise the disparate pieces in the interpretive and
emerging theory sections, there is still what we might describe as a continued focus
on using theory to orient an inquiry and to give shape to the questions raised. If
grounded theory has had a lingering residue in much educational research, we think
so too has the empiricist and even positivist tradition—perhaps ironically, in those
research approaches which are most explicitly theoretical and which use novel
concepts and methodologies to explore new ground. While they clearly depart from
the linearity of more traditional and standardized approaches, they still effectively
derive hypotheses (or at least working hunches) about how the world is through a
deep engagement with social, psychological, spatial, economic, organizational, and
other bodies of theory. Each takes this theory into the social world and engages with
some form of data to make an argument. Few, if any, of these pieces operate for
instance, from a rationalist epistemology that privileges reasoning on the basis of
theory as a foundation for claims made. Thus, while theory is more or less central to
these various pieces, we find little exclusive ideological commitment to particular
epistemological agendas. Most of the pieces herein do actually test something using
what are, for the most part, social science research tools such as interviews, focus
groups, elicitation strategies, visual methods, arts-based inquiry practices, autobi-
ographical methods, documentary analysis and historical methods, all of which are
more or less established ways of working in the social sciences.
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education.
Chapter 40
Lessons Learnt About Structuring
the Thesis and Implications for Practice
David Kember
Abstract This chapter draws out some of the lessons which have been learnt about
structuring the thesis by analysing and synthesising across all the example chapters
in the book. As social science research normally adopts an inductive approach to
deal with a complex ill-defined issue, the conventional thesis structure has been
shown to be generally inappropriate. Many of the research students reported that
their inductive research took the form of a journey of discovery, which was often
accompanied by a personal transformation of research perspective. It seemed
important to include accounts of these voyages in the thesis; and the chronological
timeline often helped to frame the structure. Plans of the structure often germinated
at the time strategies were developed for tackling the analysis. Organisation around
main emerging themes was a common strategy. The traditional comprehensive
literature review as Chapter 2 was regarded as inappropriate for inductive research,
which explored an ill-defined topic. There was a need for a relatively short initial
literature review to frame the study. The bulk of the literature was then dispersed
through the thesis, as findings were presented in an organised framework and
compared to the literature. As the alternative structures were adopted, it was con-
sidered important to detail the structure of the thesis and provide an explanation for
its form.
Introduction
In this chapter I try to draw out implications from the book for: research students
writing a thesis; supervisors advising their students during the writing process; and,
to a lesser extent, for supervisor training, and for confirmation of candidature
committees. The chapter also draws upon my experiences as a supervisor during the
journeys which led to the book and during the development of the book.
D. Kember (&)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_40
410 D. Kember
For research students, the chapter aims to help them draw upon the broad
findings and translate them into lessons to guide the writing of their own thesis. As
part of this exercise, the examples can be used to stimulate ideas.
For supervisors, the initial aim is to convince them that helping their students to
find an appropriate structure for their thesis should be an integral part of the
supervisory role. My own experience is that being proactive and insisting that a
plan for the thesis structure is devised saves a lot of time for both supervisor and
student as it considerably reduces re-writing, re-ordering and re-vamping. It also
results in a better end product.
There are also some implications for the university committees which oversee
higher degrees by research; and for the faculty level bodies, such as confirmation of
candidature committees. They need to ensure that their regulations and guidelines
are compatible with the good practice suggestions here. This can be an issue as
guidelines have often been drawn up based on the scientific method.
Lessons Learnt About Thesis Structuring
The chapter is also the place to try to draw out some overall conclusions about
structuring the thesis. This is an exercise in analysis as it requires looking across the
32 example chapters and drawing on the four framing chapters to determine broad
themes and common issues. It is also an attempt at synthesis as it tries to bring
together issues from the four methodological parts together with the 32 reported
structures into lessons which future research students can draw upon in structuring
their own thesis.
This proved to be a demanding task as there is a great deal of diversity within the
32 example chapters. There is considerable diversity of method, paradigm, topic
and resulting structure.
There are also distinctions between the four Parts, dictated by methodological
considerations. Several of the major sections of this chapter have sub-sections
divided according to the Parts to reflect these considerations.
Alternatives to the Scientific Method
One of the initial premises in the book was that the conventional thesis structure,
based on the scientific method, was often inappropriate because many social science
research projects were not based on the scientific method. The fact that we have
managed to produce a substantial book of examples of structures deviating from the
conventional because the research was not based on the scientific method shows
that this initial premise was reasonable.
I suspect that a substantial proportion of theses in the social sciences are not
based on the scientific method. In education it is probably the large majority, as
40 Lessons Learnt About Structuring the Thesis … 411
education research students commonly start their research after a period of pro-
fessional practice. They usually research into an issue, related to their practice,
which has interested or concerned them sufficiently to feel that a research project is
worthwhile. The research then takes on an exploratory nature.
Another reason for research in the social sciences eschewing the scientific method
is that social science and educational research projects normally deal with ill-defined
or messy problems. The scientific method is based on positivist assumptions which
assume a well-defined problem. The classical scientific method requires research
projects to be defined by tightly worded hypotheses or research questions. This
implies a well-defined problem, usually with a limited number of variables.
If then a substantial part of social science and educational research for higher
degrees does not follow the scientific method, it seems time to revise practices to
make them consistent with the alternatives. The scientific method has traditionally
dominated practices across disciplines. It is time for disciplinary differences to be
better accepted.
Initial Planning
The many projects in education and the social sciences which eschew the scientific
method, are often exploratory in nature. Defining the study in terms of precise
hypotheses or well defined research questions is, therefore, often problematic.
Confirmation of candidature committees and the like nevertheless expect that there
will be precisely worded research questions. It is then hardly surprising that these
research questions are changed as the project progresses.
It is quite normal for thesis titles to be changed as well, usually close to sub-
mission. This is surely indicative of projects evolving as they progress.
Plans for projects must, therefore, be seen as provisional or subject to amend-
ment in the light of how the project proceeds. This is particularly true of action
research projects. A cyclical approach, with adjustments to plans after each cycle, in
the light of observations and reflection, is central to action research.
The need for flexibility in initial planning is confounded by the ill-defined nature of
the issues or problems investigated in the social sciences. Problems are often so messy
that investigation of the issue is needed to identify a problem which can be tackled.
Further complications can arise when the research students have been practi-
tioners in the field and commence a project related to their own practice. In this case
the starting point of the project is often far from clear.
Implications for Graduate Research Committees
Universities have research committees and/or graduate schools which set guidelines
and regulations for the conduct of research projects and the passage through a
higher degree from enrolment to completion. At some point research students have
412 D. Kember
to appear before a committee with a title like dissertation, thesis or confirmation of

