The Journal of Psychology

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Special Issue – Therapeutic Benefits of Physical

Activity for Mood: A Systematic Review on the
Effects of Exercise Intensity, Duration, and
Modality

John S. Y. Chan, Guanmin Liu, Danxia Liang, Kanfeng Deng, Jiamin Wu & Jin
H. Yan

To cite this article: John S. Y. Chan, Guanmin Liu, Danxia Liang, Kanfeng Deng, Jiamin Wu &
Jin H. Yan (2019) Special Issue – Therapeutic Benefits of Physical Activity for Mood: A Systematic
Review on the Effects of Exercise Intensity, Duration, and Modality, The Journal of Psychology,
153:1, 102-125, DOI: 10.1080/00223980.2018.1470487

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Published online: 15 Oct 2018.

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THE JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY
2019, VOL. 153, NO. 1, 102–125
https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2018.1470487

Special Issue – Therapeutic Benefits of Physical Activity

for Mood: A Systematic Review on the Effects of Exercise
Intensity, Duration, and Modality
John S. Y. Chana,#, Guanmin Liub,#, Danxia Lianga, Kanfeng Denga,
Jiamin Wua, and Jin H. Yana
a
Laboratory of Neuromotor Control and Learning, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China; bDepartment
of Psychology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

In contemporary society, people experience considerable stress in Received 20 October 2017
their daily lives. Therefore, developing effective approaches and Accepted 25 April 2018
convenient means to cope with their mood problems is important
KEYWORDS
nowadays. Physical activity has been consistently reported as a cost-
Anxiety; depression;
effective way to improve physical fitness, prevent mental illnesses, neuropsychology; stress
and alleviate mood problems. In this systematic review, the effects and coping
of exercise intensity, duration, and modality on mood change are
discussed. Results show that moderate-intensity anaerobic exercise is
associated with greater mood improvements. The relationship
between exercise duration and mood change is non-linear; A regime
of 10- to 30-minute exercise is sufficient for mood improvements.
For exercise modality, anaerobic exercise improves mood, but the
efficacy of aerobic and mindfulness-related exercises remains to be
further examined. In addition to the systematic review of potential
moderators, a narrative review of psychological and neurophysio-
logical theories of exercise effects on mood is provided; we have
highlighted the central role of neuroplasticity in integrating the two
classes of theories. An adoption of neuroimaging techniques in
future research is critical to reveal the mechanisms underpinning the
therapeutic influence of physical activity on affective responses.
Some future research directions are also raised.

In modern society, people live with considerable stress. Physical activity has been con-
sistently found to improve emotional disturbances (Haskell et al., 2007; Lees &
Hopkins, 2013). Research suggests that exercise can enhance positive mood (Barnes,
Coombes, Armstrong, Higgins, & Janelle, 2010; Sylvia et al., 2013), ameliorate distress
(Calogiuri et al., 2016; Heggelund, Kleppe, Morken, & Vedul-Kjelsas, 2014), decrease
anxiety (Mochcovitch, Deslandes, Freire, Garcia, & Nardi, 2016), and alleviate depres-
sion (McPhie & Rawana, 2015).

CONTACT Jin H. Yan jhyan@sfsu.edu Laboratory of Neuromotor Control and Learning, Shenzhen University,
3688 Nan Hai Avenue, Shenzhen 518060, China.
Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/VJRL.
#
Co-first authors.
ß 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 THE JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 103

Affect is an important component of well-being, and is correlated with self-esteem

(Diener, Oishi, & Lucas, 2003; Fredrickson & Joiner, 2002), making it an important tar-
get in behavioural medicines. Affect can be defined differently in different theoretical
frameworks. For instance, in a bi-dimensional model, an affect may be defined by where
it lies in the valence and arousal dimensions (Russell, 2003); whereas in a tri-dimen-
sional model, an affect can be characterized by the dimensions of pleasure–displeasure,
awake–tiredness, and tension–relaxation (Schimmack & Grob, 2000). In previous studies
examining the effects of physical activity on mood, positive and negative affects were
commonly assessed; to facilitate discussion, we will focus on the positive affect/negative
affect conceptualization in this article.
Existing evidence has suggested that even a single bout of exercise is sufficient to
change mood. For instance, an acute bout of aerobic training could induce a positive
mood for at least 30 minutes (Reed & Ones, 2006). Cycling for 15 minutes increased
positive affect in both younger and older adults (Hogan, Mata, & Carstensen, 2013).
Besides increasing positive affect, physical activity also reduces negative affect
(Asmundson et al., 2013). College students showed a reduced sensitivity to anxiety after
an acute bout of walking (50% of maximal heart rate) or running (60–90% of maximal
heart rate) (Broman-Fulks & Storey, 2008). State anxiety was also reduced after
30 minutes of cycling (Smith, 2013).
The therapeutic effects of long-term exercise are also prominent. Compared with
non-exercisers, regular exercisers reported positive affects more frequently (Reed &
Buck, 2009). A large-scale study indicated a positive association between time of engage-
ment in leisure-time exercise and positive mood (Stubbe, de Moor, Boomsma, & de
Geus, 2007). Complementarily, a longitudinal study also showed a positive correlation
between the amount of physical activity and mood enhancement within a 10-week
period (Kanning & Schlicht, 2010). In addition to augmenting positive moods, regular
exercise also decreases, or even prevents, the occurrence of negative moods. Habitual
exercisers are more resilient to stress (Childs & de Wit, 2014). Compared with their
active counterparts, inactive individuals were more likely to have anxiety and depressive
symptoms (Conn, 2010; De Mello et al., 2013), and the amount of moderate-to-vigorous
physical activity undertaken during leisure time was inversely related to symptoms of
anxiety and depression in young people (Dore, O’Loughlin, Beauchamp, Martineau, &
Fournier, 2016).
Engagement in physical activity is basically free of charge; exercise offers a cost-effective
behavioral treatment to improve mood. Conceivably, the relationship between exercise
and mood may be moderated by exercise parameters, namely intensity, duration, and
modality (Rocheleau, Webster, Bryan, & Frazier, 2004). In this review article, we firstly
systematically reviewed the effects of exercise intensity, duration, and modality on mood
improvements in adults. As exercise parameters are closely linked to neurophysiological
changes, they were expected to moderate the effects of exercise on mood. After that, a nar-
rative review of psychological and neurophysiological mechanisms underlying these thera-
peutic effects was provided to highlight the central role of neuroplasticity in integrating
psychological and neurophysiological theories. This may lead to a better understanding of
the therapeutic effects of exercise on mood and offer useful insights for the development
of better interventions in the future.
104 J. S. Y. CHAN ET AL.

