The P e n n s y l v a n i a S ta t e Co l le g e

Th e G r a d u a t e S c h o o l

D e p a r t m e n t of Physics

Ultrasonic Absorption

in Gases

A dissertation

by
P r a n k T obias Dietz

S u b m i t t e d in p a r t i a l f ul f i l l m e n t
of the r e q u i r e m e n t s
for the d e g r e e of

Doctor of P h i l o s o p h y

August 1951

Approved

Department of Phyaics

epa rtment
 A c k n o w le d ge m en t

The w r it e r wishes to express his th a nk s and in ­

debtedness to Drso Wo Ho P i e l e m e i e r and Ro S imon, w ho s e

inte rest and gu i da n ce made this w o r k pos sible, and to

Mr» P, Wo J a c k s o n for his help w i t h many of the el e c­

trical and m ec h an i c a l detailso

 Ta b le of Contents

Pag e

Introduction 1

Theory 7

Equipment 11

T he Gases 20

Method of M e a s u r em e nt 22

R esults 2*+

02 - H 2 0 2b

o2 ~ N H 3 » H 2 o 3*+

n 2- C 0 2 39

A.-C02 U-1*

C o n c l u s io n s b7

A pp e nd i x *+8

Re ferences 52
 Lis t of Figures

Figure Page

1. Photograph of the apparatus 12

2. Photograph of the apparatus 13

3* Photograph of the apparatus l1*

*+. Block d i a g r a m of the transmitter

c i rcuit 17
5. Block d i a g r a m of the receiver
circuit 17
6. mrp for C^-H^O mixtures vs. f req uen cy 28
7-12. for mixtures vs, fr equency 29-31

13- fmax for O 2 vs, absolute hum i d i t y 32

I1*. log f raax for C>2 vs. log of absolute
humidity 33

l?. nip for mixtures vs. f req uency 38

16. mC02 VSe fretTuency *+2

17. mC02 vs<’ c o n c e n ‘t:ra'tion C 02 in W2 ^
18. nip for argon-CO^ mixtures vs. f req uen cy *+6

19. Sound amplitude vs. po sit ion 51

 lo

Tntroductlon

Wi th the limitations of the experimental aDparatus in

mind, the following problems were undertaken.. The effects

of water vapor and a mmonia gas on the r e l a x a t i o n times of

o xy g en w e re investigated, and the sound a b s o r p t i o n in m i x ­

tures of ni t r o g e n and carbon di oxide and argon and carbon

was measured,,

It was found after c on s id e ra b le pr e l i m i n a r y i n ve s ti ­

g at i on that consistent results could not be expe cted w h e n

m e a s u r e me n ts were made using gases or mixtures of gases in

w hi c h the a t t e n u a t i o n of sound was small. This is d ue to

the fact that the method used to d e t e r m i n e the ab sorption

coeffic i en t requir e s that the anuaratus be ca l ib r at e d by

means of a gas in w h i c h the a t t e n u a t i o n is k n o w n or is

small enough to be neglected. N it r og e n is such a gas.

Its a b so r p t i o n c o efficient is small in the frequency range

cove red by this work, viz., 20-110 kc. Si n c e the attenu­

ation in N2 must, be subtra ct e d f r om that me asured in a gas

u nd e r test, it becomes ev i de n t that the test gas should h av e

an a t t e n u a t i o n su b st a nt i al l y d i f f e r e n t f ro m that of N2 „

On the ot her hand, the a t t e n u a t i o n cannot be too greats

The a b s o r p t i o n c oefficient of a gas such as nure C 0 2 cannot

be m e as u r e d over the whole fr equency range me n tioned above,

C 0 2 has a large a bs o rp t i o n coeffi c ie n t and d i f f i c u l t y occurs

 2o

fi'ifi t.n the? fac.t that the s i g n a l - to-riol se ratio becomes small

quite r a c i d l v as the d i s t a n c e b et w ee n the so u r c e and r ec eiver

is i n c r e a s e d and the arrmlifier g a i n is increased,, Thl s s i t u ­

ation becomes p r o g r e s s i v e l y w o r s e with Increasing: f r e q u e n c y 3

The m i x t u r e s and 0 ^ ~ rTH~ p r es e n t e d a b s o r p t i o n co-

- * 3
e f f i c i e n t s w h i c h l a v b e t w e e n the ext remes m e n t i o n e d a b o v e c

The mixtures A- COo and N o-CC^ b o r d e r e d on the h igh absorp~

tio n e x t r e m e 0

The e ff e c t s of w a t e r vapor and a m m o n i a on the relax-

a t l o n times of o x y g e n h a v e been i n v e s t i g a t e d by K n es e r and

K n u d s e n ^ ® ) , K n u d s e n and 0 b o r t ^ 3 .)? O b e r s t ^ ? ) , and K n o t z e l ^ ^

Tn a d d i t i o n S c h m i d t m u e l l e r (2*+) p u b l i s h e d so me a b s o r p t i o n d a ta

on 0 2 ”H 20 m i x t u r e s 0

K n e s e r and K n u d s e n (193*0 investigated the b e havior of

these mi x t u r e s in the audible f r e q u e n c y r an g e up to a p p r o x i ­

m a t e l y 9 k c «. using a r e v e r b e r a t i o n m e th o d , This involves the

m e a s u r e m e n t of the d ec a y time of a sound pu l se in the test

chamber, a n d was not u s e a b l e for f r e q u en c ie s aho ve a p p r o x i ­

m a t e l y 10 kc „ s i n c e rates of d e c a v become too rapid.,

K n u d s e n and Obert (1916) me a s u r e d sound a b s o r p t i o n in

t h e s e m i x t u re s , extending the f r e q u e n c y range to 3*+ k c 0 by

means of a new e x p e r i m e n t a l t e ch n lq u eo A magnetostrictive

g en e rator supplied a c o u s t i c e n e r g v to a c hamber at a known

rate, The sound was m e c h a n i c a l l y d i ff u se d and the intensity

of the s o u n d was m e a s u r e d by means of a c r ystal microphone,

 3.