candidature. At this hurdle, the research student has to present a proposal for their
intended project and persuade the committee that it is a worthwhile, viable and well
planned project. Approval also has to be obtained from ethics committees for most
social science projects. There are implications for all three types of bodies from this
chapter. In the main these follow from the preceding main section.
The first set of implications arise from the deductive and exploratory nature of
most projects in the social sciences. The consequence of this is that precise and
detailed advance planning is often inappropriate. If the project evolves as it pro-
gresses, early plans often need to be adapted.
Indeed, it can be good practice to develop some aspects of research plans as
projects proceed. A good example is interview schedules. A good strategy is to treat
the questions in the schedule as provisional and to review them after the first
interview or two. Questions which do not seem to be yielding useful data can be
modified or dropped. If this initial review does not take place, a whole set of
interviews can be conducted with unproductive elements.
However, confirmation committees tend to prefer precise and detailed plans.
Their role is to ensure that a project is well designed before they approve com-
mencement. Without clear plans they feel that there is not the assurance they need
that a project will be viable. If the plans are not detailed it is hard for them to
suggest modifications which might improve the project.
Similarly, ethics committees expect detail on what is to be done if they are to
give an assurance that ethical guidelines will not be violated. There are often formal
or informal templates for ethics applications which are likely to be approved, and
these commonly require specific details.
However, exploratory projects mitigate against detailed planning. Being true to
the common paradigmatic approaches of social science research, therefore, suggests
that both confirmation and ethics committees need to be flexible. They need to
accept that research questions and plans are indicative. They are likely to evolve as
the project progresses.
Early on in my supervisory career, I found that pilot projects were very helpful
for projects which were very open and exploratory. A small initial investigation
could help markedly in framing the main project. However, as my career has
progressed, it has become harder to mount pilot projects. The traditional model of
supervision, in which the supervisor was largely autonomous, has given way to
greater oversight and regulation by graduate schools and confirmation committees.
Ethics procedures have tightened and guidelines become more rigorous.
With the growth in Ph.D.s and the number of supervisors, supervisory autonomy
is unlikely to return. However, regulations and procedures ought to be examined to
see if they can be re-framed to make pilot projects possible. As such a large part of
social science research is exploratory, and planning the main project would benefit
from the insights gained by a pilot study, there ought to be a way of permitting
small pilot projects, without compromising regulatory oversight.
There are also implications for the written information required by confirmation
committees. Wide generalization is clearly not appropriate, but it is common for
confirmation committees to require quite extensive pieces of writing, often

including quite detailed plans and extensive reviews of the literature. In view of the
comments in this chapter about the difficulty of advanced planning for exploratory
projects and the role and position of the literature review in the social science thesis,
these writing requirements clearly need flexibility.
Alternatives to the Conventional Structure Are Appropriate
In this first chapter I introduced a set of research questions to be addressed in the

book about the structure of theses. To answer these questions the book has collected
together 32 example chapters as answers to these questions. The example chapters
principally addressed research questions 3 and 4, posed for the book in Chapter 1.
Research Question 3
sciences?
Research Question 4
What range of methods, theories and paradigms are commonly adopted by edu-
cation and social science students and what issues do these pose when students
write their theses?
To ensure a focus on the questions and to provide a form of indexing, each of the
examples chapters started by posing a question in the following form.
What is an appropriate structure for reporting a study of subject matter X, following
paradigm Y, and adopting methodology Z?
Each example chapter has, therefore, specifically answered research questions 3

and 4. It seems reasonable to interpret this as 32 reasons for accepting alternative
thesis structures in education and the social sciences. Given the very diverse range
of topics, methods and paradigmatic approaches encompassed by the 32 example
chapters, perhaps it is now reasonable to claim that the conventional thesis structure
should no longer be the default option.
Awareness and Acceptance by Students, Supervisor