A Systematic Review of the Effects of Exercise Intensity, Duration,

and Modality
The systematic review of the effect of exercise intensity, duration, and modality on
mood change was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for
Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA; Moher, Liberati, Tetzlaff, Altman, &
PRISMA Group, 2009).

Methods
Search Strategy
Studies were identified by searching electronic databases and scanning the bibliographies
of articles published from the first available date to October 5, 2017. Literature search
was conducted in Web of Knowledge, PubMed, and PsycINFO using the terms ‘mood’
and ‘emotion’ in combination with the terms ‘exercise intensity, ‘exercise duration, and
‘exercise modality’. The returned results were screened by the first author (JSYC) to
exclude duplicate articles based on titles. Abstracts of the remaining articles were inde-
pendently reviewed by two review authors (JSYC and GL). The remaining studies were
then independently reviewed by JSYC and GL against the inclusion and exclusion crite-
ria. Disagreement was resolved by discussion between review authors.

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

The included studies should meet the following criteria: (1) Studies of adult participants.
(2) At least one outcome of mood was recorded both before and after exercising. (3)
For the studies of exercise intensity, objective measures of exercise intensity should be
used. (4) Original research articles published in peer-reviewed journals. (5) The articles
were written in English.

Data Extraction and Quality Assessment

One author (JSYC) extracted data regarding study and subject characteristics, and major
findings. Risks of bias were assessed independently by two authors (JSYC and GL) in
accordance with the Cochrane Collaboration Guidelines (Higgins & Green, 2005). Risks
of bias for each included study were rated as low risk, high risk, or unclear on the basis
of sequence generation, allocation concealment, blinding, incomplete outcome data, and
selective reporting. Disagreement was resolved by discussion between review authors.

Synthesis of Results
The included studies were grouped by the exercise parameters of interest (i.e. intensity,
duration, and modality).
 THE JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 105

Figure 1. Flowchart of literature search.

Results
The initial search retrieved 710 records and 77 records were retained after title and
abstract screening. Finally, only 38 articles were retained after full-text reading (26 for
exercise intensity, 7 for exercise duration, and 7 for exercise modality) (Figure 1).
Subject characteristics and major findings were summarized in Tables 1–3.

Risks of Bias
The risks of bias were summarized in Figure 2. It was not practical nor possible to blind
participants and experimenters of the manipulations of exercise parameters, thus, all the
included studies were judged to have a high risk in blinding. The procedure of alloca-
tion concealment was rarely mentioned and most of the included studies had an unclear
risk of bias in this domain. In other domains, the included studies generally demon-
strated low risks of bias.
Table 1. Influence of Exercise Intensity on Mood.
106

Study Participants Exercise intensity Main findings

Arent et al. (2005) University students (n ¼ 31, mean Resistance training of 40%, 70%, and 100% of 10RM 1. Moderate-intensity strength training produced the great-
age ¼ 21.38) est improvements in anxiety.
2. High-intensity training increased anxiety.
Balchin Moderately depressed patients Moderate-intensity aerobic exercise (45–50% HRR), Greatest improvement of depression in the high-intensity
et al. (2016) (n ¼ 30, mean age ¼ 25.4) high-intensity aerobic exercise (70–75% HRR), or no group, followed by the moderate-intensity group, after
exercise control 6 weeks.
Berger & University students (n ¼ 91, mean Jogging at 55%, 77%, and 79% age-adjusted heart rate Improved tension, depression, anger, vigor, fatigue, and confu-
Owen (1998) age ¼ 21.38) sion, regardless of exercise intensity.
J. S. Y. CHAN ET AL.