T he s e facts, to g et h er with 1 r f o r m a t 1on apout wall absorp­

tion and m e a s u r e m e n t s w i t h a gas of known absorption, were

s ufficient to a l l o w a d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the sound absorp­

tion in the gas u nd e r test- This method may admit a prob­

able error as large as 301,

O be r st (1937) made p r el i mi n ar y m e as u re m en t s in the

a udible r a n g e using a re s onance tube method- This method

■»
was taken over >■> Knot, ^elf lln'h s who refined it and made

a series of c a r e f u l measur em e nt s of a b s o r p t i o n in C>2 “H 20

and 0 2 - ^ 3 m i xtures in the a u di b le range up to 5 kc-

I n c o n n e c t i o n with the e ff e ct s of w at e r vapor on the

a b s o r p t i o n of sound in oxygen, S c h m i d t m u e l l e r (1938) re­

ported some a b s o r p t i o n data obtained from m easurements of

the sound f i e l d radiate! into an absorbing c h a m b e r by a

m agnetos tri ctive rod- M e a s u re m en t s were made in the fre<=

q uencv range 2 0-100 kc-

Kendie(7) (1938) measured the molecular a b s o r p t i o n of

o x v g e n - w a t e r vapor mixtures at t e mperatures around 0 to

50OG- at 11 ? 98, 127 o and 281+ kc„ b ,r means of an acoustic

inter fe r om e te r - he found that m a x i m u m a bs o rp t io n occurred

?t a higher percent c o n c e n t r a t i o n than that found bv K n u d ­

sen and O b e r t ^ ^ J for the lower frenuenciee.

All these researc h es indicated that the effect of water

vapor on o x y g e n was unloue- The r e l a x a t i o n time was found

to depend p r e d o m i n a n t l y u o o n the square of the w a te r vapor

 L+.,

concentration. The relax,- ti on time for o xy g en in the oxygen-

am monia mixtures was found to have a linear de p en d e n c e upon

the ammonia concentration.

With the d i s c o v e r y by Pierce ^ ^ U n 1925 that CO2 showed

a large amount of acoustic absorption, a large number of work-

ers have e x plored the subject. Rich and P i e l e m e i e r *-22)(1 9 2 5 )

u sing a quartz crystal sound s ou r ce and a radiom et e r were

able to show that the a b s o r p t i o n of sound in air increased

w i t h increasing C O 2 content, Abello^^^) (1928) investi­

gated the a b s o r p t i o n of C C^ - al r mixtures at a f re q u e n c y of

612 kc, T h e sound f r o m a quartz cr y s t a l passed through an

a bs o rp t i o n c h amber and was m ea s ur e d, in his e a r l i e r work, by

means of a t or s io n r a d i o m e t e r , and later by a second crystal..

P i e l e m e i e r (1929) made me a s u r e m e n t s o n C O 2 and air using

an acoustic inter fe r om e te r . Measur e me n ts wer e made in the

f re q u e n c y range f ro m 300-1M-00 kc „ The a b so r p t i o n of sound

by CC>2 was found to i n c r e a s e w i t h f r e q u e n c y with the CO 2 be ­

com ing p r a c t i c a l l y opaque at l*fOO kc. P i e l e m e i e r also noted

the m a r k e d effect of h u m i d i t v on the a b so r pt i on of sound in

CO^. Grossman^) (1932) d e v i s e d a method using two quartz

crystals i*- a gas chamber, for me a suring sound absorptions

in the fr equency range 30-300 kc. H e found that tne a bsorp­

tion coefficient for 00^ was s tr o n g l y f r e q u e n c y deoendent,

He also found a m o l e c u l a r a b s o r p t i o n peak at 100 kc, Hub-

bard^^(1932) p u b l i s h e d a paper de a li n g wi th the acoustic

 5*

I nterferometer and gave a few a b s o r p t i o n data for C0 2 and

air measured at a f r eq u en c y of 597 kc.

P i e l e m e i e r d ? ) ( 1 9 3 2 ) r e p o r t e d o n sound a b s o r p t i o n in

C O 2 at relative humidi t ie s ranging f r om 21+-3 1 ^ in the f r e ­

que ncy range f r o m 300-2 0 00 kc. A sharp a b s o r p t i o n peak was

found at 217 k c 0

Le onard (ll+) (19k0) m e a s u r e d the a b s o r p t i o n of sound

in C O 2 by a di r e c t method, A m i c r o p h o n e r e s p o n d i n g to the

sound pressure was moved away f r o m a niston source. He

fo und a p e a k a b s o r p t i o n for C O 2 at 30 kc. He also r e ported

on sound absor pt i on in N2 - C 0 2 mixtures,

Fricke^) (IQWO) measured sonic ab s or p t i o n in C 0 2 at

frequencies b et w ee n 8 and 130 ke„ His e x p e r i m e n t a l scheme

was similar to that already d e s c r i b e d in c o n n e c t i o n with the

w or k of K n u d s e n and 0 b e r t ^ 3 ) o F r ic k e sh ow ed that for dry

C 0 2 the pe a k a b s o r p t i o n oc c ur r ed at 20 kc 0 and that

had a value of 0 „2 3 0 o

K n u d s e n and F r i c k e ^ ^ ) (1 9 L 0 ) using an i m p r o v e d appa~

ratus based on t ha t d e s c r i b e d in their 1938 paper re p or t on

the effect of i m p u ri t ie s o n the a b s o rp t io n of sound in C 0 2 ,

T h e y found that 1% of H 20 vapor caused a shift of 2250 kc,

in the a bs o rp t io n band for C 0 2 «, It was also f ound that the

frequency for m a x i m u m a b s o r p t i o n varied l in early w i t h the

pe rcent of water vapor.

 6.

Pielemeier, Saxton, and T e l f a i r ^ 2 0 ^, T e l f a i r ^ 2<^ , and

Pielemeier and 3yers^^ (lPM-O— l P ^ ) have r e p o r t e d on the

e ffects of h u m i d i t y on the a b s o r p t i o n of sound in CC^o

Pielemeier ^ ^ (19*+3) p r e s e n t e d a r e v i e w of u l t r a s o n i c

m e a s u r e m e n t s in C 0 ^ 9

T h e p u r p o s e of my w o r k is to i n v e s t i g a t e the effe cts

of w a t e r vapor and am m o n i a gas o n the r e l a x a t i o n ti me i n

o x y g e n and to m ak e m e a s u r e m e n t s of sound a b s o r p t i o n in

n i t r o g e n - c a r b o n d i o x i d e and a r g o n - c a r b o n d i o x i d e m i xt ures*
 Theory

The a b s o r p t i o n coefficients involved in this work

are d e f i n e d by the expressions:

/W>r x
(1 )

where J„ is the sound in t ensity at a d i s t a n c e x

f ro m a plane wa ve source at a d i st a n c e o,

mjp is the total a b s o r p t i o n c oe f fi c ie n t per

cent!meter,

p-j- is the total a b s o r p t i o n coeffic i en t per

w a v e l e ng t h, X.
T h e ab s o r p t i o n c o e f f ic i en t m.£ includes both the c la s si c al

and the m o l e c u l a r contributions.

