GeoPressure Evaluation

updated April 21, 2004

Geolog Training Department 2004 Æ GeoPressure Evaluation

 Pressure (Stress)

Relationship between Hydrostatic Pressure and Fluid Density :

P=δ*H*g
P is the Pressure exercised by the weight of a static column of Fluid (Pa)
δ is the average Density of the Fluid (kg/m3)
g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2 on the Earth)
H is the vertical height of the static column of Fluid

Consequently Pressure Gradient is defined as follows :

Pg = P / H from (P = Pg * H )
P is the Pressure exercised by the weight of a static column of Fluid (Pa)
Pg is the Pressure Gradient of the Fluid (N/m3)
H is the vertical height of the static column of Fluid (m)
Pressure Gradient is the variation of Hydrostatic Pressure per unit of height

Geolog Training Department 2004 Æ GeoPressure Evaluation

 Pressure (Standard Equations)

Standard Equations For Hydrostatic Pressure :

P = δ * H / 10 (metric)
P expressed in kg/cm2
δ expressed in kg/l
H expressed in m

P = δ * H * 0.0519 (API)
P expressed in psi
δ expressed in ppg
H expressed in ft

Geolog Training Department 2004 Æ GeoPressure Evaluation

 Measurement Units

Pressure : kg/cm2 (metric)

psi (API)
Pa or N/m2 (SI)
Pressure Gradient : kg/cm2/10m equivalent to kg/l or g/cc (sg) (metric)
psi/ft (API)
lbf/gal (API)
ppg equivalent to lbf/gal (API)
N/m3 or Pa/m (SI)
Fluid Density : kg/l or g/l or g/cc (metric)
lb/gal = ppg (API)
kg/m3 (SI)

Try to be coherent with the choice of measurement units : always express

Pressure Gradients in the same units than Fluid / Rock Densities or Weights.

Geolog Training Department 2004 Æ GeoPressure Evaluation

 Normal Hydrostatic Pressure

Is the Pressure exercised by the weight of the column of (original deposit)

water saturating the pores of the Formation (the pores are connected with the
atmosphere).
Water Density is a function of dissolved solids usually expressed as Salinity.

Water type Salinity NaCl (mg/l) Density (kg/l) Density (ppg)

Fresh Water 0 to 1500 1.00 8.34
North Sea 30000 1.02 8.51
Italy 45000 1.03 8.60
Gulf Coast 105000 1.07 8.95
Barents Sea 117000 1.07 9.00
Saturated 318000 1.20 10.01

The Normal Hydrostatic Gradient due to those waters can be expressed as

their Equivalent Fluid Weight (EMW) / Density.

Geolog Training Department 2004 Æ GeoPressure Evaluation

 Geostatic Pressure

Is the Pressure exercised by the weight of the column of all overlying

sediments including sea water, rock matrix and pore fluid.
The Geostatic Pressure can be also called as Vertical Stress, Lithostatic
Pressure or Overburden.

from TOTAL

Geolog Training Department 2004 Æ GeoPressure Evaluation

 Geostatic Pressure

It can be expressed as : Gp = δaf * H * g

Where δaf is the Average Formation Density, H the height of the column of
overlying sediments and g the acceleration of the gravity.

The Average Formation Density of a sediment (Bulk Density) is a function of

its Rock Matrix Density, its Porosity and its Fluid (contained in its pores)
Density.
The Average Formation Density can be expressed as :
δaf = Ф * δf + (1 - Ф ) * δm
Where Ф is the Porosity of the Formation (from 0 to 1), δf is its Pore Fluid
Density and δm is its Rock Matrix Density.

Geolog Training Department 2004 Æ GeoPressure Evaluation

 Porosity of Clay Sediments

Sediment Porosity decreases under the effect of burial (compaction) and is

proportional to the increase in Geostatic Pressure.
For a specific rock, a decrease of Porosity with depth is necessarily
accompanied by an increase of Formation Density.
This fundamental feature will give us some of the tools necessary to detect
Abnormal High Formation Pressure.

1. Clay : the reduction in Porosity is essentially dependent on the Geostatic

Pressure and varies as an exponential function of the depth according to
the following equation : Ø=0.41e-0.000085D where D is the depth of the
sediment expressed in feet.
A peculiar Carbonate is Chalk (clastic sediment) which behaves like Clay
for what concerns compaction.