Bixby et al. (2001) University students (n ¼ 27, mean Cycling at low intensity (75% VT) and high intensity Reduced negative mood and unchanged positive mood after
age ¼ 23.34) (just below VT) exercise, regardless of intensity.
Blanchard Young adults (n ¼ 24, mean Cycling at 50% and 80% HRR 1. Unchanged positive mood after exercise.
et al. (2001) age ¼ 24.13) 2. Unchanged psychological distress in 50% condition.
3. Reduced psychological distress in fit participants only in
80% intensity condition.
Brown Sedentary adults (n ¼ 89, Walking at low intensity (n ¼ 34, mean age ¼ 52.7, Increased positive mood only after 16-wk moderate inten-
et al. (1995) 40–69 years) 45-55% HRR) or moderate intensity (n ¼ 24, mean sity walking.
age ¼ 53.44, 65–75% HRR), or control (n ¼ 31,
mean age ¼ 52.2)
Buscombe & Young adults (n ¼ 15, mean Aerobics at self-selected intensity, low intensity (125 Improved mood after exercise, regardless of exercise intensity.
Inskip (2013) age ¼ 35.08) bpm), and high intensity (140 bpm)
Cassilhas Sedentary older adults (n ¼ 62, 1. Moderate-intensity resistance exercise 1. Improved tension, depression, anger, fatigue, confusion,
et al. (2007) 65–75 years) (n ¼ 19, mean age ¼ 69.01) and total mood disturbance after moderate-inten-
2. High-intensity resistance exercise (n ¼ 20, sity exercise.
mean age ¼ 68.4) 2. Improved tension, depression, and total mood disturbance
3. Control (n ¼ 23, mean age ¼ 67.04) after high-intensity exercise.
Cox et al. (2004) Young adults (n ¼ 24, 18–45 years) Treadmill running at 60% and 80% VO2max, and control Greater improvements in state anxiety 30-min after 80%
VO2max exercise than 60% VO2max exercise.
Daley & Health and fitness club members Cycling at low intensity (40% HRM) and moderate 1. Unchanged positive mood after low-intensity exercise.
Huffen (2003) (n ¼ 30, mean age ¼ 31.7) intensity (70% HRM) 2. Increase of positive mood after moderate-inten-
sity exercise.
Dishman University students (n ¼ 36, 1. Low-intensity cycling (n ¼ 12, 40% VO2max) Similar increase in vigor after low-intensity and moderate-inten-
et al. (2010) 18–35 years) 2. Moderate-intensity cycling (n ¼ 12, 75% VO2max) sity exercise.
3. Control (n ¼ 12)
Ensari et al. (2017) Patients with multiple sclerosis Treadmill walking at 30%, 50%, and 70% HRR, Improved vigor and total mood disturbance only after moder-
(n ¼ 24, mean age ¼ 40.21) and control ate-intensity exercise.
Focht & University students (n ¼ 84) 1. Resistance exercise at 50% 1RM 1. Reduced state anxiety 180-min after exercising at
Koltyn (1999) 2. Resistance exercise at 80% 1RM 50% 1RM.
3. Control
Herring & Sedentary university stu- 1. Resistance exercise at low intensity (resistance: Unchanged vigor and fatigue after exercise.
O'Connor dents (n ¼ 14) 40–55% 1RM; 40–50% HRR)
(2009) 2. Resistance exercise at moderate-to-high intensity
(resistance: 70–85 1RM; endurance: 80% HRR)
3. Control
Kampshoff Adult cancer survivors (n ¼ 277, 1. Resistance and endurance exercise at Reduced anxiety only after 12-wk high-intensity exercise.
et al. (2015) mean age ¼ 53.66) low-to-moderate intensity (15% 1RM)
2. Resistance and endurance at high
intensity (70% 1RM)
3. Control
McGowan Young adults (n ¼ 23, 21–29 years) Cycling at 40%, 55%, and 75% VO2max, and control Unchanged tranquillity and euphoria after exercise.
et al. (1985)
Meyer et al. (2016) Patients with major depression dis- Cycling at low- (RPE ¼ 11), moderate- (RPE ¼ 13), and 1. Similar improvement in depression after exercise of differ-
order (n ¼ 24, mean age ¼ 38.6) high intensity (RPE ¼ 15), and control ent intensities.
2. More long-lasting improvement after moderate exercise.
O'Connor University students (n ¼ 14, mean Resistance exercise at 40%, 60%, and 80% 10RM Reduced state anxiety 90- and 120-min after exercising at
et al. (1993) age ¼ 22.6) 60% intensity.
Petruzzello & University students (n ¼ 20, mean Cycling at 55% and 70% VO2max, and control Reduced state anxiety 30-min after exercising at 70% intensity.
Tate (1997) age ¼ 22.6)
Puetz et al. (2008) University students (n ¼ 36, mean 1. Low-intensity aerobic exercise (n ¼ 12, 1. Similar increase in vigor across 6-wk low- and moderate-
age ¼ 23) mean age ¼ 24, 40% VO2max) intensity exercise.
2. Moderate-intensity aerobic exercise 2. Reduced fatigue only across 6-wk low-intensity exercise.
(n ¼ 12, mean age ¼ 24, 75% VO2max)
3. Control (n ¼ 12, mean age ¼ 21)
Raglin & Young adults (n ¼ 15, mean Cycling at 40%, 60% and 70% VO2max Similar reduction in state anxiety after exercise at different
Wilson (1996) age ¼ 23.9) intensities.
Schneider Regular runners (n ¼ 24, mean Running at low- (50–55% VO2max), high- Increased calmness after recovery phase of the high-intensity
et al., (2009) age ¼ 32.44) (80–85% VO2max), and preferred intensity exercise only.
Steptoe Young adults (n ¼ 72, mean Cycling at low- (50% VO2max) and high intensity Similar increases of vigor and exhilaration after exercising at
et al., (1993) age ¼ 26.85) (70% VO2max), and control 50% and 70% VO2max.
Tsutsumi Sedentary older adults (n ¼ 36, mean 1. Moderate-intensity strength training 1. Similar increase in vigor after 12-wk moderate- and high-
et al. (1998) age ¼ 68.5) (n ¼ 12, 55–65% 1RM) intensity strength training.
2. High-intensity strength training 2. Reduced trait anxiety after 12-wk moderate-inten-
(n ¼ 12, 75–85% 1RM) sity training.
3. Control (n ¼ 12)
Wohlwend Young adults (n ¼ 30, mean Treadmill running at low (40% VO2max), moderate (60% Unchanged positive and negative moods after exercise.
et al. (2017) age ¼ 24.27) VO2max), and high intensity (85% VO2max)
Woo et al. (2009) University students (n ¼ 17, mean Treadmill running at low (45% VO2max), moderate (60% Similar increase in vigor after exercising at different intensities.
THE JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY

age ¼ 21) VO2max), and high intensity (75% VO2max),

and control
Note. HRM: heart rate maximum; HRR: heart rate reserve; RM: repetition maximum; RPE: rating of perceived exertion; VO2max: maximal oxygen consumption; VT: ventilatory threshold.
107
 108
J. S. Y. CHAN ET AL.