T h e t e r m "classi c al abso rption" Includes the a b s o r p ­

tion due to viscosity, heat c o n d u c t i o n and diffusion. The

m a t h e m a t i c a l t re a tm e nt goes back to f t o k e s ^ ^ ' and firchof

w h o calcul ated the contri b ut i on s to the a b s o r p t i o n due to

v is c os i tv and heat conduction. They give:

(2 )
where

AJ~ is the ve l ocity of sound in the medium.

is the c oefficient of viscosity,

 B0

V is the ra t io of the specific h ea t at constant

pressu re to the specific heat at c o nstant

volume,

Cp is the s pe c if i c he a t at constant pressure,

and

is the coeffi ci e nt of thermal co n du c ti v it y ,

in 1925? other ex p e r i m e n t e r s in c lu d i n g P i e l e m e i e r observed

a str ong a bs o rp t io n of sound in CC>2 and in air* This ab~

sor p t i o n was too large to be ac c ounted for by the c l a s s i c a l

theory. Ac c or d in g to S i v i a n ^ 5 ) ? layleigh was the first to

p ro pose a " m ol e cu l ar ab sorption". An e x p l a n a t i o n was sug=

gested bv H e r z f e l d and iiee^5) i n. 192ft, based on the id ea

of t he r m a l relaxation.

Q u a l i t a t i v e l y the idea may be e xp r e s s e d as follows.

C o n s i d e r a gas at a te mperature high enough so that the

t ransla t io n al m od e s are f ully e xcited and some molecules

are in the f i r s t vibrational state. Tf a sudden adiabatic

c o m p r e s s i o n occurs, an excess of e n e r g y is present w h i c h

i m m e d i a t e l y goes into in c re a s i n g the translational energy

of gas. On the other hand the vibrational e n e r g y is s lo w

to come to its n e w equilibrium. Tf the period of the sound

w a v e c ausing this co m pr e ss i on is large compared with the

time re q ui r ed for the vibrational state to come to equi li >r i v m ,

 9c

no anomalous a b s o r p t i o n or d i s p e r s i o n o c c u r s „ Tf* however,

the frequency of the sound w a v e is in creased and the period

approaches the r e l a x a t i o n ti me of the v i b r a t io n al energy ad~

lustment, one finds energy traDped in the c ycle trying to get

to and f r o m the vibrational state 0 This is the eq u iv a le n t of

an internal s pe cific heat„

K ne s e r ' s d e r i v a t i o n may be found e l s e w h e r e ( 9 ) f and it

w il l su ff ice here to note the r e l a t io n sh i p p e r t i n e n t to this

worko T h e simplified theorv gives

_ a-rr

Q.(CtfO v0“+ (3)

w here R is the molar gas constant,

G is the specific heat at constant v olume

for the t r a n s l a t i o n a l degr ees of freedom,

C; is the specific heat at c on stant volume

for the vibrational d e g r e e s of freedom,

I
'K is the m e a n lifet i me of the qu a n t u m of

v i b r a t i o n a l energy, or r e l a x at i on time,

U)=iTrf^ being the f r e q u e n c y 0

When ? as given bv (3 ) is plotted versus the

l o g a r i t h m of the f r e q u e n c y the re su lt is a b e ll - sh a pe d

curve,, Th is curve has a h a l f - h e i g h t width of 3»8 octaves 0

The pea k of the cu r v e occurs when K* *f , and has a magni-

tude given by
 TT R C ;
H z “7 v (I+)
C. (c t-

T h e s p e c i f i c heat G is k n o w n f r o m t h e r m o d y n a m i c d a t a

and the in t er n al sp e c i f i c h e a t C; is k n o w n f r o m s p e c t r o ­

s co p ic data. It is thus p o s s i b l e to c a l c u l a t e the t h e o ­

r e t i c a l va l ue of p .n This v a l u e I n c r e a s e s w i t h tern-

p erature, Cchmidtmueller^^^ gives the r o o m t e m D e r a t u r e

values of U - 103 * lO^for 0 o and p « 0 „ 2 2 6 5 for C 0 Oo

It has b e e n found by K n u d s e n a n f l F r i c k e ^ ^ that

traces of c e r t a i n B gases gr e a t l y i nc r ea s e the e f f i c i e n ­

cies w i t h w h i c h m o l e c u l e s of gas A are e x c i t e d in t o v i b r a ­

tio n al motion. I n terms of the c o l l i s i o n theory, this

means that fewer c o l l i s i o n s are r e q u i r e d to put the mole­

cule into a h i g h e r e n e r g y state. This i n turn m e a n s a s h o r t ­

er r e l a x a t i o n time and thus the bell-sniped curve Is moved

bod i ly along t he f r e q u e n c y scale so t h a t the peak of the

curve comes at hi g he r f re q u e n c i e s .

4
 11c

Equipment

T h e an p ar a t u s is essentially the same as t h a t de-

s cr i be d e l s e w h e r e bv :o t h e n b a r e v^ ’- Fowev^ some s i g n i ­

f i c a n t changes ha v e been made. T h e a n p a r a t u s is p i c t u r e d

In F i gures 1, 2, and 3,

F o r ease in d e s c r i b i n g the e q u i p m e n t it m a y be c a t e ­

g or i z e d as follows:

acoustic

Mechanical

F.lectrieal

Auxili ary

Aco ustics

T he sound so u rc e and r e c e i v e r are r i b b o n v e l o c i t y mi<=

crophones c o n s i s t i n g of a l u m i n u m foil r i b b o n s m o u n t e d be­

t w e e n the poles of adap ted m a g n e t r o n m a g n e t s „ Th i s type

of m i c r o o h o n e was o r i e i n a l l v d e v e l o p e d bv the Ev a ns signal

L a b o r a t o r y and is mo r e c o m p l e t e l y d e s c r i b e d in the F i n a l
4

Idenort, A t m o s p h e r i c P hy s i c s and S o u n d P r o p a g a t i o n , A co u stics

Laboratory, T h e P e n n s y l v a n i a S t a t e C o llege.