and Examiners
A large part of the rationale for producing this book was to promote or provoke
discussion and awareness of alternative thesis structures. If research students
become more aware that alternatives to the conventional structure are not only
possible but justifiable, perhaps more will consider devising ways of writing their
414 D. Kember
thesis which suit the methods they have adopted and the themes underpinning their
findings. In a later section I suggest that supervisors should see discussion of a
structure for writing up as an integral part of the supervision process.
Raising awareness of examiners to alternatives to both the scientific method and
to alternatives to the conventional thesis structure would be a welcome outcome for
research students who deviate from the conventional path. Experienced supervisors
know the importance of selecting examiners with a methodological and paradig-
matic orientation similar to that adopted by the research student. Some of the thesis
structures reported in this book were questioned by examiners. Hopefully, greater
awareness of alternative thesis structures will lead to more flexibility by examiners.
Planning the Structure
As I said in Chapter 1, one of the personal voyages of discovery which led to this
book was my voyage as a supervisor. In this I found that it was helpful and efficient
to start talking about the structure of the thesis when the analysis of data was
started. In this way, the planning of the thesis structure became integrated with
determining ways to tackle the analysis.
Qualitative
Students with qualitative data have a large volume of data to tackle, which at first
seems very disorganised. The first task is to determine the main themes. If an
overall framework can be determined, which relates the themes together, this can be
used as: a plan for tackling the analysis; a sequence for writing the analysis and
results chapters; and a structure for the thesis.
Arayal, Short and Fan (Chapter 6) did an initial analysis of the qualitative data in
the study of English language teaching in Nepal. This initial thematic analysis
revealed a series of levels of influence on English teaching: role of the government;
community level issues; political interference; professional identity; professional
development; and, classroom pedagogy. This became a multi-level framework of
influences. The framework then served as a plan for structuring the thesis as each
level had a chapter devoted to it. The framework also served as a plan and sequence
for analysing the parts of the qualitative data and writing the chapters. The first
chapter tackled took some time to write and needed several iterations. It then served
as a model, though, for subsequent chapters which were written much quicker.
The planning strategy suggested here also has the benefit of fully integrating the
writing with the analysis. For qualitative data, in particular, this is important as
writing up is the concluding step of the analysis which brings the process to
fruition. Where the thesis has a part with chapters organized by the analytical
themes, the writing can be tackled chapter by chapter in order to develop an
appropriate writing format. Students often struggle with the first chapter of the part
and revisions are often needed. The first chapter, though, then becomes a model for
the subsequent chapters which take less time and need less revision.
Research students have found the strategy helpful as it makes the daunting task of
tackling a large body of data manageable. It provides a way of writing the thesis
step-by-step and learning an appropriate writing format on the way. Supervisors find it
efficient as it considerably reduces time reviewing chapters and suggesting re-writes.
Kitchener, Williams and Kilpatrick (Chapter 22) overtly rejected the scientific
method to generate subjective and rigorous theory, selecting constructivist groun-
ded theory. The candidate describes coding, constant comparison of data, and
theorising. Emerging theory drove quests for theoretical perspectives well into the
thesis. The chapters accommodated the ‘perpetual motion’ of research design and
iterative writing to the end of the thesis.
In Joanne Higginson and Julie McLeod’s discussion of a qualitative longitudinal
research project (Chapter 36), data collection, analysis and writing are co-mingled
rather than discrete processes. Data collection, via ‘tracking’ interviews, necessarily
occurs through the length of Jo’s Ph.D. candidature. The potential thesis structure,
which is organised around ideas of history, biography, time and place (Now: his-
tories and places; Then: mediations between history and biography and When:
subjectivity, temporality and pathways) guides the structure of data collection and
themes within the waves of interviews, as well as writing and analysis.
Quantitative
At the early stages of analysing quantitative data, the data are entered into a
database, so seem a lot more organized than qualitative data. In a purely quanti-
tative project, though, the volume of data will be large and there will be multiple
constructs to analyse and steps to perform in the analysis. It again makes sense,
therefore, to work out a step-by-step plan for the analysis which can result in a
structure for the thesis.
Godwin and Kember (Chapter 4) divided the analysis according to the three
main constructs investigated: epistemological beliefs; perceptions of the learning
environment; and persistence. The first part of the analysis dealt with the three
constructs individually. The measurement of each was examined and data relating
to the construct was investigated. Once the three constructs had been fully char-
acterized there was then a firm foundation to move on to look at the relationship
between the three constructs.
Alternative Structures
The alternative structures adopted varied according to the methodology and

