University of Sulaimani

College of Languages

Department of English

Graduation Research

English Prison Literature;

a study of selected works produced in confinement

Prepared by

Nivin Burhan

Lanya Dara

Supervised by

Jutyar Salih

2019-2020
 Abstract

Prison literature is one of the literary genres which has not received sufficient attention in several

different nations‟ literature. One main reason behind this might be the fact that prison literature is

not as common as the other literary genres. However, one must realize that this genre has its own

distinctive features and is held in high esteem because it can portray and bring to light the most

intense and difficult situations of a writer. To produce literature while leading a free comfortable

life is what thousands of writers from different nations have attempted, but to be able to imagine

and finally produce works while living in confinement is a totally different writing experience.

Several literatures across the world give rise to the existence of prison literature. Among those

nations definitely comes the English. There are several English writers who have written various

literary works while in prison. Those writers belong to several time periods, i.e. some of their

works date back to centuries ago while there are modern prison literary works as well. This paper

is an attempt to look at English prison literature in specific. It presents a historical background of

the genre in England then takes some selected examples from its prison literature. The paper

examines the conditions under which these works were produced and brings to light their

importance. The examples taken include John Bunyan‟s The Pilgrim’s Progress and Oscar

Wilde‟s De Profundis.

I. Introduction

The term „prison literature‟ refers to works written in prison or related to prison. The writers who

have attempted prison literature use this genre as an act of rebellion, revolt, and struggle against

the discrimination, suppression and persecution of authorities. Through confinement literature,

writers mainly describe their pain, torture, mistreatments and brutal experiences in prison. They
criticize the political repression of regimes that restrict people‟s freedom of opinion and speech.

One of the characteristics of prison literature is breaking the traditional plot into fragments which

introduce a uniqueness of style and form. This feature represents the destruction of the life of the

prisoners inside and outside the prison and shows their mental and physical torture (Al-Sheikh-

Hishmeh 62). One of the most substantive and important themes of prison literature is the

description of the misery and agony of prisoners and their tough conditions while staying in

confinement (El Sebaei 119). Marc Lamont Hill defines prison literature and states that

“confinement literature refers to any work of fiction or nonfiction that deals with the

fundamental issue of human captivity” (19). David R.Werner also puts forward his own

definition of prison literature defining the genre as “that literature which sees life as limited

physically, psychologically, or spiritually” ( 20-21).

Many countries around the world consider prison literature to be an effective genre and

there are various attempts at prison literature by writers across different nations. For instance,

Shahid Mala Ali, a Kurdish poet, is the most notable producer of Kurdish prison literature. He

wrote all his poetry in Mosul Prison in 1979 soon before his execution. Bo xoşewîstekem (To My

Beloved), Şewanî Qendîl (Qandil Nights), Berew Sedare (Towards the Gallows) are among the

most famous three poems he wrote in prison. Another example would be Behrouz Boochani, a

Kurdish-Iranian novelist and journalist who fled Iran in May 2013 and went to Australia.

Boochani won the Victorian Premier's Literary Prize for Literature and Nonfiction 2019 for a

novel he wrote while in confinement. Boochani was imprisoned on Manus Island by the

Australian government in Papua New Guinea for six years. In his speech at TEDxSedney 2019

event, he mentions that writing has always been an act of resistance for him. He also admits that

writing is a way of fighting to get his identity, humanity and dignity back; therefore, he writes all
his sufferings, and shows the systematic torture of Australia‟s detention regime through the

creative and literary language of his novel- No Friends But the Mountains: Writing from Manus

Prison. In addition, Arabic prison literature also has some remarkable examples of poetry written

in jail by some of the most well-known and greatest poets, for instance, Abu Firas al-Hamdani

wrote one of his best poetry during an extended period of captivity under the Byzantines. His

most celebrated work is al-Rumiyyit. Moreover, the pioneer of Persian confinement literature is

the royal prisoner Mas‟ud Sa‟d Salmān. His mastery of this specific genre is based both on his

masterful poetic talent and exceptional carceral experience among Persian poets. During one of

his prison stays, he wrote the Tristia, which is considered as a greatly admired work of Persian

confinement poetry. The female writers Marie-Jeanne Roland from France and Anne Frank from

Germany both wrote memorial narratives in prison; they wrote their memoirs under very

uncertain, violent and dangerous circumstances within prison. Their prison writings of different

kinds have been continuously printed after their deaths because they were so popular that have

witnessed the tragic historical events: The French Revolution and the Holocaust (Zim, Ch.4).

