Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 173 (2020) 105441

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Computers and Electronics in Agriculture

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compag

A review on monitoring and advanced control strategies for precision T

irrigation
Emmanuel Abiodun Abioyea,b, Mohammad Shukri Zainal Abidina, , Mohd Saiful Azimi Mahmuda,
⁎

Salinda Buyamina, Mohamad Hafis Izran Ishaka, Muhammad Khairie Idham Abd Rahmana,
Abdulrahaman Okino Otuozec, Patrick Onotub, Muhammad Shahrul Azwan Ramlid
a
Control and Mechatronics Engineering Department, School of Electrical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia
b
Department of Electrical/Electronic Engineering, Akanu Ibiam Federal Polytechnic, Unwana, Ebonyi State, Nigeria
c
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria
d
Faculty of Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The demand for freshwater is on the increase due to the rapid growth in the world’s population while the effect
Monitoring of global warming and climate change cause severe threat to water use and food security. Consequently, irri-
Advanced control gation systems are tremendously utilized by many farmers all over the world with its associated high amount of
Precision irrigation water consumption from various sources posing a major concern. This necessitates the increased focus on im-
Internet of things
proving the efficiency of water usage in irrigation agriculture. The advent and rapid successes of the Internet of
Sensors
Water-saving
Things (IoT) and advanced control strategies are being leveraged to achieve improved monitoring and control of
irrigation farming. In this review, a thorough search for literature on irrigation monitoring and advanced control
systems highlighting the research works within the past ten years are presented. Attention is paid on recent
research works related to the monitoring and advance control concepts for precision irrigation. It is expected
that this review paper will serve as a useful reference to enhance reader’s knowledge on monitoring and ad-
vanced control opportunities related to irrigation agriculture as well as assist researchers in identifying direc-
tions and gaps to future research works in this field.

1. Introduction
Agriculture serves as a significant source of food production and job
creation to the growing demand of the human population all over the
world upon which most economies survive. It is also part of the key
economic sector, significantly contributing to the gross domestic pro-
duct (GDP) of most countries. The success of this crucial sector relies
absolutely on water supplies as crop cultivation naturally thrives on the
availability of water. However, the scarcity of freshwater poses sig-
nificant threats to food security and sustainable developments in some
parts of the world. Therefore, efficient use and conservation of water for
irrigation is needed to increase food production while equally pre-
venting water scarcity crises (Tsang and Jim, 2016). Rainfall and irri-
gation are significant sources of water for agriculture. Rainfall is un-
reliable, and moreover, excess supplies may cause some undesirous
effects on crops such as surface runoff and, erosion while it scarcity may
even cause drought. Consequently, a controlled system of watering the
farm, irrigation, is highly practiced for crop cultivation as an alternative
to a natural rainfall water source for plants. The irrigation system is an
essential agricultural practice where water is artificially applied to the
soil to supply a controlled amount of water necessary for plant growth
and development (Oborkhale et al., 2015; Shibusawa, 2001).
In a conventional irrigation system, farmers apply uniform irriga-
tion across every part of the farm without considering the variabilities
on the field and the water need of the crop. Therefore, this method has
lesser water-saving capability and can cause over-irrigation in some
part of the farm while other parts are under irrigated which may lead to
undesired water stress on the plants (Anusha et al., 2017; Kumar et al.,
2017; Lakhiar et al., 2018; Say et al., 2018). Also, most of the com-
mercial irrigation controllers available in the market are pre-pro-
grammed to supply water at predefined intervals, which offer offline
irrigation scheduling based on empirical knowledge of dynamics of
weather variables, as well as soil and plant characteristics (Lozoya
et al., 2014). Other issues in irrigation systems involve scarcity of water
due to the effect of drought and climate change, environmental dis-
turbance, the nonlinear nature of plant dynamics, changing dynamics of