paradigmatic approach. It, therefore, makes sense to analyse the structures
according to the Parts of the book.
416 D. Kember
Mixed Methods
Two predominantly quantitative projects are both of interest in the way in which the
method of analysis influenced the structure of the thesis. Godwin and Kember
(Chapter 4) investigated the relationship between three main constructs: episte-
mological beliefs; perceptions of the learning environment; and persistence. Part B,
therefore, is divided into three chapters which each deal with one of the three
constructs. Each of the chapters starts with a review of the literature on that con-
struct sufficient to introduce the measurement of the construct. The next part pre-
sents the results of the analysis of the relationship between the three constructs.
Hicks, O’Dowd and Corbett (Chapter 10) used structural equation modelling to
explore a ‘strengths based’ model of ‘what works’ in Indigenous education. An
early review of de-colonial theories was used to formulate the hypothetical model of
practices which operate within the modern classroom. The review sufficed to derive
a model which could be tested against an existing database. Subsequent chapters
then examined the component parts of the model. Each of these interpret the
constructs and the measurement elements in that part of the model.
A common way to organize the results and discussion was according to the main
themes which emerged from the qualitative data. Wu and Kember (Chapter 7)
found six main spheres to the decision making process about choice of overseas
study: higher education; overseas; country; region; university; and course. Part B of
the thesis which is labelled ‘Analysis, results and discussion’, therefore, includes
six chapters, one for each step in the decision making process. Each of these
chapters presents both qualitative and quantitative results for that decision making
sphere. The results are then compared to relevant literature.
Arayal, Short and Fan (Chapter 6) used a similar approach to structuring the
thesis which followed from the step-by-step plan for analysis, based on the level of
influence framework, described in the previous main section. The overall analysis
framework from the main themes, therefore, served as both a plan for the analysis
and a structural plan for the thesis.
Cruickshank (Chapter 5) similarly structured his discussion chapters around the
major gender-related challenges that emerged from his survey and interviews of
male primary teachers. These chapters included numerous participant excerpts and
comparison to relevant literature.
Action Research
Action research uses a cyclical approach to research, with each cycle consisting of
steps for planning, action, observation and reflection. These same steps lent
themselves to a framework for structuring the thesis. Kezabu, McMahon, Kember
and Hill (Chapter 14) divided the thesis into three parts: planning, action, and
reflection. The first planning part contained: a personal narrative which illustrated
the environmental concerns which led to the study; discussion of the Ugandan
context; a review of the literature on the main theoretical framework of place; and, a
discussion of participatory action research leading to a tentative plan in the method
chapter. The next part described the action and observation of the three participa-
tory action research projects which evolved. The final reflection part, reflected upon
the achievements of the participatory action research projects in the light of the
literature and relevant theories.
Webb (Chapter 15) used a parallel structure of the story of the action research
with interjections containing the theory and literature. Keeping the story part in a
coherent flow enabled the action research saga to be told chronologically and
coherently. The bulk of the theory went into the interjections. The parallel structure,
therefore, permitted a coherent narrative consistent with the telling of the story of an
action research investigation. The periodic interjections permitted the weaving in of
scholarly elements which turned it from a story into a thesis.
Achieving this coherent narrative, however, can be difficult to achieve when the
research does not follow the scientific method referred to earlier. Reaburn
(Chapter 12) describes how a seemingly simple structure resulted after many weeks
of thought and a period of trial and error. This process was complicated by the use
of both qualitative and quantitative data. Yet, despite the seemingly simple struc-
ture, one examiner objected to the inclusion of ‘findings’ within the methodology
section. Without this inclusion, however, a coherent narrative would not have been
achieved.
Interpretive and Emerging Theories
The characterising feature of the example chapters included in the interpretive and
emerging theories parts of the book is that they interpreted observations and data by
drawing upon one or more theoretical framework from the literature. The structure
of the theses, therefore, had to accommodate this interpretation and analysis in
terms of the framework.
As is discussed further in the following sections dealing with the literature
review, it would be inappropriate if this interpretation in terms of the theoretical
literature went early in the thesis as a conventional literature review. The theories
and the literature are used for interpretation and analysis, so placing them early in
the thesis before any results or observations would not be logical.
Instead the interpretations against the theoretical frameworks came later in the
thesis. Findings or observations were broken down into a logical pattern then
interpreted against the theoretical frameworks which were used to underpin the
study.
Koirala (Chapter 23) conducted an ethnographic study of language learning and
integration of Bhutanese refugees. Part B of the thesis reported the ethnographic
stories of: two English classes; a church many of the refugees attended; and two
individual case studies. Part C of the thesis then consisted of five chapters, which
418 D. Kember
contained the analysis and discussion, in which the ethnographic stories were
interpreted in terms of theories and related work in the literature. These five
chapters were organized according to issues. The first two dealt with social and then
family and ethnic networks. There were then two chapters on language learning in
and outside the classroom. The final chapter in this part deals with the question
‘What is integration?’.
Zehntner (Chapter 28) used a similar structure in a study of swimming coaching.
As the study used narrative and autoethnographic approaches, Part B presented the
narratives of the coaches, including one which was a personal story. Then in Part C
there was an analysis of the narratives. This was divide into four chapters of which
the first looked at the main analytical themes. Then came three chapters which each
addressed a main theme, each of which drew on a principal theory from post
