Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

University of Baghdad

College of Science| physics department

Research project

Polymers
Research submitted by the student

Haneen Hassan Shaaban

to
the Department of Physics, College of Science, University of Baghdad

It is part of the requirements for obtaining a Bachelor's degree

Supervised by

Assist.prof. Asmaa Shawqy Khalel

theoretical side

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1-1introduction

The term "polymer" is commonly used today in the manufacture of

plastics and composites, and is often used as a synonym for the word
"plastic" or "resin". Indeed, polymers include a group of materials
with a variety of unique properties. They are found in common
household oods, in clothing and toys, in building and insulation
materials, and in many other products. The word (polymer) is Latin in
origin and is composed of two syllables which are (poly)It means
polynomial, so it means( mer) or part Means multi-part or multi-unit
polymer Humans (polymers) have known since ancient times and used
vegetable products Polymeric animal for various purposes in his daily
life And vegetable resins, so he knew that bitumen was used Gum and
Rubber thousands of years ago, and now the organic polymers are of
great importance in human life It is presently included in the
components of food, clothing and analgesic, It is used for
carbohydrates, sugars and proteins in food and is used Cotton, wool,
silk and animal skin make garments as benefit Of wood for the
construction of dwelling and furniture uses rubber and glue And
countless other materials for a variety of purposes. It is worth noting
that the first polymers made of (Bakelite) were manufactured in 1909
to be used to cover telephone wires and electrical components. Some
synthetic polymers have recently been replaced Natural materials, and
this is a result of the tremendous development that occurred in
industries Chemical, oil-based and by-products, and these have
mechanical properties Good as it is cheap and greatly available and
has been used In the household and military and civil industries, such
as cars Aircraft, submarines, and electrical appliances. And now we
are facing a huge and huge industrial field in addition to the fields
Previously, scientists were able to put in place a mechanism that could
benefit from polymers In the field of electrical conductivity and in
particular in the manufacturing field Electric batteries. Polymers can
be obtained from two main sources, the normal polymers They are
compounds of either plant or animal origin, such as wood and cotton
Natural rubber, vegetable glues, wool, leather, hair and lint Natural
silk, which are all natural polymeric compounds, are essential for our
daily life It can be obtained from plant or animal sources, and from
foodstuffs Which are natural polymers are: Starch, protein and
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cellulose And prepared polymers They are the materials that have
conquered the world markets recently, including plastics Rubber and
synthetic leather And nylon and polyester fabrics And some dyes,
protective coatings, etc., and polymers are used in a wide range of
applications in our daily life that exceeds any other category, they are
used in all fields, especially in the fields of agriculture, medicine, and
human consumption. To meet the growing need for new materials with
special specifications, they enter as an alternative to traditional
materials. Therefore, this research will include studying polymers and
their types and identifying the composite materials and their most
important properties.

2-1 POLYMERS
The polymer is a Latin word, composed of two sections, which are (poly)
and means multiple and (Mir) means unity, so the polymer means multi-
units, because polymers consist of large molecules and these molecules
are formed by the association of a number of small molecules known as
monomers and since both The type of the molecule, its size and its spatial
distribution will change, as its physical and chemical properties will
change as well. [1]

Technological classification of polymers:

1-2-1 thermoplastic polymers:

These polymers consist of linear or inlaid molecular chains. If heated,
they melt (Melt) or soften, and when cooled, they return to solidified
again, and this process can be repeated several times [1]

2-2-1 Thermosetting polymers:

Thermally hardened polymers are defined as insoluble and insoluble
polymers after they are formed, due to the occurrence of crosslinking
between molecular chains, forming a network with three dimensions, so
these polymers have more heat resistance than thermoplastic polymers [1]

3-1 resins

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They are complex polymers that fall into the raw materials for the
manufacture of plastics, and classify resins into two basic types, which
are thermoplastic resins (such as polyethylene and polystyrene), and non-
malleable resins (such as polyester resin, epoxy resin) [2] and whether the
epoxy resin and resole resin have been used. In this research, we will
mention the specifications and methods of preparing it.