Table 2. Influence of Exercise Duration on Mood.

Study Participants Exercise duration Main findings
Daley & Young adults (n ¼ 23, mean 15-min and 30-min cycling 1. Improved psychological distress and fatigue after exercise.
Welch (2004) age ¼ 22.4) 2. No differences between the 15-min and 30-min bouts in mood improvement.
Hansen University students (n ¼ 21, 10-, 20-, and 30-min cycling 1. Improved vigor, fatigue, and total mood after 10-min exercise.
et al. (2001) 20–26 years) 2. Additional improvement in confusion after 20-min exercise.
3. No additional improvement after 20-min exercise.
Johansson & Qigong summer camp 30-min and 60-min Qigong exercise Both exercise durations resulted in similar improvements in anxiety, tension,
Hassmen (2008) attendants (n ¼ 41, mean depression, anger, vigor, fatigue and confusion
age ¼ 56.7)
Petruzzello & Young adults (n ¼ 16, mean 15-min and 30-min treadmill running Reduced state anxiety after both exercise durations.
Landers (1994) age ¼ 22.7)
Rejeski University students (n ¼ 80, 10-, 25-, 40-min cycling, or no exer- Similar improvements of positive and negative moods in all exercise durations.
et al. (1995) mean age ¼ 18.3) cise control
Rudolph & University students (n ¼ 36, 10-, 15-, or 20-min treadmill running Similar improvements of positive mood and psychological
Butki (1998) mean age ¼ 20.67) distress in all exercise durations.
Woo et al. (2009) University students (n ¼ 16, 15-, 30-, and 45-min treadmill running 1. Higher vigor and after 30-min exercise, compared to other conditions.
mean age ¼ 21) 2. No difference in vigor after rest, 15-, and 45-min of exercise.
Table 3. Influence of Exercise Modality on Mood.
Study Participants Exercise modality Main findings
Bass et al. (2002) University students (n ¼ 114, 17–29 years) 1. Aerobic dance (n ¼ 35) Reduced stress after 8-wk weight training.
2. Weight training (n ¼ 45)
3. Control (n ¼ 34)
Battaglia et al. (2015) Adult prisoners (n ¼ 75, 18–50 years) 1. Cardiovascular plus resistance training 1. 9-month CRT improved depression.
(CRT) (n ¼ 25, mean age ¼ 30.1) 2. 9-month HIST improved depression and anxiety.
2. Strength training (HIST) (n ¼ 25, mean
age ¼ 33.9)
3. Control (n ¼ 25, mean age ¼ 32.8)
Brown et al. (1995) Sedentary adults (n ¼ 107, 40–69 years) 1. Low intensity walking (n ¼ 34, mean Greater improvements in total mood disturbance and anger
age ¼ 52.7, 45–55% HRR) after 16-wk Tai-Chi exercise than low intensity walking.
2. Moderate intensity walking (n ¼ 24,
mean age ¼ 53.44, 65–75% HRR)
3. Tai-Chi (n ¼ 18, mean age ¼ 50.83)
4. Control (n ¼ 31, mean age ¼ 52.2)
Liu et al. (2005) Middle-aged females (n ¼ 22, mean 1. Cycling exercise (n ¼ 22) 1. Increased positive mood after cycling and Taijiquan.
age ¼ 57) 2. Taijiquan (n ¼ 22) 2. Decreased negative mood after Taijiquan.
Lox et al. (1995) HIV-1 patients (n ¼ 33, mean age ¼ 36.45) 1. Aerobic training (n ¼ 11) Both aerobic and weight training increased positive mood
2. Weight training (n ¼ 12) and decreased negative mood after 12-wk.
3. Control (n ¼ 10)
Sarsan et al. (2006) Obese women (n ¼ 60, 20–60 years) 1. Aerobic training (n ¼ 20, Reduced depression in both the aerobic training and
mean age ¼ 41.65) resistance training groups after 12-wk.
2. Resistance training (n ¼ 20,
mean age ¼ 42.5)
3. Control (n ¼ 20, mean age ¼ 43.6)
Szabo et al. (1998) Young adults (n ¼ 195, mean age ¼ 28.89) 1. Aerobic exercise (n ¼ 42, 1. Higher tranquility score after Tai-Chi/yoga, compared
mean age ¼ 26.43) to other exercises.
2. Anaerobic exercise (n ¼ 51, 2. Higher revitalization score after anaerobic exercise,
mean age ¼ 27.81) compared to martial arts.
3. Martial arts (n ¼ 45, mean age ¼ 24.73) 3. Lower stress after Tai-Chi/yoga, compared to
4. Tai-Chi/Yoga (n ¼ 28, mean age ¼ 31.91) martial arts.
5. Control (n ¼ 29, mean age ¼ 37.03)
THE JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY
109
110 J. S. Y. CHAN ET AL.

Figure 2. Risks of bias of the included studies in accordance with the Cochrane
Collaboration guidelines.