structural theorist Michel Foucault and sociologists Pierre Bordieu and Erving
Goffman.
Rodriguez Castro (Chapter 32) presented the epistemological framework of
descolonial feminisms as the heart of the thesis. The epistemology was explained in
the introduction, and then it is weaved into all of the remaining chapters of the
thesis illuminating the Ph.D.’s theoretical orientation, its central debates and its
methodological underpinnings. This structure breaks the organising and purpose of
a conventional literature review. Given the importance of method when engaging
with epistemology, the thesis introduced methodological reflections in Part A,
before it reviewed the literature that provided the contextual information of the Ph.
D. study in Part B. The remaining chapters in Part C dealt with the findings of the
ethnographic work in rural Colombia based on descolonial feminisms as an epis-
temology and as a research paradigm.
MacDonald and Hunter (Chapter 25) conducted a study of the experience of
becoming an artist and a teacher. Very appropriately, the thesis structure was
organized according to a visual representation of the tools and mediums used to
construct a painting (reproduced as Fig. 40.1). Stretching the frame equates to an
introduction. Preparing the tools is the methodology and an existing picture is the
literature review.
Higginson and McLeod (Chapter 36) used three variants of qualitative longi-
tudinal research methods in a study of senior secondary students whose families
have transnational histories of study and work. The structure of the thesis is drawn
from ideas of history, temporality, place, remembering and imagining and was
influenced by participation in a collegial reading group. The structure of the thesis
draws on these concepts through a three-part structure entitled Now: histories and
places; Then: mediations between history and biography and When: subjectivity,
temporality and pathways. Writing and analysis is influenced and draws metaphors
from film grammar and the ways in which multiple and overlapping senses of time
are conveyed in film. ‘Parallel editing’ weaves between intimate stories and bigger
settings; diverse shot ranges and points of view are used to shift scale and per-
spective – close ups, wide shots and panoramas; ‘mis en scene’ such as photographs
and annecdotes convey pasts and futures by selecting and composing ‘what lies in
the frame’, working through exposition and showing rather than simply telling.
Fig. 40.1 The visual structural metaphor from MacDonald and Hunter (Chapter 25)
Wolfe and Rasmussen (Chapter 33) utilises Karen Barad’s (2007) new mate-
rialist ontoepistemological framework that rejects the representational link between
words and things, instead offering an exploration of how material practice/s in
education, as performance, matter. This is risky research, but by actively not
knowing what I [Melissa] was doing, other ways of doing and other data emerged
and became visible. The encounters described in the filmed interviews by the
female participants take place in secondary school and are situated within a
framework of historically relational taxonomies that bind participants affectively.
The historic discourse considers the contextual educational and political field that
these encounters emerge from and with. The participants’ knowing allows for
fluxing data as ‘multiple instances’ (MacLure 2013, p. 660). The data-events are
non-prescribed unfoldings where the intra-active (Barad 2007) research process is
unknowable in advance and continues to unfold and flux in its filmic
dissemination.
Kitchener, Williams and Kilpatrick (Chapter 22) raised the question: ‘how
does one represent subjective substantive grounded theory at micro, meso and
macro levels of enquiry?’ Kitchener described methodology and analysis as a
‘matter of philosophy’; it was significant in her journey to see values, or axi-
ology, as setting problem, paradigm, theoretical framework and evidence gath-
ering and analysis.
420 D. Kember
Making the Structure Explicit in the Thesis
When the thesis has been carefully planned following the recommendations in the
section above, it makes sense to include a detailed version of the plan early in the
thesis. Examination of the contents pages of the example chapters shows that many
have included such a plan as a preface, as a chapter or as a part of an introductory
chapter. These plans often also included something similar to the ‘structure’ section
of the example chapters as a guide to and rationale for the plan.
The thesis structure used by Webb (Chapter 15) was arguably the most
unconventional of all those presented in the book. Accordingly, the plan or contents
page was presented right at the start of the thesis—even before the preface. The plan
was followed by an explanation and rationale for the structure adopted, so the
reader was able to follow the plot.
Kezabu, McMahon, Kember and Hill (Chapter 14) placed the introduction to the
structure as a preface. Hicks, O’Dowd and Corbett (Chapter 10) put the structural
guide in the final part of a prologue.
Godwin and Kember (Chapter 4) is an example of placing the structural plan as
a discrete chapter. The plan appears as Chapter 2, following a personal introductory
chapter. For Arayal, Short and Fan (Chapter 6) Chapter 2 of the thesis was titled
‘The overview of the structure of the thesis’.
Earl (Chapter 29) is an example of the guide to the thesis structure appearing as
a part of an introductory chapter. In this case the thesis structure is explained as the
final part of the first introductory chapter.
The inclusion of the plan serves two purposes for the examiner or other reader of
the thesis. Firstly, it provides a road map to the thesis. Often this is badly needed.
Because the research student, as the writer, understands the progression of the
thesis, they assume the reader will too. However, this is often not the case. All too
often the destination only becomes apparent when the journey through the thesis is
nearly complete. It is fine for a mystery novel to reveal whodunit right at the end,
but much less appropriate for a thesis.
The other function performed by an explicit plan for the thesis is that it provides
a justification for the structure to the examiner. If the plan is accompanied by
justifications similar to the ‘structure’ sections of the examples chapters, a strong
case is presented to the examiner for why the particular structure has been adopted
instead of a conventional one.
Role and Position of the Literature Review
One element of commonality across the example chapters in all four Parts of the
book has been the extent to which the traditional comprehensive literature review as
the second chapter of the thesis has been eschewed. In the conventional thesis
structure, the main bulk of the literature is placed in this chapter.
For a thesis following a deductive approach to research an early comprehensive

