Symbolism of the Psyche in the Body

By: Stephanie Sattkowski

Sigmund Freud University

SYMBOLISM OF SYMPTOMS IN THE BODY Sattkowski 1

Abstract

This paper is consists of a combination of historical overview and the multifaceted

theoretical models in the field of psychosomatics and an in depth understanding of the
Conversion Disorder with an additional comparison between physical and psychological
symptoms of the disorder. Somatoform disorder consists of the presence of physical
symptoms that cannot be explained or tested through the medical perspective. In
conversion disorder psychological symptoms are manifested through the body
symbolically, this will be explained and assessed through the case study of Mrs. A.
Ultimately, there will be a series of questions which will allow a psychotherapist to
define the presence of psychosomatic symptoms in a patient.

Keywords: Psychosomatics, Somatoform, Conversion Disorder, Conflict Symbolism

SYMBOLISM OF SYMPTOMS IN THE BODY Sattkowski 2

In the early 19th century, there was a great shift in the way in which science was
perceived. As the ideas of “evil” spirits, were replaced by more scientific theories and new
developments. The intricacies of life suddenly became solvable through physic and chemical
explanations. Although, Fthe abstractness of the mind and soul were often questioned throughout
the centuries renowned figures in Roman medicine such as Cincero believed that the health of the
body was equally as important as the health of the mind (Alexander, 1968). Today, numerous
forms of research and the field of Psychosomatics show that Cincero´s early beliefs were
accurate. Psychosomatic can be defined as a disorder manifesting physical symptoms as the result
of psychological causes. Unlike Psychology and medicine, psychosomatics cannot stand on its
own since there is always a combination of medical and psychological assessments in order to
diagnose psychosomatic disorders. This exploration of psychosomatic illness will include a
historical overview, an diverse combination of psychosomatic theoretical models, an in depth
description of conversion disorder and a case analysis to understand the disorder better.

Historical Overview

In the dark ages the main psychological disturbances were described through demons and
other evil spirits. This endured until the 13th century, when Aristotle´s and Galen´s writings of
natural explanations resurfaced. During the Renaissance the man was re-evaluated as an
individual, which led to further interest in anatomy. The search for scientific explanations
emerged as matter such as the mind and the psyche were neglected. However, several physicians
recognized the effect emotions had on the body such as Thomas Sydenham and William Harvey.
Sydenham argued that hysterical symptoms were connected and brought about organic symptoms
such as having a head-ache and throwing up. Harvey recognized the impacts of pleasure, hope
and fear had on heart functions. Many of Harveys and Saydengans ideas were new to the era, as
most physicians were looking for biological explanations to explain mental disorders such as lack
of brain matter in congruency with the natural scientific era Giovanni Morgagni established the
concept that diseases are concentrated in different parts of the body and so the localization of
mental diseases in the brain began. Christian Reil began with the concept that mental diseases
were due to psychological origins and hence psychological methods were primordial in curing
SYMBOLISM OF SYMPTOMS IN THE BODY Sattkowski 3

mental disorders. His approach was psychosomatic by combining physiology and pathology of
the soul (Alexander, 1968). (Alexander, 1968).
Similarly, other psychiatrists attempted to explain pathology through the concept of
pathological personalities in the creation of symptom. Moreau brought about the concept of
introspection and the ability to understand others. He claimed that the solution of pathology was
to understand the complex mental processing's of the insane by having to experience it first-hand.
Similarly, Lutheran then began with religious terminology in which the "super-us" or conscience
was the center of mental conflicts and personality made up of instinctual forces. Lutheran also
represented the ego as the intellect and which serves as the connection between body and psyche
(Alexander, 1968).
As a result other intellectuals such as Carus began to bring about the term unconscious
as a representation of what later became Freud’s Eros. This idea however, was too broad in the
theory that unconscious animates all physiological processes and therefore all organic illness
origin from the unconscious mind. Caru’s ideas took the right direction, but were unable to move
forward due to a lack of methodological tools, which brought the end to the Romantic Movement.
In the mid 19 century the previous ideas were replaced by trying to simulate the other fields of
medicine with psychiatry and searching for cures of disorders in terms of physical and chemical
etiologies, therefore psychology became the concern of philosophers (Alexander, 1968).
However when psychoanalysis with Sigmund Freud began to develop it was not his
theories, but the operative tool to study sequences and mobilize repressed aspects in the
therapeutic relationship which took the interests of other members of the field of Psychiatry. He
was able to do this sue to his empirical efforts which none of the psychiatrists from the romantic
period were able to achieve. This brought about the birth of the psychosomatic medical era
(Alexander, 1968).
As the psychosomatic "subject" expanded so did empirical research. There was a clear
link established between chronic emotional stress and organic deficiency. The Chicago
psychoanalytical institute made a study showing how emotional patterns lead to the development
of physiological diseases such as adrenal ulcers, asthma, ulcerative colitis and hypertension.
Although some individuals with the same emotional patterns did not have physiological diseases.
This was explained by an organic vulnerability which could have been developed in early years
or specific genes, transmitted by parents, become activated during emotional stress (Alexander,
1968).
SYMBOLISM OF SYMPTOMS IN THE BODY Sattkowski 4