Intensity of Exercise
Exercise intensity was the most extensively studied moderating factor (Table 1). Most of
the included studies investigated the intensity effect of aerobic exercises (aerobic: 65.4%,
anaerobic: 34.6%).
The intensity effect of aerobic exercise is not consistently observed. Seven out of nine-
teen included studies showed no intensity-related differences in mood change (Berger &
Owen, 1998; Bixby, Spalding, & Hatfield, 2001; Buscombe & Inskip, 2013; Dishman,
Thom, Puetz, O’Connor, & Clementz, 2010; Raglin & Wilson, 1996; Steptoe, Kearsley, &
Walters, 1993; Woo, Kim, Kim, Petruzzello, & Hatfield, 2009), five showed superiority of
 THE JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 111

high-intensity exercise (Balchin, Linde, Blackhurst, Rauch, & Schonbachler, 2016;

Blanchard, Rodgers, Spence, & Courneya, 2001; Cox, Thomas, Hinton, & Donahue, 2004;
Petruzzello & Tate, 1997; Schneider et al., 2009), four showed greater mood improvements
after moderate-intensity exercise (Brown et al., 1995; Daley & Huffen, 2003; Ensari,
Sandroff, & Motl, 2017; Meyer, Koltyn, Stegner, Kim, & Cook, 2016), and only one showed
similar benefits between low- and moderate-intensity exercises (Puetz, Flowers, &
O’Connor, 2008). Also, two studies showed no benefits of aerobic exercise on mood,
regardless of exercise intensity (McGowan, Robertson, & Epstein, 1985; Wohlwend, Olsen,
Haberg, & Palmer, 2017). The inconsistency of findings probably results from the hetero-
geneity of participant characteristics and exercise duration across studies.
In anaerobic exercises, moderate-intensity training usually resulted in greater mood
improvements, compared to low- and high-intensity training (Arent, Landers, Matt, &
Etnier, 2005; Cassilhas et al., 2007; Focht & Koltyn, 1999; O’Connor, Bryant, Veltri, &
Gebhardt, 1993; Tsutsumi et al., 1998). In addition, high-intensity exercise, but not low-
intensity exercise, reduced anxiety after 12 weeks of training (Kampshoff et al., 2015).
However, maximal anaerobic training can lead to an increase of anxiety after a single
bout of exercise (Arent et al., 2005). Furthermore, one study showed no benefit of both
low- and moderate-to-high anaerobic exercises on vigor and fatigue in sedentary partici-
pants (Herring & O’Connor, 2009). Thus, anaerobic exercise for sedentary participants
may not be as good as it is for the more active participants.
Because of the heterogeneous nature of findings, it is inconclusive if the intensity of
aerobic exercise moderates the affective benefits of exercise. In anaerobic training, mod-
erate exercise intensity appears to be associated with greater mood improvements than
low and high exercise intensities.

Duration of Exercise
Duration of exercise is another important moderator to consider (Table 2). The duration
of exercise of the included studies ranges from 10 to 60 minutes. A majority of the
included studies suggest that 10- to 15-minute exercise is sufficient to produce significant
mood improvements (Daley & Welch, 2004; Hansen, Stevens, & Coast, 2001; Petruzzello
& Landers, 1994; Rejeski, Gauvin, Hobson, & Norris, 1995; Rudolph & Butki, 1998). Some
studies have suggested a non-linear relationship between exercise duration and mood
improvement. For instance, Johansson and Hassmen (2008) observed similar mood
improvements after 30- and 60-minute exercises. However, this study did not include a
shorter exercise duration, it is not possible to know if exercising for less than 30 minutes
can bring about similar mood changes. Besides, Woo et al. (2009) demonstrated that vigor
was increased only after 30-minute exercise, but not after 15- or 45-minute exercise.
Results of the included studies tend to suggest 10- to 30-minute exercise to be sufficient
for mood improvements, and longer exercise can only provide little additional benefit.

Modality of Exercise
It has long been debated whether exercise modality influences one’s mood (Table 3).
The included studies usually focused on the comparison between aerobic and anaerobic
112 J. S. Y. CHAN ET AL.

exercises. Anaerobic exercises were always found to be efficacious to improve mood,

whereas, the efficacy of aerobic exercise was rather equivocal. Two studies observed
similar benefits between aerobic and anaerobic exercises (Lox, McAuley, & Tucker,
1995; Sarsan, Ardic, Ozgen, & Topuz, 2006). However, Battaglia et al. (2015) found that
anaerobic exercises could provide extra anxiolytic benefits. Bass et al. (2002) suggested
that mood improvement was only observed after anaerobic training.
Moreover, scholars also found that mindfulness-related exercises (e.g. Tai-Chi, Yoga,
and Taijiquan) can improve mood. It was observed that, compared to aerobic and
anaerobic exercises, mindfulness-related exercises can produce greater mood benefits
(Brown et al., 1995; Liu, Mimura, Wang, & Ikuta, 2005; Szabo, Mesko, Caputo, & Gill,
1998). Given a paucity of research into mindfulness-related exercises, it would be pre-
mature to establish a concrete conclusion of their efficacy on mood change.

Theories of Mood Change in Response to Exercise

The therapeutic effects of exercise on mood can be explained by both psychological and
neurophysiological mechanisms. In the following sections, a narrative review of some
psychological and neurophysiological theories is provided.