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: shukri@fke.utm.my (M.S.Z. Abidin).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2020.105441
Received 26 August 2019; Received in revised form 7 April 2020; Accepted 11 April 2020
0168-1699/ © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
E.A. Abioye, et al.
weather, dynamic crop water uptake of plants (Yusuke, 2018). To ad-
dress these issues, precision irrigation concept for optimal water-saving
and better yield is adopted.
Precision irrigation is the integration of information, communica-
tion, and control technologies in the irrigation process to obtain optimal
usage of water resources while minimizing environmental impact
(Shibusawa, 2001; Zacepins et al., 2012). Precision irrigation takes into
account the spatial and temporal soil variation, soil structure and hy-
draulic properties, plant responses to water deficit, changing weather
variables through effective monitoring via Internet of Things (IoT), to
make better irrigation decisions that have the potential to help achieve
high water saving and improved yield (Bitella et al., 2014; Capraro
et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2002). It has been argued that this variability
can be managed and economic benefit can be derived by meeting the
specific irrigation needs of individual crops and their management
zones through precision irrigation approach (Cambra et al., 2018;
Chami et al., 2019; Smith et al., 2009).
Precision irrigation is an excellent water-saving technique for
maximizing yield and providing water at the desired location based on
the water needs of the plant (Niu et al., 2015; Evett et al., 2009; Smith
and Baillie, 2009). Also implied is the idea that the system will be
managed to achieve a specific target by aiding the delivery of nutrients
and water directly to the roots of each plant. This keeps the soil
moisture at optimal levels to eliminate surface run-off, and deep per-
colation as the design process is conducted based on the ability of the
soil to absorb water and the amount of crop water demand (Daccache
et al., 2015). Therefore, this method results in increased productivity
and improved quality of yield while ensuring maximum water use ef-
ficiency (Tropea, 2014; Smith et al., 2010). However, to provide effi-
cient precision irrigation, the integration of the IoT for data acquisition
as well as monitoring, control theory, and decision support technologies
must be considered in irrigation management (Pham and Stack, 2018;
Zamora-izquierdo et al., 2018).
In the context of precision irrigation, control is the ability to re-
allocate inputs and adjustment of irrigation management according to
the crop response deficit while ensuring optimal water-saving and mi-
tigating the effects of disturbance and uncertainties (De Baerdemaeker,
2000; Smith and Baillie, 2009). However, in all cases, there is a need to
sense the response of plants to the applied water at a scale appropriate
for management as well as deciding for improved irrigation using both
real-time and historical information for subsequent irrigation applica-
tions at an appropriate spatial level (Shashi et al., 2017). This process
requires the application of real-time monitoring and advanced control
strategies.
In control theory, advanced control strategies refer to a broad range
of techniques and technologies implemented within a process and in-
dustrial control system, while control theory is referred to as a subfield
of electrical engineering and mathematics, which deals with the dy-
namical behaviour of systems. The attainment of desired dynamical
behaviours defines the precision of the output and is determined by the
model of the input and the controlled parameters. In precision irriga-
tion, plant properties and weather parameters are relied upon with the
use of sensors and several models to provide desired control of irriga-
tion.
Several review articles have been published which are related to
precision agriculture, as seen in Semananda et al. (2018) and Pierpaoli
et al. (2013). In addition, review work on the opportunities in IoT
monitoring and how the combination of IoT, big data and data analytics
has enabled precision and sustainable agriculture has been discussed
(Abhishek and Sanmeet, 2019; Dlodlo and Josephat, 2015; Elijah et al.,
2018b; Kamilaris et al., 2017; Martín et al., 2017; Wolfert et al., 2017;
Munoth et al., 2016). Also, a review by Ding et al. (2018), described the
development of a predictive model for control in agriculture, its chal-
lenges and future perspective. While a review of optimization methods
and performance evaluation of irrigation projects was carried out by
Aliyev (2018); Elshaikh et al. (2018). Presently, there is no review
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Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 173 (2020) 105441
paper combining both monitoring and control strategies for precision
irrigation systems, hence necessitating the need for a critical review on
precision irrigation with the integration of all the monitoring and
control techniques used for water-saving agriculture. Therefore, this
paper discusses advanced control and monitoring strategies for preci-
sion irrigation system with the integration of irrigation monitoring
methods. The control techniques presented in this paper are basically
classified into an open and closed-loop control system. The goal is to
sort out and abridge a reasonable part of previous research work and
further recognize and identify the research trends for precision irriga-
tion control systems. Next, Section 2 discusses the review methodology,
and Section 3 discusses the different methods of irrigation systems,
while irrigation monitoring based on the Internet of Things is discussed
in Section 4. Section 5 explains the integration of advanced control
strategies to enhance the precision irrigation system, while the last
section discusses the future research direction and conclusion.
2. Review methodology
The methodology applied in the selection of works of literature that
are published on precision irrigation and all its existing control strate-
gies includes an extensive search through a different multidisciplinary
online database, such as Science Direct, IEEE Xplore, Springer, Wiley,
Taylor & Francis, MDPI, Google Scholar, and other Scopus indexed
journals, etc. In such enormous research libraries, numerous research
articles related to monitoring and control in irrigation were found.
Therefore, in selecting relevant papers for this review, emphases were
placed on recent journals, which is from the high-ranking journal and
recently published conference papers and reports. The articles were
related to the following keywords; irrigation system, monitoring,
Internet of Things, predictions, and control system. Considering limited
space, the papers were selected carefully, read, and summarised to
ensure the continuity of the ideas.
Fig. 1 illustrates the number by publication distribution within
previous years (2009–2019). It can be seen that most of the selected
papers were published between 2014 till date, with the year 2018 re-
cording the highest numbers of published articles cited.
Fig. 2 illustrates the distribution of reviewed papers according to
application domains. It can be seen that the IoT monitoring domain has
the highest number of reviewed articles, and the trend is followed by
the advanced control domain. Therefore, the statistics from Fig. 2 has
proved the fact that research in IoT monitoring and advanced control
domain has become a growing trend in recent years.
Fig. 3 shows the proportion of paper reviewed on advance control
strategies for precision irrigation. Specifically, the proportion of the
control strategies is optimal/adaptive control (45%), Intelligent control
(42%), Linear control (8%), and open-loop control (Time/Volume
based) have 5%.
3. Classification of irrigation methods
For an impressive plant growth and development, appropriate water
supply is essential. When rainfall is inadequate, water must be supplied
to crops through irrigation (Brouwer et al., 1990b). Different irrigation
methods that can be used to provide water to plant is shown in Fig. 4.
The irrigation types are categorized into traditional and modern tech-
niques based on their tendency to offer water saving, be precisely
monitored, scheduled, and controlled. The quantity of irrigation water
to be applied to any plant depends on the method of the irrigation
system adopted, plant water demand, and the soil type. Any of the
adopted irrigation methods will have an influence on the nutrients,
infiltration rate, evaporation rate, water absorption pattern, and deep
percolation of the soil.
The traditional surface irrigation methods which is classified in
Fig. 4, applies and distributes water to the surface of the soil based on
the gravity flow without any form of sensing and control action
E.A. Abioye, et al.
Fig. 1. Distribution of selected papers according to publication year.
(Ghodake and Mulani, 2016). The traditional surface irrigation type is
the oldest and most common irrigation method, which was practiced all
over the world (Yonts, 1994). Examples of the traditional surface irri-
gation methods such as furrow, flooding, and manual watering are
commonly used by peasant farmers. However, these methods require
good soil surface levelling to ensure adequate water distribution to
prevent the water applied from draining away (Zhang et al., 2004). In
addition, the water-saving capacity of these methods is low due to the
potential losses of water, which is due to the massive evaporation
process and uncontrolled irrigation volume (Gillies, 2017). Traditional
surface irrigation is characterised by excessive water supplied to the
plants which often leads to surface runoff, deep percolation, which
increases the tendency of leaching, reduces the soil nutrients level, and
results in reduced crop yield (Adamala et al., 2014). Therefore, surface
irrigation can be enhanced to achieve precision irrigation through the
adoption of modern water saving technology as well as the needed
monitoring and control strategies to increase its water usage efficiency
Fig. 2. Distribution of papers reviewed according to application domains.
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Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 173 (2020) 105441
(Koech et al., 2010).
In modern water saving methods, which are classified as subsurface
(capillary) and surface (drip or sprinkler irrigation). Many studies have
investigated subsurface irrigation and found out that it offers higher
water-saving and better yield output when compared with other types
surface of irrigation (Nalliah and Sri Ranjan, 2010; Li et al., 2018;
Ohaba et al., 2015; Shukri Bin Zainal Abidin et al., 2014; Shukri Bin
Zainal Abidin et al., 2014; Shukri Bin Zainal Abidin et al., 2012).
Subsurface capillary irrigation is a type of subsurface irrigation that
works based on the action of gradually supplying water from a source
directly to the root area by using a capillary medium. Some capillary
mediums which were usually used in this method are wicks, mats, ebbs,
porous ceramics, and flows (Semananda et al., 2018; Cai et al., 2017;
Wesonga et al., 2014).
In the application of the subsurface irrigation method, Rahman et al.
(2019) proposed the horizontal and vertical fibrous capillary interface
to transfer water from the supply tank to the root zone of the plant. The
E.A. Abioye, et al.
Fig. 3. Distribution of papers reviewed according to control strategies.
subsurface capillary irrigation process works based on a negative
pressure to transport water using the capillary interface to the root zone
of the plant. Based on the results obtained from both references, it has
been shown that the horizontal type interface offers higher water saving
potential and the better yield on their test crop compared to the vertical
type interface.
Other research works on capillary irrigation have also proven the
advantage of this method to provide higher water saving in performing
irrigation process in agriculture compared to other methods (Kamal
et al., 2019; Ferrarezi, 2016; Kinoshita et al., 2010; Masuda, 2008).
However, Fujimaki et al. (2018) have observed that the upward
movement action of water via capillary can irreversibly accumulate
salts in the plant growing medium, thereby increasing the salinity of the
soil, which can be reduced only when water leaching occurs in the
medium. Therefore, an efficient monitoring and control system for the
capillary irrigation method is needed to overcome the soil salinity
Fig. 4. Different methods of irrigation.
4
Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 173 (2020) 105441
problem.
Surface drip irrigation is one of the modern water saving irrigation
methods which supplies water slowly through narrow tubes to provide
water to the soil near the plant roots (Brouwer et al., 1990a). This ir-
rigation method reduces the rate of water loss, which occurs due to
evaporation that was affected by wind and surface runoff (Pramanik
et al., 2016; Bhalage et al., 2015; Rekha et al., 2015). Likewise, Elasbah
et al. (2019) have claimed the effectiveness of a drip irrigation method
to offer an efficient irrigation system by providing the precise amount
of nutrients to the plants to reduce the amount of nutrient leaching.
However, to design and manage a surface drip irrigation system,
proper knowledge regarding water distribution wetting patterns, spa-
cing between emitters/dripper are needed to avoid a higher amount of
water loss due to the evaporation process on the soil surface and water
use efficiency (Bajpai and Kaushal, 2020; Hou et al., 2015). Despite
several advantages of drip irrigation method, it suffers from a high
E.A. Abioye, et al.
setup cost, especially for a more massive farm due to various accessory
requirements needed to perform the irrigation process such as pipes,
head trickles, and emitters (Bralts and Edwards, 1987). Also, regular
maintenance for the emitters is required to avoid any blockage that
might affect the water supplied to the plant (Ravina et al., 1992).
Sprinkler irrigation is another type of modern irrigation method
similar to the pattern of precipitation on the plant. The water sprinkling
process is performed by using the spray head and extensive piping
system to ensure a large coverage area for irrigation. There are several
types of sprinkler irrigation methods, such as the centre pivot, standa-
lone, linear, and lateral move sprinkler, as contained in Fig. 4. This
method tends to irrigate a larger land area due to its broader irrigation
coverage, as demonstrated in (Evans et al., 2012a; Evans and King,
2012). However, this method suffers from a high operating cost as it
requires several accessories such as sprinkler head, high-pressure pump,
pipes, and energy supplies for the water pump system such as engine oil
and electricity.
In addition, sprinkler irrigation is found to be inadequate to be
applied in a windy environment due to a high water loss rate as a result
of wind drift and evaporation (Xingye et al., 2018; Zhao et al., 2009).
Furthermore, this method also requires regular maintenance for nozzle
replacement, and pipe connections need to be regularly checked as
leakage in pipe connections will reduce the water sprinkling uniformity
throughout the farm, thus affecting the crop productivity. Whatever
method of irrigation adopted, subsurface, drip, or sprinkler irrigation,
there is a necessity to consider improvising for its shortcoming by real-
time monitoring and advanced control design aimed at achieving en-
hanced and desired precision. This is done by the application of re-
levant sensing devices to measure controlled parameters. The next
section outlines the monitoring techniques adopted in literature.
4. Monitoring in precision irrigation
Efficient monitoring system for various parameters that affect the
plant growth and development is very vital towards designing an effi-
cient irrigation control system to improve food production with
minimum water loss. Monitoring in the context of precision irrigation
also involves the collection of data that accurately reflects the real-time
status of soil, plant, and weather of the irrigation areas of the plants
through the use of wireless sensor networks (WSN) and the Internet of
Things (IoT) technology. To develop a real-time monitoring system, the
IoT has paved its way for the use of low-cost hardware (sensors/ac-
tuators) and communication technologies (Internet) to enhance the
monitoring and control system for the irrigation process (Ferrández-
Pastor et al., 2018). Similarly, distributed WSN nodes also play a sig-
nificant role in real-time monitoring for precision farming. They are a
network of sensor nodes interconnected wirelessly to sense, compute,
and transmit information of various parameters and designed for large
scale and long term deployment (Hamouda, 2017). The implementation
of IoT to monitor essential parameters in precision irrigation has be-
come a trend where seamlessly connected sensors, cameras, and Un-
manned Aerial Vehicles (UAV), drones as well as satellites for data
acquisition and onward data transmission using cloud service platform
is used as illustrated in Fig. 5 (Karim et al., 2017; Dubravko Ćulibrk
et al., 2014).
The cloud platform offers services such as data analysis of sensor
monitored parameters for decision making, visualization, and actions
(Rajeswari et al., 2017). Farmers and researchers can remotely access
the IoT cloud server where the control and monitoring algorithms are
deployed using smartphones or fixed devices to provide better insights
and to enhance the decision-making process in real-time (Jayaraman
et al., 2016; Pongnumkul et al., 2015). Thus, the monitoring process for
soils, crops and weather parameters will become more efficient and
convenient for farmers, which will further enhance the effectiveness of
precision irrigation control system and to ensure a good quality food
production (Andrew et al., 2018; Kushwaha et al., 2015; Mohanraj
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Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 173 (2020) 105441
et al., 2016; O’Grady and O’Hare, 2017; Rajeswari et al., 2017; Saiful
et al., 2020; Uddin et al., 2017).
As seen in Fig. 5, IoT and WSN are essential aspects that enhance
monitoring process in agriculture as well as the use of other different
sensors, where sensed parameters can be transferred through different
wireless communication technologies such as ZigBee, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi
wireless protocol, and GPRS/3G/4G Technology. Also, Low Power
Wide Area (LWPA) wireless technologies like LoRa, LTE Cat-NB1,
Sigfox, and LTE Cat M1 have also been used for wide area coverage
monitoring (Elijah et al., 2018a; Jawad et al., 2017; Li et al., 2017;
Ramesh and Rangan, 2017; Tzounis et al., 2017; Lin et al., 2015; Bitella
et al., 2014). Some of the essential parameters that are usually mon-
itored and considered for the design of a precision irrigation control
systems are shown in Table 1, while the highlight of the various mon-
itoring and sensing methods towards the achievement of precision ir-
rigation are discussed under the soil, weather and plant-based mon-
itoring as discussed in Sections 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3.
4.1. Soil-based monitoring
Soil moisture is one of the most crucial parameters needed for plant
growth. High spatiotemporal monitoring of soil moisture content is
necessary towards ensuring optimal irrigation scheduling. Several IoT-
based soil moisture monitoring for irrigation management using
Raspberry Pi and Arduino prototyping board. This is interfaced with
different sensors for real-time soil moisture fluxes for monitoring of
crop water use for irrigation decision and scheduling (Divya, 2019; Rao
and Sridhar, 2018; Krishna, 2017; Anusha et al., 2017; Rajalakshmi and
Devi, 2016; Chate and Rana, 2016; Kothawade et al., 2016). The type of
soil moisture sensing used is a low-cost capacitance-based type that is
based on the dielectric device working principle. According to Shigeta
et al. (2018), real-time soil moisture sensing using capacitance-based
sensors is applicable for practical measurement of soil moistures fluxes
by correlating the volumetric water content (VWC) of the soil and the
capacitance of the sensor probes inserted in the soil with reasonable
accuracy. A more accurate soil moisture sensing approach can be
achieved using a time domain reflectometry (TDR) sensors which
comprises of two parallel rods inserted to the soil at the depth at which
the moisture content is desired. An electromagnetic pulse is radiated
from the sensor rod, from which the rate at which the pulse is con-
ducted into the soil and reflected back to the soil surface is directly
related to the soil moisture content. However, a high sampling rate is
required for the TDR soil moisture sensors to receive a good signal re-
flected from the soil hence, making this type of sensor very expensive
for farmers to deploy at a large scale for soil moisture monitoring.
A low-cost monitoring irrigation system was proposed by Bitella
et al. (2014) for multisensory measurement of soil water content at
different depths, soil, and air temperatures. The soil sensor probes used
for monitoring the soil water content are the dielectric probe operating
with a sensing frequency of 80 MHz. The sensors were interfaced with
Arduino Uno microcontroller as an analog input while the Wi-Fi module
ESP8266 was used to transmit the data to the internet for data logging.
Related work using Node MCU was carried out by (Chieochan et al.,
2017; Kumar et al., 2017). Similarly, an IoT-based field monitoring was
implemented with a cloud base monitoring and data analysis using
Arduino as a controller by (Jha et al., 2017; Salvi et al., 2017;
Yashaswini et al., 2017). Their findings confirmed that the collected
data was used to make a prediction that was used to achieve reduced
water consumption and for planning the strategies to get better crop
yield.
An IoT soil moisture monitoring approach by Hebbar and Golla
(2017), took advantage of the wireless networks that utilized GSM
network and infrared communications to offer automatic water supply
for plants for water-saving. The proposed system was controlled by PIC
microcontroller 16F877A to turn the ON/OFF pump using a relay driver
after checking the moisture level with the help of a capacitance-based
E.A. Abioye, et al. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 173 (2020) 105441