Many of Harvey´s and Saydengan´s ideas were new to the era, as most physicians were
looking for biological explanations to explain mental disorders such as lack of brain matter
In congruency with the natural scientific era Giovanni Morgagni established the concept that
diseases are concentrated in different parts of the body and so the localization of mental diseases
in the brain began. Furthermore, when the study of psychology emerged it however was refused
due to the lack of credibility in the developed psychological methods. In the past the term psyche,
had played a role in different concepts such as humors by Hippocrates, also represented by Plato
through "ideas" and Pinels moral treatment of the mentally ill. However the concept "psyche" in
the 19th century began to have a place in the medical community as Psychiatry. Christian Reil
began with the concept that mental diseases were due to psychological origins and hence
psychological methods were primordial in curing mental disorders. His approach was
psychosomatic by combining physiology and pathology of the soul. Similarly, other psychiatrists
attempted to explain pathology through the concept of pathological personalities in the creation
of symptom. Moreau brought about the concept of introspection and the ability to understand
others. He claimed that the solution of pathology was to understand the complex mental
processing's of the insane by having to experience it first-hand (Alexander, 1968).
Lutheran then began with religious terminology in which the "super-us" or conscience
was the center of mental conflicts and personality made up of instinctual forces. Lutheran also
represented the ego as the intellect and which serves as the connection between body and
psyche. As a result others such as Carus began to bring about the term unconscious as a
representation of what later became Freud´s Eros. This idea however, was too broad in the theory
that unconscious is related to all physiological processes and therefore all organic illness origin
from the unconscious mind. Caru´s ideas took the right direction, but were unable to move
forward due to a lack of methodological tools, which brought the end to the Romantic
Movement. At the mid 19 century the previous ideas were replaced by trying to simulate the
other fields of medicine with psychiatry and searching for cures of disorders in terms of physical
and chemical etiologies as a result, psychology became the concern of philosophers (Alexander,
1968).

However when psychoanalysis emerged with Sigmund Freud it was not his theories, but
the operative tool to study sequences and mobilize repressed aspects in the therapeutic
relationship which became recognized by other Psychiatrists. He was able to do this sue to his
SYMBOLISM OF SYMPTOMS IN THE BODY Sattkowski 5

empirical efforts which none of the psychiatrists from the romantic period were able to
achieve. This brought about the birth of the psychosomatic medical era. As the psychosomatic
"subject" expanded so did empirical research. There was a clear link established between chronic
emotional stress and organic depletion. The Chicago psychoanalytical institute made a study
showing how emotional patterns lea to the development of physiological diseases such as adrenal
ulcers, asthma, ulcerative colitis and hypertension. Although some individuals with the same
emotional patterns did not have physiological diseases, this was explained by an organic
vulnerability which could have been developed in early years or specific genes, transmitted by
parents, become activated during emotional stress (Alexander, 1968).
Research based on psychosomatic symptoms has further shown that patients with ulcers
cannot appease their needs due to the inability of accepting help from others which brings forth
feelings of guilt. In the other hand, asthma patients are unable to express freely their problems
due to a past rejections and a disturbed communication with a parent. A neurosis must take into
account the environmental factors since many of the neurosis can occur due to the inability of
adaptation to a new environment. This case is often seen in immigrants who had no symptoms
but after moved to a different culture were unable to adapt and expressed neurotic symptoms
(Alexander, 1968).
As the different methods came together, such as Psychiatry and Psychology, this brought
about the field of psychotherapy. As time progressed, Hippocrates humors became endocrine
secretions and psychology adopted measurable and precise methods to test theories. The concepts
of animal spirits lead to the development of mental apparatus, the basis of psychodynamic
concepts. Leading to what we know today as Psychotherapy and the study of the individual
person and the blending of all psychological, sociological and physiological which allow us to
understand the person as a whole (Alexander, 1968).

