Area Studies and the Discipline: A Useful Controversy?

Author(s): Robert H. Bates

Reviewed work(s):
Source: PS: Political Science and Politics, Vol. 30, No. 2 (Jun., 1997), pp. 166-169
Published by: American Political Science Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/420485 .
Accessed: 07/02/2013 06:18

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

American Political Science Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to
PS: Political Science and Politics.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded on Thu, 7 Feb 2013 06:18:22 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 in theDiscipline:Area Studiesand ComparativePolitics
Controversy
Area Studies and the Discipline:A UsefulControversy?*
RobertH. Bates, HarvardUniversity
When argumentsbecome polarized,
it oftensignalsthatdivisionsare
falselydrawn.Such appears to be
the case withthiscontroversy. Why
mustone choose betweenarea stud-
ies and the discipline?There are
strongreasons forendorsingboth. In
thisessay,I sketchthe currentde-
bate and explorethe waysin local
knowledgecan and is being incorpo-
rated intogeneralanalyticframe-
works.I concludeby stressingthe
workthatlies ahead. In doing so, it
shouldbe stressed,I deal onlywith
politicalscience.The dynamicsin
otherdisciplines,I have found,differ
greatlyfromthosewithinour own
(Bates et al. 1993).
Caricaturingthe PresentDivide
Withinpoliticalscience,area spe-
cialistsare multidisciplinaryby incli-
nationand training.In additionto
knowingthe politicsof a regionor
nation,theyseek also to masterits
history, literature,and languages.
They not onlyabsorb the workof
humanistsbut also thatof otherso-
cial scientists.Area specialistsinvoke
166
This content downloaded on Thu, 7 Feb 2013 06:18:22 AM
the standardemployedby the eth-
nographer:seriousscholarship,they
believe,mustbe based upon field
research.The professionalaudience
of area specialistsconsistsof re-
searchersfrommanydisciplines,who
have devotedtheirscholarlylifeto
workon the regionor nation.
Those who considerthemselves
"social scientists"seek to identify
lawfulregularities, which,by implica-
tion,mustnot be contextbound.
Rather thanseekinga deeper under-
standingof a particulararea, social
scientistsstriveto develop general
theoriesand to identify, and test,
hypothesesderivedfromthem.So-
cial scientistswill attackwithconfi-
dence politicaldata extractedfrom
any regionof the world.Theywill
approach electoraldata fromSouth
Africain the same manneras that
fromthe United States and eagerly
addresscross-nationaldata sets,
therebymanifesting theirrejectionof
the presumptionthatpoliticalregu-
laritiesare area-bound.Social scien-
tistsdo not seek to masterthe litera-
tureon a regionbut ratherto
masterthe literatureof a discipline.
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
The professionalaudience of social
scientistsconsistsof otherscholars
fromtheirdisciplinewho share simi-
lar theoreticalconcerns-and who
drawtheirdata froma varietyof
regionsof the world.
Like all caricatures,these depic-
tionsdistortin orderto highlight
importantelementsof reality.The
implicationsof thisrealityhave pro-
foundlyunsettledour discipline.
Most immediately, the shiftfrom
area studiesto "social scientific"ap-
proaches has influencedgraduate
training.Graduate students,whose
resourcesof timeand moneyare
necessarilylimited,increasingly shift
fromthe studyof a regionto in-
structionin theoryand methods.
When confrontedby a choice be-
tweena course in Africanhistoryor
one in econometrics,giventheircon-
straints,manynow choose the latter.
The shiftfromarea specialization
to "social science" also altersthe
balance of powerwithinthe acad-
emy.Politicalscience departments
have long resembledfederations,
withtheirfacultyin comparativepol-
iticsdwellingwithinsemi-autono-
PS: PoliticalScience& Politics

mous,area studiesunits.Possessing
access to resourcesforseminars,ad-
ministrative support,fellowships,re-
search and travelindependentof the
department, the comparativepolitics
facultyhas had littlereason to defer
to the demandsof department
heads. The move towarda disciplin-
ary-oriented view of comparative
politics, and the decliningresource
base forarea studies,has shiftedthe
politicalcenterof gravityback to the
chairs,who can now applydisciplin-
arycriteria,ratherthanarea knowl-
edge, in evaluatingand rewarding
professionalcontributions.
