Island Arc (2009) 18, 144–154

Thematic Article
Stress behavior from fault data sets within a transtensional zone,
South Central Cordillera, Luzon, Philippines: Implications for
mineral occurrences
MARIO A. AURELIO,1,* JOCELYN B. GALAPON,2 VIOLET T. HIZON3† AND DOMINIC B. SADSAD4†
1
National Institute of Geological Sciences, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City,
(email: maurelio.nigs@gmail.com), 2Philex Mining Corporation, 27 Brixton St, Pasig City, 3117 B1 RDM
Jesus St, Pandacan, Manila, Philippines, and 4P.O. Box 1183, Tennant Creek, Northern Territory,
Australia 0860

Abstract The structural signature in the area between the Baguio mineral district and
Ansagan, Tuba, Benguet in the South Central Cordillera, northern Luzon, Philippines, is
dominated by northeast- to ENE-trending faults, contained within a NNW–SSE-trending
transtensional strip. This 50-km-long, 25-km-wide elongated tectonic zone is bounded to
the west by the Pugo Fault and to the east by the Tebbo Fault, both being branches of the
Philippine Fault System. Detailed structural geological (particularly microtectonic) analy-
sis of fracture and mineral vein systems indicates strong conformity with the regional
structural direction. Computed extensional stress axis s3 directions are oriented N150° on
average, sub-parallel to the strike of the bounding faults. The existence of known mineral
deposits and prospects within the tectonic strip implies an intimate relationship between
transtension and mineral occurrence.

Key words: fault analysis, mineral occurrences, Philippine Fault System branches, South
Central Cordillera, stress directions, transtensional strip.

INTRODUCTION: REGIONAL TECTONICS AND PHILIPPINE FAULT AND SHEAR PARTITIONING

MINERAL OCCURRENCES
The Philippine Fault operates as a left-lateral fault
by virtue of a shear portioning mechanism brought
A zone of mineralization from the Baguio mining
about by the oblique convergence between the
district southwards lies within the multi-branched
Philippine Sea Plate and the thinned margin of
northern segment of the Philippine Fault System
the Eurasian Plate (Barrier et al. 1991; Aurelio
(PFS) in northern Luzon, Philippines (Fig. 1).
1992). According to this mechanism, first proposed
Luzon, like the entire Philippine Island Arc, is
by Fitch (1972), shear resulting from the oblique
flanked by oppositely verging subduction zones: in
convergence is distributed perpendicularly to
the east by the East Luzon Trough and by the
the west-dipping Philippine Trench–East Luzon
Manila Trench in the west. The area is traversed
Trough subduction system and left-laterally along
by the multi-branched northern segment of the
the Philippine Fault. This tectonic setup generates
sinistral Philippine Fault System which longitudi-
a maximum stress axis oriented generally east–
nally cuts the archipelago from north to south.
west across the entire archipelago. Evidence for
this includes stress orientations determined from
focal mechanism solutions of earthquakes (Barrier
*Correspondence.
et al. 1991; Aurelio & Punongbayan 2005) as well
†
Formerly of Philex Mining Corporation. as from strain directions determined from global
Received 10 May 2007; accepted for publication 14 December 2008. positioning satellite (GPS) measurements (Aurelio
© 2009 The Authors doi:10.1111/j.1440-1738.2009.00661.x
Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd

Fig. 1 General tectonic map of the
Philippines, showing the major struc-
tural features such as the subduction
trenches on either side of the archipelago
and the Philippine Fault System. Box
shows approximate location of Figure 2.
䉭, location of some GPS points used in
works cited in the text.
et al. 1998; Aurelio 2000; Kreemer et al. 2000). This
present-day tectonic setting is believed to have
been unchanged for the past 5 my (Aurelio 2000;
Hall 2001), following a shift in movement of the
Philippine Sea Plate from a northerly to a north-
westerly direction. Evidence to this 5-my-old plate
motion shift has also been observed in Japan
(Angelier & Huchon 1986) and Taiwan (Angelier
et al. 1986).
It is important at this stage to mention that the
1–2-my age of mineralization in the Santo. Tomas
II ore body in Padcal, and most likely in the other
mineralized areas in the vicinity (Philex Mining
Corporation 2006), is within the 5-my-old tectonic
setting of the Philippines characterized by an
east–west dominant stress direction.
Mineralization in transtensional zones 145
EVOLUTION OF PHILIPPINE FAULT IN LUZON
Prior to 5 Ma, the Philippine Fault in Luzon origi-
nated as a single fault strand produced by shear
partitioning, similar to that proposed by Fitch
(1972), but within the context of oblique conver-
gence between the South China Sea and Luzon,
which developed when the oceanic crust ceased
spreading sometime in Mid-Miocene times (Pinet
1990). It then developed into several branches
simulating the formation of a sinistral duplex
system through time (Maleterre 1989), with the
faults to the east developing earliest and those to
the west the latest (Fig. 2).
Branches of the Philippine Fault System in
Luzon include the following from east to west:
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Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd
146 M. A. Aurelio et al.
Digdig Fault, Abra River Fault, Tebbo Fault, Tuba
Fault, Pugo Fault, and Vigan–Aggao Fault (Fig. 2).
All of these branches, with the exception of the
Tuba Fault and Tebbo Fault, are known to have
generated earthquakes in the past 100 years
(Punongbayan 2001). Within this period, the stron-
gest and most recent event occurred on 16 July
1990 when the Digdig branch ruptured for about
110 km (Ringenbach et al. 1993).
This paper is an attempt to understand the rela-
tionship between geological structures and the
spatial and temporal distributions of mineralized
areas in the South Central Cordillera of Luzon.
METHODOLOGY
This study specifically focuses on structural geo-
logical characterization, performed at the outcrop
scale, along streams and hillslope exposures and
in underground mine workings. Among features
measured are fracture sets, and when identifiable,
© 2009 The Authors
Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd
Fig. 2 Branches of the Philippine Fault
System according to Pinet (1990). A Box
shows approximate coverage of Figure 3
showing a portion of the South Central Cor-
dillera of northern Luzon. Approximate area
of coverage shown in box of Figure 1.
joints (shear, cooling, and hybrid joints), and
faults. Bedding planes in tuff and flow layers were
also occasionally recorded. Measurements were
plotted on a 1:5000 or finer scale topographic map.
Standard remote sensing techniques were used for
more regional analysis.
Particular attention was given to the determina-
tion of sense of movement along fault structures
from Riedel shears, conjugate sets, slickensides,
and other fault criteria. Where available, slicken-
side pitch/rake directions were measured in addi-
tion to fault strike and dip. Other criteria of
faulting used included, among others, brecciated
zones, fault gouge, fracture infills, vein fills, and
displaced markers such as veins/veinlets and other
structures. In multi-event outcrops, the chronol-
ogy of events was established wherever possible.
Microtectonic analysis was performed using
measurements gathered from both surface out-
crops and underground workings. Structural data
sets (primarily fault data) were quantitatively
processed, enabling a reconstruction of the paleo-