M echanical:

The transducers are m o u n t e d on the i n s i d e of a large

s te e l sheet "ranh w h i c h is 22 Inches in d i a m e t e r and 15 feet

long. The sound s o u r c e is mo un t ed o n w h e e l s w h i c h rest on

tracks, thus a l l o w i n g the source to be e a s i l v m o v e d toward

and awav from the receiver- This is a c c o m p l i s h e d bv ' cans

 12 o

F i g u r e 1, P h o t o g r a p h of the apparatus,.

4
 1>+.

F i g u r e 3, P h o t o g r a p h of the apparatus.

4
 15.

of two sslsyns, one outside the tank w h ic h is turned manually

and the other inside the tank w h i c h turns a sprocket carrying

a light chain connected to the carriage supporting the trans-

ducer. The external selsvn was equipped with an indicator

dial so that microphone positions inside the tank could be

set and reset nut ie accurately,,

The distan ce of nearest anproach between the ribbons

was 11 cm, and the readings were started w it h an additional

s eparat i on of 9,2b cm, between the ribbons. This separation

amounted to approximatelv 12 wavelengths at the lowest f re ­

quency used, v i z , , 20 kc, Fr o m this starting point of 20 cm.

it was found that absorptions could be determined by an addi­

tional di s placement of 7b cm. This means that measurements

were made out to a maximum r i b b o n - to - ri b bo n separat ion of

1 meter. Further separation was not necessary with the gas

mixtures with which this work was concerned and only in­

creased the un ce rtainty of the voltage readings at the

greater distances due to the increase in the number of r e ­

flections picked up by the receiving microDhone.

Electri cal:

The relations of the electrical components to one a n ­

other are s h o w n in Figures b and 5° Both the transmitting

and receiving alignments have been altered somewhat from

those described bv R o t h e n b e r g ^ 3 ) o ^he transmitting circuit

has been changed so that any frequency in the range 10-110 kc

 16.

can be selected at the discretion of the e x p e r i m e n t e r .

This is a satisfactory arrangement inasmuch as we were not

concerned w i th making velocity measurements. The original

pulsing circuits were retained permitting the choice of four

different pulse repetition rates. Onlv one, however, 95 per

second, was used through out this work.

The only change in the receiving alignment involved the

method of reading the actual voltage levels. a vacuum tube

voltmeter was connected across the oscillo scope input ter­

minals. In this way, peak heights could be read directly

w ithout recourse to the signal calibrate controls which are

part of the Te k tr o ni x oscilloscope. This increased the ac­

curacy with w hich the readings could be made since it e l i ­

minated the errors in .judgment w h i c h appeared when two

signal heights had to be adjusted by eve to fit a nair of

index markers. In addition the speed of making observations

was greatly facilitated.

The readings of pulse amplitude were made with a G e n ­

eral Radio Type 72 6 - A vacuum tube voltmeter. This tvoe of

instrument responds to the peak height of a complex wave and

is thus suited for use with tdis equipment, Its use obviated

the tedious manipulations form erly required in making read­

ings of the pulse heights. This had involved the adjustment

of the pulse to be measured between two index marks and the

introduction of a calibrated sine wave which was adjusted to

 Osc. Vife.

Av v Oi O
CHc.

Fig ure U-. Bl o c k diagram of the transmitter circuit,

>

Fig ure Slock d i agram of the receiver circuit,

4
 18.

fit between the same Index marks. The amplitude of the sine

wave was then read by a vacuum tube voltmeter.

The scope pict urization was used to monitor the pulse.

I n this way ov erloading by the driving amplifier and/or o v e r ­

loading in the receiving circuit could be Immediately detect-

ed. Similarly, any interference with the sound pulse due to

r eflections from the tank walls or elsewhere could be easily

detected.

I n this work the m a ximum distance of 1 meter between

ribbons was short enough so that no troublesome reflections

were encountered except at the lower frequencies, 20 kc. and

30 kc., and these only wh en working with gases having small

absorption coefficients such as N2 , A, and dried O2 .

Auxiliary s

The auxiliary equipment includes the v ac u um pump, the

thermometers, the pressure gage, and the dewpoint h y gr o ­

meter.

The vacuum pump was a Kinney Type V3D and was capable

of r e adily evacuating the tank of its contents. Since its

ex haust extended outside the building, it offered an ideal

manner in whi ch to dispose of NH^ gas.

T he temperatures of the gases under test were read by

means of a We s to n Type 2261 metal thermometer which was in­

serted Into the tank through a hole in one of the end elates.

The temperatures as read bv this thermometer were found to be

 19.

in close agreement with the temperatures as measured by

means of 6 thermocouples placed throughout the t a n k 0 The

thermocouples were used t-> detect thermal gradients. It was

found that few such rradients were present after the contents

of the tank were allowed to stand for one-half hour. A

centrifugal blower mounted near one end of the tank aided

in mixing the g a s e s ,

The pressure of the gases under test were read by means

of a mercury manometer. This proved to be suitable since

the e x De r imentation was carried out at or near atmospheric

pressure, Tlhen gas mixtures were under test* the manometer

readings indicated the partial pressures of the gases and

hence permitted a determination of the relative c oncen­

trations, This was satisfactory except at the lowest c on ­

centrations, "ven so, the error introduced under these

conditions was w i t h i n the total error of the experiment.

The dewpolnt hy grometer was a General Tlectric Type

'993b?3G» It permitted determination of the dewrolnt to

w ithin ^ 1/ 2 °F,
 20.

The Gases

The gases used were all commercially available and

were purchased frorr The Matheson Company and The Linde

Air Products Company,,

The nitrogen was supplied bv Linde who guaranteed a

ourity of not less than 9 9 #7;& and possibly as high as

99095 to 99»997>, The impurities consisted mostly of

oxygen with minute traces of rare c a s e s a

The M a t h e s o n C o m D a n v s u D Dlied the other eases and

claime d the follo w i n g minimum p u r i t i e s »

The oxvgen was theoretically dry and had a minimun

purity of 9 9 „ 6 $ 0 The impurities were argon and nitrogen,,

The ammonia had a stated puritv of 99 „95/0. ?he

moisture content was less than 50 parts per million by

weigh1.

The argon had a purity of 99<>9$?, the impurity being

mainlv nitrogen with traces of hydrogen r r:d oxygen.

The oxygen wns humiiified by buholing it through a

tube of tap water. 3v starting this process with hot

water it was found to be quite easy to produce a dewpoint

of 70°F.