Change in the notionsof profes-
sional meritalso altersthe balance
of powerbetweengenera-
tions.Old fieldhands are
givingway to youngtechni-
cians. It is those in the mid-
dle whoare themostthreat-
ened. Like theirelders,they
have trainedas area special-
ists;but theyare being eval-
uated by a new set of stan-
dards-ones bywhichthey
compareunfavorably with
youngerscholars.The mid-
career scholarsnow scram-
ble to masterthe new vocab-
ularyand techniques;and
departmentsthatonce would
have readilypromotedthem
too oftendecide to refrain
fromdoing so, in the expec-
tationof laterfillingthe slotsfrom
the best and brightestof the new
generation.
The resultof these changesis
heightenedtensionwithinthe field,
as the controversy resonateswith
divisionsbetweenscholarsof differ-
ent generations,locationswithinthe
university, and stagesin theirca-
reers.
Clearly,the causes of these ten-
sions lie outsidethe academy:they
lie in the risingconcernswithgov-
ernmentdeficitsand the end of the
cold war. The one has led to reduc-
tionsin spendingforhighereduca-
tion; the other,to a lowerpriority
on area training.For reasons I do
not fullyunderstand,ratherthan
cushioningthe impactof these
changes,foundationshave instead
exacerbatedthemby movingin con-
certwiththe government. Resources
forthe studyof foreignareas are
thereforedeclining,and we in aca-
June1997
This content downloaded on Thu, 7 Feb 2013 06:18:22 AM
demics are beingrequiredto estab-
lish new priorities,as we adjust to
tighterconstraints.
Reactingto the New Realities
Many departmentswere once
characterizedby a core of techno-
crats,manyof whomspecializedin
the studyof Americanpolitics,and a
congeryof others,manyof whom
studiedforeignpoliticalsystems.Stu-
dentsof Americanpoliticsviewed
themselvesas social scientists;but
the politicalsystemon whichthey
concentrated,theycame to realize,
was singularly devoid of variation.
Even comparisonsacross states
withinthe greaterfederationfailed
to provideinsightinto differences,
say,betweenpresidentialand parlia-
mentarysystems,muchless between
politiesin marketas opposed to cen-
trallyplannedeconomies.A vocal
withinAmericanpolitics
minority
had long dismissedstudentsof com-
parativepoliticsas "mere area spe-
cialists;"but the more sophisticated
increasingly realized thattheirhard
won, cumulative,scientific knowl-
edge about politicsin the United
Stateswas itselfarea-bound.There
thereforearose amongAmericanists
a demand forcomparativepolitical
research,and some of the mostthe-
oreticallyambitiousamong them
soughtto escape the confinesim-
posed by the Americanpoliticalsys-
tem.
On the one hand,thistrendcre-
ates allies forcomparativists who
seek to resistretrenchment; their
knowledgeof politicalvariationhas
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
AreaStudiesand theDiscipline
acquired greatersignificance. On the
other,thistrendwill promotea
transformation in the comparative
studyof politics;it will forcethose
who have a commandof local
knowledgeto enterintodialogue
withthosewho seek to understand
how institutional variationaffects
politicaloutcomesor who see partic-
ular politicalsystemsas specificreal-
izationsof broaderpoliticalpro-
cesses.
Pressuresfromoutsidethe disci-
pline amplifythese changes;they
emergefromtrendsthathave af-
fectedpoliticalsystemsthroughout
the world.Followingthe recessionof
the 1980s,authoritarian governments
fell,and the collapse of com-
munismin Eastern Europe
further contributedto the
of
spread democracy.This
changeunderscoredthe
broaderrelevanceof the
Americanists'researchinto
elections,legislaturesand po-
liticalparties.The spread of
marketforcesand the liberal-
izationof economicsystems
highlighted the broadersig-
ofresearch
nificance con-
ductedon the advanced in-
dustrialdemocraciesas well.