1-3-1 epoxy resin

Epoxy resin is one of the most versatile materials, as it is used in
industrial applications for its excellence with good physical, chemical and
mechanical properties and on chemical composition and hardening agents
used to produce it. After the hardening process [4].

The most important and important method for preparing epoxy resins is
by the reaction of the IP-chlorohydrin compound with Pis-phenol-A
(DiphenololpropanDiphenol). [5]

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The resulting polymer is viscous or solid fragile depending on its
molecular weight, and these epoxy polymers are treated to take their
final solid form by reacting with one of the following:

1- Polycyclic compounds.

2- multiple hands.

3- multiplesulphides.

4- urea formaldehyde.

5- phenol formaldehyde.

6- Carboxylic acids.

4-1 Composite Materials

Composite Materials are generally defined as engineering materials that
work by a physical union of two or more materials to obtain a multi-
phase system and with different physical properties from the properties of
the materials involved in the composition. Composite Materials are
classified into several types according to matrix, to metallic, ceramic and
organic compounds [6]. For metallic composites, the bonding material is
metals or alloys (such as iron, copper, cobalt, etc.) in addition to The
possibility of using other types of minerals as particles or fibers in which
these materials are armed to improve their physical, chemical, and
mechanical specifications [7].

As for the Composite of ceramic materials, the bonding substance has

multiple types (alumina, silicon carbide, carbon, etc.). The reinforcing
phase in these superpositions must be of high resistance and otherwise
there is no useful characteristic that can be obtained [8]. And because the
compounds of organic matter fall within this research, we will mention
them and the materials that arm them in a more detailed way.

5-1 Organic Composite

The bonding material of these compounds is composed of organic
materials such as phenol resins, epoxy resin and others. The bonding

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material for organic compounds is armed with several types of materials
(organic and inorganic materials), and these materials are available in
various forms [9]:

1. In the form of sheets such as mica sheets

2. In the form of fibers such as graphite, glass, Kevlar and carbon

3. In the form of fillings such as wood and cellulose in phenolic resins

There are four types of fiberglass that are used as reinforcing

materials: [10]:

1-E-glass which has a low base and is used to arm non-heat resins.

2- A-glass which contains a high base that is used in aircraft

manufacturing.

3- S-glass used in space research.

4- Z-glass which has high base bonding resistance and is used in cement
reinforcement.

Among the basic requirements for the fibers to arm them with the
materials are [9]:

1- It should have a high maximum resistance.

2- Its surfaces and diameters must be uniform.

3- Rust-proof.

4- It has a high elastic modulus in order to give reinforcement efficiency.

5- The fibers retain their strength and durability during and after forming.

The compounds of organic matter are among the most used materials
because the bonding material has good physical and mechanical
properties, including the following [11]:

1- Good, thin separations between the fibers lead to the non-bonding of

the fibers together, thus avoiding the overlapped from sudden
breakdowns at high stresses.

2- Transfer the stresses to the fibers as a result of their adhesion.

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3- Its ability to bond with reinforcing materials as components in the
superposition.

4- Its chemical compatibility with fibers, as the fiber surfaces are coated
with chemicals that help bond the resin with the fibers in the interfaces.

6-1 Techniques of forming Composite

There are several methods for forming superpositions of shape (1-1), and
each technique has certain characteristics. Among these techniques are:

1. Manual forming technology

This technique is one of the oldest and easiest methods used in
forming organic superpositions and the figure (1-1a) illustrates this
technique, and its advantages [11]:

A. Ease of obtaining any shape and required thickness without specifying

the size of the product.

B. Low cost.

C. Several types of woven fiber can be used in different ways

2. Manual spray technology

In this technique, the cut glass fibers are mixed with the resin and sprayed
as a mixture with a special gun directly on the surface of the mold shape
(1-1b). The resin can be sprayed before mixing it with the catalyst or
spraying the catalyst alone. After spraying the resin and fibers, the roller
is passed over the mixture to remove air bubbles. One of the most
important features of this technique is the speed of formation [11].