The Russian prison poet Irina Ratushinskaya was a twentieth-century significant figure whose

poetry carried political messages. She was motivating the women political prisoners to struggle

against the cruelty of their persecutors in the last years of the Soviet Union (Zim, Ch.5). Such

living examples of prison writing show the greatness of this genre in many countries.

This paper is divided into a number of sections. At first it presents background

information about how prison literature first emerged in English literature. In this part, some of

the reasons behind this emergence are also presented. The following section throws light on John

Bunyan‟s work The Pilgrim’s Progress as the first selected work. The section that follows
embraces Oscar Wilde‟s De Profundis as the second example taken in the paper. A conclusion

and a list of the works cited are presented at the end.

II. The History of Prison Literature in England

Confinement writing became a characteristic of early modern English culture. Its popularity was

based on the expansion that happened in the number of prisoners. Many of them were educated

elites incarcerated for politics, religion, or debt; a large number of political and religious

supporters; and those involved in the development of the book trade. Despite the freedom given

to prisoners to write, being imprisoned was a great embarrassment, injurious to fame, and

harmful to health. The form of prison writing is crucial to understand early modern culture‟s

nature of crime and punishment and the history of the Reformation. Like drama, confinement

writing of the early modern age extended back through the medieval period into the classical era;

and also like drama, it was revived and flourished in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, to

the extent that it became a characteristic of England‟s cultural forms in the period (Freeman

133).

A considerable number of famous and great early modern writers like Thomas Wyatt,

Thomas More, Henry Howard, Robert Southwell, Thomas Dekker, Richard Lovelace, George

Chapman, and Ben Jonson all had prison writings. Yet in writing about confinement, these

authors wrote about what interested and satisfied their patrons and supporters as well as what

they saw and experienced in prison. For the first time in English history, some significant

changes were made in prisons, including the creation of the bridewell as a new type of

confinement to reform the prisoner and some important notion was being given to the social

reasons of incarceration. Besides the changes made in prisons themselves, forms of prison
writing that did not exist before appeared in the sixteenth century, including the first-person

narrative of a prisoner‟s court case and questioning (133-134).

The forms and number of confinement writing rose effectively in early modern England.

When incarceration had been used as a legal punishment for a growing number of crimes, the

number of prisoners increased drastically in the sixteenth century. Furthermore, new groups of

prisoners were created. The disagreements and conflicts of the Reformation in the sixteenth

century and the Civil War caused by religious controversy in the seventeenth century filled

prisons with more religious offenders. In addition, since credit became an essential part of trade

in early modern England and more people depended on credit, the number of imprisoned debtors

increased (134).

Remarkable offerings were made to the progression and development of early modern

English prison writing by the religious offenders and the debtors. Unlike the common people,

cadres of these groups were educated and encouraged enough to write for different purposes.

People who had been imprisoned for religious crimes used their prison writings to influence the

authority and make them pity the prisoners. The religious offenders wanted to win sympathy and

they also needed to motivate and unite their followers on the outside. On the other hand, the

debtors wished to be forgiven by their creditors because that was their only chance to be

released. These two groups could only achieve their goals through writing letters and petitions

(135).

Some social changes happened across Europe that intensified prison writing in

contemporary culture. Some of the changes included the development of printing and the book

commerce as well as the rise of education, especially reading and writing abilities. Also, some

local political and religious changes happened that were particular to England. For instance,
when there was religious division in sixteenth-century Europe, the conditions in England

generated a large product of confinement writings that the English authorities could not suppress

the religious disagreements totally, so there were new generations of confinement writers

throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. These changes not only encouraged, they

even provoked individual prisoners to write. There were also new audiences for prison literature

that had the same opinions as the authors. “It is worth observing that what might be viewed as

the first anthology of prison writing in the English language, Henry Bull‟s Certain Most Godly,

Fruitful, and Comfortable Letters of Such True Saintes and Holy Martyrs of God, a collection of

letters by Protestants imprisoned in Mary‟s reign, is a product of sectarian division”. Religious

and political prisoners in early modern England were amused by the help of their sympathizers

and supporters when they conveyed and moved their writings out of prison illicitly and spread

them widely in handwritten and printed forms, or both. They were also obliged by their

supporters to write politically, critically and pastorally from confinement (135).