Psychosomatic Perspectives
In the understanding of a psychosomatic disorder, there are two major aspects: “soma”
meaning body and psycho meaning psychological factors including conflicts or emotions.
Psychosomatic disorders are characterized as the manifestation of bodily symptoms without any
medical explanations. These symptoms lead to the inability of functioning in everyday life. In
order to establish a psychosomatic disorder, the patient must undergo a series of medical
including bodily, neurological and others depending on the symptoms. These tests then have be
SYMBOLISM OF SYMPTOMS IN THE BODY Sattkowski 6

assessed as “normal” and can only consider a psychosomatic diagnosis if there is no evidence of
a medical cause that could cause the symptoms. (Godwin, 2014)
Somatic symptoms can be explained through different models depending on the method.
In psychoanalysis somatic symptoms can be explained through the conflict model. In this model a
person´s libidinal “life” energy is at different areas of the body during development. These are
commonly known as oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital stages. According to this theory
during the oral, anal and phallic stages the person undergoes a series of fixations during certain
stages depending on the situation. During the teenage years, the latency stage, actualization
occurs where certain life events might bring about into the surface the “fixations” from the past
and the individual can deal with this through sublimation or through the defense mechanism of
repression. In sublimation a person deals with the fixations by diverting libidinal energy through
non- sexual channels such as studying, traveling or other valuable achievements. If this does not
occur however, the psychic apparatus creates a “neurotic compromise” by represses the fixation
by concealing uncomfortable thoughts and desires into the unconscious, until it is again triggered
by other events later in life. As a result of the repressed neurotic conflict a symptom arises,
usually symbolic of the fixation that was previously repressed. The resolution of the symptom
comes forth was the unconscious becomes conscious through the therapeutic process. (Mörtl,
Lecture Notes, 2014)
The deficiency model however claims that there is not only a developmental conflict but
that there is a deficiency in the mechanism. These deficiencies in the mechanism are a result of
environmental failures due to unmet needs during early development or traumas. These deficits,
anxiety causing fantasies and wishes, can also be seen in the psychodynamic point of view as
“developmental conflicts”. (Mörtl, Lecture Notes, 2014)
Furthermore, the learning theoretical model, in the cognitive behavioral perspective
claims that classic, operant and social conditioning influences the development of symptoms. In
this perspective, the environment or social models serve as classic or operant conditioning to
reinforce the manifestation of a symptom. For example, in classical conditioning a person
“learns” to respond automatically (involuntarily) to a stimulus in a certain way which can be
manifested as a symptom. For example, classical conditioning can produce intolerance to foods
and smells in healthy individuals. In operant conditioning the individual has a voluntary response
followed by a reinforcing stimulus. The reinforcement stimulus can be either a reward or a
punishment. This reinforcement leads to maladaptive behaviors which can be in benefit or
SYMBOLISM OF SYMPTOMS IN THE BODY Sattkowski 7

disadvantage of the “system/family” as a whole but it can also be a benefit for the individual also
known as secondary gain of illness. In secondary gain of illness there is a certain reward for the
person to continue the manifestation of a symptom. (Mörtl, Lecture Notes, 2014)
There are several different categorizations within the psychosomatic disorders.
Psychosomatic disorders are divided into somatoform, eating disorders, somato-psychic meaning
symptoms caused organically due to neurological dysfunction and potential psychosocial factors
in organic disorders. One of the main categorizations in the DSM IV (APA, 1994) is the
somatoform disorders, in the ICD 10 (WHO, 1992) somatoform disorders are characterized as “at
least two years of medically unexplained symptoms, persistent refusal to accept the advice or
reassurance of several medical doctors that there is no physical explanation for the symptoms and
some degree of impairment of social and family functioning attribution able to the nature of the
symptoms”. The three main somatoform disorders include somatization, conversion and
hypochondriasis disorders (Mörtl, Lecture Notes, 2014)

