UNIT - IV

VEHICLE AERODYNAMICS
 Introduction
AERODYNAMICS
 A branch of dynamics that deals with the motion of air and with the
forces acting on bodies in motion
Flow to which a moving vehicle is subjected
 Flow of air around the vehicle
 Flow of air through the vehicle’s body
 Flow processes within the vehicle

 Aerodynamic drag – focus in Vehicle aerodynamics and in

particular, the non-dimensional number - CD(drag coefficient)
 Various tasks of Aerodynamics
 Performance, fuel economy, top speed and emissions – important
attributes of a vehicle represent decisive sales arguments and are
influenced by drag.
Aerodynamics impacts the automobile in many ways

1. Fuel consumption (pollution)

2. Styling

3. Noise and vibration

4. Control and handling

 Objectives of Aerodynamics
 To reduce the drag force and achieve maximum speed and for the same
power output.
 Acceleration and top speed can be increased by optimal aerodynamic
design.
 Decreasing the air drag will increase the fuel efficiency 35% of fuel cost
can be reduced through it.
 It gives good shape and style to the vehicle.
 By decreasing the aerodynamic forces and moments stability of the
vehicle increases. This increases safety.
 Good ventilation will be provided inside the vehicle.
 This study helps to understand the dirt flow and exhaust gas flow
patterns.
 With proper aerodynamic design, aerodynamic noise would be reduced
which results in quite running of the vehicle.
Vehicle Aerodynamic drag
 This is also called as air resistance.
 The air force that reacts directly opposite to the movement of the vehicle
is called as aerodynamic drag force.
 The total aerodynamic drag includes profile drag, induced drag, surface
drag, interference drag, cooling and ventilation drag.

Where
Cd = Aerodynamic drag co-efficient
A = Frontal area of the vehicle (m2) or projected area
V = Velocity (m/sec) of air / vehicle
r = Density of Air (Kg/m3)
Types of vehicle aerodynamic drag
 Profile drag (57%)
 Lift drag (8%)
 Surface Drag (10%)
 Interference drag (15%)
 Cooling and ventilation drag (10%)
 Low drag body
Profile drag (57%)
Contd..
 This is also called as form drag.
 This drag varies according to the vehicle length and basic shape.
 Smooth or obstructed path for the air flow is determined by the
contours.
 For a low form drag the body shape should be such that there is a
minimum positive aerodynamic forces at the front and minimum
negative aerodynamic forces at the rear.
 If the frontal area is minimum, the form drag will also be minimum.
 Smooth surfaces, blunt rear end shapes, constantly retarding back bodies
help in obtaining low form drag.
Lift drag (8%)
 This is also known as induced drag.
 When a vehicle is moving the velocity of the air on the upper surface
will be more than the under side.
 Due to high velocity, the pressure will be reduced on the upper surface
in areas like leading edge of roof and hood, Wind shield corners etc.,
 This pressure difference between the top and bottom of the vehicle
during acceleration causes lift drag.
 Pressure distribution over the front and rear parts of the vehicle
depends on the ground clearance, upper and under body contours etc.,
 Surface Drag (10%)
 This is also called as friction drag.
 When the air flows through the surface of the vehicle a thin air layer is
produced next to the vehicle body due to the viscosity of air.
 This causes surface drag.
 For smooth surfaces this drag will be less, and so automobile bodies are
produced with high surface finish.
 The surface smoothness of an automobile body will be of the order of 0.5
to 1 microns.
Interference drag (15%)
 The air flow over the exterior components of the vehicle body causes
interference drag.
 Some exterior parts of the vehicle body which contribute to interference
drag are door handles, wind shield wipers, air scoop, spot light, side
mirrors, rain gutters, radio aerial etc.,
 Apart from the exterior components projecting outside, components
projecting under the vehicle also contribute to this drag.
 Examples: Exhaust system, suspension arms, rear suspension etc ..
 Cooling and ventilation drag (10%)
 Air is required for a vehicle for various purposes.
 Examples: Engine cooling, Brake cooling, Ventilation for passengers
 The flow through these components and internal flow causes internal
flow drag.
 This drag does not have much impact in passenger cars.
 But its effect is significant in high speed sports cars.