Fig. 3 Interpretation of a portion of
the South Central Cordillera as a trans-
tensional strip (area marked by trans-
parent shading) defined by a NNW–SSE
striking left-stepping, left-lateral fault
pair represented to the east by the
Tebbo Fault and to the west by the Pugo
Fault. Present-day regional principal
stress axis s1 direction determined
from regional geodynamic studies (e.g.
Aurelio et al. 1998; Aurelio & Punong-
bayan 2005) shown. Digital terrain
model (DTM)of background map by
David (1997). Location of some known
mineral deposits shown (e.g. Antamok
Mines, Thanksgiving Mines, Sto. Tomas
II of Philex Mining Corporation). White
box shows approximate location of
Figure 4.
stress axes (maximum stress s1, intermediate
stress s2, minimum stress s3), as well as the ratio
F = (s2 - s3)/(s1 - s3) between the principal stress
magnitudes (Angelier 1984, 1989). The latter value
is highly dependent on both the geometry of the
faults and the method used. In order to determine
these stress parameters, two different methods
were used. An iterative search (R4DT) uses the S2
function of Angelier (1984), minimizing the angle
between shear stress and slip vector. This gener-
ally results in small differences between computed
(by data processing) and measured (in the field)
angles (~10°), although in some fault populations,
permutations (or shifting of the position) of the
main stress axes may also occur. Alternatively, the
direct inversion method (INVD) minimizes the S4
function of Angelier (1984), which depends on both
the slip–shear angle and the shear. In this case,
permutations on the main stress axes become rare,
but angular differences (computed vs measured)
are generally larger (~15°). The principles, condi-
tions of application, and limits of this technique
have been described in detail by Angelier (1984,
1989, 1990).
STRUCTURAL REGIME: SOUTH CENTRAL
CORDILLERA
Many of the known mineral deposits and prospects
of the Baguio district and vicinity, including the
Mineralization in transtensional zones 147
Santo Tomas II ore body of Philex Mining Corpo-
ration (PMC) and the mineral prospects in the
vicinity (Butan, Palonopon, Ansagan), are located
within a NNW–SSE strip bounded respectively to
the east and west by the Tebbo Fault and Pugo
Fault, in the southern section of the Central Cordil-
lera (Fig. 3). As the left-lateral Tebbo Fault steps to
the left into the left-lateral Pugo Fault, a 25-km-
wide tectonic strip trending NNW–SSE is pro-
duced from around San Manuel, Pangasinan in the
south to north of La Trinidad in Benguet. This strip
is characterized by the presence of numerous ENE
to northeast and east–west-trending structures,
especially in its eastern half. This arrangement of
structures is indicative of a principal stress axis s1
oriented east–west, consistent with the known pre-
vailing stress direction in the entire archipelago
(Aurelio 2000; Kreemer et al. 2000; Aurelio &
Punongbayan 2005). Many of the known operating
mines and mineral prospects in the southern
section of the Central Cordillera Range are located
within this tectonic strip. Among these are the
Antamok, Thanksgiving, and Acupan mines
(Fig. 3).
ENE FAULTS IN SANTO TOMAS II ORE BODY
The Santo Tomas II mine is among the longest
running gold–copper mines in the Philippines.
Mining operations started in 1957 and are on-
© 2009 The Authors
Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd
148 M. A. Aurelio et al.
going. The ore body is a vertical pipe with a diam-
eter of about 500 m. The pipe resulted from mul-
tiple young dioritic intrusions (5 Mya or younger),
into an early Tertiary andesitic volcaniclastic suite
of rocks. The geology of this ore body and vicinity
has been described in detail in previous works,
foremost of which are those by Serafica and
Baluda (1977), Balce (1979), Sillitoe and Gappe
(1984), Zanoria et al. (1984), Togashi et al. (1990),
and Yumul et al. (1995). More recently, Imai (2001)
described the processes that possibly generated
the ore fluids responsible for the formation of a
porphyry copper–gold deposit.
Among the major structures that appear in
existing PMC maps are the Sta. Fe Fault, Albian
Fault, Wilson Fault, and San Expedito Fault,
all trending northeast–southwest. A 5-m-thick
© 2009 The Authors
Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd
Fig. 4 Generalized geological map of
a portion of the transtensional strip (box
in Fig. 3), highlighting the northeast
to ENE-trending faults (Sta. Fe, Albian,
Wilson, North and South San Expedito
faults, and an unnamed fault) and the
location of several mineralized areas
(hammer symbol). Enclosed boundaries
indicate tenement delineation of Philex
Mining Corporation. Dashed box shows
coverage of Figure 7. Location of cross-
section shown in Figure 9 is indicated.
malachite vein also appears to fill in a similarly
trending fault structure.
STA. FE FAULT
The Sta. Fe Fault is clearly visible on satellite
images and aerial photographs. Its subsurface
manifestations can be investigated from under-
ground exposures at several mining levels of the
Sto. Tomas II ore body of PMC. Based on its
mapped trace underground, the Sta. Fe Fault
strikes about N060° (Fig. 4), and dips 54°SE.
Lithological maps of the ore deposit at levels 900,
780, and 600 m above mean sea level (amsl) indi-
cate a dextrally distorted ore body. An exposure
of the fault at level 908 m amsl shows horizontal