When Bunyan started writing in Bedford prison, the world of the prisoners, especially

those who had been placed in prison for holding political or religious views, was very disparate

from that of Boethius. Yet, in one aspect, the world of Bunyan was closer to the world of

Boethius than that of the twenty-first century because early modern England society perceived

prisoners completely differently from the English-speaking world today. Modern society holds

the belief in existing essential differences between typical members of “normal” society and

prisoners. Although there are some variable factors that are sporadically thought to be

engendering these differences, for instance, fault and weakness in characters, illiteracy, and

congenital disability. The idea of assuming prisoners as damaged and dysfunctional is universal,

and in the penal lexicon, words such as “rehabilitation,” “corrections,” and “reformatory” are
used to implicitly state this concept. However, political prisoners are not always classified as

criminal defenders, though the difference between them is based on subjective judgement. Also,

the governments and authorities often treat political prisoners as dysfunctional; for instance, the

Soviet Union is one of those regimes that incarcerates protestors and rebels in psychiatric

hospitals. In contrast, early modern England was not familiar with such conceptions, although

the term “house of correction” was used by the sixteenth-century society (135).

III. The Pilgrim’s Progress by John Bunyan

The Pilgrim’s Progress is a Christian classic allegory written by John Bunyan, one of the most

famous preachers in English history as well as a prominent British writer. He wrote this most

inspiring work during his second imprisonment. Gardiner considers this work by Bunyan as “a

prolonged elaboration of the simile which compares the life of an earnest Christian to the

journeyings of a pilgrim through hardships and dangers to a sacred goal” (25). The Pilgrim‟s

Progress is one of the greatest and most universally popular works of prison literature; no book

written in his time was as widespread as this work. It is still reprinted after two centuries and has

many readers (7). This allegorical tale has two publication dates as it comprises two books. The

first book was published in 1678 under the title The Pilgrim’s Progress: From This World to

That Which Is to Come, Delivered Under the Similitude of a Dream. And the second book was

published six years later in 1684 which is known as a “companion piece”. Forty-four years after

the publication of the second book, both were published as a combined book. The first book is

about the story of a man named Christian who goes on a religious and spiritual journey as the

protestant of the tale from the City of Destruction to the Celestial City which means heaven. The
second book is about Christian‟s wife as well as Christiana‟s adventures on her journey as she

follows her husband in the pilgrimage to the Celestial City with their four children (Ryken 1-2).

The notion of The Pilgrim’s Progress is familiar among literary works. Bunyan‟s

allegorical work compares man‟s life through this world to a pilgrimage and represents general

concepts of life such as faith, vice and despair through characters or aspects of the natural world.

Bunyan shows the idea of life as a journey. The places, characters and difficulties encountered

by Christian on his journey symbolize the experiences every Christian must go through to reach

salvation (Keach 318).

There were several other allegories written before and had resemblance to Bunyan‟s The

Pilgrim’s Progress. For instance, The Voyage of the Wandering Knight, a French work translated

into English and printed in 1607. Sir Walter Raleigh also wrote a poem based on a similar notion

a hundred years before Bunyan. The books that Bunyan had in prison were the Bible and Foxe‟s

Book of Martyrs which was a strongly critical account of those who suffered for the cause of

Protestantism under Catholic Church (Gardiner 31- 33). In addition, due to Bunyan‟s familiarity

with the sacred writing of the Bible, the style of his work approaches that of the English Bible

and this makes it a narrative of the common people because parents have read its stories to their

children as much as they read the stories of the Bible through the ages (Ryken 4). Although

there were similar works before, this widely-read work has been reprinted for English readers

countless times and translated into approximately two hundred languages. This witnesses the

beauty and excellence of this outstanding masterpiece.

The motives for Bunyan‟s great intellect and creative power of writing The Pilgrim’s

Progress are the results of two reasons: The first reason is the nature of his personality, skill and

ability as a storyteller because the power and liveliness of this Christian allegory come from the
way he made a convincing relationship between the fictional elements and their social and

spiritual worthiness (Keach 318). Bunyan had a natural and vigorous imagination; he was eager

to learn and judge soundly. Although he was not academically trained, the events of his life

became a course of preparation for his work. The second reason is due to the stirring time in

which he lived as well as the miseries of his life. He was the son of a poor, uneducated tinker

who also brought up his son to the same handicraft. Bunyan had a wild personality as a young

man. At the age of nineteen, he married his first wife, a young girl whose parents were religious

and her only dowry were few religious books that gave him a strong sense of self-righteousness

and created a desire within him to repent and change his godless life. Then he became a Christian

and after his conversion, he joined the Baptist church and became a preacher. Therein lay

struggles and difficulties of his life due to the religious intolerance of the age (“John Bunyan”).