Tt was neeessarv to dry the oxygen for the experiments

with low humiditieso This was done by freezing out moisture

by means of a dry ice^aoetone bath at *+0 lbs, per square inch

pressure, and bv means of i- it must be pointed out that

 21c

it was necessary to flush the tank carefully w i t h dry gas

w he n it was desired to w or k with low humidities., In any

case, the tank was carefully flushed w i t h air and the new

gas whenever one gas was pumped out and another admitted„

For the cases where Oo = ?JH^ mixtures w e r e used, it was

desi red to remove as much wat er vaoor from the s y s t e m as

possible,, U n f o r t u na t el y F'2 ^5 could not be used due to a

r e a c t i o n with the ammoniac The oxygen was d r i e d by means

of the dry i ce=acetone trap. In addi tion the am m onia was

passed through a tube c ontaining CaO, Trays of CaO were also

placed in the tank. De spite these preca utions the mo i sture

content was larger than could be tolerated for the purpose

of the original experiment. One pos sible e x p l a n a t i o n is that

the hi gh affinity of NH^ for water quickly attracted water

vapor from the sides of the tank and the e q ui pment where it

otherwise would have re m a i n e d for a considerable time,,

Readings m a de on the sound a b so r pt i on in O g - ’vIH^-H2 0

mixtures are presented as a m at t er of interest.

Th e argon=COo, and N2“ C 02 runs were made using gases

w h i c h had been freed f r o m as much moisture as po s si b le by

dry ice=»actone baths and also by means of trays of ^ 2^5 s e ^

in the tank.
 22 o

Th e Me tho d of M e a s u r e m e n t

As has been described in the section on Equipment,

the sound travelling th rough the gas is in the form of

a pulse of repetition rate 15 per secondo The absorpt ion

of the sound Is determined from measurements of the pulse

height as a function of distance from an arbitrary point

close to the sound source® The pulse height was measured

by means of a General Radio Type 7 2 6 a vacuum tube v o lt ­

meter connected across a Tektronix Type 511 oscilloscope,,

See Figure 5o

It is necessary that the " t a n k "1 be calibrated so as

to account for the geometrical diverge n ce of the sound

field® The calibration was accomplished by filling the

tank with dried nitrog en and making an extended series of

voltage readings of the decrease in signal strength as the

distance between the receiver and source was I n c r e a s e d 0

Measurements were made at 10 frequencies In the range

20-110 kc® The source-recelver distance covered was from

20-130 cm® These data were averaged (three to four readings

having been made at each setting) and plotted versus the

revolutions of the selsyns® One selsyn r evolution Is equi­

valent to 5-o62 cm® A smooth curve was then drawn through the

points® This curve was then ad lusted to start at the arbl~

trary voltage setting of 1 0 ®

The classical absorption in has been measured with

fair accuracy by Sohmidtmueller . He found the

 23 c

to be 0-30^ greater than the theoretical value. Using a

15% increase as an average, the N2 c a l i br a ti o n curves were

c or r ected for absorption. What remained was the divergence

of the sound field,

K xp e r i m e n t a l data obtained from other gases were plot­

ted m a similar manner. In order to d e t e r m i n e the a m p l i ­

tude abs orption coefficient it was th en n ec e s s a r y to d i v i d e

the curve obtained from the gas under test, point-by-point,

bv the Droper c a l i b ra t io n curve. The proper c a l i b r a t i o n

curve is the one made from data taken at a f r e q u e n c y such

as to match the w a v e l e n g t h with that of the sound in the

test gas. The quotients obtained from these d i vi sions were

then pl otted on a semi-log scale versus the c o rr e s p o n d i n g

p os i ti o n reading. The slope of theresultant straight line

gives the nu m e r i c a l value of the total amplitude absorption

c oe f fi c ie n t in nepers per cm. F r o m this, the t o t a l intensity

a bs o rp t io n c oefficient can be determined. Then can be i m ­

m e d i a t e l y computed from e qu a t i o n (1). The a p p e n d i x of this

thesis presents a sample calculation.

 pLf' o

Results

Oxv e e n - H „0 f i x t u r e s i

The results for this paseous mixture are summarized in

Tables 1-6 „ Figure f> shows the curves obtained w h e n nvp is

plotted versus frequency in k.c c The curve for dry O 2 9 us

report ed by Schmidtmueller ^2l+^ is included„ Figures 7-12

show the bell-shaped curves obtained when the molecular

absorption is plotted versus the logarithm of the f r e q u e n c y 0

The frequencies at which the peaks of these curves occur are

plotted versus the water vannr eoneentrationo This curve is

shown in Figure 13„ It is seen that the points fall very

near the extrapolated curve obtained by K n o t z e l ^ - ^ from

measurements in the audible range up to h® 5 kc 0 Figure 1*+

shows the dependence of the l og arithm frequency for maximum

absorption on the logarithm of the water vapor concentration,.

The resulting straight line has a slope of 2 03 Indicating the

quadratic relationship between the frequency for maximum ab­

sorption and the absolute humidity®

 25.

Table 1

Pressure of the mixture; 72.25 cm

Average temperatures 77°F
Absolute humidity? 10,5 g/m3

Frequency <ww V/W'O^.

(k.c.) (c~-(y (s~x<r
20 o00612 ,00612 .0100
30 o00939 ,00909 .0100
VO .0121 ,011 V o0 0 9 v v
50 =0139 ,0128 .008 V 7
60 .0 l V 8 0OI32 .00729
70 ,016V 0O I V 2 .00672
80 oOl85 .0157 .00650
90 ,016 6 .0130 .00V80
100 .0205 ,0160 .00530
110 .0238 .OI 83 .00551

Table 2

Pressure of the mixture: 71.90 cm

Average temperatures 77°F
Absolute humidity: 12.V- g/m3

Frequency /W\
(k .c 0 ) ( p r ^
20 .005 V 2 .005V2 .0090
30 .009 57 .00927 .0102
VO .0135 .0128 .0106
50 .0162 .0151 .0100
60 .0179 .OI 63 .00900
70 .0197 .0175 .00828
80 .022 V .0196 .00811
90 .02V 5 .0209 .00769
100 .0272 .0227 .00751
110 .0298 .02V3 .00731
 26o

Table ^

Pressure of the mixture: 72.20 cm

Average temperatures 77°F
Absolute humidity? 1 5 02 g/m3

*equeney /W\_
(k.Co) (c— c*>

20 o00^10 .00^10 •00681

30 000803 000773 o0 0 8 5 0
bo 0012^ o0117 e00969
50 c0168 o0157 o010»+
60 o0199 .0183 oOlOl
70 .0233 o021x o00998
80 o02 57 .0229 „009^8
90 .0281 e02V 5 o0 0 9 0 2
100 .0308 .0263 •00871
110 o0331 ,0276 »00831