Low drag body

 The body which does not that much oppose the incident air stream but
directs it smoothly towards the rear will have a low drag and so called as
low drag body.
 Low drag body helps to increase the speed of the vehicle with minimum
power output.
 This decreases the power consumption. So, fuel consumption also
decreases
Contd..
 For low drag body, the body should be as low as possible. This increases
the acceleration and stability.
 To reduce the drag in cars, add-on devices are used i.e., front and rear
spoilers.
 Front spoiler - This is attached under the nose of car this acts as a shield
to under body projections and reduces the drag.
 Rear spoiler – This is attached either to the rear of the roof (or) to the
rear upper edge of the rear wings
 This increases the pressure on the rear deck creating a down force with a
consequent decrease in drag.
 This helps in increased acceleration and top speed with minimum fuel
consumption.
 The only disadvantage is that it results in poor braking efficiency.
Various types of forces and moments
 The body design should accept the aerodynamic characteristics.
 There are three forces acting on a vehicle.
1. Force of air drag In the direction of the vehicle motion (with the wind
acting along the longitudinal direction axis), P x
2. Aerodynamic lift acting vertically upward, P z
3. Cross wind force in the lateral directions on the side of the vehicle, P y
 All the above forces act on the centre of pressure and not on the centre of
gravity.
 These forces cause moments.
 These force and moments act simultaneously on the vehicle body.
Forces and moments acting on the vehicle body
 Contd..
Moments acting on the vehicle.
 M y - Pitching moment caused by the force Px (or) P and Px about
y - axis.
 Mz - Yawing moment caused by the force Py about z-axis.
 Mx - Roiling morr.ent caused by the force Py about x - axis

Direction Force Moment

Longitudinal (X-axis) Drag Rolling moment (due to side force)

Lateral (Y - axis) Side force Pitching moment (due to lift force)

Vertical (Z-axis) Lift Yawing moment (due to side force)

 The aerodynamic reactions on a vehicle are unrelated to its centre of

gravity location (and C.G location may not be known in wind tunnel
test).
 In this the origin of the force measurement is in the ground plan at the
mid wheel base and mid-back position
 Aero dynamic forces / Effects of various forces
 Aerodynamics is the study of the forces generated by the flow of air
around a solid object
 The aerodynamic forces are as follows;
1. Drag force 2. Side force 3. Lift force
Drag force
 Drag is the most important aerodynamic force encountered by
passenger cars at normal highway speeds.
 Generally its value is high.
 Because air flow over a vehicle is so complex, it is necessary that semi
empirical models are to be developed for representing the effects.
 Therefore aerodynamic drag is given by the equation.

 Where as
CD = Aerodynamic drag coefficient
A = Frontal area of the vehicle (m2)
ρ = Air density (Kg/m3)
V = Velocity (m/s)
Contd..
Drag coefficient
 The drag coefficient is determined experimentally from wind tunnel test
(i.e)
 CD = Drag coefficient

Drag coefficient depends on

 Vehicle ventilation
 Body shape
 Additional part like roof raids
 Side force (Cross wind force)
 The lateral wind components will impose side force on the vehicle
attempting to' change the direction of travel.
 The exact effect is dependent upon both the vehicle and nature of wind.
 In case of strong cross winds, the side force is greater than the drag force,
such that the angle of overall wind force is much greater than the relative
wind angle.
 When a cross wind is encountered on the vehicle on the road lateral force
is first imposed on the front of the vehicle and may direction.
Contd..
 Therefore the aerodynamic shape of the vehicle and even the steering
system characteristic affect the performance.
 Thus it seen that the cross wind behavior is an important aspect of
aerodynamic.
 Under steady state wind conditions, the Side force Imposed on a vehicle
due to cross wind is given by
SA = (0.5 ρ V2Cs)A
Where SA = Side force
V = Total wind velocity (m/s)
Cs = Side force coefficient
A = Frontal area (m2)
ρ = Air density (Kg 1m3)
 It is to be noted that the frontal area, rather than the side area is used In
the above equation.
 It is seen that the side force coefficient is zero at zero relative wind angle
and grows almost linearly with the angle for the first 20-40 degrees.
Side force coefficient
 The side force acts on the body at the centre of pressure, which is
normally located ahead of the centre of gravity such that the vehicle lift
is turned away from the wind.
 The side force is measured in the ground plane at the mid wheel base
position, in wind tunnel measurements.
 Whenever a side force is present there is a difference in the location of
the centre of pressure resulting in an over-turning moment and yawing
moment.
 The side force coefficient.
 Lift force
 The lift force is due to the pressure difference between top and bottom of
the vehicle.
 These forces influence on driving stability and are significant concerns in
aerodynamic optimization of a vehicle.
 The lift force is measured at central line of the vehicle at the centre of
wheel base.
 The lift force LA is given by