Fig. 5. Overview of IoT- based Monitoring Architecture.

Table 1
Summary of basic monitoring and control parameters for precision irrigation system (Lakhiar et al., 2018; Fernández, 2017; Vegetronix, 2016).
Parameters Common value/unit Measuring device

Soil monitoring parameters

Soil moisture content Gravimetric /Volumetric water content: 0% Soil moisture sensor (VH400, ECH2O EC Sensor, DS200, TDR Probe,
to 100%/0 m3/m3 to 5 m3/m3 tension and neutron sensors, etc.)
Salinity Low: (0–0.15), Medium: (0.51–1.25) Very EC measuring device
high: (1.76–2.00 mmhos/cm)
Soil water absorption capacity Wilting point, field capacity Mini drain system
pH Acidic: 0–6.9, Neutral: 7, Alkaline: 8–14 pH meter
Weather monitoring parameters
Greenhouse canopy light 0% to 100% Light dependent resistor (LDR)
Crop canopy/air temperature/humidity 00C to 400C/0% to 100% SHT 11, DHT 22 sensor, handheld infrared thermometer, etc.
Environmental weather variables (Rainfall, wind, mm, %, W/m^2 etc. Weather station(Davis Vantage), etc.
solar radiation, etc.)
Reference Evapotranspiration(ETo) 0–1 (mm/s) Lysimeter, IoT- based weather station, etc.
Plant monitoring parameters
Normalized difference vegetative Index(NDVI) Pixels(Images of plant/crops) Raspberry pi camera, UAV, drones, Satellites imaging, AVHRR Instrument,
Low: 0.2–0.4, Mid: 0.4–0.6, High: 0.6 above. Decagon’ spectral reflectance sensor, etc.
Leaf Area Index(LAI) 0 (bare ground) to 10 (dense vegetation) AccuPAR LP-80 Ceptometer, CI-110, 202, 203 Plant canopy imager.
(m2/m2) MODIS and. Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer
Enhanced Vegetation Index(EVI) −1 to 1 Satellite, UAV Camera, NIR Spectroscopy, AVHRR Instrument
Crop water stress index (CWSI)) 0(no water stress) to 1(Maximum water Derived from the measurement of the TDR method
stress)
Stem water content cm3 cm−3 Derived from the measurement of the TDR method
Sap flow m3 m−2 s−1 Sap flow Sensor
Leaf turgor pressor kPa Pressure LPCP probe
Xylem water potential Mpa Scholander-type chambers or with microtensiometers.
Stomatal conductance mol m−2 s−1 Porometer
Stem Diameter Variation(SDV) µm Linear variable differential transformers (LVDT) Sensor.

soil moisture sensor consisting of two electrodes gauging the resistance
of the soil. Also, a soil moisture monitoring using sensor layout network
technology was integrated with IOS/Android application by Isik et al.
(2017) where data from different DS200 soil moisture/humidity sensors
with the accuracy of ± 2% is placed close to the root zone of the plant
at a different region of the sensor layouts transmitted via Wi-Fi to a
mobile phone-based on IOS/Android to the central control unit for
opening and closing condition of electro valves. The electro valve
controls the amount of water to be supplied to the lateral drip line.
Another monitoring domain of soil nutrient was demonstrated by
Zhang et al. (2017), with an IoT approach using a portable soil nutrient
detector. Other parameters sensed alongside with soil nutrients include
soil moisture, air/soil temperature, and humidity using the SHT 17
digital sensor interfaced wirelessly with JN5139 system control node
using Zigbee. The sensed parameter was fed into a decision support
system (DSS) for decision making for an irrigated citrus cultivation. A