Fig. 5 Outcrop exposing the Albian
Fault near the northeast edge of the Sto.
Tomas II ore body. The structure defines
a 5- to 20-m fault zone striking northeast
and dipping to the southeast variably
between 50° (southeast edge) and 80°
(northwest edge). Inset photo is a
close-up view of the gentler southeast
edge. Map on the lower right shows the
trace of the fault with respect to the ore
body and the approximate location of the
photograph. View looking northeast.
slickenlines, providing convincing evidence for a
dextral slip.
This structural setup suggests that at some
stage after mineralization, the Sta. Fe Fault has
been activated since it appears to at least partly
displace the northeastern end of the ore body.
However, copper–gold assays do not completely
disappear across the faulted truncation of the ore
body at depth; thus, the fault may have already
been active at the time mineralization was taking
place (perhaps the last stages).
ALBIAN FAULT: THE CONDUIT
The Albian Fault, on the other hand, has been well
established as the main structure responsible for
the ground preparation of the Santo Tomas II ore
body (Philex Mining Corporation 2006). While it is
believed to split into three branches at the ore
body, the fault manifests as a deeply incised creek
located northeast of the ore body. Here the fault
strikes about N035° and is defined by a steeply
dipping (80°) north edge and a moderately dipping
south edge (50°). Both fault dips are inclined to the
southeast (Fig. 5).
The southeast dip and ENE strike of the Albian
Fault makes it geometrically similar to the Sta.
Fe Fault, located only a few hundreds of meters
to the north. This strongly suggests that these
two faults belong to the same category as the
regional northeast-trending structures in the
South Central Cordillera tectonic strip.
Mineralization in transtensional zones 149
LOCAL STRUCTURES IN THE BUTAN SMALL-SCALE
MINING AREA
As in the Santo Tomas II area, ENE-trending
major structures prevail in the small-scale mining
area of Butan. These structures are particularly
represented by the Wilson Fault and the two
branches of the San Expedito Fault. Several active
underground mine workings for vein-type gold
occurrences are located in an area limited to the
north and south by the Wilson Fault and San
Expedito Fault, respectively (Fig. 6a). In this area,
smaller-scale northeast-trending structures have
been mapped and are associated with mineralized
veins and veinlets.
Fracture sets gathered from several small-scale
mining tunnels confirm the predominance of
ENE-trending veins and veinlets (Fig. 6b). Tensor
plots of these fracture sets indicate a dominant
extensional stress direction oriented NNW–
SSE (Fig. 7). This direction is perpendicular to
the strike of the major ENE-trending structures
(Wilson Fault and San Expedito Fault), as well as
the vein systems in the Butan area.
This NNW–SSE extensional direction appears
to have favored the formation of open fractures
(normal faults) which were later filled with gold-
bearing mineralizing fluids. At a more regional
scale, this same extension was responsible for
the formation of the nearby major ENE-trending
structures, namely the Wilson Fault and San Expe-
dito Fault.
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150 M. A. Aurelio et al.
b veins, following the general structural
The northern branch of the San Expedito Fault
dips steeply (~70°) to the southeast while the
southern branch, located about a few tens of
meters to the south, dips in the opposite direction
at about 80°NW (Fig. 6a). From here southwards,
the ENE-trending structures start dipping to the
northwest.
ANSAGAN MALACHITE VEIN: A
NORTHWEST-DIPPING, ENE-STRIKING
STRUCTURE FILL
In the Ansagan prospect, a malachite vein with
thickness reaching more than 5 m in some seg-
© 2009 The Authors
Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd
Fig. 6 (a) Outcrops of the Wilson
(left) and North San Expedito (right)
faults defining the northern and southern
boundaries of the Butan small-scale
mining community. Both faults strike
northeast but dip steeply opposite each
other. (b) Fault data set gathered inside
a small-scale gold mining tunnel (Nay-
en–RBT) and corresponding stress
tensor solution (above right) and map of
tunnel (below right). On the map, note
the northeast–southwest orientation of
the tunnel and of observed fractures and
grain.
ments is exposed parallel to an ENE-trending
creek named Ververde from the greenish color of
the vein (Fig. 8). While the malachite vein indicates
copper mineralization, tunnels excavated through
the vein by small scale miners have reportedly
yielded significant amounts of gold ore.
The presence of a thick and persistent vein in the
Ansagan area strongly suggests the presence of a
major structure. Following the attitude of the vein,
which is observed to strike about N040° and dip
55°NW, this structure, not recognized in previous
maps and herein referred to as the Ververde Fault
(Fig. 8), also strikes ENE–WSW and dips moder-
ately to the northwest. This dip is similar to that of
the southern San Expedito Fault, but less steep.
 Mineralization in transtensional zones 151