Ta ble b

Pressure of the mixture: 72 o00 cm

Average temperature: 79°F
Absolute h u m i d i t y % 1 5 o7 g/m3

Frequency ^v^\_ /W\

(koCo)

20 o00^00 oOO^OM- .00671

10 o 0076^ o0 0 7 3 6 o00810
a
t-0 00119 o0112 o00927
50 o0 l 6? o0156 o0103
60 .021c o0199 oOHO
70 o02 *+t- o022*+ o0 1 0 6
80 o 027b o02^-6 o0102
90 ,0316 0O 28O .0103
100 O03^+7 o0 3 Q2 oOlOO
110 C.0361* <,0309 o00930
 27 o

Table £

Pr essure of the mixture: 72.10 cm

Average temperature: 78°F
Absolute humidity: 18.0 gm/m3

Frequency /w ^;r , 0
/VV> lUt
(k . c . ) (

20 000301 000301 o00 500

30 .00575 .005*+5 .00600
*+0 .00879 .00809 .00670
50 .0139 .0128 .008*4-7
60 .0183 .0167 .00922
70 .02*4-2 o0220 .010*4-
80 .0272 .02*4-*4- .0101
90 .0300 .026*+ .00972
100 .0368 o0323 .0107
110 .0391 o0336 .0101

Table 6

Pressure of the mixture: 71°30 cm

Average temperature: 80°F
Absolute humidity: 19 A g/m3
F re q ue n cy ./vv;
(k.c.)

20 c00313 o00313 .00520

10 c00530 .00527 .00580
$ i-O .00867 .00797 .00660
50 .0121 .0110 .00728
60 oOl55 .01^9 .00865
70 . 021 *+ .0192 .00908
80 .0265 .0237 .00981
90 .0316 .0280 .0103
100 0O3 8 O o0335 .0111
110 .0*4-07 o0352 .0106
I

28.

05

19 g/m-5
18 oC

12 o*
ICo <

02

01

0 20 60 70 80 100
F 7 e q u e nc y (kc o )

F igure 6„ The total absorption coefficient for 02 “H 20

mixtures as a fun ct i on of frequency^

i
 120

100

80

60
©

*+0

20
10 20 60 80 100 200

Frequenc;.' ( k c s)

Figu re 7® Molecular absorp tion per wavele ngth in

O2 -H 2 O mixtures as a function of f r e q u e n c y „

120

100

80

60

*+0

20
10 20 60 80 100 200

Freque ncy (kc 0)

Figure 8. Molecular ab sorption per w a ve l en g th in

O 2- H 2 O mixtures as a function of f r e q u e n c y 0
 120

100

80

60

20
10 20 4-0 60 80 100 200

Frequency (k c c)

Figure 9« Molecular absorption per wavelength In

O^-H^O mixtures as a function of f r e q u e n c y 0

120

100

80

20
10 20 60 80 100 200

Frequency (kc»)

Figure 10o Molecular absorption per wavelength in

O^-H^O mixtures as a function of frequency,,
 3lo

120

100

x 60

20
10 20 bO 0 80 100 200
Freque ncy )

Figure 1 1 0 Molecular absorption per wavelength in

0 -H„0 mixtures as a function of i*reouenc-y«
2 2

120
no kc
_____
100

60

20
10 20 60 80 100 200

frequency ( u c 0)

Figure 12<> Molecular absorption pe^r wavelength in

O^-H^O mixtures as a function of frequency*
 32o

120

100

( * c *) 80

60

*f0

20

10
0 6 8 10 12 lb 16 18 20

.ubs o 1 ute Hum! dl ty

(g/ m3

Fig ure 13. The frequency for maximum mo lecular

absorption per wa velength in Op as a fu nction of
the absolute h u m i d i t y 0
 33o

200 —

( k c . ) LOO

80

60

30

20

10
10 12 16 18 20

Absolute Humidity
(g / m 3 )

Figure l*f. The logarithm of the frequency for max­

i mu m molecula r absorption in 02 as a func tion of the
logarithm of the absolute h u m i d i t y D
 3^o

Oxygen-WH^ Mixturess

As has been mentioned, It was found Impossible to

keen the mixtures sufficiently free from water

vapor to produce satisfactory resxiltso The results are

tabulated in Tables 7 = 1 1 ,3 The total m-j., which includes

the contributions due to the oxygen alone, the effect of

water vapor on the oxygen, the effect of the on the

oxygen, and the effect of the water vapor on the N H ^ 9 is

plotted as a function of the frequency in Figure 5o

Attempts have been made to correct for the absorp­

tions due to the ( ^“HgO mixture, but without success,

This seems to Indicate that the absorptions due to 02=

NH^ and O^-I^O are not a d d i t l v e 0

 35o

T ab l e Z

Pressure of the mixtures 72*30 cm

Average temperatures 80°F
Absolute humiditvs 1.5^ g/m3
% NH-, in 02 s 0.95#

Fre q u e n c y
(kc,) (c~T’>
ho *00896
50 .013^
60 * 020 *+
70 *0232
80 *0308
90 o033l+
100 *0360

Table 8

Pressure of the mixtures 72.80 cm

Average temperatures 76°F
Absolute humiditys 2*62 g/m3
% NH3 in 02 s 1.92#

F re q u e n c y / ww -
( k c .)
ho *00900
50 .011+3
60 .0186
70 .022*+
80 .0306
90 .O3 8 O
100 .0536
110 .0M-50
 36.