6
E.A. Abioye, et al.
Fig. 6. Real-time monitoring and control of Rock melon cultivation experiment via Raspberry Pi camera at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia orchard, Johor Bahru (a)
IoT- based Drip irrigation monitoring system (b) IoT- based Capillary irrigation monitoring system.
friendly monitoring technology for soil and nutrient sensing, referred to
as chameleon, was implemented by Fandika et al. (2019). This ap-
proach makes use of chameleon colours to represent the different states
of soil moisture and nutrient level as low, moderate, high. This friendly
technology has helped local farmers in Malawi get insight from colour
for moisture content without using figures from sensor calibration to
improve their water management. A design of silicon chip for in-situ
monitoring of the soil nitrogen cycle was reported by Joly et al. (2017),
using an ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET) microsensor for
measuring soil pH and soil nitrogen content.
Likwise, Bah et al. (2012) reviewed and proposed soil nutrient
monitoring using on the go sensor technologies deployed for site-spe-
cific management of nutrient concentration where the efficient map-
ping of nutrient variability can be carried out using electromechanical
and optical sensors. Another innovative soil moisture monitoring ap-
proach was demonstrated by Huuskonen and Oksanen, (2018) through
the use of drones camera on aerial surveillance to create soil maps to
determining the soil sample location and management zones. After
analysis of the images, the result contains soil moisture and nutrient
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Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 173 (2020) 105441
contents of different zones for irrigation planning and scheduling. The
quality of water used for irrigation was monitored using the IoT ap-
proach and reported by Prasad et al. (2016), where oxidation-reduction
potential, conductivity, salinity and potential hydrogen (pH) were
sensed in real-time using different types of sensors. Continuous mon-
itoring of these parameters is necessary for maintaining functional
health status for plants.
4.2. Weather based monitoring
One area of the increased interest of weather-based monitoring is
the real-time estimation of the reference evapotranspiration (ETO) using
measured weather variables as an indication of water loss from the
plant and the soil environment. The rate of water loss largely depends
on the precise measurement of solar radiation, air temperature, and
wind speed. This data can be measured using IoT- based weather sta-
tions and other various types of sensors, as seen in Table 1.
One of the most popular technological approaches that are used in
precision monitoring of weather and environmental parameters is by
E.A. Abioye, et al.
using WSN (Bauer and Aschenbruck, 2018; Keswani et al., 2018;
Difallah et al., 2018; Hamouda, 2017; Mohanraj et al., 2017; Saraf and
Gawali, 2017; Viani et al., 2017; Patil and Desai, 2013). The im-
plementations present WSN as an alternative and efficient way in which
various sensors are interconnected to monitor physical or surrounding
environmental conditions for a large cropping area. The system was
reported to achieve real-time monitoring and analysis of data from the
sensors in a feedback loop, which activates the control devices based on
a pre-calculated threshold value.
Wasson et al. (2017) presents an IoT-based weather monitoring
system which monitors and analyse the crop environment like air
temperature, humidity, solar radiation, wind speed and moisture con-
tent in the soil, making use of different weather-based sensors inter-
faced with wireless communication standard for real-time data transfer
and web-based services. A similar approach was demonstrated by
Shahzadi et al. (2016), where three sensor networks with each com-
prising three soil moisture sensors, temperature, and leaf wetness were
used for precise and accurate sensing of moisture content, weather and
leaf wetness of the farm layout. The sensor nodes intercommunication
was established using ZigBee-802.15.4 wasp-mote board with a trans-
mission range of 500 m at 38,400 bps through the gateway to the
webserver where an expert system takes irrigation decisions.
Villarrubia et al. (2017) demonstrated a multi-agent-based mon-
itoring approach using an open-source platform called PANGEA for
collecting various forms of weather variables using sensors for tem-
perature, solar radiation, humidity, pH, wind, and soil moisture. The
platform comprises several Master and Slave nodes that are sensor
networked to communicate at 433 MHz radiofrequency for sensor data
transfer. The collection of various sensor data was fused using a fuzzy
expert system to decide the volume of water needed for irrigation. Si-
milarly, Rahman et al. (2019) developed an IoT dashboard for the
management of a smart fibrous capillary irrigation system. Several
variables, such as soil moisture content, weather, and others plant in-
formation are displayed on the dashboard, while the real time capture
plant images for estimating leave area index is illustrated in Fig. 6. This
helped in enhancing monitoring and control using an IoT system as a
critical tool that is targeted at precision irrigation. With the help of real-
time monitoring of weather variables, an hourly estimation of reference
evapotranspiration, which determines water loss from soil and plant
canopies, was computed using an FAO-56 Modified Penman-Monteith
equation using a developed Arduino based IoT Davis Vantage Pro 2
weather station. The Penman-Monteith evapotranspiration model is
shown in Eq. (1).
900
0.408 (Rn ) + U (e )
T + 273 2 2
ETO =
+ (1 + 0.34U2 ) (1)
where ETO is the reference evapotranspiration (mm/hour); Δ represents
the slope of saturation vapour pressure (kPa°C−1); Rn is the reference
crop canopy net radiation (W/m2); λ represent the latent heat of va-
porization (kPa°C−1); T represents the mean air temperature in Celsius;
U2 is the Mean daily or hourly wind speed at 2-m height (ms−1);
e2 represent the stream pressure of saturation vapour (kPa) (Rahman
et al., 2018). The estimated reference evapotranspiration can be used to
determine the actual evapotranspiration (ETC ), which is the water loss
from a particular crop, from where the estimated amount of water to
compensate for the water loss is computed for onward application to
the plant, based on the crop coefficient (K C ) which varies from one
plant to another.
ETC = ETO KC (2)
4.3. Plant-Based monitoring
Plant-based monitoring using optical sensors has emerged as a
widely used approach to assess plant water stress status, determining
8
Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 173 (2020) 105441
the health status of crops as well as potential threat to plant growth and
development such as drought, lack of nutrients, and attacks from pest.
Some of these optical sensors can be fixed (immovable) closed to the
plant or mounted on moving platforms such as drones, UAVs, movable
sprinkler machines (Bogue, 2017), and satellites (Nutini et al., 2017).
Wireless sensor networks and gateway node approach were devel-
oped by Jia et al. (2019) to collect soil moisture content in the tea
plantation using captured images of the cultivated plant and soil. The
pictures of the tea leaves were gathered for assessment of the tea de-
ficiency by using a high definition camera mounted on the UAV. The
proposed system helped in water conservation to a great extent and also
reduces soil erosion as only required fertilizers are injected via the drip
system. The integration of the IoT together with wireless sensor net-
works, as demonstrated by Bauer and Aschenbruck (2018), was used for
in situ monitoring of the Leaf area index (LAI), a vital crop parameter
used for optimal irrigation and crop performance. This was achieved
using an optical filter and diffuser for photosynthetically active radia-
tion (PAR) measurement needed to derive a reliable estimate of LAI.
The use of UAV equipped with high-resolution cameras for smart
aerial monitoring of irrigation area vegetation was presented by
(Aleotti et al., 2018; Uddin et al., 2017). This area now has an increased
research focus towards achieving precision irrigation. In Aleotti et al.
(2018), the UAV with an on board camera containing Sony IMX 219
CMOS sensor was configured to fly over the irrigation field testbed. The
integration of multispectral images captured by the UAV cameras with
DSS was used to compute the normalized difference vegetation index
(NDVI) map used for precise control of the linear sprinkler machine
used for irrigation of the tomato cultivated field layout. The authors
reported that a higher water saving could be achieved with the in-
tegration of NDVI technical index with DSS.
Similarly, Harun et al. (2019) proposed an improved indoor farming
IoT monitoring for the growth of Brassica Chinensis plant, where re-
mote monitoring of spectrum using light sensors as well as a network of
sensors for monitoring of CO2, ambient temperature, humidity, nutrient
and Leaf area index was presented. The combination of these conditions
was used to apply water to the plant, which was controlled by the pulse-
width modulated (PWM) actuator interfaced with IoT embedded de-
vice. The study was able to establish the effect of photoperiod light
spectrum and intensity to determine the optimal plant physiology and
morphology, such as leaf photosynthesis rate, water used efficiency,
leaf stomatal conductance and chlorophyll on Brassica Chinensis.
A cyber-physical system model approach for smart monitoring of
potatoes vegetation status was demonstrated by Rad et al. (2015). The
architecture for the monitoring system was in four layers, namely,
physical, network, DSS, and application layers. Real-time information is
obtained from sensors mounted on UAV, tractors, and satellites via the
physical layer. The network layers help to access and transmit in-
formation interfaced with the DSS layer where maps of vegetation
(NDVI), soil resources as well as chlorophyll content are computed, and
lastly, the application layer forms the interface between the decision
layer and the human operator.
Lozoya et al. (2016) implemented a sensor network for monitoring
and control of green pepper vegetation in four different irrigation area
layouts. Each of the irrigation areas was monitored using a 10HS vo-
lumetric water content sensor, hunter flow sensor, camera for capturing
vegetation images, actuator nodes which contain a rain bird irrigation
valve for on/off control of water, as well as IoT-based weather station
for estimation of reference evapotranspiration.
Likewise, Lozoya et al. (2019) analysed two methods of spectral
sensing instruments such as decagon’ spectral reflectance sensor and
Mapir’s survey 3 camera’s ability to measure plant health status through
NDVI in a greenhouse experiment. It was reported that both methods,
achieved similar spectral results on plant health status, which could be
combined with soil moisture sensing for optimal irrigation control.
Readers are refer to Table 2 for more detail description of various lit-
erature on real time monitoring for precision irrigation.
E.A. Abioye, et al. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 173 (2020) 105441