Where CL - Lift coefficient

ρ - Air density (Kg/m3)
V -Total wind velocity (m/s)
A - Frontal area (m2)
Contd..
 The lift force depends upon the overall shape of the vehicle.
 At zero wind angle, lift coefficient generally fall in the range of 0.3 to
0.5 for modern passenger cars, but under cross wind condition, the
coefficient increases dramatically reaching values of 1 or more.
 In aerodynamic studies, generally the combined effect of lift and
pitching moments are taken into account simultaneously by determining
the lift coefficient for both the wheels namely front and rear wheels.
 Lift Coefficient
 Lift can have a negative impact on handling through the reduced control
forces available at the tyres.
 Front lift, reduces steering controllability.
 It is reduced by front bumper spoilers and by rearward inclination of
front surfaces .
 The stability is also reduced by lift at the rear of the vehicle.
 It is most variable with vehicle design.
 In general, design causes the flow to depart with a downward angle at the
rear of the vehicle create rear lift.
 By use of underbody panels, spoilers and change in angle of attach of a
body lift can be decreased.
 The lift coefficient.
Effects of various moments
 Pitching moment
 Yawing moment
 Rolling moment
 Pitching moment

 The angular oscillation of the vehicle about lateral horizontal axis is

called pitching.
 While the lift force acts to increase or decrease the weight of axles, the
pitching moment acts to transfer the weights between the front and
rear axles.
 The drag force does not act at the ground plane and the lifting force
may not act exactly at the centre of the wheel base and these reasons
give rise to the pitching moment.
 Pitching moment. PM is given by the equation,
 Pitching moment PM = LA x e
Contd..
Where CPM = Pitching moment coefficient
A = Frontal area (m2)
L = Wheel base (m)
ρ = Air density (Kg /m3)
V = Total wind velocity (m/s)
 For this moment equation. a characteristic length is required for
dimensional consistency in this equation.
 Therefore, the vehicle wheel base is used for this purpose.
 A moment can be translate about without changing its effect, so there is
no need for a "point action". This is known as Transmissibility.
 Normally the pitching moment will be negative (i.e) the nose of the
vehicle will be pushed down and rear will be pushed up.
 Due to this reason the traction and steering control will be reduced.
 Most modern cars have a pitching moment in the range of 0.05 to 0.2, and
it is quite sensitive to the angle of attack on the vehicle.
Yawing moment

 The angular oscillation of the vehicle about the vertical axis is called
yawing.
 The lateral force caused by a side wind does not normally act at the mid
wheel base position, thus giving rise to yawing moment, YM about
vertical axis is produced by the side wind force.
 The yawing moment is given by the equation.

CYM - Yawing moment coefficient

ρ - Air density (Kg/m3)
L - Wheel base (m)
V - Total wind velocity (m/s)
A - Frontal area (m2)
Contd..
 The coefficient of yawing moment CYM varies with the direction wind,
starting from zero with zero relative wind angle and growing linearly
nearly up to 20 degree angle.
 The slope of the coefficient ranges from 0.007 / degrees to 0.017 / degree
at relatively small angles.
Rolling moment

 The angular oscillation of the vehicle about longitudinal axis is called

rolling.
 The lateral force caused by a side wind acts at an elevated point on the
vehicle causing the rolling moment.
 The moment has only a minor influence on vehicle stability.
 This depends largely on the load steer properties of the suspension
system.
 Rolling moment is given by the equation.
Contd..
Where CRM - Rolling moment coefficient
ρ - Air density (Kg 1m3)
V - Wind velocity (m/s)
A - Frontal area (m2)
L - Length of wheel base (m)

