Bahir Dar institute of Technology

Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering

CHAPTER 2
CONDUCTING MATERIALS
• Electrical conduction and conducting Materials.

• Why some materials are conductors and others are Insulators?

• Electricity is a word to describe the directional flow of electrons between atoms.

• All matter is built of charged constituents

- Positively charged
- Negatively charged

• Electrical current is the directional movement of electrons between atoms.

• Conduction of electricity must be associated with motion of these charges.

• Since protons are firmly fixed to the nucleus, they can only move when the
whole atom moves

• We know that, when conduction of electricity occurs in metals no matter is

transported, and if protons does not involve in the process, then it must be the
loosely bound electrons that are responsible for the passage of current.

• In addition, in case of electrolytic conduction atoms are released at cathode and

anode, so that ions are moving during conduction and both +ve and –ve
charges are involved in the process.

• Now, let us expect only the valence electrons to take part in conduction process
and the number of conducting electrons per atom is determined by the atomic
structure of the element.
• Metals and conduction by electrons. (classical theory: The Drude model)

• Electrical conduction involves the motion of charges in a material under the

influence of an applied electric field.

• A material can generally be classified as a conductor if it contains a large

number of “free“ or mobile charge carriers.

• In metals, due to the nature of metallic bonding, the valence electrons from the
atoms form a sea of electrons that are free to move within the metal and are
therefore called conduction electrons. In the presence of an electric field, the
conduction electrons attain an average velocity, called the drift velocity, which
depends on the field.
• Good electrical conductors, such as metals, are also known to be good thermal
conductors. The conduction of thermal energy from higher to lower
temperature regions in a metal involves the conduction electrons carrying the
energy. Consequently, there is an innate relationship between the electrical and
thermal conductivities.
• The electrical current density is the net amount of charge flowing across
a unit area per unit time. i.e.
q
J , clum / m 2 Where, ∆q - the net quantity of charge, coulomb
At A - cross sectional area, m2
∆t – time, sec

Drift of electrons in a conductor in the presence of an applied electric field.

Electrons drift with an average velocity vdx in the x-direction. (Ex is the electric
field.)
As can be seen from the sketch,
• Electrons drift with an average velocity Vdx in the X direction.
• Direction of electrons is opposite to direction of Ex and also opposite to
conventional direction of current direction.

• We know that the conduction electrons are actually moving around randomly
in the metal, but we will assume that as a result of the application of the electric
field, Ex, they all acquire a net velocity in x direction.

• The average velocity of the electron in the x direction at time t is denoted

Vdx(t). This is called the drift velocity, which is the instantaneous velocity Vx in
the x direction averaged over many electrons. i.e.

1
Vdx  [Vx1  Vx 2  Vx 3  ......  Vxn ]
N

Where, Vxi is the x direction velocity of ith electron, and

N is the number of conduction electrons in the metal.
• Suppose that n is the number of electrons per unit volume in the conductor
N
n
V
• ∆x is distance moved in time ∆t, ∆x = Vdx ∆t

• so the total charge ∆q crossing the area A is:

q  enAx
• This is valid because, all the electrons within distance ∆x pass through A; thus
n(A∆x) is the total number of electrons crossing A in time ∆t.

• The general equation of current density in the direction is;

q enAx enAVdx t
Jx     enVdx
At At At
This general equation relates Jx to the average velocity Vdx of the electrons.
• The average velocity of the electron at one time may not be the same as at
another time, because the applied field , for example may be changing: Ex =
Ex(t). We therefore allow for a time- dependant current by writing: -

J x (t )  enVdx (t )
Where, n = N/V number electrons per unit volume
e = electron charge ( - 1.69x10-19 coulomb)
Vdx = average velocity of the electron

Here we assume that in a monovalent metal, such as sodium, each atom

contributes one electron to this plasma. The number of atoms, Na, per unit
volume (and therefore the number of free electrons per unit volume (n) in a
monovalent metal) can be obtained by applying the equation on the next slide.
• To relate the current density J, to the electric field Ex, we must examine the
effect of the electric field on the motion of the electrons in the conductor. To do
so, let us consider the copper crystal.
• The copper atom has a single valence electron in its 4S subshell, and this
electron is loosely bound. The solid metal consists of positive ion cores Cu at
regular sites.

Cu = 29, 1S2, 2S2, 2P6, 3S2, 3P6, 3d10, 4S1

• The valence electrons detach themselves from their parents and wander around
freely in the solid, forming a kind of electron cloud or gas.
• If there is no external field, then the free electrons will be scattered in random
direction due to collisions with vibrating lattice.
• The vibration of lattice is due to the vibration of atoms. Usually solid copper
crystals are not perfect and they have defects such as vacancies, dislocations,
impurities, etc. which will scatter the conduction electrons.

• Moreover, due to their thermal energy, the atoms will vibrate about their lattice
sites ( equilibrium positions)
• A conduction electron in the electron gas moves about randomly in a metal being
frequently and randomly scattered by thermal vibration of the atom.

• In the absence of applied field, there is no net drift in any direction.