Geolog Training Department 2004 Æ GeoPressure Evaluation

 Porosity / Density of Clay Sediments

Geolog Training Department 2004 Æ GeoPressure Evaluation

 Porosity / Density of Other Sediments

2. Sandstones, Carbonates and other : the reduction in Porosity is a

function of many parameters other than compaction, such as diagenetic
effects, original composition, sorting and so on…

In this case the measurement of the density can be performed as follows :

„ Directly by weighing the specific cuttings (complicate and not very
reliable)
„ Directly by an FDC log, using a radio-active source and not very accurate
in case of heterogeneous formations
„ Using Amoco equation : δ = 16.3 + ((Tvd – Wd – Ag)/3125))^0.6
„ Using the Sonic log and applying either :
„ Gardner equation : δ = 0.23 * (10^6 / ∆tlog)^0.25
„ Agip equations :

Geolog Training Department 2004 Æ GeoPressure Evaluation

 Normal Compaction Trend (NCT)

On a porosity log (Sonic, Resistivity, Normalized ROP), plotted on a semi-

logarithmic scale, the Normal Compaction Trend is the line reflecting the normal
and gradual decline of the porosity of Clay/Shale formations as a consequence of
the increase in the Geostatic stress.
Any deviation from this line will reveal a status of over-compaction or under-
compaction (Overpressure).
Continuous Compaction trend assumes a constant and uninterrupted
compaction history; that becomes unreliable when the well crosses
stratigraphical or structural boundaries, or when hiatus / uplift has occurred
during sedimentation history (sedimentological / stratigraphical discontinuities)
which cannot be easily individualized on rig site.
A good way to obtain an idea of the Normal Compaction Trend is to make a linear
regression on the surficial portion of the well.

Maximum care should be given in the recognition of the NCT; in effect, the
determination of the Formation Pressure Gradient depends upon the position
(slope and intercept) of the NCT.

Geolog Training Department 2004 Æ GeoPressure Evaluation

 Normal Compaction Trend (NCT)

Geolog Training Department 2004 Æ GeoPressure Evaluation

 Normal Compaction Trend (NCT)

Geolog Training Department 2004 Æ GeoPressure Evaluation

 Formation Pressure

Formation Pressure, also called Pore Pressure, is the Pressure of the fluid
contained in the pore spaces of the sediment. In a sedimentary basin three
categories of Formation Pressure can be encountered :

„ Negative pressure anomaly (subnormal pressure) is below the NHP

„ Normal pressure : Formation Pressure is equal to the NHP
„ Positive pressure anomaly (overpressure) is higher than the NHP and
usually limited by the Geostatic Pressure

One of the main duty of a Surface Logging Company is to detect when The
Formation Pressure is positively Abnormal and what is the entity of this
anomaly.

Geolog Training Department 2004 Æ GeoPressure Evaluation

 Formation Pressure

from TOTAL

Geolog Training Department 2004 Æ GeoPressure Evaluation

 Formation Pressure (Terzaghi Equation)

The Compaction Stress (Effective Stress)

is the difference between the Vertical
Stress (Geostatic Pressure) and the Effective Stress
Formation Pressure :
Es = Vs – Fp

In other words : Gp = Es + Fp
or S = σ + Fp
Fluid supports
All models described later compute the ONLY fluid
Effective Stress, Es, as function of rock
porosity. Fluid supports
fluid + matrix

Geolog Training Department 2004 Æ GeoPressure Evaluation

 Fracture Pressure (Eaton Empirical Equation)

Fracture Pressure is the Pressure necessary to fracture the formation.

This Pressure is a function of the Geostatic Pressure, the Formation
Pressure and the mechanical behavior of the rock matrix of the formation (K
coefficient).
The general and empirical formulae for Fracture Pressure is :

Fp = Pp + K * (Gp - Pp)

It depends also upon :

„ The various stresses present in the well bore
„ The hole geometry and orientation (FpVert >> FpHoriz)
„ FpONshore >> FpOffshore

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 Fracture Pressure (Matrix Stress Coefficient)

The matrix stress coefficient reflects the mechanical behaviour of the

rock matrix of the formation and is a function of Poisson Ratio (µ) :
K = µ / (1 - µ) with 0.33 < µ < 0.45

Generally a rock can be un-cemented (Sand, Silt...), elastic (Carbonates,

Shale, Sandstones...) or plastic (Evaporites, Clay...) and recommended
values for K are the following :
„ 0.50 for loose and unconsolidated Formations like Sands
or surficial intervals of off-shore wells
„ 0.67 for Elastic Formations (Shales, Sandstones, Carbonates)
„ 0.75 for Elastic and deep Formations (Carbonates –
Sandstones)
„ 1.00 for Plastic Formations (Clays, Evaporites)
„ Default value for K is 0.67

Geolog Training Department 2004 Æ GeoPressure Evaluation

 D Exponent

Among various ways to "normalize" the ROP (neutralize the effect of the
drilling parameters), in 1966 Jorden & Shirley (Shell) developed the D
Exponent formulae deriving from the Bingham general equation :
R/N = a * (W/D)^d
The value obtained should be representative of the value the Rock Strength
Parameter (inverse of drillability).
d = log (R/60N) / log (12W/D10^6)
where R is ROP (ft/hr), N is RPM, W is WOB (lb) and D is bit diameter (in)

In order to take into account the differential pressure effect d is corrected

as follows :
dc = d * NHG / δm
where NHG is the Normal Hydrostatic Gradient and δm is the mud density.

Rather than the mud density, the ECD should be used in this formulae. In effect,
while drilling, the dynamic density of the mud is higher than its static one.