During the seventeenth century, there was a tremendous conflict of religion and politics and this

made noble-minded and honest men like Bunyan lift their language style to a new level of

meaning and beauty (Gardiner 7).

When the monarchy restored and re-established the Anglican Church in 1660, many

preachers were subjected to mistreatment and their activities were repressed and John Bunyan

was one of the victims of the persecutions. As a result, he was put in Bedford jail for nearly

twelve years until the Declaration of Religious Indulgence in 1672. The declaration resulted in

Bunyan‟s freedom, but there were still political conflicts and struggles until he died at the age of

60 in 1688. He was incarcerated for the second time in the mid-1670s and that was the time

when he probably wrote The Pilgrim’s Progress (Piper 15). Although he was allowed by some

indulgent jailers to visit his family and friends for short periods and attend local meetings in

London secretly during his incarceration, he suffered a lot because prison deprived him of his
wife and four children including blind Mary; this can be seen when he uses images of

imprisonment to represent his desperation and hopelessness in some of the most significant

episodes of The Pilgrim’s Progress (Zim, ch.3). When Bunyan was thirty, his first wife died

leaving him four children and he remarried his second wife who was loyal and ardent and took

care of his children. During her husband's imprisonment, she prepared petitions three times for

his release, but she was ignored by the brutal judges because they were insisting that Bunyan

must cease preaching (“Johan Bunyan”).

Bedford jail was a small old building and its dungeons were dark and dismal. It was

overcrowded with nonconformists. Bunyan was intimately connected with a variety of religious

prisoners and got involved in theological discussions. He always took the open communion side

among his fellow baptists in their heated discussions and this gave him the tolerant and catholic

tone that is very significant in the Pilgrim‟s Progress (“John Bunyan”). Bunyan‟s hardships and

sufferings in jail left their effects on all his written literary work and made him a productive

writer. George Whitefield said of The Pilgrim’s Progress, “It smells of the prison. It was written

when the author was confined in Bedford jail. And ministers never write or preach so well as

when under the cross: the Spirit of Christ and of Glory then rests upon them” (qtd in Piper 25). It

is clear that prison literature is an effective genre that represents stunning literary works written

in the crucible of adversity, and John Bunyan‟s The Pilgrim‟s Progress is a perfect example of

such works (Ryken 3).

IV. De Profundis by Oscar wilde

De Profundis- “Out of the Depths” in English- is Oscar Wilde‟s 55,000-word prison letter to his

lover, Lord Alfred „Bosie‟ Douglas. It is Wilde‟s only major prose work written in prison in
which his story of the pursuit of meaning in agony is depicted; this pursuit of meaning is a kind

that self-consciously progressed through ideally represented past incidents and future

probabilities (Doylen 547-559). On May 25th 1895 Wilde was sentenced to two years‟

imprisonment with hard labour after he had been tried twice on charges of committing “acts of

gross indecency with another male person”(Cohen 1). In January 1897, in the course of the last

months of his imprisonment at Reading Gaol, the Irish writer was given permission to write

letters. In his solitary confinement he was given pen and ink every day and what he wrote was

taken away from him at the end of each day and once again it was given back to him in the

morning. Thus, he started writing De Profundis, addressing it to Douglas and finished it in three

months (Tóibín).

Wilde entitled the letter Epistola: in Carcere et Vinculis- meaning „Letter: In Prison and

in Chains‟- which is an expression that is specific about the circumstances in which the letter was

written. However, Robert Ross, whom the manuscript of the letter was handed to by Wilde on

his release, attributed De Profundis as a title to the early editions of the letter (Gagnier 335).

Upon Wilde‟s demand, Ross made a copy of the letter. After Wilde‟s death, he published

excerpts from it in 1905 and published a fuller version in 1908, though, the publication of the

letter‟s complete version was in 1949. Ross also sent Douglas a copy (Tóibín). Upon the letter‟s

initial appearance in 1905, all the references to Douglas were removed by Ross and Wilde‟s

glorification of Christ was focused on instead; it was mostly viewed as the representation of

Wilde‟s genuine penitence. Additionally, the readers since then have been undecided in regard to

the precise interpretation of Wilde‟s meaning in the letter. Albeit, they deal with the work in two

ways: as either proof of Wilde‟s penitence for his misdeeds in the past or as another work of the

aesthete who is never going to change (Doylen 547-548).