3. Forming by twisting the strings

This technique is used in the production of cylindrical shapes such as
tubes, as it uses special machines that pull fibers continuously from
rollers and immerse in laboratory resin, and then this fiber is damaged on
the structures required to be armed and at certain angles (Figure 1-1c), so
this technique has a high reinforcement rate to increase the properties
Mechanical for the required structure [11].

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4- Centrifugal formation
A cylindrical structure that rotates at a high speed is placed inside the
woven fibers, and the resin is spread by an inner tube designed for this
purpose. When the cylindrical structure rotates at a high speed, the resin
is spread regularly on the inner surface of the cylinder. The final product
is then removed from the cylindrical structure [8] (Figure 1-1d).

5- Compressed preheated mold forming

In this technique, special heated molds are used for the continuous
production process (1-1e), as the fibers are taken in the form of a mat or
tissue placed on the inner surface of the mold, then add resin over them
and press the contents together. This technology has the advantage of fast
production [8].

6- Continuous extrusion formation

In this technique, the long reinforcing fibers are passed into the resin bath
while being pulled with special machines, and then passed through the die
formwork to take the required formation [11]. Figure( 1-1f.)

Figure( 1-1) techniques for forming superpositions [12].

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7-1 Fracture
It is the process of forming new surfaces through the body as a result of
the influence of external force

and two distinct patterns of breakage are distinguished [13]:

1- Brittle Fracture
Fragile breakage occurs without any visible plastic deformation preceded
by it. Fracture occurs in a rapid manner and all parts of the body are
destroyed. Fragile breakage depends on the transformation temperature,
the loading level, the state of local fatigue and the properties of the
material.

2- Ductile Fracture
Behavior of ductile fracture poses a lower risk than fragile fracture, as a
large amount of work is spent in the volume surrounding the true fissure
edge band in the form of a plastic deformation.

1-7-1 Fracture In Polymers

The mechanical specifications of the polymers change according to the
type and conditions of the examination, such as the speed of inspection
and the temperature at which the examination is carried out. [14] At low
temperatures, a measure of the glass transition temperature (Tg () Glass
Transition Temperature) is defined as the degree to which the polymer
turns from the glass phase to a rubber-like substance. It is distinguished
by the change in a number of the properties of the material.) The polymer
is excited as in glass, while the polymer itself can be stretched for high
agitation without breaking when its temperature exceeds a value (Tg)
[15]. The formation of new surfaces with fracturing requires more energy
than the surface tension itself, and about a thousand times more.
Polymers are alienated from other types of other fragile materials by not
forming inherent cracks, but are characterized by the phenomenon of
cracks (Crazes) that appear as warning networks and breakage is known
after the break when these networks are cut.

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2-7-1 Fracture In composite Materials
Overlays represent a heterogeneous union of two different materials (for
example, polymer and glass fibers) with chemical and physical
properties, including the property of breakage, and the physical properties
are with a wide range of specifications and according to the materials
involved in the composition of the superficial. Of glass which gives the
union of such materialsCharacteristic of heterogeneity and asymmetry.

The growing incision of the superimposed material is completely

determined in the fiber or the mold and for this the surface energy
(ϓ) should be equal to [16].

ϓ = ϓcf + ϓcm + ϓafm………… (1-1)

As ϓcf Fiber Cohesive Energy

ϓcm Matrix Cohesive Energy
ϓafm Fiber-Matrix Adhesive Energy

8-1 Resistance to solids

Resistance is defined as the ability of a substance to resist failure and
ductile deformation, as resistance to fragile materials is characterized by
the presence of one great value in relation to the transition from elastic
deformation to failure in the material, while resistance to plastic or ductile
material is characterized by the presence of two bone values, the first
relative to the transformation of the material from deformation Elmutili
and the other value is a ratio of the transition from the elmoid
deformation to the fracture. For homogeneous deformation, the type of
potential energy of the grill depends on the distance between minutes in
the direction of loading and is expressed in the general form of Mie [17].