Table 2

Pressure of the mixture: 72.60 cm

Average temperature: 79.5°F
Absolute humiditv: 2.25 g/m3
% NK^ in O s 1.98%
Frequ en o v ^\r
(kc . )
40 .00976
50 .0157
60 .0195
70 .0230
80 .0346
90 .0400
100 .0426

Table 10

Pressure of the mixture: 72.60 cm

Average t e m p e r a t u r e : 80°F
Absolute humidity: 2.30
% NH^ in 02 : 2.99%

F re q ue n cy /w-
( kc . )
40 .00608
50 .00976
60 .0146
70 .0210
80 .0292
90 .0370
100 .0370
 37o

Table 11

Pressure of the mixture: 72.65 cm

Average temperature: 78°F
Absolute humidity: 2.*4-5 g/m3
% NH^ in 02 : 3 .10#

Fre q uency /vv\r

(k c .)
hO o00966
50 .0136
60 .0196
70 .0256
80 .0326
90 .0*4-30
100 .0*4-90
110 .0620

Table 12

Pressure of the mixtures 72.20 cm

Average temperatures 80°F
Absolute humidity: I .83 g/m3
% NH- in 0o s 3,95%
J tL.
Freque «cv
( kc 0) (_OvT;

*4-0 .00*+32
50 .00906
60 .0128
70 o0173
80 .0250
90 .03*4-8
100 .0396
 38,

.07

° 0.9 s % NH,
+ i.sa. T)
* i.98
yr\
v a .99
a 3.10
(<**') • 3.95
+

c1 a
,ob •
1 ▼
0
0. >
□ <1
a
03 V

I1 •
1L
.. A«r f
02
♦
•\

\ •
,01 1
*

.00
30 50 70 90 110 130
Fr equency
(kc.)

Figure 15. The total absorption coefficient for 0 - , - N H . . .,0

mixtures as a function of frequency. ^ 0 ^

4
 39«

N it r og e n= G O i Mixtures;

The ab s o rp t i o n of sound was m ea s u r e d in ni t r o g e n

c on t a in i ng foui different c o n c en t ra t io n s of CCU, These

d a t a are swrmnari zed i n Tab'Ius 1 3■-1 b The total absorption

c oe f fi c ie n ts were corrected for the classical a b so r pt i on

as measured by S c h m t d t m u e l l o r ^ l+^ and p lotted versus fr e­

q ue n cy in F igure 16, These datt are al so p lotted in a d i f ­

ferent manner0 F igure 17 shows the c urves ob t a i n e d when the

a b s o r p t i o n c oefficient ne r cm, is plotted versus the c o n c e n ­

t ra t io n of the impur i ty gas, C 0 2 o These curves are s i mi l ar

to th ose given by F r l c k e ^ ) for dry C 0 2 - N 2 mixtures, It is

believed that F ri e ke computed his c o nc e n t r a t i o n s on the basis

of w eight w hereas the data plotted in F ig u re 17 are In terms

of the ratios of the partial pressures, The straight lines

I nd icate that the ni trogen has no effect on the c arbon d i ­

oxide other than diluting It, The small ordinate Intercept

may be due to the fact that not all the c la s s i c a l absorption

in n i t r o g e n was taken Into account.

It will be noted that the range of frequencies is curtail

ed as the C 0 2 c o n c e n t r a t i o n i: increased. I n c r e a s i n g the c o n ­

ce n t r a t i o n Increases the a b s o r p t i o n and requires a higher elec

t rical am plifier gain r es ulting in a less favorable signal-to-

point ratio.
 40,

Table 13

Pre ssure of the mixtures 72.15 cm

Average temperatures 80°F
Absolute humiditvj 0.95 g/m^
% G 0o
CL.
in 2.64#

Frequencv ^w\— - /w\_

(kc.) (c^9 (cwrir

21.2 .00960 o0 09 1 5
I 08 0OII 6 .0108
I 2.1+ .0150 .0140
53.0 .0193 .0179
63.8 .0230 .0212
7H-.2 c027r .0249
81+. 6 .032!+ .0296
95.0 .0378 o031+5

T ab l e 14

Pressu re of the mixtures 72.1+0 cm

Average temperature: 82°F
Absolute humidltv: 0.86 g/m3
% C 0 2 in N2 s l+.O0%

Fre q ue n cy
(k c . ) (s~sT (o~f °=

21.2 .0186 .0181

31.8 .0200 .0192
1+2.1+ .0228 .0218
5 3 oO .0292 .0278
63.8 .0316 .0298
74.2 .0371+ .031+6
 Table 1^

Pressure of the mixtures 72„5 cm

Average temperatures 83°F
Absolute humiditys 0 o75 g/m3
% C 0 2 in N 2 s 6„92$

F re q u e n c y
( ke . ) (23'r

21 o2 <,0189 o0i8M-
31.8 0O232 o022U-
U-2.U- 00295 0O 286
53.0 00386 o0372
63.8 0052^ .0506
7*+02 o06lU- o0591

Table 16

Pressure of the mixtures 72„6 cm

Average temperatures 80°F
Absolute humiditys 0 o70 g/m3
% C 0 2 in N2 s 9 06%

Frequency ✓wt—
(kc • )
2 1 02 .0250 o02*+5
1.8 0O396 .0388
I 2 „*+ o0^-50 oOMhO
53.0 .0630 „0 6l6
63.8 .075^ .0736
 *+20

o <^.fc+%Co.
a 4-.oo
+

rr\

06

0 20 ^0 60 80 1C
F r e a u e n c y (Vcc . )
F i g u r e 16. The a b s o r p t i o n coeffic i en t for C O 2 vs. frequency.

4
 ^3

08

0?

CO

06

05

03

c.
02

01

O 2 b 10
In N

F i g u r e 17. T he a b s o r p t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t for C0~ as a f un c ti o n

of the c o n c e n t r a t i o n of CQ_. in
 Argon-CC^ Mixtures:

Two runs were made in argon^CC^ mixtureso An ex»

tended series of measurements were contemplated but

difficulties with the electrical components of the ap-=

paratus resulted in delays Which cu rtailed the number

of readingso

The data are summarized in Tables 17 and 1 8 9 and

the total a b so r pt i on coefficients (uncorrected for argon

absorption) are plotted as functi ons of the f r e q u e n c y

in Figure 1 8 0
 T a b l e 17

P r e s s u r e of the mixture: 72.60

A v e r a g e temperature: 80°F
A b s o l u t e humidity: loM-l g/rtP
% CC>2 in Argon: 1 1.3%

Frequency
(kc.)
20 0192
0260
0610
50 0872
60 129
70 136

T a b l e 18

P r e s s u r e of the m ix t ur e : 72.50
A ve r ag e temneratuTes 80°F
A b s o l u t e humidity: g/nP
% C 0 2 i n Argons 102%
Frenuenry /v%r\.p
(k c . )
 4-6o

o 30
o IUT>% C O

o 25

20

o 15

e10

20 4-0 60 80
Frequency (kcQ )

Figure 1 8 0 The total a b s o r p t i o n c oefficient for argon-

002 mi x tures as a function of f r e q u e n c y D
 h7 o

Conclusions

Using a p ulsed carrier method, sound a b s o r p t i o n

c oe f fi c ie n ts have been d et e rm i n e d in mixtures of 02 “

H 2 O, ^ - 0 0 2 , and in the fr e quency range 20-110

kc „ , and for 0 2 “ NH2 ~ H20 in the ra nge of *+0-100 k c .