5. Control techniques for precision irrigation

Hardware Field implementation

Hardware Field implementation

Hardware Field implementation

Hardware Field implementation

Hardware Field implementation

Hardware Field implementation

Adopting advanced control techniques in an irrigation system helps
Implementation Nature

to achieve the application of water in the desired proportion to crops at

Laboratory prototype

Laboratory prototype

Laboratory prototype

Laboratory prototype

Laboratory prototype

Laboratory prototype

Laboratory prototype

Laboratory prototype
the right time, to achieve high water use efficiency, increased yields,

Simulation based
energy-saving, optimise fertilizer use and labour saving (Boman et al.,
2015). Therefore, leveraging on the monitoring of several parameters
influencing irrigation performance such as air and canopy temperature,
rainfall, evapotranspiration, and solar radiation, various control
methods have been suggested to improve optimal irrigation systems

WSN monitoring using GSM modem as an interface between users and

sensors based monitoring using sensors with cloud-based data logging

Irrigation monitoring system using IoT with data logging and analysis.
Aerial imaging using drones for analysis of soil moisture and nutrient

IoT Monitoring using sensors with the data integrated with a machine
and to increase their efficiency (Marinescu et al., 2017). It is possible to
categorize the irrigation control techniques primarily into closed-loop
IoT- based water management with real-time data logging and

and open-loop control strategies. Similarly, the combination of both

Remote sensing of water quality using IoT for data logging

closed-loop and open-loop control method has also been proposed as a

IoT and WSN based smart farming for large sensor layout
IoT-based Machine Learning for control of hydroponics

hybrid control strategy. The irrigation controllers are examined in this

section based on these classifications into different irrigation control
Cloud-based monitoring via IoT for data analytics

techniques, as illustrated in Fig. 7.

IoT- based field monitoring using sensors
IoT- based irrigation and security system

5.1. Open loop irrigation control technique

learning algorithm for prediction. In an open-loop irrigation control system, irrigation decisions are
made empirically by the operator using both mechanical or electro-
mechanical irrigation timers and the volume of water to be delivered or
IoT and WSN based DSS
Method/Improvement

Remote IoT monitoring

indirectly via the speed of a movable sprinkler machine. The volume of

IoT smart irrigation

water and the time for irrigation is often specified and applied based on
the knowledge of the operator on perceived crop response, rather than
on a precise measurement (Zazueta et al., 2008). Also, irrigation sys-
analysis.

content.
sensors

tems control based on open-loop have been broadly used by farmers,

and it implies that a pre-set action is done using irrigation timers
(Agency, 2017). The parameters set by the system operator are often
Soil moisture content, pH Temperature, and humidity
Water level, Temperature, Humidity, Light, PPM, pH,

Humidity, temperature, leaf area index, soil moisture

the time and the volume of water to be supplied, not minding the crop
response. An open-loop system is simple to implement because sensors
Light, ambient temperature and humidity, CO2

are not required in order to measure the varying parameters affecting

Relative humidity, temperature, soil moisture

Humidity, air temperature, soil moisture, soil

Humidity, temperature, soil moisture, water.
Humidity, temperature, soil moisture, light

Humidity, temperature, soil moisture, light

Temperature, pH, ORP trend and EC value

the plant, such as soil moisture contents, other weather variables, and
also no need for feedback concept, hence saves cost (Harper, 2017). The
Humidity, temperature, soil moisture

Humidity, temperature, soil moisture

Humidity, temperature, soil moisture

block diagram of the open-loop irrigation system is illustrated in Fig. 8.

Water stress, soil potential, ETo

temperature, UV light radiation

A time-based sprinkler and drip irrigation system for coastal horti-

culture was carried by Sudarmaji et al. (2019) based on the open-loop
control approach. The timing was designed using a real-time clock
Monitored Variable

(RTC) interfaced with an Arduino board connected to an actuator for

Image of the soil

switching on the DC pump for drip and AC pump for sprinkler irriga-
tion. Montesano et al. (2016) implemented a timer-based irrigation
system in a greenhouse. The results show that timer-controlled irriga-
nutrient

tion experienced 18% leaching with a leaser leaf area index when
compared to the performance with a closed-loop sensor-based ap-
proach.
Water

The issue associated with the open-loop irrigation control method is

its susceptibility to environmental disturbances. The control input does
Crop

not generally take the dynamics in the system into consideration. It also
Detailed description of monitoring in precision irrigation.
Monitoring Domain

cannot automatically react to varying conditions in the environment,

Soil

development stage requirement of plants, and requires frequent reset-

ting to achieve high levels of irrigation efficiency (Patil and Desai,
Weather

2013).
Examples of the open-loop irrigation techniques are irrigation timer,
volume-based, and conventional approach, as illustrated using the
block diagram in Fig. 8. Irrigation timers are simple controllers con-
Anusha et al. (2017); Kumar et al.

sisting of clock units capable of activating one or more subunits of the

Huuskonen and Oksanen (2018)
Bauer and Aschenbruck (2018)

irrigation system at a specific time.

Agale and Gaikwad (2017)
Kothawade et al. (2016)

5.2. Closed loop irrigation control system

Rajkumar et al. (2017)
Mohanraj et al. (2016)
Prasad et al. (2016)
Harun et al. (2019)

Harun et al. (2015)

Mehra et al., 2018

Viani et al. (2017)

Goap et al. (2018)

Salvi et al. (2017)

Nath et al. (2018)

The closed-loop irrigation controllers operate based on a feedback

control scheme designed to keep the desired output condition by
References

(2017)

comparing it with some pre-set conditions to decide the duration and

Table 2

amount of water supply to plants. In Klein et al. (2018), a closed-loop

irrigation system fully automates the delivery of irrigation and

9
E.A. Abioye, et al.
Fig. 7. Classification of different Control techniques for Precision Irrigation System.
calculates the water requirement of the plant. The operator creates a
general control approach in closed-loop systems, and once the overall
approach is formulated, the control system takes over the time and
frequency of water supply to plants (Patil and Desai, 2013).
The decisions as to when and where to irrigate are dependent and
guided by various data obtained from sensors as feedback and com-
pared with the desired set point, as illustrated in Fig. 9. Therefore,
sensing of environmental and canopy variables (such as soil moisture,
NDVI (images of the plant), LEA index) as well as weather (tempera-
tures, humidity, solar radiation, etc.) as seen in Table 1 are required
when designing automatic irrigation controllers (Deng et al., 2018;
Adeyemi et al., 2017). The present condition of the decision variables is
compared against some certain decision statements, to initiate action on
the control of irrigation.
Many research works have been published on monitoring and au-
tomatic irrigation integrated with the IoT system based on closed-loop
irrigation control principles. They made use of a closed-loop control
approach, where soil, plant, and weather variables are combined to
measure water demand of the crop and for irrigation scheduling and
optimization.
However, the nonlinear nature and changing dynamics of plants,
make control of irrigation extremely cumbersome. Also, due to the
necessity of the use of numerous sensors into the irrigation system
coupled with the challenges of installations and calibrations, they re-
quire immense implementation expenses by farmers and researchers.
This survey paper divides the closed-loop control approach to linear
10
Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 173 (2020) 105441
control, such as Proportional Integral Derivative controller, intelligent,
optimal/adaptive, and other control schemes, as illustrated in Fig. 7.
5.2.1. Linear control
5.2.1.1. Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) based irrigation
controller. Over the years, classical proportional-integral-derivative
popularly known as PID has been widely used for industrial feedback
control systems due to their simple structure, extensive control
algorithm, and low cost. It offers better efficiency because of its
control ability on the actual output of a process to track the set
output while minimizing error (Mantri and Kulkarni, 2013).
However, classic PID controllers may suffer a setback in control
performance when faced with external disturbances, also being a
linear controller, it is not suited for systems that are highly nonlinear
(Yesil et al., 2014). To achieve good control performance, each
component in the control loop can be characterized by tunning
appropriate PID controller parameters. Empirical methods are used to
evaluate the PID parameters with consideration of how the system
functions under open-loop circumstances. An improved PID controller
unit was developed, with a constrained integral function, to ensure
proper regulation during the diurnal cycle of adequate water to meet
the need of the plant (Goodchild et al., 2015). The controller reacts
rapidly to varying environmental conditions, including precipitation
occasions, which can result in controller windup, under watering, and
stress circumstances of the plant. The work shows how a constraint PID
controller functions to provide robust and precise irrigation
Fig. 8. Block diagram of the open-loop irri-
gation system.
E.A. Abioye, et al. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 173 (2020) 105441