The impactof economiccon-
ditionsupon voting,the poli-
ticsof centralbanking,the
effectof openness upon parti-
san cleavages and politicalinstitu-
tions:long studiedin the Western
democracies,these subjectshave re-
centlybecome important, and re-
searchable,in the formerly socialist
systemsin the Northand in the de-
velopingnationsof the South. As
studentsof comparativepoliticshave
addressedthem,theyhave come in-
creasinglyto share intellectualorien-
tations,and a sense of necessary
skillsand training, withtheirmore
"social scientific"colleagues in the
discipline.
The attentiongivento King,
Keohane, and Verba's DesigningSo-
cial Inquiry(1994) providesa mea-
sure of the impactof these trends.It
suggeststhe urgencywithwhichstu-
dentsof comparativepoliticsfeel a
need forguidance,as theyhave
soughtwaysto move fromthe in
depthstudyof cases, typicalof area
studies,to sophisticatedresearch
167
 and the Discipline:Area Studies and ComparativePolitics
Controversy
designs,requiredforscientific
infer-
ence.
Deeper Fusion
The fieldis thusundergoingsignif- fulcommunities,
icantchanges, and the increased
of
stringency fundingstrengthens
these trends.Less visible,but highly
forcesrunjust below the
significant,
surfaceand these too will shape the
finaloutcome.Insofaras theydo so,
theymaywell definea new synthesis. While the lives of the Plateau Tonga
I referto a synthesisnot onlybe-
tweenarea studiesand the
disciplinebut also between
context-specificknowledge
and formaltheory,as devel-
oped in the studyof choice. N If a familyhead, he maybe
Area studiesemphasizes
the importanceof cultural
distinctions.Culturesare dis-
tinguishedby theirinstitu-
tions.Game theoretictech- - j
niques, establishedforthe
studyof economicand politi- 7=-
cal organizations,providea
source of formaltools for
investigatingsuch institutions.
They showhow institutions
shape individualchoices and
collectiveoutcomes,and
thereforeprovidea framework for
exploringthe originsof politicaldif-
ference.
Culturesare also distinguished
by
theirhistoriesand beliefs.The the-
ory of decisions withimperfect infor- waysthatpreservethe peace, she
mation,newlyprominentin political
science,can be used to explorethe
mannerin whichsuch differences
arise and matter.Individualswith
similarexpectations,it shows,come
to divergein theirbeliefsif exposed
to different
data; personscan be
shaped by theirhistories.Even if
exposed to the same data, decision
theorysuggests,persons will revise
theirbeliefsin differentways,ifthey
bringdifferent likelihoodfunctions
to bear upon observations.The the-
oryof decisionsthusyieldsinsight
into the way in whichhistoryand
worldviewsshape individualchoices
and thereforecollectiveoutcomes.
The theorythusprovidesa frame-
workforexploringcross-cultural dif- transforming the narrativeinto a
ferences.
The relationshipbetween"local
knowledge"and rationalchoice the-
orycan be illustratedby Elizabeth
168
This content downloaded on Thu, 7 Feb 2013 06:18:22 AM
Colson's well-knownresearchinto
the Plateau Tonga of Zambia
(1974). The lives of the Tonga, she
reports, resemblethe Rousseauian
myth,withpeople residingin peace-
sharingtheirbe-
longings, and legislatingwiselyin
village assemblies.But, Colson re-
ports,the surfaceharmonydisguises
deep fears:of the greed and envyof
neighbors,of theirwrath,and of
theirdesire and capacityto harm.
mayresemblethe accountsof Rous-
seau, theirbeliefs,she finds,are bet-
ter capturedin the writingsof Hob-
bes. Colson resolvesthe paradoxical
contrastbetweenbeliefsand behav-
ior by arguingthatit is the beliefs
thatsupportpeacefulconduct:peo-
ple scrupulouslychoose to act in
argues,forfearof the violencethey
would unleash should theyimpinge
upon the interestsof others.