literature review is an eminently sensible requirement. Deductive research follows
from the body of existing research related to the intended topic and builds upon it.
It, therefore, makes sense to comprehensively review the existing literature and this
has commonly been a requirement for confirmation of candidature.
However, deductive research is not the norm in the social sciences. None of the
projects reported in the example chapters followed a purely deductive approach.
The example chapters did have literature reviews in the early parts of the thesis, but
they were not lengthy comprehensive reviews, nor were they commonly the place
where the main body of literature was situated. It was also quite common for the
initial use of literature to be split between more than one chapter.
Initial Review
If, then, the theses did not have a conventional comprehensive literature review,
what were the initial literature reviews like? The initial literature reviews performed
several functions. Firstly, there was the provision of information about the context:
the country or region in which the study took place; the type of educational or other
institution; the group of people researched. Sometimes this contextual background
was linked to a personal story of the journey which inspired the research.
A good example of an initial review which deals with several aspects of context is
that of Arayl, Short and Fan (Chapter 6). The thesis starts with a personal account of
experiences of being an English teacher in Nepal and the problems encountered.
There is then a literature review which provides background information about Nepal;
a country few are familiar with. Information about the school system and conditions in
schools is provided, which is important for understanding the findings. Finally, there
is a review of what literature there is on English language teaching in Nepal.
Secondly, there is a need for some level of initial review of literature related to
the topic researched. Not a comprehensive overview, but enough to identify
important work and parameters and to establish that there is a window which has
not been researched.
It is hardly necessary to point to examples of this type of initial review as just
about all need an initial review of the topic being researched. In most cases this is in
an early chapter, which is commonly labelled literature review. In some cases this
initial review is split between several chapters according to constructs or themes
and examples of this will be given in the next section.
There also needs to be a sufficient review of literature to guide the planning of
data collection and the research design. This will include an examination of related
studies to determine methods which are effective. There will also be a need to look
at previous work to guide the design of data gathering instruments, such as ques-
tionnaires and interview schedules. In view of the opening section of this chapter,
though, the plans derived may be provisional. This review commonly goes in the
methodology chapter.
422 D. Kember
The final use of the literature which has been common is an introduction to the
major theoretical frameworks used in the study. The examples in the interpretive
and emerging theory parts used one or more theories as their principal framework
for analyzing and interpreting their data. Most gave a brief introduction to the major
tenets of the theory early in the thesis. Though, most of the theoretical literature
comes later as it is used to interpret the data.
Kitchener, Williams and Kilpatrick (Chapter 22) is an example of a literature
review for confirmation being put aside. The philosophy of the chosen construc-
tivist grounded theory methodology guided use of literature (and the use of a
development puzzle in preference to preconceived questions). The value, or axio-
logical, position was that the researcher’s own scientific intelligence should privi-
lege grand theory. Therefore, literature, increasingly interdisciplinary, was a tool for
contextualising and for comparison with theorising; literature lay fallow during
interviews and analysis.
Re-positioning of Literature
With the literature in the introductory parts considerably reduced, the bulk of the
literature is then dispersed through the results and discussion parts. A common
structure for both quantitative and qualitative research was to divide the thesis into
topics according to the themes which resulted from the analysis. Each theme is then
presented in a sequence in which the results from the study are presented and then
compared to relevant results in the literature.
The use of literature varied somewhat according to the methodology and
paradigmatic approach. It, therefore, again makes sense to compare the position of
the literature according to the Parts of the book.
Mixed Methods
Two predominantly quantitative projects are both of interest in the way in which
literature is positioned in the thesis. Godwin and Kember (Chapter 4) investigated
the relationship between three main constructs: epistemological beliefs; perceptions
of the learning environment; and persistence. Part B, therefore, is divided into three
chapters which each deal with one of the three constructs. Each of the chapters
includes a review of the literature on that construct.
Hicks, O’Dowd and Corbett (Chapter 10) used structural equation modelling to
explore a ‘strengths based’ model of ‘what works’ in Indigenous education. An
early review of de-colonial theories was used to formulate the hypothetical of
practices which operate within the modern classroom. Subsequent chapters then
examined the component parts of the model. Each of these drew on the literature to
interpret the constructs and the measurement elements in that part of the model.
A common approach to structuring theses in the mixed methods part was