Fig. 9. Block diagram of the closed-loop ir-

rigation system.

management watering (Rodríguez et al., 2015). logic-based as well as other evolutional algorithms that have been used
For a similar purpose, to address the linearity and non-linearity of for optimizing irrigation as summarised in Table 3 and discussed in the
associated with the dynamics of irrigation farming of crops, Zhang et al. following subsections.
(2018), Yubin et al. (2017), Bi and Zheng (2014) proposed a PID fuzzy
control strategy of water and fertilizer for precision irrigation. The
5.2.2.1. Fuzzy logic-based irrigation controller. An extension of
study shows that reasonable control of water and fertilizer ratio in
traditional Boolean logic, which allows the expression of logical
agricultural irrigation and water conservation was achieved with better
values between true and false and describes the uncertainty and non-
controller robustness and stability. For the same purpose, Yubin (2018)
linearity of the real-world problems, is known as fuzzy logic (Hasan
demonstrated a control technology based on PID fuzzy algorithm for
et al., 2018). Precision irrigation using fuzzy logic has been utilized in
precise application of water and fertilizer, the PID controller is based on
many kinds of literature due to the fact that it does not require an
fuzzy rules and rules-based matrix table for real-time self-parameter
accurate model of the plant object before it can be controlled (Wang
tuning as well as effectively predicting the water requirement of the
and Zhang, 2018; Dela Cruz et al., 2017; Al-Ali et al., 2015; Hussan and
crop to achieve precision irrigation. The implementation results show
Hamouda, 2014; Patil and Desai, 2013; Touati et al., 2013; Patil et al.,
that the PID fuzzy control system has the advantages of high control
2012). In complex systems such as irrigation with its characteristic
precision with reducing overshoot by 14.68% and better stability, but
nonlinearities, it is difficult to obtain the mathematical model that
the control performance was degraded when the fertilizer density
describes the system. Hence, fuzzy controllers have the potential to
change significantly. A similar result was obtained in Bi and Zheng
replace the role of a mathematical model with a fuzzy model based on
(2014), where the integration of grey theory, fuzzy rules and PID al-
the rules formulated in an if-else and then format that is inspired by
gorithm for fertilizer and water precision control with very low control
expert knowledge of the process (Ramli et al., 2017). A fuzzy irrigation
overshoot and robust stability was reported.
system was modelled and simulated by Mousa et al. (2014); the
Classical closed-loop control technology such as on/off, propor-
computation of evapotranspiration (ETo) was carried out with the
tional (P), proportional-integral (PI), and proportional integral differ-
help of fuzzy inference system using input variables such as
ential (PID) are easy to implement, but are unable to control multi-
temperature, humidity, wind, and radiation. The results demonstrate
variable and moving processes with time delays, however, by cascading
that the fuzzy model is a quick and accurate tool for achieving desired
several PID controllers or linking feedback paths, the control perfor-
evapotranspiration as well as the required net irrigation to compensate
mances can be improved to a near adaptive manner (Norhaliza et al.,
for the water loss due to evapotranspiration.
2011). Furthermore, another challenge of the PID controllers is the
In another work, Keswani et al. (2018), proposed variable learning
improper gain selections of these control systems, which can lead to
rate gradient descent feed-forward neural network-based pattern clas-
unstable conditions as the systems are non-linear and have non-mod-
sification to forecast soil moisture content, while the valve control
elled dynamics. Since it is hectic to tune a PID controller and con-
commands were processed using a fuzzy logic-based weather condition
sidering its inability to handle multivariable control problems such as
modelling system to manipulate the control commands by considering
irrigation systems, there is need for researchers to look towards the
different weather conditions. Fengshen et al. (2018) presented the
direction of tuning the parameters of PID controllers using intelligent
combination of neural network prediction and fuzzy control algorithm,
algorithms such as particle swarm optimization, genetic algorithm or
which combines fertilization with irrigation precisely to reduce irriga-
hybrid fuzzy PID for optimal control of irrigation system.
tion water and the waste of chemical fertilizers, save the production
resources, reduces the production costs and improves the efficiency of
agricultural products enterprise.
5.2.2. Intelligent control for precision irrigation
In order to maximize the efficiency and production for irrigation
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a machine’s ability to learn and execute
system, Hussain et al. (2011) developed a fuzzy logic controller to es-
comparable tasks that characterize human thinking, and it is dedicated
timate the amount of water of plants in distinct depth using the irri-
to making the machine smarter (Fuentes and Tongson, 2018). It offers
gation model, soil type, environmental conditions of greenhouse and
the potential for solving complex problems affecting the irrigation
the type of plant that affect the greenhouse irrigation system. A DSS-
system, which are multivariable, non-linear, and time-varying (Su and
based on the combination of the wireless sensor and actuation network
Ma, 2012). When applied to a specific problem domain, AI algorithms
technology and fuzzy logic theory is proposed to support the irrigation
can emulate the process of human decision making. They have been
management in agriculture (Viani et al., 2017), while Alomar (2018)
implemented in the form of fuzzy logic, ANN, Support vector machines,
developed a fuzzy logic controller leveraging on IoT for smart irriga-
and decision trees with significant success to date (Singh and Jha,
tion. Fuzzy irrigation controller has proved to be a beneficial control
2012).
algorithm towards ensuring precision irrigation to improve water use
Applying machine learning techniques to automatically extract new
efficiency by accurately calculating the amount of irrigation and ad-
knowledge in the form of generalized decision rules towards the best
dressing the non-linearity associated with the process. However, the
management of natural resources such as water to achieve precision
performance and accuracy of the fuzzy irrigation controller depend on
irrigation was carried out by Dimitriadis and Goumopoulos (2008).
the designer’s knowledge of the dynamics of the process (plant) to help
Similarly, different classification and regression algorithms were ap-
in formulating the fuzzy rules and proves its feasibility using long term
plied to the collected dataset using various sensors to develop models
data obtained experimentally.
that could be able to predict an irrigation plan weekly. Also, the po-
tential of applying machine learning on datasets for prediction of yield
and disease was reported by Goldstein et al. (2018). In this review, the 5.2.2.2. Artificial neural network based irrigation controller. An Artificial
intelligence-based irrigation controllers discussed are; ANN, fuzzy Neural Network (ANN) is an information processing algorithm inspired

11
 E.A. Abioye, et al. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 173 (2020) 105441

by how information is processed by biological nervous systems like the

Simulation based/ Hardware

human brain. The human brain consists of billions of neurons that

Laboratory based hardware

Laboratory based hardware

Implementation Nature

intercommunicate for information processing (Liakos et al., 2018). The

artificial neurons in ANN are synonymous with the biological neurons
Requires regular tuning of the rules for the controller to adapt Simulation based

Simulation based

Simulation based

Simulation based

Simulation based

Simulation based

Simulation based
in human being based on the nonlinearity properties of ANN, the input,

implementation

implementation
and output mapping capacity for the prediction of different dependent
variables (Tsang and Jim, 2016). ANN-based controllers have been

prototype
applied in irrigation control systems because of their tendency to learn
and adapt to the dynamics of the changing variables affecting
irrigation. ANN has also been used as a smart strategy that is
considered, the irrigation prediction accuracy was not explored.
Only soil moisture variable were considered, weather and plant

The only prediction of irrigation requirement was made without

Simulation-based using input parameters like air temperature,

Irrigation decision is based on heuristic rules decided by the

important in countering the issue of formulating mathematical
models using the first-principles approach.

expert, which cannot adequately adapt to the changing

Only the soil moisture and temperature variable was

soil moisture, radiations and humidity for modelled.