Psychological Mechanisms
Social Cognitive Theory
Psychosocial variables may mediate the relationship between physical activity and mood
change. Self-efficacy, an individual’s belief in his or her ability to successfully carry out
the necessary action required to satisfy situational demands (Maddux & Kleiman, 2016),
is positively associated with physical activity level (Netz, Wu, Becker, & Tenenbaum,
2005). Physical activity provides individuals with mastery experiences, which in turn
leads to improved self-efficacy and psychological well-being (Barnett, 2013; Kwan &
Bryan, 2010; Pickett, Yardley, & Kendrick, 2012). A decrease in depression after moder-
ate-intensity exercise can be explained by increased self-efficacy (Craft, 2005).
Self-esteem is another possible mediator which refers to one’s evaluation of his/her
own worth (Legrand, 2014). On the one hand, exercise increases self-esteem, such that
one evaluates himself/herself more positively following exercise (Liu, Wu, & Ming,
2015). On the other hand, mood depends on one’s self-esteem. Individuals with low
self-esteem are more likely to be depressed and anxious (Sowislo & Orth, 2013) while
those with high self-esteem tend to perceive social feedback more positively (Somerville,
Kelley, & Heatherton, 2010). Therefore, it is likely that exercise improves mood by ele-
vating self-esteem.
Recent neuroimaging results also corroborate this point of view that exercise affects
mood through certain psychosocial mediators. For example, self-esteem is associated
with gray-matter volume of the brain regions related to stress/emotion regulation
(Agroskin, Klackl, & Jonas, 2014). At the same time, self-esteem is also related to the
connectivity between frontostriatal regions which are important hubs for mood regula-
tion (Chavez & Heatherton, 2015). Collectively, these findings suggest a connection
between psychosocial variables and mood regulation. Because exercise alters brain
 THE JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 113

structures and functions, this implicates that changes in psychosocial functions are con-
sequences of exercise-induced neuroplasticity (Hillman, Erickson, & Kramer, 2008).

Distraction Hypothesis
According to the distraction hypothesis, exercise distracts us from stressful stimuli or
offers us a break from daily routine, emancipating us from negative moods (Anderson
& Shivakumar, 2013). Behavioral results showed that, following moderate-intensity exer-
cise, college students paid more attention to pleasant stimuli, and less attention to
unpleasant stimuli (Tian & Smith, 2011). It was also shown that participants became
less aroused by unfavorable stimuli post-exercise (Crabbe, Smith, & Dishman, 2007). In
contrast, Routledge, McFetridge-Durdle, Macdonald, Breau, & Campbell (2015)
observed no effect of distraction on mood that there was no difference in frequency of
anger rumination between a 3-minute walking group, a distraction group, and a control
group. Hence, validity of the distraction hypothesis remains to be further tested.

Neurophysiological Mechanisms
In addition to psychological changes, long-term mood changes can also be associated
with neurophysiological adaptations in the nervous systems.

Thermogenic Theory
Elevating body temperature activates the sympathetic nervous system and the hypothala-
mus–pituitary–adrenal hormonal axis, and the associated hormonal changes result in
reduced pain perception and improved mood (Kukkonen-Harjula & Kauppinen, 2006).
In line with this theory, empirical evidence suggests that whole-body hyperthermia
reduces depression (Hanusch et al., 2013), and thermal therapy increases relaxation and
alleviates somatic and mental complaints (Masuda, Nakazato, Kihara, Minagoe, &
Tei, 2005).
According to the thermogenic theory, an increase of exercise intensity (increased
body temperature) should be associated with mood improvements; however, this con-
flicts with the results of systematic review in this article. There is also evidence that
high-intensity exercise can lead to discomfort and negative mood (Saanijoki et al.,
2015). Thus, the validity of the thermogenic theory is questionable.

Endorphin Theory
The endorphin theory is based on the observations of increased endorphin levels after
exercise (Bender et al., 2007). Electrophysiological results indicated a positive association
between the level of beta-endorphin in blood and the proportion of alpha-frequency
brain wave (an indicator of a state of tranquility) after cycling (Mimasa et al., 1996).
This suggests that exercise-induced endorphin release is associated with mood improve-
ment. However, a more recent study showed that endorphin molecules are too large to
pass through the blood-brain barrier to exert effects on the central nervous system.
114 J. S. Y. CHAN ET AL.

Instead of endorphin, an involvement of the endocannabinoid system may be more cru-

cial for mood improvements after exercise (Fuss et al., 2015).

Dual-Mode Model
According to the dual-mode model, exercisers can only experience pleasure within a
limited range of exercise intensity not significantly perturbing the homeostatic system
(Ekkekakis, Hall, & Petruzzello, 2008). If exercise intensity is too high, a steady physio-
logical state cannot be maintained, resulting in displeasure. When intensity exceeds the
ventilatory threshold (above which ventilation becomes disproportionately high with
respect to oxygen consumption, reflecting the onset of anaerobiosis and lactate accumu-
lation), for example, the pleasure derived from exercise decreases (Ekkekakis, Hall, &
Petruzzello, 2008).
Empirical supports for the model comes from Markowitz and Arent (2010), showing
that affect is worsened by exercising at an intensity 5% above the lactate threshold. In
contrast, some other studies showed improvements in tension, anxiety, and calmness
after exercise, regardless of exercise intensity (5% below, 5% above, and at lactate
threshold) participants have exercised at (Parfitt, Rose, & Burgess, 2006; Rose & Parfitt,
2007; Welch, Hulley, Ferguson, & Beauchamp, 2007). Thus, the dual-mode model
receives limited empirical support.

Other Theoretical Models

Other models include the epigenetics hypothesis, the neuroplasticity hypothesis, and the
prefrontal lateralization hypothesis. The epigenetics hypothesis states that exercise mod-
ulates epigenetic patterns and subsequently promotes gene expressions favorable to
emotional health (Sanchis-Gomar et al., 2012). For instance, exercise alters the tran-
scription of the BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor)-gene, resulting in changes in
brain structures and functions (Gomez-Pinilla, Zhuang, Feng, Ying, & Fan, 2011) favor-
able to mood regulation.
According to the neuroplasticity hypothesis, participation in physical activity alters
brain structures and/or functions to improve executive functions to enhance mood
regulation (Hillman et al., 2008). For instance, aerobic exercise increases activity in the
ventral prefrontal cortex, an important brain region for emotional regulation (Fumoto
et al., 2010). Long-term resistance training protects elderly people from white-matter
atrophy to impede decline of executive functions (Best, Chiu, Hsu, Nagamatsu, & Liu-
Ambrose, 2015). At the molecular level, the therapeutic effects of physical activity are
mediated by a number of growth factors, and BDNF is one of the most extensively
studied growth factors (Gradari, Palle, McGreevy, Fontan-Lozano, & Trejo, 2016).
Exercise induces BDNF-gene expression and release in the brain and peripheral systems
to promote neurogenesis (Szuhany, Bugatti, & Otto, 2015), reorganizing the nervous
system to achieve better mood regulation.
The prefrontal lateralization hypothesis posits that a higher activation in the left pre-
frontal cortex is associated with positive mood and approach behaviors; whereas a
greater activation in the right prefrontal cortex is associated with negative mood and
 THE JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 115