Viewed in termsof game theory,
Colson's argumentrepresentsa
claim thatbehavingcourteouslycon-
stitutesan equilibriumstrategy. The
strategyis supportedin equilibrium
by beliefsas to the costs thatwould
be incurredwere people to stray
fromthe equilibriumpath. It would
be easy to use the theoryof games
to specifythe conditionsunder
whichthe argumentfollows.More
doing so would suggest
significantly,
additionalinsightsintowhatmust
also necessarilybe trueforthe argu-
mentto hold. Given thatthisis so,
rationalchoice accountwould gener-
ate additionaltestableimplications
(Ferejohn 1991). Some of these im-
plicationsmightbe non-obvious;
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
when thisis the case formalization
inspiresnew insightsas well. Others
mightbe crashingly obvious.But
even jejune propositions,ifdeduced
froma theory,are significant; for
when theyare tested,it is the theory
fromwhichtheyderivethatis put at
risk.Embeddingnarrativeaccounts
in theoriesthusincreasesthe oppor-
tunitiesfortesting;it thereforein-
creases our abilityto judge the ade-
quacy of an explanation.
By the same token,theorymust
be complementedby contextual
knowledge.Considerthe problem
faced by an observerwho en-
countersa personwho is in-
damageuponanother.
flicting
refusinga requestforbride
wealth;if a factionleader, he
maybe withholding
patron-
age; if a mayor,she maybe
bringingthe forcesof the law
to bear upon a rivalpolitical.
Such actionsinflictharm.But,
in interpreting theirpolitical
importance,the observerwill
need to know:Do theyrepre-
sent initialdefections?Or do
theyrepresentpunishments
foran earlierdefection?With-
out knowledgeof the history,the
investigator cannotdeterminethe
significance of these behaviors.The
firsthistorysuggeststhattheyshould
be analyzedas a politicalrupture;
the second, thattheyshouldbe
treatedas a punishmentphase of a
game-a phase thatmayin factcon-
stitutea preludeto reconciliation.In
the absence of local knowledge,the
actionsremainobservationally equiv-
alent; nothingin the theoryalone
suggeststheirstrategicsignificance
and thustheirimplicationsforsubse-
quent interactions. Justas in the
parable relatedby Geertz,a "wink"
differsfroma "twitch,"so too does
strategicbehaviorthusrequireinter-
pretation.To be analyzedcorrectly,
such behaviorneeds to be addressed
by theorythatis informedby empiri-
cal observation(1973).
To the degree thatrationalchoice
theorycomes to occupya central
positionwithinthe discipline,then,
the conflictbetweenarea studiesand
the "social scientific"core of politi-
cal science willbe misplaced.The
approach providesexplanationsfor
difference; it requiresknowledgeof
PS: PoliticalScience& Politics

the difference forthe construction
and testingof its accounts.It pro-
vides a framework whichtransforms
ethnography and narrativesintothe-
ory-driven claims,amenable to refu-
tationand it requirespreciselytar-
geted observationsto establishthe
forceof its arguments(Bates et al
forthcoming).
It is importantto realize thatthe
presentdebate has been energized
by adjacent controversies. It echoes
recentideologicalstruggles.The de-
bate over area studiesis oftenexac-
erbatedby debates over the merits
of the market,the state,or the im-
pact of the West,withthosewho
endorse area studiesviewingthose
who use rationalchoice theoryas
anti-state,and
being pro-market,
givento applyinghistorically contin-
gentcategoriesin a universalistic
manner.And it resonateswithear-
lier battlesover the qualitativeand
betweennumeracyand
quantitative,
literacy,and betweenthe humanities
and the sciences.In othercultures,
well educated people are expectedto
excel at both; strengthin the one
need not implyweaknessin the
other.But the divisionremainspow-
erfulwithinour own culture,particu-
larlyamongacademics,whereit lim-
its and impedes.It reinforcesthe
foundationsforthe presentdebate
betweenarea studiesand the disci-
pline.
Not being hard-wired, the division
between"the scientific"and "the
humanistic"can be transcended.The
issue is notwhetherto use the left
side of the brainratherthanthe
right.It is, rather,how to employ
both.The combinationof local
knowledgeand generalmodes of
reasoning,of area studiesand formal
theory,representsa highlypromising
marginof our field.The blend will
help to accountforthe powerof
forcesthatwe knowshape human
behavior,in waysthatwe have hith-
erto been able to describebut not to
explain.It is timeto insistupon the
pursuitof both ratherthanupon the
necessityof choosingsides.
