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Qunatum Emechan r3wt
Qunatum Emechan r3wt
Classical physics, the description of physics that existed before the theory
of relativity and quantum mechanics, describes many aspects of nature at
an ordinary (macroscopic) scale, while quantum mechanics explains the
aspects of nature at small (atomic and subatomic) scales, for which
classical mechanics is insufficient.
Contents
1 History
2 Mathematical formulations
2.1 Mathematically equivalent formulations
3 Relation to other scientific theories
3.1 Relation to classical physics
3.2 Copenhagen interpretation of quantum versus classical kinematics
3.3 Relation to general relativity
3.4 Attempts at a unified field theory
4 Philosophical implications
5 Applications
5.1 Electronics
5.2 Cryptography
5.3 Quantum computing
5.4 Macroscale quantum effects
5.5 Other phenomena
6 Examples
6.1 Free particle
6.2 Particle in a box
6.3 Finite potential well
6.4 Rectangular potential barrier
6.5 Harmonic oscillator
6.6 Step potential
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
History
Modern physics
{\displaystyle {\hat {H}}|\psi _{n}(t)\rangle =i\hbar {\frac {\partial }
{\partial t}}|\psi _{n}(t)\rangle }{\displaystyle {\hat {H}}|\psi _{n}(t)\rangle
=i\hbar {\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}|\psi _{n}(t)\rangle }
{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{{c}^{2}}}{\frac {{\partial }^{2}{\phi }_{n}}{{\partial
t}^{2}}}-{{\nabla }^{2}{\phi }_{n}}+{\left({\frac {mc}{\hbar }}\right)}^{2}
{\phi }_{n}=0}{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{{c}^{2}}}{\frac {{\partial }^{2}{\phi }
_{n}}{{\partial t}^{2}}}-{{\nabla }^{2}{\phi }_{n}}+{\left({\frac {mc}
{\hbar }}\right)}^{2}{\phi }_{n}=0}
Manifold dynamics: Schrödinger and Klein–Gordon equations
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Main article: History of quantum mechanics
Scientific inquiry into the wave nature of light began in the 17th and
18th centuries, when scientists such as Robert Hooke, Christiaan
Huygens and Leonhard Euler proposed a wave theory of light based on
experimental observations.[5] In 1803, English polymath Thomas Young
described the famous double-slit experiment.[6] This experiment played a
major role in the general acceptance of the wave theory of light.
Planck cautiously insisted that this was only an aspect of the processes of
absorption and emission of radiation and was not the physical reality of
the radiation.[12] In fact, he considered his quantum hypothesis a
mathematical trick to get the right answer rather than a sizable discovery.
[13] However, in 1905 Albert Einstein interpreted Planck's quantum
hypothesis realistically and used it to explain the photoelectric effect, in
which shining light on certain materials can eject electrons from the
material. Einstein won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for this work.
The 1927 Solvay Conference in Brussels was the fifth world physics
conference.
In the mid-1920s, quantum mechanics was developed to become the
standard formulation for atomic physics. In the summer of 1925, Bohr
and Heisenberg published results that closed the old quantum theory.
Due to their particle-like behavior in certain processes and
measurements, light quanta came to be called photons (1926). In 1926
Erwin Schrödinger suggested a partial differential equation for the wave
functions of particles like electrons. And when effectively restricted to a
finite region, this equation allowed only certain modes, corresponding to
discrete quantum states – whose properties turned out to be exactly the
same as implied by matrix mechanics.[16] Einstein's simple postulation
spurred a flurry of debate, theorizing, and testing. Thus, the entire field
of quantum physics emerged, leading to its wider acceptance at the Fifth
Solvay Conference in 1927.[17]
The word quantum derives from the Latin, meaning "how great" or
"how much".[23] In quantum mechanics, it refers to a discrete unit
assigned to certain physical quantities such as the energy of an atom at
rest (see Figure 1). The discovery that particles are discrete packets of
energy with wave-like properties led to the branch of physics dealing with
atomic and subatomic systems which is today called quantum mechanics.
It underlies the mathematical framework of many fields of physics and
chemistry, including condensed matter physics, solid-state physics,
atomic physics, molecular physics, computational