avoidance behaviors (Coan & Allen, 2004). In the context of physical activity, this
hypothesis suggests that participation in physical activity increases activation in the left
prefrontal cortex relative to the right prefrontal cortex, and this subsequently improves
mood. This claim is supported by the results that a 30-minute pedaling exercise
increases brain wave power in the alpha-1 band in the right prefrontal region (i.e. lower
brain activation) (Ohmatsu et al., 2014) and a greater asymmetry of alpha-frequency
brain waves in the frontal lobe after walking at a self-selected pace (Vogt, Schneider,
Bruemmer, & Strueder, 2010). Although some previous findings are consistent with this
hypothesis (Ekkekakis et al., 2008), solid evidence has yet to be obtained. In general, the
link between changes in the nervous system and mood still requires more direct and
concrete evidence to support.

Discussion
Effects of Exercise Intensity, Duration, and Modality on Mood
Results of the systematic review suggest that the moderating effect of aerobic exercise
intensity is inconclusive. However, in anaerobic training, moderate exercise intensity
appears to be associated with greater mood improvements. Both psychological and
neurophysiological accounts can explain the superiority of moderate intensity exercise.
Low intensity exercise is monotonous while high intensity exercise is over-challenging.
Compared to low and high intensity exercises, moderate intensity exercise provides an
experience of a sense of mastery (Arent et al., 2005). In terms of neurophysiology, both
stress and reward systems are affected by exercise. An exercise has to exceed an inten-
sity threshold to activate the hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal hormonal axis and high
intensity exercise can result in a surge of cortisol (Arent et al., 2005). Thus, low inten-
sity exercise is not sufficient to induce significant changes in the nervous system while
high intensity exercise can over-activate the stress system and result in heightened levels
of stress and anxiety (Paolucci, Loukov, Bowdish, & Heisz, 2018). In addition, level of
circulating endocannabinoids (endogenous ligands found in the reward system) is only
increased following moderate intensity exercise (Raichlen, Foster, Seillier, Giuffrida, &
Gerdeman, 2013), which is assumed to be associated to a euphoric state post-exercise
(Dietrich & McDaniel, 2004).
The affective benefits of exercise do not appear to be linearly related to exercise dur-
ation. According to the reviewed articles, 10- to 30-minute exercise is sufficient for
mood improvements, and a longer exercise duration has little additional benefit. From a
perspective of exercise prescription, the results suggest that exercise of short duration is
sufficient to improve mood. A lack of time is a frequently reported barrier to prevent
individuals from exercising (Popham & Mitchell, 2006). The positive impact of short
bouts of exercise to emotional health is of practical significance, such that more people
will be attracted to regular exercise. Although it is commonly conceived that mood
improvement and exercise duration are positively related (Evans et al., 2017;
Sch€ondube, Kanning, & Fuchs, 2016), we found a non-linear relationship between exer-
cise duration and affective benefits. The relationship between exercise duration and
affective response is poorly understood. To date, it is assumed that exercising for less
than 10 minutes exerts limited effects on the nervous systems for mood improvement;
116 J. S. Y. CHAN ET AL.

whereas, long bouts of exercise (>30 min) can lead to fatigue and elicit withdrawal-
related responses (Woo et al., 2009).
In terms of exercise modality, anaerobic exercise can improve mood, and sometimes
offers extra benefits when compared with aerobic exercise. The efficacy of aerobic exer-
cise on mood improvement is not consistent across studies and there is preliminary
support for the efficacy of mindfulness-related exercises. Exercise has long been consid-
ered an effective means to improve mood (Str€ ohle, 2009). However, regarding efficacy
of aerobic exercise, we found mixed results, probably due to a high heterogeneity of
participant characteristics across studies. On the contrary, efficacy of anaerobic exercise
has been consistently observed. It has been suggested that, compared to aerobic exercise,
improvement in performance can be more readily noticed in anaerobic training (Bass
et al., 2002). For instance, individuals in weight-training can sense their fitness improve-
ment in terms of the increasing load they can handle, which in turn may boost their
mood. In addition, anaerobic exercise increases BDNF, an important neurotrophin to
stimulate structural and functional brain changes (Winter et al., 2007). Besides trad-
itional exercises, preliminary support for the efficacy of mindfulness-related exercises
was also observed. Mindfulness-related exercises usually include meditation as a part of
training. Meditation involves various emotion and attention regulatory strategies to
achieve cognitive well-being and emotional balance (Lutz, Dunne, & Davidson, 2006).
There is evidence to suggest that meditation influences brain regions responsible for
interoception and attention (Holzel et al., 2008), and reduces psychological distress
(Goyal et al., 2014).
The Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans (Office of Disease Prevention and
Health Promotion, 2008) show that adults need at least 150-minute moderate (or 75-
minute vigorous) aerobic activity and muscle training on two or more days a week to
achieve significant health benefits. It is probable for those following the guidelines to
receive both physical and affective benefits. To our knowledge, exercise’s effects on phys-
ical health have been emphasized, and there is no formal investigation of the relationship
between adherence to the physical activity guidelines and emotional health. As mood dis-
turbances become common nowadays (Kessler, Petukhova, Sampson, Zaslavsky, &
Wittchen, 2012), a better understanding of the relationship between adherence to the
physical activity guidelines and emotional health would be of practical importance.
The moderating effects of exercise parameters on mood may have psychological and
neurophysiological origins. Over the past few decades, a number of psychological and
neurophysiological theories have been proposed. Hitherto, only the social cognitive the-
ory (Maddux & Kleiman, 2016), epigenetics hypothesis (Sanchis-Gomar et al., 2012),
neuroplasticity hypothesis (Hillman et al., 2008), and prefrontal lateralization hypothesis
(Coan & Allen, 2004) seem to be compatible to existing results of mood changes post-
exercise. Based on a review of existing theories, we found that both psychological and
neurophysiological theories are somewhat associated with neuroplasticity in the central
nervous system. Based on this assertion, neuroplasticity is key to an integration of psy-
chological and neurophysiological theories. In recent years, a large body of research
have been suggesting that exercise regulates the expression and transcription of genes of
neurotrophic factors (Gomez-Pinilla et al., 2011; Sanchis-Gomar et al., 2012). In add-
ition, psychosocial constructs (such as self-esteem) are linked to structural and
 THE JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 117