A conceptual framework and estimation of evapotranspiration using
Pump speed, water, and fertilizer volume control.

computation technique of artificial neural network was carried out by

Kelley and Pardyjak (2019); Sharma and Regulwar (2016); Bemani
et al. (2013) to be facilitated by matching irrigation rates to crop water
constraint and disturbance management.

dynamics of the soil, plant, and weather

A nonlinear optimization model using a genetic algorithm based on Rainfall, evapotranspiration and inflow.
to changes in plant, soil, and weather.

demand based on estimates of actual evapotranspiration(ETC), while

analysis of error of an ANN controller based on reference evapo-
Control Parameters/Limitation

transpiration was carried out by Susilo et al. (2014). Other methods of

variable were not considered.

estimation of evapotranspiration were extensively discussed by

Obiechefu (2017).
To ensure efficient irrigation scheduling, Umair and Muhammad
Proposed PSO algorithm for optimal irrigation canal discharge rate Irrigation volume

Irrigation volume

(2015) proposed an ANN-based controller modelled in MATLAB, using

weather variables as input parameters. Additionally, Gu et al. (2017)
developed a predictive model using an improved backpropagation (BP)
neural network, which was tuned by genetic algorithm (GA) to speed up
the convergence of the network, preventing it from getting stocked in
Implementation of an open-loop fuzzy logic control using mamdani

The irrigation time necessary to take the moisture level up to a user-

hydrological balance to determine optimal crop water need as well

A fuzzy logic-based irrigation system was introduced and improved
PID Fuzzy integration for control of water and fertilizer pump speed

IoT- based smart irrigation management using a machine learning

local minima. Similarly, research work for a step ahead prediction was
Design or evaluation of basin, border and furrow irrigation using
Artificial Neural Network (ANN) based intelligent control system
Development of dynamic grey prediction model fertigation with

Intelligent based KNN machine learning algorithm deployed for

management through a better search mechanism to address the

carried out by Wong et al. (2018), It asserts that Recurrent Neural

Networks (RNN), a subclass of ANN, was able to capture highly non-
analyzing the sensor data for prediction to soil irrigation.

linear systems dynamics sufficiently which makes it suitable predictive

control. Another version of RNN called Long Short-Term Memory
desired level is determined using a neural network.

problem of other typical metaheuristic algorithms.

(LSTM), was used for predicting water table depth over the long-term in
agricultural areas by using collected times series data (Adeyemi et al.,
2018c; Jianfeng et al., 2018), the predictive model achieves higher
regression coefficient (R2) scores when compared with other machine
for effective irrigation scheduling

learning algorithms.
with real-time data monitoring

The combination of reinforcement learning and ANN for irrigation

the Volume Balance model

control system were also carried out by Lijia et al. (2018), where an off-
for optimal water saving.

line learning simulation of sensors and crop yield data was carried out.
as copping pattern.

The artificial neural network-based fast models for soil water content
using DSSAT and crop yield was developed to improve the learning
control system
Description

process. The ANN algorithm has proven to be a veritable tool for pre-
algorithm

cision irrigation based on previous research; more work still needs to be

carried out in the tuning of the ANN controllers. Most of the reviewed
papers are simulation-based, further efforts should be made in the im-
Irrigation optimization using Genetic

plementation of this artificial intelligence algorithms on embedded

Support Vector Regression + KNN
Smart irrigation using fuzzy logic

system hardware to ensure proper validation of simulation findings.

Hybrid meta-heuristic Algorithm
Neural Network-based irrigation

K nearest neighbor (KNN)Based

However, the accuracy of the ANN-based prediction model or controller

Particle Swarm Optimization
Fuzzy PID control algorithm
Application of intelligent control for precision irrigation.

depends on how well the data feed in thoroughly represent the beha-
viour of the system. Efforts should be made to collect data of needed
predictive irrigation

parameters using good and quality sensors, proper sampling time needs
Smart fuzzy logic
based Irrigation

to be chosen during data collection.

Techniques

Algorithm

Algorithm

5.2.2.3. Expert systems based irrigation system. An expert system is an

ANN

algorithm that is developed to mimic the problem-solving ability of a

human expert on a specific area of expertise by using artificial
Azaza et al. (2016), Hamouda,

intelligence. It typically consists of a structure and intuitive

Izzuddin et al. (2018), Hussan

Umair, S Muhammad (2015)

knowledge-based component as well as an inference/control

and Hamouda, (2014)

component (Mishra et al., 2014). An expert system solves problems

Bi and Zheng, (2014)

Shekhar et al. (2017)

Capraro et al. (2008)

Anusha et al. (2017)

Akbari et al. (2018)

using the expert experience who is consulted, relying on intuitive logic,

Sadati et al. (2014)

Liu et al. (2018)

belief, experience as well as the rule of the thumb. An expert system is

being used in problem-solving activities such as planning, forecasting,
References

(2017)

control system, monitoring, fusing, prescribing, and interpreting

Table 3

decision making (Khamkar, 2014). According to Nada et al. (2014).