 De Profundis as an autobiographical account which pays constant attention to both

Wilde‟s consciousness before and after the distress of imprisonment and the workings of

Douglas‟s mind. It demonstrates a series of psychological issues. Wilde started this narrative

with the incidents and sentiments that had led to the destruction of his life. It includes statements

of the causes of his personal growth and intellectual development: the physical hardships and

emotional sufferings he went through in prison, as well as his disgrace caused by his conviction

by the court. In the way he tells his story, he represents the surprising difference between him in

his life before prison “in old days” and him sitting in his cell thinking of his “humiliation and

disgrace” which made his situation so dreadful (Zim, ch. 3). Nevertheless, under the influence of

religious features of life in prison, ingenious ideas as what could Christ mean comprises his letter

( O‟Brien 14). He speaks of Christ at three different levels; first as a kind of artist and celebrity

that is followed by many young people, second, as someone “in the service of all prisoners”, and

lastly, he describes him as the reverse of prison, whatever that “prison is not” (Gagnier 346).

Also, Wilde took benefit from several different literary resources for creating his self-

impression; he, in particular, depended on Greek tragedy and Gospels to form the convict‟s

consciousness of his transformation experience and express this form of spiritual awakening. To

him, his conversion is of an immense moral value on which the reflection of those earlier literary

works was placed (Zim, ch. 3).

The coherence of the work is achieved through the way he arranges the recollection of

the events with the passionate spiritual intensity and attentiveness of his focus on his internal life,

thus, the hypothetical image he creates seems impressively unchanging. And therefore, his letter

comprises a narrative of conversion (Zim, Ch 3). In the first part of the letter, the remembered

image of Alfred Douglas recreates the outside world, the one before prison, for Wilde. But the
time scheme Wilde rebuilds it according to is unchangeable likewise prison‟s. The attentive

friendship of this part attempts to link both stylistic and spatio-temporal in the letter. The rest of

the first part is about the striking scenes of his life with Douglas. He shifts to scenes of his life

with Douglas whenever he depicts the tedious routine of prison, in a way that he appears to be

dialoguing with him, as he asks questions and replies for him. For example, he claims prison as

the place where its inhabitants can change and the mind can repent, for the people outside of

prison cannot change. Though when he must talk about the reality of the incarceration

environment, not the mind of the incarcerated people, he returns to Douglas, and that enables

him to return to the outside world. And when he fails at maintaining Douglas‟s voice, he turns to

the emptiness of the life of prison, the one that drives men crazy. In the other parts of the letter,

however, he is as if having forgotten Douglas completely when he starts praising individualism,

Christ, art and sorrow (Gagnier 342-347). Gagnier also states “The letter's constant shifts

between romance and realism, romance and details like finance, become a strategy by means of

which Wilde triumphs over the threats posed to his unique "style" by the prison bureaucracy and

the silence it enforced” (336).

Like Bunyan‟s prison writing, Wilde‟s letter suggests the writer‟s struggles to make

reformation in his life by recalling his past through imagination. It demonstrates his incarceration

experience as the motive behind reconsidering his life that generated new work of literature

(Zim, Ch 3). Edward Verrall Lucas regarding De Profundis‟ value states “it is an example of the

triumph of the literary temperament over the most disadvantageous conditions; it is further

documentary evidence as to one of the most artificial natures produced by the nineteenth century

in England; and here and there it makes a sweet and reasonable contribution to the gospel of

humanity” (Beckson, 281).

V. Conclusion

Despite their miserable and stressful lives, incarcerated authors produce great masterpieces of

literature. Prison might be dangerous, injurious and humiliating, but it can also be a source of

inspiration and a fertile setting through which writers can express themselves in their writings

and fight for their rights and struggle against injustice, discrimination and suppression. Prison

literature can be written to inspire as well as inform. It can give imprisoned writers a chance and

enough time to write fiction, non-fiction, memoirs and even biographies while they are in prison.

Various literatures across the world incorporate prison literature. The English writers have

produced many great works in confinement. John Bunyan‟s The Pilgrim’s Progress and Oscar

Widle‟s De Profundis are two examples of this. In the first work, there is a religious context

created by Bunyan and lessons about morality are conveyed. In the second, Wilde writes about a

past love relationship and his lavish lifestyle.

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