according to the themes which emerged from the analysis. Each main theme
became a chapter which presented results applicable to that theme. These chapters
had an analytical discussion of the theme which was then compared to relevant
results in the literature.
Good examples of this structure are Wu and Kember (Chapter 7) where there
were six themes aligned to elements of decision making processes for overseas
study. Also the thesis of Arayl, Short and Fan (Chapter 6) was organized by themes
of influences on English language teaching in Nepal. The themes ranged from
government influence to classroom pedagogy. The literature drawn upon was very
diverse, yet the structuring by themes enabled the diverse literature to be clearly
organized and relating it directly to the results showed relevance.
Cruickshank (Chapter 5) utilised literature in order to construct his survey sur-
rounding the challenges faced by male primary teachers. This literature comprised
of numerous national and international studies during the last three decades. Survey
and interview responses were then compared to this literature throughout the dis-
cussion chapters.
Action Research
The structures of theses in the action research part of the book were influenced by
the phases of the action research cycle. The positioning of the literature, therefore,
depended on its relevance to the phase of the cycle.
Kezabu, McMahon, Kember and Hill (Chapter 14) labelled the three parts of the
thesis; planning action and reflection following the phases of the cycle. The first
part contained literature on: the Ugandan context; a review of the literature on
place, a major theoretical framework for the study; and, literature on participatory
action research in the chapter planning the method. The next part contained
descriptions of the action and the reflection-in-action on the observation on the
actions. This part needed little literature. The reflection part drew upon theories and
the literature in reflecting upon what had been reported in the previous action part.
The parallel structure adopted by Webb (Chapter 15) enabled the story of the
action research to be told as a coherent narrative. This part had some reference to
the literature in reflections on the narrative of the action. The bulk of the theory and
literature, though, went in the interjections. A particular feature of these was a
progressive shift in the action research perspective from practical to critical, which
mirrored a perspective transformation in the study.
Interpretive and Emerging Theories
The defining feature of chapters in these two parts of the book is that use is made
of one or more theories to provide a framework for interpretation and analysis.
424 D. Kember
There was a fair degree of variation in structures of theses positioned in these two
parts of the book. Most, though, had an early introduction to the main theories
drawn upon. It was also common to have a middle section which presented the data
or observations. This middle part usually drew on the literature relatively less than
other parts. The latter parts of the thesis, where the analysis and interpretation
occurred, were where there was the main use of the literature.
The ethnographic exploration of food experiences and food education pro-
grammes in primary schools by Earl (Chapter 29) provides a good example of
dispersed literature. The first two chapters introduce the main theories drawn upon
and the literature is then threaded through the remainder of the thesis. The detailed
contents page is reproduced here, followed by a commentary of the positioning of
the literature.
Contents page
Chapter 1 Jamie Oliver, Martha Payne, and School Food
Foodies and Foodieness
Popularizing Foodieness: The Rise of Food Media
Foodieness, Class and Self-formation
The Chef, The Blogger, The Researcher
Thesis Structure
Chapter 2 Section One: A Foucauldian Framework for Analysis
Section Two: Applying the Foucauldian Toolkit
Section Three: What We Know About School Food Experience
Chapter 3 Ethnography
Sensory Ethnography
Initial Research Design and School Recruitment
Fieldwork and Researcher Identity
Participatory Mapping
Mapping with Children
Analysing and Writing Up
Ethical Considerations
Chapter 4 School Meals Policy
Policy as Text, Policy as Discourse
The Wars and the Welfare State
Thatcher and the Rise of Neoliberal Governance
School Food as a Problem: Jamie, Obesity and Controlled Choice
Turning the Tables: The English Strategy on School Food
Cooking up the Solution: The School Food Plan
Analysing The School Food Plan: Ideal Meals and Cooking
Analysing The School Food Plan: The Demon Packed Lunch
Analysing The School Food Plan: The Hunger Problem
Chapter 5 Fort Basset: The Healthy School
Framley: The Farm School
Jevington: The Balanced School
Chapter 6 Food Education
Teaching Healthy Eating
Not Teaching Healthy Eating: Bread-Making at Jevington
Teaching Cooking: Framley and Jevington
(continued)
(continued)
Contents page
Field-to-Plate Knowledge: Framley
Class Differences in Food Education
Chapter 7 Section One: The Discourse of Family Meals
Section Two: The Family Meal within the School Institution
Chapter 8 The Demon Packed Lunch and Irresponsible Mothering
The Role of the Kitchen in the Take Up of Packed Lunches
Food Cost and School Meals Cost
Chapter 9 What is the Experience of Food at School?
[1] Class, Health, Hunger and Food Experience in Schools
[2] The Difficulties of Enacting Food Policies in Schools
[3] Towards a New Understanding of Health and the Global Food System
Limitations of this project
Where to now?
The first chapter was a personal introduction to ‘foodiness’. The second chapter
introduced the work of Foucault, the main interpretive theory drawn upon. Chapter
3 introduces the ethnographic methodology, so draws upon the ethnographic lit-
erature. Chapters 5–8 are the fieldwork chapters organized by themes, with each
relating observations from the schools to a relevant literature. The final chapter
draws together themes through the book.
Documenting the Journey
The book has used the metaphor of a collective voyage of discovery. Many of the
example chapters have been brought alive by revealing delightful and insightful
journeys of discovery undertaken by the researchers during their projects. It is often
not clear to what extent these voyages were portrayed in the theses themselves, but
if they were it would certainly have brought them alive.
The tradition has been not to document the personal journey in a thesis. The
positivist approach is to write in an impersonal way. When results are expected to
be generalisable to a universal law, it does not matter who conducted the research.
However, social science research rarely follows the positivist tradition. Many
theses in education research topics connected to the practice of the researcher. In
research genres like action research the journey is often as important as the end
point. It, therefore, seems sensible to suggest that theses do contain more of the
personal journey, particularly since, when this has been done, some examiners have
reported that they enjoyed reading the thesis—and that is a definite step forward.
One type of research in which documenting the journey is essential is
autoethnography. Hugo (Chapter 26) conducted an autoethnographic study of a
mother’s experience of her younger son’s short but creative life, his death from a
drug overdose, and her subsequent quest for meaning making. The thesis contains
two substantial autoethnographic chapters. The first of these traces her son’s life
426 D. Kember
from birth to death. The second continues beyond the death of her son to explore
mental health policy and service settings.
Rodriguez Castro (Chapter 32) also documented her ethnographic journey as a
practising feminist and feeling-thinking researcher. She used fieldwork journal
entries in her thesis to illustrate the messiness and unpredictability of fieldwork,
while highlighting the importance of documenting the affective relationships that
emerge ‘in the field’. Thus, the third chapter called ‘Reflections from the Field’ is a
personal and embodied account of the researcher’s journey in rural Colombia as she
encounters the rural spaces and places, the human and the non-human.
Another type of research where the journey is important is action research.
Kezabu, McMahon, Kember and Hill (Chapter 12) started by making tentative
plans in the initial planning part of the thesis. The first chapter of the action part of
the thesis is titled ‘The messiness of participatory action research’. The chapter
describes the difficulties of implementing the plans. The remaining three chapters in
this part, though, describe three inter-related participatory action research projects
which emerged from the initial group of participants and were successful.
An interesting example of documenting the journey is in Satiryan, Reynolds and
Kember (Chapter 13), which was a study of the design and development of a short
course to develop writing skills for those whom English is an additional language.
The penultimate chapter is called ‘My journey’. In this Satiryan reflects on what he
himself learnt about writing from the process of writing his thesis. He learnt to
adopt a personal voice consistent with an action research study and to report
research in a format consistent with the action research cycle of planning, action,
observation and reflection.
Development of Supervision and Writing Skills
If the main argument of this book is accepted, it implies that the writing and
communication skills courses commonly included in the coursework for research
students ought to at least be aware that alternative thesis structures to the con-
ventional one are both acceptable and good practice in the social sciences. Where
such courses are offered centrally by graduate schools, this may mean a greater
awareness of disciplinary differences if the courses have been based on the scientific
method and the traditional thesis structure.
If supervisors are expected to develop the skills of helping research students plan
a thesis structure which suits their method, paradigm and thematic findings, there
may be implications for the development of supervision skills. It is hard to gen-
eralise about existing practices. A common approach is to offer initiation workshops
which deal with institutional procedures and the supervisor/research student
relationship. Anything further comes from learning on the job as part of a super-
vision team. If more experienced supervisors accept that mentoring is part of their
role, this can be a very effective mode of supervision training.
There is the potential to use this book as a resource for a workshop, on struc-
turing a thesis, for both research students and supervisors. The framing and
concluding chapters provide thought provoking ideas and guidelines for mini
presentations. The numerous example chapters could be drawn upon in activities in
which students and supervisors work together to devise appropriate structures for
the research student’s thesis. There is such variety in the examples that most
research students will find something which relates to their own project.
Conclusion
I started the book by talking of two personal voyages of discovery; as an examiner