 • These mobile electrons are free to
respond to an applied field, creating a
current density Jx. The valence electrons
in the electron gas are therefore
conduction electrons.

In the presence of an applied field Ex, there is a net drift along the X direction. This
net drift along the force of the field is superimposed on the random motion of the
electron.

After many scattering events, the electron has been displaced by a net distance, ΔX ,
from its Initial position towards the positive terminal.

With the application of the external field, the electron accelerates along the x
direction under the action of the force eEx.
• The average velocity of an ith electron is :

eEx
V xi  U xi  (t  t i )
me
Where, Vxi – velocity of ith electron in X direction at time t.
Uxi – velocity of ith electron in the X direction just after the collision.
(t-t1) – interval of time the electron accelerated free of collision

- acceleration

The average velocity Vdx for such electrons along X is;

1
Vdx  [Vx1  Vx 2  Vx 3  ......  Vxn ]
N
 eE x
Vdx  (t  t1 )
me
Where,
(t  t1 ) The average free time for N electrons between collisions

Udx – 0, (averaged for many electrons) – since after collision, the electron
may move in any random direction (+X or –X)

Velocity gained along X

Vx3-Ux3
Vx2-Ux2
Electron 3
Vx1-Ux1 Electron 2
Present time

Last collision
time
Electron 1 time

time t3 t
t2 t
t1 Free time t
• For different electrons, (t  t1 ) may be different and, let τ be the mean free time.

e
Then, Vdx  Ex 
me
This shows that Vdx increases linearly with applied field Ex

Where, = - Drift mobility

Then, Vdx   d E x
The mean scattering time ( relaxation time) τ is directly related to the microscopic
processes that cause the scattering of electrons in the metal. i.e.
- lattice vibration
- crystal imperfections, (dislocation, vacancies, …)
- impurities
- etc.
• If in the current density equation Vdx is substituted by µdxEx, we get

J  en d E x
J  E , J is proportional to the electric field and conductivity.
Where,   en d - Conductivity of the material

Summary

1. - Measures how fast electrons will drift when driven by applied force.
=

2.   (t  t1 ) - Relaxation time is independent of Ex

Vdx
3.  d  - Drift mobility is inversely proportional to Ex
Ex
4. If the electron is not highly scattered, then the mean free time between
collisions τ will be large; and the drift mobility will also be large.

5. A large drift mobility does not necessarily imply high conductivity, because
‘σ’ also depends on ‘n’( concentration of electrons).
 Fermi Dirac Distribution function and
the Fermi energy in metals
- The F-D distribution function is a function specifying the probability that a
member of an assembly of independent fermions, such as electrons in a
semiconductor or metal, will occupy a certain energy state when thermal
equilibrium exists.

- It applies to fermions, particles with half-integer spin which must obey the
Pauli exclusion principle. Particles with integer spin are called bosons.
Fermions include electrons, protons, neutrons.

- It specifies under equilibrium condition, the probability that an available state

at energy E will be occupied by an electron. It is a probability distribution
function.
Where,
1 EF – Fermi energy
f (E)  ( E  EF ) K – Boltzmann constant
T – absolute temperature.
1 e KT
- The significance of the Fermi energy is most clearly seen by setting T = 0. At
absolute zero, the probability is 1 for energies less than the Fermi energy, and
zero for energies greater than the Fermi energy.

Considering T 0K

E For E > EF, =0

EF For E < EF, =1

0
1 f(E)
• Considering T > 0K
The Fermi energy EF is that
1 energy for which probability
If E  EF , f (E)  of occupancy f(EF) = 1/2
2
( E  EF )

If E  EF  3KT , f (E)  e KT

( E  EF )

If E  EF  3KT , f (E)  1  e KT

- The fermi distribution function is applicable for electrons, since they obey Pauli
exclusion Principle.

- For metals at zero absolute temperature, EF is not that much clear since valence
band and conduction band overlap.

- For semiconductors and Insulators, it is the surface of the Fermi sea at absolute zero.
EF
0.5
 Factors Influencing Resistivity of conducting materials

a) Resistivity dependence on temperature

1) Let us consider ideal pure metal case

and
- We know that drift mobility =

Conductivity

If the electrons are scattered by thermal vibration of the ions, then

- Let conductivity by thermal vibration be σT and
- Resistivity due to thermal vibration is ρT.

As can be seen from the relation of drift mobility to relaxation time and
conductivity to drift mobility, the temperature dependence of σ is based
on temperature dependence of relaxation time ( mean free time).
• Scattering centers of electrons moving with mean speed U may be ions, atoms,
impurities, etc.
• When an electron crosses the cross-sectional area of S of a scattering center, the
mean free path l of the electron between scattering process is:-

l  u Where, u – mean speed of electron

τ - mean free time

If Ns is concentration of scattering centers, then

1
 assuming that, in a volume Sl there is one
scattering center and mean speed u is
SuNs
Slightly temperature dependant & for
Electrons it is almost constant.