U = -Am' / Xm + Bn / Xn………. (1-2)

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Since U is the potential energy of the reaction, X is the distance between
minutes in the direction of the load

And Bn and Am 'are constants that characterize (relate to) material

composition and stress type, n, m integers.

The net potential energy is expressed by the curve shown in Figure (1-2)

Figure (2-1) Dependence of potential energy U on average distance in the

crystal lattice [17]

As Xo represents the distance between the atoms in equilibrium.

Used Material:

1-Matrix Material

The( PolyPrime-Ep) epoxy resin manufactured in the UAE (Hankel Polybit

Co.) was used as a base material in preparing the polymeric overlapping
materials, and it is characterized as a transparent liquid with a density of
(1.03gm / cm3 medium viscosity), which has the ability to adhesion and is a
little shrinkable and treatableTo the solid state by adding its (hardener), which
is a transparent, light-colored colorless substance, added in a ratio of (2: 1)
and the reaction takes place between the laboratory temperature and the epoxy
of (Thermoset Polymers),

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The table shows some important characteristics of the epoxy resin used

Color Amber
Solid Content 100%

Density 1.03+0.05 gm/cm3

Thermal Conductivity 0.1 w/m.°c
Electrical Resistance High
Shrinkage on Curing 1%
Chemical Resistance Good in water, attacked by strong
acids

2- Reinforcement Materials

In the present research, two ceramic granules of the same granular size
(10-30) (nm) were used, as follows:

.Composites Preperation

For the purpose of preparing the compound and determining the amount of
the base material from epoxy resin and support materials ((TiO2 and (ZnO))
and according to the percentages we used a sensitive electronic balance of
the type (Sartorius) manufactured by the German company (Sartorius),
sensitive to four ranks (0.0001gm), note that Subject The base is made of
epoxy resin plus hardener, making the weight of the polymeric mixture (270
gm).

.Specimens Preparation

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(Hand Lay-Up Molding) technology was used in the process of preparing
samples, because it is one of the easy, successful and common methods. The
process of preparing samples is done in the manner of manual molding in
the following steps:

.Mold Preparation

To configure the mold used for pouring the mixtures, we followed the
following steps:

1. We cut the glass plate with dimensions (10cm x 15cm) and thickness
(10mm) for use as a template base.

2. We cut glass slices with a thickness of (10mm) and lengths of (15cm) and
a width of (10cm) as a frame to preserve the mixture of the overlapping
material when pouring the mixture into the mold to represent the sides of
the moving mold as it is fixed by stabilizers.
3. Cleans the glass plate and the glass strips with soap and water well.

4. Place the glass plate with slides in a thermal oven with a temperature of
(50 ° C) for a period of (15) minutes.

5. We put Over Heat on the glass plate to ensure the mixture does not stick
to the plate (here we focus on expelling the air bubbles trapped between the
glass plate and the thermal paper).
6. Cover the glass slides with vapron paper as an insulating material and
stick to the glass plate with a strong adhesive (silicone), then leave it to dry
for half an hour (make sure the glass tapes adhere to the mold).

7. The mold is placed in a flat place and ready to be poured.

.Addition Ratios

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Ψ= ( Wf / Wc) x 100% ……………………(1-3)

Wc= Wf+Wm ………….................(2-3)

Whereas :

ψ: the gravimetric fracture of the support material in the superimposed

material.

Wf, Wm, Wc: weight of the overlay, the base material and the support
material respectively (gm)

.Samples Preparation Technique:

After configuring the template, we followed the following steps in

preparing the forms:

The epoxy was prepared by adding (90gm) of hardener, which is the type of
metaphenylen diamine (MPDA) to (180gm of resin), as it was used in
preparing three molds as a base material and a glass rod was used in the
mixing process to ensure that it was not Air bubbles and homogeneity.