T he d e p e n d e n c e of the r e l a x a t i o n time in oxygen,

as a f u n c t i o n of the water vapor concentration, has been

d e t e r m i n e d in this frequency range and is sh own to follow,

w i t h i n e x p e r i m e n t a l error, the r e l a t i o n s h i p g i ve n by K n o t z e l

for lower fre quencies.

A b s o r p t i o n coefficients on 0 2 ~ N H ^ - H 20 mix tures were

determined,, Attempts to arrive at the ab s o r p t i o n due to

O2 - N H 3 by taking into account the a b so r pt i on on C^-I^O

were u n s u c c e s s f u l This w o u l d seem to indicate that the

effe cts of a m m o n i a and wa t er vapor on ox v g e n are not a d ­

ditive,,

The me a s u r e m e n t s in the N2“ C 02 mixtures ind icate that

the N2 does not Influence the ab s or p ti o n in C 02 ex c ep t by

dilution.

The m easurements in A - C O 2 mixtures are too sketchy

to d r a w lefinite conclusions.
 i*8.

A pp e n d i x

For the sake of c om p l e t e n e s s , a typical c a l c u l a t i o n of

some a b s o r p t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s w i l l be carried out* The da ta

t ab u la t ed in T a b l e 19, w h i c h follows, r e p r e s e n t the points

of the c a l i b r a t i o n curves ob t ai n ed f ro m m e a s u r e m e n t s m a de

in ni trogen. T h e s e da ta ha v e alre ady be e n a d j u s t e d to an

a r b i t r a r y a m p l i t u d e scale and have b e en c o rr e c t e d for the

c l a s s i c a l a b s o r p t i o n of nitrogen. Ta b le 20 c on tains the ex

p e r i m e n t a l da t a for the m i x t u r e The ab s o r p t i o n

coefficients for this m i x t u r e h av e b e e n r e c o r d e d in T ab l e 9

T he p o s i t i o n nu m b e r s 1, 2, 3, e t c , , r e p r e s e n t the d i s p l a c e ­

m en t of the sound source w i t h r e s p e c t to the r e c e i v e r in

terms of the s e l s y n revol u ti o ns . One r e v o l u t i o n is e q u i ­

v alent to b ,62 cm,

T he p r o c e d u r e is to d i v i d e each point in Table 20 by

the c o r r e s p o n d i n g c a l i b r a t i o n point in Ta b l e 19, The r e ­

sults of these d i v i s i o n s are t ab u l a t e d in T a b l e 21, The

next step is to plot the qu ot i en t s on a s em ilog scale as

f un c ti o ns of the d i sp l a c e m e n t . This is don e in F i g u r e 19,

All that re m a i n s is the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the s l o p e of the

r e s u l t a n t s t ra i g h t line. T h e n u m e r i c a l v a l u e of the slope

is the total amplitude a b s o r p t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t per c e n t i ­

meter for the mixture. The intensity absorption coeffi­

c ient is equal to twice the a m p l i t u d e c o ef f ic i en t . The

absorption coefficient per w a v e l e n g t h may be o b t a i n e d by

multiplying the intensity- c o e f f i c i e n t by the ap p r o p r i a t e

w a v e l e n gt h .
 *+9.

Table 19

F re q uency
TkcT)

21.2 31.8 W2 A 53.0

0 10.0 10.0 10o0 10.0
1 8.M-0 8.80 8 0 63 8.78

2 7 o 20 7.75 7.50 7.80

3 6.23 6.90 6.60 6.98

5 ^.75 5>6 5.15 5.63

7 3.83 b.bO *+.25 . *+.68

9 3.23 3.73 3.65 3.95
11 2.80 3.18 3.08 3.36
13 2.50 2.75 2.65 2.93
15 2.28 2.>+8 2.28 2.56

7^.2 6 b a8 95.^ 106

0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
1 8.98 8.93 8.73 8.73
2 8.08 8,05 7.70 7.75
3 7.28 7.25 6.93 6.90
5 6.00 6.05 5.65 5.73
7 M-.98 5.10 ^.83 1+.83
9 b.2 5 *+.35 !+ol5 V„l8
11 3.70 3.80 3.58 3.63
13 3.25 3.33 3.13 3.15
2.90 2.95 2.73 2.70
 Table 20

Frequency
( k c 0)
i+0 60 60 20 80 20
0 10.0 10.0 iUoO 10.0 10.0 10.0
1 8 . 50 8 0 52 8.50 8.53 8.29 8.06

VO
00
00
2 7.22 7 0 29 7.29 7.26 6.35

e
3 6.23 6.30 6.28 6.19 5.80 5o27
5 t+.6*+ b . 81 M- . 6 3 *+.53 *+.13 3 o 59
7 3.68 3 0 73 3*52 3A1 2.90 2.5^
00
00

2.90 2.70 2.66 2.18

f\J

9 1 .78
0

11 2.36 2.29 2.16 2.05 1.56 1.22

13 1.95 1.85 1.69 1.55 1.18 .907

15 1.63 1.50 1.33 1.35 .870 .690

Table 21

Frequency
< kc. 5
si 1+0 60 60 20 80 90

0 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1 . 0 0 0 1.000

1 .985 .970 .9^5 .950 .928 .923
2 .963 .935 .905 .898 .855 .825
3 .9 ^ .903 . 86 6 .850 . 800 .760
5 .900 o855 .785 .755 .683 .635
7 .865 .798 .728 .685 .568 . 525
9 .790 .735 .670 . 625 .500 .V}0
11 .767 .683 .622 .553 oblO .3^0

13 .7^3 .630 .5^0 .*+77 .353 .290

15 .713 .587 .*+61 . 1+65 .295 .253

 51 -

1,000

900

800

k o700
2
\-y o
>-
d
< too
o'
v
0
d
^ o 5oo
u>
p>
0
\r
i o^oo
t

300

200
12 16

Posi tion (rev,)

F igure 19o Sound amplitude as a function of receiver

position.
 52

References

General:
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Kittel, Go, Reports on Progress in Physics XI,

205 (19*+6)
Richards, W, To, Rev. Mod0 Phys0 11, 36 (1939)

Walker, R,, Heat Ca pacity Lag in Gases, Iowa State

College (1950)

Particular:

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ft
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