Fig. 7 Summary of tensor solutions

derived from gathered fault data sets
from underground workings (tunnel) in
the Butan small-scale mining commu-
nity, plotted over the geological map of
the area. Stress axes are shown as a five-
pointed star for s1, four-pointed star for
s2, and three-pointed star for s3. Note
the dominance of northeast to ENE-
trending faults suggestive of a NNW–
SSE extensional (s3) stress direction
(with diverging black arrows). Location
of area covered and geological legend
are shown in Figure 4. Fault inversion
method by Angelier (1984, 1989, 1990).
See Table 1 for tabulation of this tensor
summary and explanation of tensor
parameters.

Fig. 8 Attitude of the Ansagan mala-

chite vein filling in a northeast-striking,
northwest-dipping (N040°, 55°NW)
fault structure. Vein section pointed by
white arrow is about 5.0 m thick at this
segment. Inset shows the trace of the
structure (white dashed line, herein
referred to as Ververde Fault) plotted on
a Google Earth map of the area, re-
produced with permission. Small circle
indicates approximate location of photo-
graphed segment of the vein. See also
Figures 4 and 7 for location of Ansagan
prospect.

DISCUSSION: IMPLICATIONS OF MEASURED 1. The Padcal–Ansagan mineral strip in the South

STRESS DIRECTIONS TO TECTONIC REGIMES
AND MINERAL OCCURRENCE DISTRIBUTION
Results of this study have important implications
for tectonic regimes and their likely association
with the distribution of copper–gold mineralization
in the South Central Cordillera.
Central Cordilleran range of northern Luzon,
Philippines lies along a transtensional relay
zone bounded by a left-stepping branch pair of
the Philippine Fault System. This pair, repre-
sented by the Tebbo Fault and Pugo Fault,
bounds the eastern and western limits, respec-
tively, of this transtensional strip (Fig. 3). This
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Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd
152 M. A. Aurelio et al.

Fig. 9 Interpretative block diagram of the NNW–SSE trending transtensional strip established by draping the geological map shown in Figure 4 over a
digital terrain model (DTM) of the area, using Google Earth (cutaway) and its image data providers: Digital Globe, Europa Technologies, NASA and
TerraMetrics. Image reproduced with permission. Left-hand side wall of the block diagram corresponds to a schematic (not-to-scale) cross-section
(location shown on Fig. 4) showing the main northeast-trending structures that affect the transtensional strip. Southeast-dipping faults include from north
to south: Sta. Fe, Albian, Wilson, and North San Expedito faults. Northwest-dipping faults include South San Expedito fault, an unmapped structure
(Ververde vein), and an unnamed fault. Also shown are the location and relation with the fault structures of the Santo Tomas II copper–gold ore body, Butan
gold small-scale mining community, and Ansagan vein prospect.