functional changes in brain regions important for mood regulation (Agroskin et al.,
2014; Chavez & Heatherton, 2015). Thus, it is possible that exercise can promote neuro-
plasticity at the molecular level, leading to structural and functional changes in the cen-
tral nervous system for mood improvements. Technological advancements in recent
years have provided us the opportunity to take advantage of neuroimaging to tap onto
the neural underpinnings of exercise’s therapeutic effects in vivo. The complementary
evidence obtained by these techniques will help us to examine the validity of the theo-
ries and improve our understanding of the neural correlates and mechanisms of the
therapeutic benefits of exercise on mood.
In addition to the exercise parameters investigated, we should acknowledge that other
factors, such as contextual factors, may also moderate the effects of exercise on mood.
For instance, recreational sports may improve positive affect while competition sports
may do the opposite and inflict stress on the exercisers (Zajenkowski, Jankowski, &
Kołata, 2015). The influence of contextual factors on change in mood still requires fur-
ther explorations.

Limitations
Two limitations of the systematic review have been noted. Firstly, only a small number
of studies are included in the systematic review (especially for exercise duration and
modality). Secondly, there is high heterogeneity of participant characteristics in the
included studies. For instance, participants of different fitness levels and/or clinical sta-
tuses were recruited in different studies. These issues can be overcome when sufficient
high-quality studies are available in the future.
In the included studies, a variety of exercise intensity measures were used, making it
difficult to compare results across studies. Future researchers should use objective exer-
cise intensity measures, such as maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) or metabolic
equivalent of task (MET), to enable meaningful cross-study comparisons. Moreover,
data of these studies mainly came from laboratory settings, so that they generally suffer
from a low ecological validity. To cope with this issue, future research may use
momentary sampling to record mood changes in one’s daily activity. By using this
method, researchers have observed that physical activity increases positive affect, but
not reduces negative affect (Wichers et al., 2012). In addition, wearable devices can be
used for recording physical activity level and physiological data. Results of a preliminary
study have shown that, participants have a better mood while moving into a green space
(land covered by vegetation), as indicated by portable EEG devices (Roe, Aspinall,
Mavros, & Coyne, 2013). The development and use of such devices not only makes eco-
logical studies feasible, but also helps to improve physical and psychological health in
line with individual needs in the future.

Conclusions
Decades of research have shown that physical activity benefits both physical and mental
health. It can improve our mood through various psychological and neurophysiological
mechanisms. Therefore, participation in physical activity should be promoted as a cost-
118 J. S. Y. CHAN ET AL.

effective way to improve quality of life and combat mood problems. In this systematic
review, we show that moderate-intensity anaerobic exercise is associated with greater
mood improvements, and a session of 10- to 30-minute exercise is sufficient to improve
mood. In terms of exercise modality, anaerobic exercise can improve mood, but the effi-
cacy of aerobic and mindfulness-related exercises remains to be further examined. The
mechanisms underlying the positive effects of exercise on mood are not fully under-
stood. Hitherto, only the social cognitive theory, epigenetics hypothesis, neuroplasticity
hypothesis, and prefrontal lateralization hypothesis can satisfactorily explain mood
changes post-exercise. However, direct evidence for these theories is still lacking. One
central idea in these theories is neuroplasticity. Thus, the importance of neuroplasticity
in integrating psychological and neurophysiological theories has been proposed and
future investigations incorporating various neuroimaging techniques are warranted.

Author notes
John S. Y. Chan is a research assistant at the Shenzhen University. His current research interests
are motor control and learning, and neuroplasticity.
Guanmin Liu holds a Ph.D. degree in Psychology (Tsinghua University). His current research
interest is psychological well-being.
Danxia Liang holds a master’s degree in Psychology (Shenzhen University). Her current research
interest is the development of motor learning in children.
Kanfeng Deng is a master’s student at the Shenzhen University. His current research interest is
the development of motor learning in children.
Jiamin Wu is a master’s student at the Shenzhen University. Her current research interest is the
development of motor control in children.
Jin H. Yan is a professor at the Shenzhen University. His current research interests are motor
control and learning, and neuroplasticity.

Disclosure statement
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

Funding
This work was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Shenzhen University and the
Knowledge Innovation Program of Shenzhen [JCYJ20170302143406192].

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