 The coefficient of rolling moment CRM is sensitive to wind direction

much similar to the yawing moment coefficient, being linear over the
first 20 degree wind angle.
 Its slope ranges from 0.0181 degree to 0.04 I degree.
 Various body optimization technique for minimum drag
 The geometric design of the body is mainly important to reduce the drag
force.
 Drag force can be effectively reduced by the pillar shape, edge of the
body, windscreen etc.,
 The projections should also be reduced to reduce the drag effect.
 Boot - tailing is introduced by tapering the body side inwards towards the
rear and making slope on the rear end of the roof.
 By this arrangement, 20% decrease in drag co-efficient can be obtained.
 At present three distinct methods are being employed for lowering drag
coefficient.
They are 1. Optimization
2. Add on devices
3. AB initio method
 Optimization

 The step by step modification of body details which are important with
respect to drag are essential so that a relationship between the drag and
the geometrical parameters describing a specific details under
consideration can be established.
 With these relationship, a saturation characteristic is reached beyond a
certain value of the parameter, where no further improvement is obtained
and this is taken as the optimum value.
 This holds good for the radius of leading edges, where flow separation is
fully suppressed for a particular exceeded radius
Contd..
 Optimization is effectively applied to A-post and rear edges.
 It is because of their inclination to the incident air stream, the separation
at the A-post takes the form of vortices.
 Optimization here mainly reduces the energy expanded in the vortices
and so reduces the drag.
 The optimization is found on the premise that the styling concept of the
car is established and the aerodynamic improvement can only be
attempted in the form of changes.
 The sketches show minor modifications in detail such as the change in
the (A) Air drag, (B) Hood line, (C) A Pillar shape and (D) Pillar shape
(D and E).
 The figure illustrates the magnitude of drag reduction obtained from
various combinations of these changes.
 The power drag reduction by attention to details is illustrated by the fact
that an overall reduction of 21 % is achieved.
 Add on devices

 Add on devices can be used for reducing the drag on existing cars with
considerable effect.
 The two most successful devices which are used to reduce drag are front
and rear spoilers.
 The front spoiler or Air flow mounted under the nose of car, by shielding
the under body counter and projections, reduces the drag contributions.
 It also lowers the pressure acting on the rear wall of the engine bay, thus a
further reduction in drag is achieved.
 The rear spoiler which is attached either to the rear of the roof or to the
rear upper edge of the trunk, has effect in both locations which increases
the pressure acting on the back deck area, or decreases the drag
consequently.
 AB initio method
 Reduction of about 0.05 can be achieved by having a slight convex
profile from A-Post to D-Post.
 A wind screen is employed incorporating greater curvature towards the
A-Post resulting in a shallower angle over the central portion of the
screen.
 The usual shape discontinuity in the profile at the A-Post is thus
completely eliminated and the associated flow separation is also
eliminated and the associated flow separation is also eliminated.
 But, it is difficult to reproduce this feature on a production vehicle.
 For instance, at the junction of glass and the surrounding frames, the
perfectly smooth profile from the wind screen to D-post edges would
inevitably be comprised to some extent.
 This results in decrease of drag coefficient of 002 extent.
 This results In decrease of drag coefficient of 0.02
 Wind tunnel
 A wind tunnel is a tool used in aerodynamic research to study the effects
of air moving past solid objects.
 A wind tunnel consists of a tubular passage with the object under test
mounted in the middle.
 Air is made to move past the object by a powerful fan system or other
means.
 The test object, often called a wind tunnel model, is instrumented with
suitable sensors to measure aerodynamic forces, pressure distribution, or
other aerodynamic-related characteristics.
 Used to study the aerodynamic properties of an object in a stationary
manner.
 Motion is simulated by moving air (fluid) around the object of interest.
 Wind tunnel studies are not 100% accurate
 Requirements for a wind tunnel
 Aerodynamic development is performed in four phases:
1.Starts with a model – small-scale or full-scale (hard model)
2.Prototype
3.Pre-production vehicles
4.Samples – from the production line (early in volume production)
 First phase – work is done in a wind tunnel, water tunnel or a towing
tank
 Second & Third phases – wind tunnel tests are supplemented by road
tests (on the road that the results of aerodynamic optimization must
prove themselves)
 Last phase – monitoring production vehicles is performed in a wind
tunnel
A wind tunnel only simulates the conditions on the road; it does not
reproduce them exactly – even today it is difficult to quantify all the errors –
by analyzing on- road driving, they can be at least identified in principle –
considering Fig. - compiles all the variables that influence the flow around a
vehicle and its thermal loading: vehicle speed, gusty crosswind, rain, sun
load, road dirt and the grade of the road
 Effect of side winds
 The air that unevenly acts at the side of the vehicle body causes side
force.
 This side force reacts with the centre of pressure and change the centre
of gravity.
 When the centre of pressure is in front of the centre of gravity
 The vehicle will try to turn round like a wind vane.
 If the centre of gravity is in front of the centre of pressure, the vehicle
will be stable and goes in a straight line.
Wind tunnel testing
 A wind tunnel is a device used to study the aerodynamic aspect of an
original model (or) a prototype of the vehicle body.
 Air at uniform velocity and constant flow conditions is made to pass over
a model of a car to determine the forces acting on the body through wind.
 There are two types of tests. They are
a) Open circuit wind tunnel test
b) Closed circuit (or) return flow wind tunnel test
 Open circuit wind tunnel test