Conversion Disorder
In the following section I will however focus on the conversion disorder, conversion
disorder is defined as a series of bodily symptoms that cannot be explained through medical
examinations. In order to make the diagnosis of conversion disorder the symptoms must be
unconscious and not due to fictitious disorder or malingering. The somatic symptoms start
abruptly of conversion include motor symptoms such as paralysis, coordination disturbances or
balance, urinary retention or localized weakness, akinesia, dyskinesia and aphonia. Sensory
symptoms include blindness, double vision, anesthesia, paresthesia, deafness and seizures or
convulsions. Patients with conversion disorder have shown a link between frightening symptoms
and cheerful emotional responses also known was “la belle indifference”. The psychodynamic
perspective argues that the conversion symptom is a pleasurable symbolic expression for
repressed wishes. In this view a conflict in aggression is expressed in a bodily symptom. The
secondary gain is also considered as a causal factor, where the person gains benefits through the
sickness such as increase attentiveness of family members or friends. Personality features
associated with the disorder include the “hysterical” personality type or the dependent type of
personality. Conversion disorder might also occur in congruence to depression or borderline
personality disorder. (Levenson, 2006)
SYMBOLISM OF SYMPTOMS IN THE BODY Sattkowski 8

The prevalence according to a 1990 review states that “0.3% of the population is likely to
have the disorder and 1%-4.5% prevalence in medical outpatients”. (Levenson, pg.282) The onset
of the disorder usually occurs during adolescence or early adulthood, however there have been
some cases in children. In a study conducted by Murphy in 1990 the prevalence has shown to be
higher in developing countries. “The ratio of prevalence is 2:1 with women having the disorder
more frequently.” (Levenson, pg.282) The onset of the disorder is usually followed by a life
stressor, the prognosis of the disorder is hard to determine and can range from short duration with
a sudden resolution but then a reoccurrence over time is usually common. Yet in other cases,
symptoms can last for years. (Levenson, 2006) In chronic conversion symptom cases there has
been found an association with a personality disorder such as borderline or histrionic personality
traits. (Baker, 2010)
The etiology of the disorder there has been an association to sexual and physical abuse
however it not so in all cases. The onset of the disorder has also been due to socio-cultural
stressors such as rape, bereavement, incest, warfare and other trauma. The prognosis therefore
depends on stressors, duration of symptoms before treatment, the pattern in which symptoms
occur, personality and the sociocultural context that the disorder is acquired. (Levenson, 2006)
There are different types of conversion disorder: conversion anesthesia, conversion
paralysis and conversion seizures. In conversion anesthesia, it is common for it to occur in the
extremities where the patient claims to have no sensation, usually in hand or foot. Those patients
to claim sensation in the foot are however, able to walk normally. It is usually located in a joint
with very distinct boundaries. This is similar in the case of polyneuropathy but in the condition
there are no such distinct boundaries. Similarly, conversion paralysis has the same boundary
characteristic. Other characteristics include weakness and limpness in the affected area. Another
symptom may include the “wrong way tongue” unlike the usual hemiplegia, diverts into the
normal side instead of the hemiplegic side as it is with true hemiplegia. (Baker, 2010)
In conversion seizures or epileptic seizures, it replicates grand mal or complex partial
seizures. In conversion grand mal seizures the onset is sudden and usually involves
comprehensible cries instead of an inarticulate cry. The movements are also diverse but have a
purposeful manner. Conversion grand mal seizures are hard to diagnose, yet the main difference
is that they start with a motionless stare or involuntary movements and patients do not bite their
tongues during the seizure. Patients also don’t show confusion or drowsiness. However the
Babinski signs which are true universally, in true seizures show increase levels of prolactin or
SYMBOLISM OF SYMPTOMS IN THE BODY Sattkowski 9

neuron enolase after a seizure, are also in 1/5 of patients with complex partial seizures. Yet
absences of the Babinski sign can bring into question if it is real seizures or pseudo seizures.
(Baker, 2010)

A Case Study (Stonnington, 2006). Clinical Case Conference: Conversion Disorder.