and a supervisor. Since others seemed very interested in the ideas which started to
germinate during these initial explorations, the voyage became a communal journey
of discovery. In terms of the book, at least, this final section of the final chapter
marks the end of the voyage. We have docked at the final port.
Hopefully, though, others will be able to use the ideas and resources threaded
through the book as a stimulus to guide the planning and writing of their own
theses. They might be more confident to adopt less conventional approaches to
research and to report them in novel ways which suit their project.
If this does happen, the voyage of discovery will continue. The torch will be
handed over to new runners to set new directions.
Acknowledgements Examples were contributed by Laura Rodriguez Castro, Vaughan Cruickshank,

Joanne Higginson, Val Kitchener, Julie McLeod, Robyn Reaburn and Melissa Joy Wolfe.
References
MacLure, M. (2013). Researching without representation? Language and materiality in post-
qualitative methodology. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 26(6),
658–667. https://doi.org/10.1080/09518398.2013.788755.

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David Kember · Michael Corbett Editors

Structuring the Thesis

ISBN 978-981-13-0510-8 ISBN 978-981-13-0511-5 (eBook)

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018

Printed on acid-free paper

As there is such a diverse range of methodologies, in addition to being a book

Launceston, TAS, Australia David Kember

Part B Mixed Methods

8 Linguistic Complexity in English Textbooks: A Functional

Part C Action Research

Part D Interpretive Methods

19 Exploring Interpretations of Sustainability Across Diverse

Part E Emerging Theories

31 From Developing Child to Competent Learner: A Genealogical

Chapter Research Method Paradigm for Theory/paradigm for analysis and

About the Editors

David Kember is Professor in Education: Curriculum Methods and Pedagogy in

Michael Corbett is an educational sociologist whose work draws on social theory,

Ananda Aryal School of Education, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS,

Stephen Kelly School of Education, University of New England, Armidale, NSW,

Danielle Williams School of Health Sciences, University of Tasmania, Hobart,

Abstract The chapter describes the voyages of discovery as an examiner and

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018 3

particular issue in their professional practice that they move on to investigating or

My Two Germinating Voyages

The Voyage as an Examiner

The Role and Position of the Literature Review

Convoluted Writing Structure

The Supervisor Journey

A connected issue is the voice adopted. If research is being conducted as a personal

Organising According to Emerging Themes

Position of the Literature Review

Presenting the results of the analysis theme-by-theme in separate chapters also

Research Students’ Voyages Towards Alternative

These initial explorations of alternative thesis structures seemed to work well.

Methods, Theories and Paradigms

The Conventional Structure

American Psychological Association. (2009). Publication manual of the American Psychological

Lather, P. (2004). Scientiﬁc research in education: A critical perspective1. British Educational

David Kember and Michael Corbett

The Collective Voyage

The previous chapter explained how an individual voyage of discovery morphed

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018 15

Rationale for the Critical Discussion: Questions

Call for Chapters

To our surprise, no less than 21 proposals were received. They represented an

Following the release of the template guidelines we conducted two sessions of an

First Drafts of Substantive and Framing Chapters

Following the completion of ﬁrst drafts, a process of peer reviewing of chapters

Rosemary Callingham and Ian Hay

Abstract Contemporary research in education has been shaped by changing trends

Contemporary research in education has been shaped by changing trends in society

R. Callingham (&) I. Hay

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018 27

Education Research is Dynamic

Education research is typically applied research that often occurs in a naturalistic

Context and Culture

Bronfenbrenner (1992), in his ecological development model, considered culture to

Answering the Research Question

The fulcrum on which an educational research study is balanced, is the research

range of procedures and diverse stake holders is characteristic of education

Research methods embodying integrated qualitative-quantitative mathematics have two

different paradigms can be integrated. Education is a meeting point of many other