 In open circuit wind tunnel test, air is not returned.

 The tunnel draws fresh air directly from atmosphere

Advantages
 Less expensive
 Subject to ambient conditions.
 Require more power
Closed circuit (or) return flow wind tunnel test
Closed circuit (or) return flow wind tunnel test
 In closed circuit the air from the compressor is passed to the tunnel
through cooler and then air is passed through the diffuser and is again
sent back to the compressor.
 Uniform flow of air with constant velocity flow level of turbulence is
made to pass through the tunnel.
 The return Circuit is used to store the air used.
 This decreases the power Input because it draws air only once from
atmosphere.
 The flow is made to accelerate and decelerate.
 These are done for the determination of drag and side effects in low
speeds and also In high speeds.
 The mode should be mounted in such a way that allows the forces and
moments to be measured by a balance.
 The balance is normally mounted outside the tunnel for safety reasons.
 Advantages
 Avoids loss of return air's momentum.
 Constant ambient conditions.
 Expensive.
A wind tunnel can not always simulate road conditions, e.g,
1. Ground effect
2. Tire rotation.
3. Reynolds number (scale corrections)
4. Wall interference
5. Natural variations in ambient conditions

Advantages of wind tunnel test

1. Wind velocity and wind angle can be easily and accurately measured.
2. Flow pattern study can also be made accurately.
3. Forces and moments can be measured simultaneously.
4. Testing time and cost is less.
Flow visualization techniques
 Flow visualization is a simplest technique for finding out the air flow
pattern.
 The outside body is not the only factor affecting the aerodynamic study.
 The inside body is also a major factor for aerodynamics.
 So, the flow of air around and inside the vehicle should be studied
carefully.
Methods are used to find the flow pattern
 Smoke method
 Tuft method
 Oil coating
Smoke method
 The tunnel is made up of transparent walls.
 Dense white smoke is made to pass through the tunnel.
 When the model is introduced in to the smoke, it gets deflected
according to the shape of the body.
 This flow patterns are studied by photographs of these deflections.
Tuft method
 In tuft method, small woolen threads are forced on the model inside the
tunnel in proper gaps.
 The thread used deflects along with he air flow direction and thus it is
photographed to study about the flow pattern.
 Also on rough patches, the tuft (or) thread gets stuck on to the surface.
So, these rough patches can be made smooth for free air flow.
Oil coating method
 A thin layer of special oil is coated on the model.
 Therefore a definite impression is made on the model along with the
flow of air.
 Thus the vortex formation and flow separation are studied by these
methods.
Scale model testing
The different types of wind tunnels used are
1) Large full-scale wind tunnels
2) Small full-scale wind tunnel
3) Wind tunnel for scale models
Large full-scale wind tunnels
 This wind tunnel is made for examining the vehicles at high speeds.
 The tunnel is about 15 square metre to 25 square metre in cross sectional
area.
 It has a maximum velocity of 270 km/hr which is mainly used for race
cars.
 A velocity of 180 km/hr is used for passenger cars and small vans.
 In this type the original full model is used inside the tunnel and not the
scale model.
Small full-scale wind tunnel
 This has a cross sectional area of 10 square metre to 20 square metre.
 This tunnel is used to reduce the pressure loss In the return air path.
 In this, the Vehicle original model is subjected to certain risks inside the
tunnel.
 This gives good results than the large full-scale wind tunnels.
Wind tunnel for scale models
 This is used for scale model.
 The tunnel is 1 square metre cross section and allows three dimensional
phenomena to be made visible.