Conclusion
To pursuethisagenda, depart-
mentswill have to accommodatethe
special needs of graduatetrainingin
June 1997
This content downloaded on Thu, 7 Feb 2013 06:18:22 AM
comparativepolitics.For not only
will our studentsneed to possess
area skills,such as languages;they
will also need trainingin the skills
long expectedof studentsin the
Americansubfield:formaltheory,
statistics,and the mathematicsto do
both. Otherswill need to trainin
economicsas well. Justwhen univer-
sityadministrators are seekingto
reduce the lengthof timenecessary
to secure a degree,thissubfieldwill
need to accommodatelongerresi-
dencies. Administrators and depart-
mentheads will have to adjust their
programsaccordingly.
Perhaps as a complement,depart-
mentswill also have to re-thinktheir
approach to evaluatingjuniorper-
sonnel. Unless fortunateenough to
be a nativespeaker of a foreignlan-
guage or to possess an unusually
strongmathematicalbackground,
mostjuniorfacultywill not be able
to consolidateboth area and analytic
skillspriorto facingthe tenurehur-
dle, muchless to produce research
demonstrating a confidentcommand
of both. In makingpromotiondeci-
sions,then,ratherthanfocusing
purelyon product,attentionwill
have to be placed on investment: If
initiallyin commandof research
methodologies,have the young
scholarsused theirinitialyearsto
learn the historyof theirarea or its
languages?If emergingfroman
area-based program,have theytaken
themselvesto the classroomsin the
statistics,economics,or mathematics
departments?The deliberationsre-
gardingtenurein comparativepoli-
tics maythereforehave to differ
fromthose in otherportionsof the
discipline.Questionssuch as these
will have to be addressedand the
answersgivengreaterweightthanin
othersubfields.
In earlierdecades, the Social Sci-
ence Research Council gave mid-
career grants,enablingprofessorsto
returnto the classroom.These
grantsvirtuallymade possible the
creationof "hybrid"fields,such as
economichistory.Historianstrained
as economists,and economistsas
historians.Clearly,the creationof
such an awardsprogramwould rep-
resenta timelyresponseto the
presentcrisis.
How willwe knowwhen reconcili-
ation has been achieved? One test
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
AreaStudiesand theDiscipline
willbe the capacityof someone who
has investedheavilyin the knowl-
edge of an area to respondto a
dean, provost,or departmentalchair
who inquires:"What has the study
of yourarea contributedto the
broader discipline?"Each of us who
specializesin the studyof an area
should be able to respondto this
question.We will,I am afraid,in-
creasinglyhave to do so.
Note
* This articledraws
heavilyon Robert H.
Bates, "Area Studies and PoliticalScience:
Ruptureand Possible Synthesis," AfricaTo-
day,Volume 44, No. 2 (1997), special issue on
"The Futureof Regional Studies."I wishalso
to thankTimothyCottonand Peter Hall, and
thejunior fellowsof HarvardAcademy,espe-
ciallyDaniel Posner,fortheirtoughcriti-
cisms.I have failedto incorporatemanyof
theirsuggestions,and thereforemustassume
of the defectsthatre-
completeresponsibility
main.
References
Bates, RobertH., Jean O'Barr, and V. S. Mu-
dimbe,1993.Afficaand theDisciplines.
of Chicago Press.
Chicago: University
Bates, RobertH., AvnerGreif,Margaret
Levi, Jean-LaurentRosenthal,and Barry
Weingast.Forthcoming. AnalyticNarra-
tives.
Colson, Elizabeth. 1974. Traditionand Con-
tract.Chicago: Aldine.
Ferejohn,John.1991. "Rationalityand Inter-
pretation,"in The EconomicApproachto
Politics,ed. KristenRenwickMonroe. New
York: Harper Collins.
Geertz,Clifford.1973.Interpretation of Cul-
tures.New York: Basic Books.
King,Gary,RobertKeohane, and Sydney
Verba, 1994.DesigningSocial Inquiry.
Princeton:PrincetonUniversity Press.
Aboutthe Author
RobertBates is Eaton Professorof the Sci-
ence of Governmentat HarvardUniversity.
Among his recentbooks is Afin'caand theDis-
ciplines(Chicago, 1993), withJean O'Barr and
V. Y. Mudimbe.
169