“Mrs A is a 53 year old woman, was admitted to our epilepsy monitoring unit for evaluation of a
4 month history of tremors, head bobbing and episodic loss of awareness. The onset of the
symptoms was 1 week after she visited an emergency department for a sudden headache. In the
department she developed numbness in her left face and arm; along with distress by the delay of
attendance. Ultimately, she left because a physician didn’t examine her but laboratory tests and
imaging studies were conducted. Six days later, her speech became syllabic in cadence, her arms,
head and body would have pseudo convulsions for minutes without loss of consciousness.
Lorazepam provided relief. In a later visit to a neuropath, who began neck manipulations,
triggered new episodes (ie. Uttering Ohh…ohh, while clapping both hands and feet, sometimes
accompanied by visual changes, tongue deviation and unresponsiveness. These episodes lasted up
to 5 hours and occurred daily. Anxiety, music therapy and stress worsened her symptoms, sleep
improved them. Between episodes she had continuous head tremor. She was admitted to epilepsy
monitoring unit, episodes of shaking, tremor and abnormal movements were recorded with no
clinically significant accompanying EEG changes. Evaluation by a psychologist uncovered a
history of childhood and adolescent sexual abuse by Mrs As father who also molested her sisters
and daughters. The symptoms began around the 7th anniversary of her father’s death after she
discovered his abuse of her daughters. As a teenager, Mrs A had suicidal ideation triggered by an
abortion that her father reportedly performed. Afterwards she attended an emergency department
for persistent bleeding, where she experiences terror, anger and loss of control when unattended.
Her visual and memory functions were intact and her IQ was 99. Conversion disorder, was
diagnosed on the basis of video EEG recordings, history and psychological testing. She was also
diagnosed with major depression and anxiety disorder. The diagnosis was explained by a
neurologist and Mrs. A was skeptical and angry but ultimately, accepting. After psychotherapy,
the shaking events remitted but she continued to have voice and head bobbing. She was self-
conscious and no longer able to work” (Stonnington, C., & Barry, J., (2006 ).

Discussion

In my analysis of Mrs. A, it is very important to consider the onset of her symptoms. Her
symptoms began in the 7th anniversary of her father´s death when she found out her father had
been sexually abusing her daughters. These symptoms appear to be a conversion of her anxiety
into a physical symptom, to deal with the fact that she was abused sexually by her father and the
abortion forced by her father. Mrs. A appears not to have dealt with the conflict through
 SYMBOLISM OF SYMPTOMS IN THE BODY Sattkowski
10

sublimation, which then caused the intra-psychic conflict in the unconscious or “neurotic
compromise”. However then the conflict-surfaced by finding out that her daughters had also been
sexually abused. The conflict was manifested as head tremors and numbness. The conversion
disorder, hence acts as a symbolic representation of the unconscious conflict she refuses to deal
with and her daughter´s sexual abuse. In this perspective, the numbness of the face and arm act as
a representation of anger towards her father that she is refusing to feel this. The face can be a
symbol of “looking the other way” instead of dealing or suspecting that her father was sexually
abusing her daughters. The head tremor acts physically as a back and forth movement almost like
shaking the head saying “no”. This can be assumed as a symbol of denial that her daughters got
sexually abused. The pseudo body convulsion are symbols for the that lack of physical control in
both the sexual abuse that was done to her and also lack of control due to the damage that was
done to her daughters. Her lack of speech also manifests itself as a symbol in the inability to
speak up that she was being sexually abused by her father. This might also cause even more
shame and guilt because her daughters were able to speak out, even if it was too late, but she was
never able to. In the learning perspective we can also consider the secondary gain of illness.
Perhaps during childhood she was also not sexually molested when she was ill, and this learned
mechanism is being represented again with the resurfacing of the conflict. It can be assumed that
she has become ill so she doesn’t have to deal at home with the guilt and shame of not protecting
her daughters from her father. As described in the case study, the lacks of attendance lead to
worsening of symptoms and feelings of anger, terror and loss of control. It is possible that she
experienced a form of regression into childhood and wants to have the feeling of being “taken
care” and “protected” by adults now as she was not when she was being sexually abused as a
child. It is recommended that Mrs. A attends psychotherapy so her conflict becomes conscious
and the manifestation of symptoms will stop when the conflict has been worked through.
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Table 1 Comparison between Physical and Psychological Symptoms

Physical Symptoms Psychological Symptoms

Pseudo seizures or convulsions
Vision, Speech or Hearing Problems
Numbness/ Paralysis in specific areas (usually
extremities)
Tremors, tics and jerks
Difficulty Walking & Balance
Difficulty swallowing
Episodes of Unresponsiveness
Astasia – abasia: Abnormal body movements
(which worsen as a calling for attention)
(Mayo Clinic)
Anxiety Attacks
Stress
Repressed conflict (primary gain; conflicts
remain outside awareness) triggered by
stressors
La belle indifference: change between fearful
and cheerful emotional responses to symptoms;
lack of emotions at times
Identification: Unconscious modeling of
symptoms after someone considered important
to the patient (commonly deceased)
Secondary Gain: Advantages and benefits as
the result of being sick

Questions I would ask the Patient

In the following section, these are the main questions I would ask Mrs.A to understand the
psychological and psycho-somatic aspects of her condition. These questions are specifically
articulated to understand and discover the somatic symptoms, if any, but also asses the
psychological background of the patient.