Geolog Training Department 2004 Æ GeoPressure Evaluation

 D Exponent

Normally with the increasing depth, D

Exponent will have the tendency to
increase following a normal compaction
trend, as a consequence of the natural Transition Zone
decrease of the porosity of the formation Transition Zone
drilled.
When D Exponent is stable (vertical), this Overpressure
means that a Transition zone is drilled.
When D Exponent decreases this means Overpressure
that Overpressure is developing rapidly.

Geolog Training Department 2004 Æ GeoPressure Evaluation

 D Exponent

General rules to work with D Exponent :

„ calculate it with the same frequency

than the drilling parameters ( 0.25 m or 1
foot) using ECD rather than MWI (if
available).

„ plot it on a semi-logarithmic scale to

neutralize the exponential shape of the
normal compaction trend (rock porosity
in normal conditions) and versus the TVD
(hydrostatic pressures are function of
height).

Geolog Training Department 2004 Æ GeoPressure Evaluation

 D Exponent

At left : D Exponent Raw calculated each foot

At right : D Exponent after cut-off and shift

General rules to work with

D Exponent :

„ neutralize big discontinuities by

shifting portions of curve to "align"
the global curve

„cut-off from the original curve, all

portions of extreme values

Geolog Training Department 2004 Æ GeoPressure Evaluation

 D Exponent

At left : D Exponent after average 5 (red)

At right : D Exponent after moving weighted average (11 2.5)

General rules to work with

D Exponent :

„ average the curve on 5 meters

(or equivalent 15 ft) intervals to
neutralise rumors (peaks)

„ use a moving weighted

average algorithm to smooth the
curve

Geolog Training Department 2004 Æ GeoPressure Evaluation

 D Exponent

General rules to work with D Exponent :

„ remove all points not corresponding to Clay/Shale layers

„ draw a normal compaction trend line starting from surface and taking into
account ONLY Clay/Shale layers (use a large scale to do so : at least
1/10000)
„ do not take into account the superficial part of the well (until 700 / 800m)
which is often not normally compacted.

Geolog Training Department 2004 Æ GeoPressure Evaluation

 D Exponent

Finally the D Exponent curve is ready to be Normal Compaction

interpreted : it is continuous and smooth. Trend

A linear regression (red line) has been

calculated from top to 5800ft to give an idea
of the shape of the Normal Compaction
Trend.
Transition Zone
Top of Overpressure is located at about
6000ft, followed by a Transition zone (8000ft)
and a Overpressure zone (9000ft). Overpressure

Applying Eaton or Equivalent Depth

Methods, it will be possible to calculate the
Pore Gradient.

Geolog Training Department 2004 Æ GeoPressure Evaluation

 D Exponent

Eaton Method :

Pg = Gg - (Gg - Nhg) * (Dex0bs / DexNor)^1.2

Geolog Training Department 2004 Æ GeoPressure Evaluation

 D Exponent

Equivalent Depth Method :

EStress @ depth = EStress @ EquivDepth

Pp @ Depth = Gp - EStress @ EquivDepth

Geolog Training Department 2004 Æ GeoPressure Evaluation

 Agip SigmaLog

Taking D Exponent as origin, Agip developed since 1974, a new Rock Strength
Parameter called Sigma_0.
The curve obtained with Sigma_0 is very similar to D Exponent, but the calculation of
Pore Gradient is quite different.

Sigma_T = W^0.5 * N^0.25 / D / R^0.25 + 0.028 * (7 - TVD/1000) where R is ROP (m/hr), N

is RPM, W is WOB (t), D is bit diameter (in) and TVD is true vertical depth (m)
if Sigma_T <= 1 then O = 3.25 / 640 / Sigma_T
if Sigma_T > 1 then O = (4 - 0.75/Sigma_T) / 640
deltaP = (MWI - NHG) * TVD / 10

Sigma_0 = (1 - ((1 + O^2 * deltaP^2)^0.5 - 1) / O / P) * Sigma_T

C = (0.0000088 * TVD + b) / Sigma_T (normal compaction trend with a fixed slope)

Pg = MWI - (20 * (1 - C) / TVD / O / C / (2 - C))

Geolog Training Department 2004 Æ GeoPressure Evaluation

 Sonic (Acoustic) Log

The sonic log is unfortunately available only

at the end of the drilling phase. It measures
the transit time necessary for the acoustic
wave to cross vertically the formation in the
vicinity of the borehole.
Like all indicators related to porosity, transit Normal Compaction
time will decrease gradually with the natural Trend
decrease of the porosity, until an under-
compacted zone will be encountered. In this
case the porosity will not decrease gradually
but remains stable or even increase and the Transition Zone
transit time will increase as well,
consequently to the higher volume of pore
fluid to cross.
∆t in water = 170 to 200 µs/ft
Overpressure
∆t in Clay = 40 to 55 µs/ft
∆t in Dolomite = 38 to 45 µs/ft
∆t in Salt = 67 µs/ft ∆t in Steel = 58 µs/ft

Geolog Training Department 2004 Æ GeoPressure Evaluation

 The End...

Geolog Training Department 2004 Æ GeoPressure Evaluation