1-2 materials used

I use two types of polymers, the first is CY223 Aroldite epoxy resin with his
hardener (HY 953) manufactured at Ciba-Geigy Swiss, and the second is the
Phenolic Resin Resole type produced in a company with The public masts
also used the glass Chopped Strand Mat, which was supplied by (Mowding
Ltd. UK type E-glass with a density of 450 g / m) randomly oriented to
support the polymers and polymeric mixtures. Also used paraffin wax and
solution Polyvinyl alcohol (PVC), to prevent the adhesion of the plate to the
molded materials.

2-2 Devices and tools

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Use an electronic sensitive scale to control the weights of used materials
with an accuracy of (0.01g). A number of dimensional glass panels (15x10
cm) and a thickness of (10 mm) were also used, in addition to that a number
of glass strips with dimensions (15x10 cm) and a thickness of (10 mm) were
used to use them as determinants of molding and to ensure the consistency
and uniformity of the resinous materials in the casting mold. Cotton
cylindrical shape, and to expel the air bubbles from the layers that will be
formed during the manufacture of overlays I used a toothed brush made of
aluminum material prepared for this purpose.

3-2 Prepare the epoxy resin panels

Clean, single-use containers were used to mix the epoxy with its hardener,
as a quantity of epoxy resin was weighed and then a sufficient amount of the
hardener was added in a ratio of 1: 3. Then the contents were mixed in the
bowl using a mechanical mixer for a period of (5 min), then the contents
were poured into the prepared mold, and left for a period of (24 hr) to
complete the solidification under laboratory conditions.

4-2 Preparation of the Resol resin board

We weighed a quantity of Resol resin in the container and then poured it

into the prepared mold and put the mold in the oven for a period of (8 hr) at
a temperature of 80 ° C, after which the mold was allowed to cool until
laboratory temperature.

References

1.E. Walter Driver "Plastics Chemistry and Technology", Litton Educational publishing,
Inc., New York, 1979

2. L. K. Arnold "Introduction to Plastics", George Allen, LONDON, 1969.

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3.N. H. NIEU, T. M. TAN, N. L. Huong, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., Vol. 61, (1996), pp. 2259-
2264.

4. H. H. Wang & J. Ch Chen,T.Appl. Polym. Sci. Vol. 57, (1995), PP.671-677.

.5 Dr.. Dhanoun Muhammad Aziz Biriyadi, “Adhesives, Dyes, and Polymeric Coatings
Chemistry”, University of Baghdad-College of Science, Bayt Al-Hikma, 1990 .

6.B. D. Agarwal & L. J. Broutman "Analysis and Performance of fiber composites",

John Wiley and Sons. Inc. New York, 1980.

7. G. Piatte "Advances in Composites Materials" Applied Science Publisher LTD.

London, 1978.

8.M. M. Schawatrz "Composites Materials Hand book" Me Graw-Hill, Inc. New York,
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press, LTD. New York, 1986.

10. N. J. Parralt "Fiber Rein forced materials Technology", Van Nostr and Reinhold
Company, London, 1972.

11.L. Hollaway "Glass Reinforced Plastics in construction Engineering Aspects" Surrey

University press in association with international textbook Company, 1987.

12.M. W. Gaylond " Reinforced Plastic Theory and Practice" Cahners Publishing
Company,Inc., 1974.

13. K. P. Herrmann & L. H. Larsson "Fracture of Non Metalic Material" Brussels, 1987.

14.A.J. Kinloch & R.J. Yong, " Fracture Behavior of Polymers", Applied Science
Publishers LTD, London, 1983.

15.J. A. Brydson, "Plastic Materials", Butter worth Scientific, London, 1982.

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Fatigue", Edited by L.J. Broutman Academic Press, New York, 1974.

17.G. M. Bartenev & Yu. S. Zuyev "Strength and Failure of Visco- Elastic Materials",
Pregamon Press LTD., London, 1968.

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