1. Are you married, do you have children? Can you tell me a little about your relationship
with them?
2. Who are the important people in your life?
3. What is your profession, are you currently working?
4. Can you tell me more about your family history during your childhood and relationships
with mother and father?
5. Do you have brothers and sisters?
6. What symptoms are you experiencing?
7. When did the epilepsy attacks start?
8. Is there any current family situation which might be related to the symptoms?
9. Have there been any major stressors in your life during the last months to a year?
10. How often do these occur?
11. Which emotions did you feel before the epilepsy episodes?
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12

12. Do you ever have repetitive memories of painful things that happened to you suddenly
come back into your mind, that you can’t shut out?
13. Are you having sleeping problems? If so how many hours of sleep / night?
14. How does your body hold up under stress? Do you often get sick or have headaches,
stomach problems or backaches?
15. Are you taking any medications at the moment, if yes which?
16. Have you ever been hospitalized before, if yes when and why?
17. How many times have you visited a doctor for medical consultation?
18. Have you ever had problems with depression or anxiety? Any radical mood swings or
emotions?
19. Do you ever feel guilty, ashamed or embarrassed?
20. Have you ever hurt yourself, had any suicide attempts or thought seriously about suicide?
(if yes ask about frequency and specific incidents)
21. Do you ever currently or in the past resorted to substance/drug abuse to numb intense
emotions?
22. How do you think the experiences in your life have affected you?

As many psychiatrists, psychologist and psychotherapists have experienced, it is very

difficult to distinguish initially the difference between psychosomatic patients and medical
patients. Guidelines of symptoms have been established, yet there will always be a fine line in
diagnosing. This is why it has taken so many years to develop the field of psychosomatics and
why there is still continuous controversy. Therefore, it is so important to look at the
psychological cues such as the Belle indifference, the acting out, the secondary gain of illness,
the symbolisms behind the specific illness and most importantly, to always ask the right
questions.

A suggestion to practitioners would be for example, to include always specific

psychosomatic questions during the first interview, which are often missed. Another important
aspect would be to be aware of the co-morbidity between specific somatic disorders and
Psychotic, Depressive and Personality disorders. In Chinese Medicine, the body is the main
vessel where diseases occur both psychological and somatic, there is hardly any division, and
perhaps adopting different cultural approaches such as those from Oriental origins could give us a
broader understanding. Just as a quote by Jim Palmer says: “Two weeks, maybe three. You never
know with psychosomatic injuries. You have to take your time with them.”
 SYMBOLISM OF SYMPTOMS IN THE BODY Sattkowski
13

References
Alexander, F.(1950). Psychosomatic Medicine: Its Principles and Applications. New York:
Norton

Levenson, J. L. (2006). Essentials of Psychosomatic Medicine. American Psychiatric Press Inc.

ISBN 978-1-58562-246-7

Moertl, K., (2013). Psychosomatics, Lecture conducted from: Sigmund Freud University, Vienna.
Kumar, P. J., & Clark, M. L. (2009). Psychological Medicine. In Kumar & Clark's clinical
medicine (8th ed.). Edinburgh: Saunders Elsevier.

Dodwin E. (2014). Somatoform Disorders, Lecture conducted from: University of Nigeria,

Enugu Campus, Nigeria. Retrieved April 24, 2014, from
http://de.slideshare.net/godwinlipz/somatoform-disorders-32088994

Stonnington, C., Barry, J. (2006). Clinical Case Conference: Conversion Disorder.

Retrieved April 24, 2014, from:
http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/data/Journals/AJP/3775/06aj1510.PD

A.H, Baker (2010). Conversion Disorder. Retrieved April 24, 2014, from
http://www.brown.edu/Courses/BI_278/Other/Clerkship/Didactics/Readings/Conversion
%20Disorder.pdf

Mayo Clinic (2014). Conversion disorder Symptoms - Diseases and Conditions - Mayo Clinic.
Retrieved May 10, 2014, from http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-
conditions/conversion-disorder/basics/symptoms/con-20029533