Taking number of scattering centers Ns per unit volume to be the atomic

concentration, then mean free time τ depends only on cross- section of the
scattering centers.
• Since the atoms vibrate randomly, the atom covers a cross sectional area Пa2,
where a is the amplitude of the vibration.

a – amplitude of vibration
S = Πa2

-
-
electron

If the electron’s path crosses Πa2, it gets scattered. Thus,

Where, C is time independent const.

And,
 eC C
• Conductivity  T  en d  en e n
2

meT meT

1 1 me T
• Resistivity T    2  AT
 T en d e nC
me
Where, A  2 Temperature independent constant
e nC

Thus resistivity of pure metal increases linearly with temperature ; and it is

due to scattering of conduction electrons.
 2) Resistivity and temperature relation in metallic alloys.

• The scattering of conduction electrons in alloys has to pass greater cross-section

than pure metals due to the distortion of the region around impurities. Thus we
have two types of mean free time between collisions.
a) τT - mean free time for scattering from thermal vibration alone
b) τi - “ “ “ “ “ “ impurities alone
1 1 1
Thus,   , τ - The net probability of scattering and is smaller than
 T i both its components.

1 1 1 e T
And,   Where, L  , the lattice scattering drift mobility
d L i me
e i
i  , the impurity scattering drift mobility
me
• Total resistivity of alloyed metals is;
1 1 1
    T   i
en d en L en i
• Since τT is temperature dependant, ρT is temperature dependent whereas,
ρi is independent from temperature effect.

li
i  Where u is almost constant for electrons, τi depends on the separation
u Distance li between the impurities and therefore on their concentration.

1
li  N i 3

• There may also be electrons scattering from dislocations and other crystal
defects. All these scattering factors add to resistivity of a metal. Thus, the
effective resistivity of a metal can be written as:-

  T   R MATHIESSEN’S Rule
• Where, ρR – is residual resistivity and is due to the scattering of
electrons by impurities, dislocations, vacancies, grain
boundaries, etc.

• Since the ρR shows very little temperature dependence, it can be

expressed as follows;
Where, A and B are temperature
  AT  B independent constants.

• Generally, effective resistivity can be written as

   0 1   0 T  T0 
1   
0  Temperature coefficient of resistivity
 0  T  T T0
Where,

- Resistivity at reference temperature (usually 2730K or 2930K

- Change in resistivity due to small change in temperature T  T  T0

• Equation    0 1   0 T  T0  is valid only when 0 remains constant
over the temperature range of interest.

• As we have seen, for pure metals ρ = AT ( linear dependence). However, for

temperatures below 100K, the relation becomes non linear. Example, Copper.
Therefore it shows that our assumption, that all atoms are vibrating with a
constant frequency fails.

• The number of electrons scattering decreases rapidly with temperature, so that

resistivity due to scattering from thermal vibration becomes more temperature
dependent.

• The mean free time becomes longer, leading to smaller resistivity.

resistivity 
10  T

10-2
 T 5

  R
10-5

10 102 103 104 T0K

Dependence of resistivity of copper on temperature

 b) Frequency effect on resistivity of conductors

• In a conductor with cross sectional are A, distribution of ac current within the

conductor is not uniform.
• The current density near the surface is greater than at its core.
• As it is known, this is because of the magnetic field effect of a current carrying
conductor which induces eddy current. The induced eddy current establishes
its own field which opposes the field of original ac current. Thus,

The amount of magnetic field Skin depth is due to the

which threads along the cross- circulating eddy current
section varies with the cancelling the current flow in
diameter ( distance from the the center of a conductor and
center of the conductor). reinforcing it in the skin.
• Due to this phenomena, inductance dL = dψ/di is larger at the center and
smaller at the surface. Thus the inductive reactance XL = 2ПfL also varies
accordingly. Therefore, the distribution of current becomes not uniform;
smaller at the central region and larger at the surface. (SKIN EFFECT)

• The SKIN EFFECT is the decline in current density versus depth. It causes to
increase the effective resistance with frequency of the current.

• According to Maxwell’s equation for conductive medium, the skin depth δ is

expressed as:-

1
 Where, ω – angular frequency of the current
1
 σ – conductivity
µ - permeability
2
Thus the highest the frequency of the current, the smaller the skin depth and leads to
increased resistance of the wire.
• The skin depth is a measure of the distance over which the current falls 1/e (0.37) of
its original value.
Examples
In a copper wire, the skin depth at
various frequencies is shown
below.
δ – skin depth
Frequency δ
2a
60 Hz --------- 8.57 mm
10 kHz ------- 0.66 mm
10 MHz ------ 21 μm

If δ is known, the cross-sectional area approximately is: -

A  a 2   (a   ) 2  2a , δ << a and δ2 neglected.

Thus, for a unit length of a conductor, resistance for ac current is:-
 1
Rac   , Where ρ – ac resistivity at the frequency of interest.
A 2a
• As frequency increases, skin depth δ decreases and thus Rac increases. i.e. as the
current is restricted to flow at the surface, the effective cross-sectional area decreases.

Chapter 3