transtensional relay concept contrasts with the
prevailing interpretation that these faults are
conjugates of the Philippine Fault.
2. The northeast to ENE-trending faults include
from north to south, the Sta. Fe, Albian, Wilson,
San Expedito, and Ververde faults, and an
unnamed structure further south (Fig. 4). As
parts of a transtensional relay, these faults
behave essentially as normal faults, with min-
imal dextral movement. The Sta. Fe, Albian,
Wilson, and North San Expedito faults respec-
tively dip progressively more steeply to the
southeast, while the Ververde and South San
Expedito faults dip increasingly steeply to the
northwest (Fig. 9).
3. The Ververde Fault in Ansagan, generally
striking N040° and dipping about 55°NW, has
been filled with a 2 to 5-m-thick malachite vein
exposed along Ververde Creek. This structure
trends parallel to the Sta. Fe Fault, but dips in
the opposite direction at approximately the
same inclination. This may suggest that the Sta.
Fe and Ververde faults, respectively, form the
northern and southern faults of the stretched
strip (Fig. 9).
4. Smaller scale fracture systems formed in
between major faults and often filled with min-
eralized veins and veinlets, as in the case of the
Butan small-scale mining area located between
the Wilson and San Expedito faults, follow the
same directions and senses of fault displace-
© 2009 The Authors
Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd
ment (Fig. 9). Microtectonic evidence, sugges-
tive of an average extensional stress axis s3
direction of N150° (Fig. 7 and Table 1), strongly
supports this tectonic regime.
FUTURE WORK
This study attempts to present a structural model
based essentially on data from the surface and
shallow subsurface (underground workings).
There is a need to strengthen arguments from
deeper sources of information, more specifically
using geophysical methods and deep drilling.
There is at present a favorable environment to
conduct such undertakings, following recent gov-
ernment initiatives in executive policy direction
and judicial resolutions favorable to the Philippine
minerals industry.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
M. Aurelio wishes to thank Philex Mining Corpo-
ration (PMC) for permission to publish this paper.
Discussions with the Padcal exploration group
of PMC (R. Baluda, N. Oliveros, F. Cuyos, and
V. Maglambayan) were valuable. Constructive
comments of K. Hisada and A. Ishiwatari greatly
improved the manuscript and are sincerely appre-
ciated. This is UP-NIGS contribution no. 2008-07.
 Table 1 Summary of tensor parameters (s1, s2, s3) computed from structural measurements over 17 sites

Location Inversion method§ Tensor parameters

Site code† General Best fit between s1 s2 s3
location‡ INVD and R4DT Direction Inclination Direction Inclination Direction Direction¶ Inclination
azimuth (°)†† (°) azimuth (°) (°) azimuth (°) N+° (°)
SWB SW Breccia R4DT 240 7 103 81 331 151 6
BMT Pokis R4DT 311 86 62 1 152 152 4
BBT Pokis R4DT 197 77 79 6 347 167 12
RBT Pokis R4DT 287 84 65 5 176 176 2
RBT Butan INVD 214 87 75 2 345 165 2
CCT Butan INVD 168 71 76 1 346 166 19
RBT2 Butan INVD 65 75 183 7 275 95 13
COT Tapaya INVD 113 79 228 5 319 139 10
EGT Tapaya INVD 288 69 32 5 124 124 20
AMT Tapaya INVD 270 79 49 8 140 140 7
COT2 Tapaya INVD 248 74 339 0 69 69 16
GBT Tapsan R4DT 186 76 89 1 359 179 14
RAT Tapsan R4DT 109 82 230 4 321 141 7
GBT2 Tapsan R4DT 118 73 223 5 314 134 17
LMT1 Ansagan INVD 228 77 53 13 323 143 1
OLAT-MMT Ansagan R4DT 297 75 45 5 136 136 14
LAT Ansagan R4DT 125 85 231 1 321 141 5
Average direction of s3 converted into the notation used in the text (i.e. N + °) 150.2667

Fault inversion method developed by Angelier (1984, 1989, 1990) was used.
†
Site code uses same notation used in the tensor plots in Figure 7.
‡
General location is where structural measurements were gathered in the place names used in Figure 7.
§
Inversion method was selected according to the best-fitting solution (salient points on the INVD and R4DT method are explained in the text).
¶
Direction of the s3 stress axis expressed in the format used in the text (N + ° measured clockwise from 0 to 180°). The average direction, shown at the bottom of the column, corresponds to
the average extensional stress axis (s3) direction. Sites RBT2 and COT2 are not included in the computation for the average direction since fault sets in these sites belong to a different generation
of structures (see text for more discussion).
††
Columns 4 and 5, 6 and 7, and 8 and 10 define the directional parameters (direction + inclination) of the stress axes shown on the tensor plots on Figure 7, respectively, as s1 (five-pointed star),
s2 (four-pointed star), and s3 (three-pointed star).
Mineralization in transtensional zones

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154 M. A. Aurelio et al.
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