An irrigation system control based on expert system aims to provide

12
E.A. Abioye, et al.
farmers with irrigation expertise on how to determine the exact amount
of crop water need at the right time, weather, and growing medium
such as temperature, humidity, and soil types. This was demonstrated
in Shahzadi et al. (2016), where an expert system for smart agriculture
leveraged on the IoT- based monitoring for real-time input of different
sensor data to the server where the expert system algorithm was
deployed. The structure of the expert system for the irrigation
decision proposed for the cotton crop was programmed using C
language integrated production system. This contains the knowledge
base with working memory, inference engine as well as a user interface.
A similar expert system using a wireless sensor network monitoring
approach for the cultivation of plant harnessing and ontology was
embarked upon by (Panawong and Namahoot, 2017). The wireless
sensor network was applied to collect and transfer data of soil moisture,
soil pH, and sunlight, which is further fed into the expert system on the
webserver to decide the water and fertilizer requirement of the plant.
The expert system was then interfaced with an android smartphone for
queries of the decision support in real-time. A rule-based expert system
named technical specification of drip irrigation-expert system (TSDI-
ES), developed by Ragab et al. (2018) was used for choosing the right
components (such as filters, motor, pumps, fertigation device) for
irrigation network control unit to address the shortage of expert for
farm automation. The investigation result on the TSDI-ES algorithm
shows that proper control unit components can be chosen by the expert
DSS. Eid and Abdrabbo, (2018) developed a hybrid expert system for
irrigation management using visual basic programming and access
software for the database design. The expert system requires data of
crop (harvesting date, planting date, crop coefficient (Kc), crop height,
and root depth), climatic data (ETo, ETc), physical properties of the soil
(field capacity, wilting point etc.) and input project data (such as area,
available discharge and irrigation time). The result obtained revealed
that the ISM expert system (ES) out performed other ES by 20% in terms
of water use efficiency for tomato crop. Similar method was also
implemented by Khamkar (2014) for design of expert system for precise
drip irrigation of sugarcane in India. Expert system can be used to
enhance the precision irrigation, by using different knowledge based
input to realise optimal decisions for precision irrigation. However, the
performance of an expert system is based on the accuracy of the
knowledge input and rules design by the expert.
5.2.2.4. Genetic algorithm based irrigation controller. Genetic Algorithm
(GA) is influenced by how living organisms can adapt to the harsh
realities of life in a hostile environment, i.e., by evolution and
inheritance. GA is a stochastic global search technique that mimics
natural evolution. This evolutional algorithm is population-based,
which imitates the process of selection of fittest individuals for
reproduction. It operates with a fixed-size population of feasible
alternatives to problem called individuals, which are changing over
time. Three critical components of genetic algorithm operators are
selection, crossover, and mutation. GA has been utilized in the
optimization of the water system (Sadati et al., 2014), and irrigation
networks (Fernando et al., 2014) and also operational scheduling of
irrigation canal by Mathur et al. (2009). According to Chen et al.
(2011), GA is best suitable for getting a globally optimal solution when
compared to other nonlinear methods of programming.
GA has been successfully used in tuning controllers such as PID and
other optimal controllers. According to Mantri and Kulkarni, (2013),
the parameters of PID controller such as Kp , Ki , and K d are difficult to
tune. However, the controller design parameters were tuned by a ge-
netic algorithm which provides faster response time, better stability,
and robustness than the Zeigler-Nichols (Z-N) classical method and
other tuning methods. An improved GA (IGA) based multilevel para-
meter optimized feature selection algorithm for extreme machine
learning (ELM) classifier (IGA-ELM), which was integrated with an IoT-
based DSS, was proposed by Kale and Sonavane (2019). The compu-
tation complexity of most advance controllers can be adequately
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Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 173 (2020) 105441
managed using the integration of an evolutionary algorithm in the
tuning of an optimal controller, which can enhance the usability of the
controller for irrigation.
5.2.2.5. Particle swarm optimization based irrigation controller. Particle
Swarm Optimization (PSO) is based on the paradigm of swarm
intelligence, and it is motivated by the social behaviour of animals
like fishes and birds. It was developed to describe the social behaviour
of animals and is capable of handling an optimization test. So, a new
optimizer based on the model called Particle Swarm Optimization was
proposed (Wang et al., 2018). PSO is an intelligent evolutionary
algorithm, which belongs to a class of optimization called
metaheuristics. It is also a robust stochastic optimization algorithm
that has been successfully applied in various fields such as agriculture,
science, and engineering.
According to Çam et al. (2015), PSO was developed because of the
challenges of using mathematical models in solving optimization pro-
blems. This advancement led to the development of heuristic optimi-
zation algorithms to drive the events in nature. PSO is an algorithm
based on swarm intelligence. The animals moving like swarm can
readily achieve their goal. Random movements of swarm creatures
make their easy access. Each individual is referred to as particle while
the population is called a swarm. Each particle sets its position to the
best position according to their previous experience.
Moubarak et al. (2018) demonstrated the tuning of PI control of
irrigation pump speed using the PSO algorithm. The performance was
compared with that of the conventional Ziegler-Nichols (ZN) methods,
where the PSO tuned with different performance indices had a better
response, efficiency, reduced overshoot, and robust stability. PSO has
also successfully been used for optimal irrigation scheduling by Liu
et al. (2018), Moubarak et al. (2018), Pawda et al. (2013), Afshar and
Rpour (2007). It also offers the potential of been used for tuning irri-
gation controllers for optimal performances. The tuning of optimal
controllers using PSO could help reduce the computational burden, as it
speeds up the convergence of error to global minima and searches ef-
ficiently under numerous constraints.
5.2.2.6. Hybrid intelligent systems. Hybrid intelligent systems are the
combination of at least two artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms such
as neural networks and fuzzy logic referred to as neuro-fuzzy; others are
GAPSO and fuzzy PID. Çam et al. (2015) proposed a hybrid
optimization approach to Multi-Layer Perceptron using the
combination of an artificial bee colony, GA and PSO to help the
critical parameters of backpropagation algorithm such as learning
rate and momentum coefficient to speed up learning and deviation
ratio from the global minimum and improved the robustness and
stability of the system. Also, Allawi et al. (2018) developed an
artificial intelligence model called Shark Machine Learning Algorithm
(SMLA) to provide optimal operational rules. This algorithm
outperformed GA and PSO when compared.
In Tseng et al. (2018), aerial agricultural images of soil moisture
condition was used to support automatic irrigation; the study proposed
the used of seven different machine learning algorithms to learn local
soil moisture conditions using images of the soil. The simulation result
of the controller shows that water consumption was reduced by 52%
and robust to errors in irrigation level, location, and timing. Related
work was carried out by Wen and Shang (2019), where two machine
learning algorithm (support vector machine and random forest) were
combined to analyse remote sensing data for crop identification. In the
work of Perea et al. (2018), the combination of dynamic Artificial
Neural Networks (ANN) architecture, the Bayesian framework and
Genetic Algorithms (GA) were used for forecasting the short term daily
irrigation water demand when data availability is limited. When com-
pared to previous work, the model developed enhanced the forecast
precision by 3% to 11%.
Similarly, in Ma et al. (2019), the combination of farmer's
E.A. Abioye, et al.
knowledge and the IoT was used for deficit irrigation control. Images of
the soil were captured, and feature extraction was carried out using a
convolutional neural network for soil moisture prediction and further
fed into the fuzzy controller. The combination of the IoT was used to get
information from the field, artificial intelligence and image processing
was used to provide more precise and comprehensive control to en-
hance the irrigation process and hydroponics system, as seen in Mehra
et al. (2018) where the integration of ANN and Bayesian network al-
gorithm with IoT for intelligent interaction and control of hydroponics
system input parameters. Likewise, the combination of AI algorithms,
greenhouse climate, irrigation, and crop growth control challenge em-
barked upon by Hemming et al. (2019), was aimed at combining hor-
ticultural expertise with AI offers a breakthrough in fresh food pro-
duction with limited resources. Integrating a hybrid intelligent
algorithm for control of irrigation can help achieve robust precision
irrigation and can be used to enhance the performance and smartness of
existing irrigation controllers.
5.2.3. Model predictive based irrigation controller
Model Predictive Control (MPC) is a multivariable computer control
algorithm that became popular in the power plants, chemicals, and
petroleum industries (Qin and Badgwell, 2003). It has also been applied
in a wide variety of industrial applications such as pharmaceuticals
(Wong et al., 2018; Lee et al., 2016), wastewater treatment plants
(Rahmat et al., 2011), building (Bosschaerts et al., 2017), food pro-
cessing, automotive, and aerospace (Yakub and Mori, 2013).
According to Ding et al. (2018), although MPC is an industry born
process control method, it is incredibly applicable in agricultural ac-
tivities such as irrigation control, given that it can deal efficiently with
multivariable, nonlinear, and large time-delay systems such as irriga-
tion. MPC has the advantages of dealing with constraints; its capability
of utilizing simple models, closed-loop stability, and its robustness
against parametric uncertainties make it one of the most popular
multivariable control algorithms (Mohamed et al., 2015).
Also, MPC is an industrial control technique employed in decision
support for large scale multivariable problems with multiple constraints
(Ocampo-Martinez, 2010). It requires a heavy computational burden to
optimize the future control inputs and future process responses that are
predicted using a mathematical model and optimized according to a
cost function. In order to obtain a future value of the performance
criterion, this control technique uses a plant model and an optimizer for
calculating plant input. The performance of the system is predicted over
a finite horizon subject to constraints on both the inputs and outputs of
the plant (Lozoya et al., 2014). All systems experience one form of
constraint to another, ranging from physical, environmental to eco-
nomic constraints, which limits the operation of a process. By adopting
advanced process control techniques such as MPC for irrigation control,
excellent performance, better efficiency and optimality can be achieved
when compared to the use of classical control methods (Balbis et al.,
2006).
Because of the robustness of MPC, the concept of shifting the pre-
diction and control horizon based on the next sampling step is always
applied, wherein the prediction horizons define the optimal future
control signal. However, it suffers the challenge of very high compu-
tational complexity due to the fact that it solves online optimization at
every time step, which needs to be addressed. Proper system identifi-
cation of a plant is required to be carried out to identify model para-
meters to help reduce the design effort and computational load of the
predictive model controller (Wahab et al., 2008).
This advanced process control method requires an accurate process
model that tries to summarize and describe the behaviour of the system.
Better satisfactory control performances can be achieved based on the
accuracy of the process model. Perhaps, the most important use of the
system model arises in predictive control applications, in which the
model is used to predict the process output behaviour when facing
changes in set point or inputs. Developing the mathematical model can
14
Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 173 (2020) 105441
be achieved using either the first principle approach when the physics
of the process is understood or by using data-driven or soft computing
approaches such as system identification and other artificial in-
telligence approaches (neural networks, LSTM). An example of the
data-driven modelling approach was carried out by Ławrýnczuk (2013),
who also observed that the development and validation of the first
principle-based model are complicated and proposed a soft computing
approach using a neural network as a better alternative.
MPC provides control actions by repeatedly solving a constrained
optimization problem, with predictions obtained using the model of the
plant. The control action is provided by minimizing a cost function
subject to constraints over a finite prediction horizon. This can be ap-
plied to multi-input, multi-output (MIMO) systems (Bordons, 2003).
Another approach that was adopted by Delgoda et al. (2014) ap-
plied grey box modelling using linear time series data obtained from a
water balance model. The system identification was carried out con-
sidering under saturated circumstances and noise on the soil moisture
readings. The model fits of 84 and 63 percent for the two-field in-
formation set observed and satisfaction in all residual tests while the
model fit above 99% using AQUACROP model data. Furthermore, a
grey box system identification method was also compared with a white
box, otherwise known as the first principle approach used to develop a
model for a model predictive controller used for a multi-zone office
building (Picard et al., 2016).
Another modelling approach in many kinds of literature is by using
the system identification method, which is an essential tool for tech-
nical areas that provides a mathematical and physical representation of
a dynamic system through different models that can be used for con-
troller design, but they require operational data (Mathworks, 2015). In
order to combine the best features of the two approaches, dynamic
modelling based on the combination of system identification and phy-
sical modelling was proposed by (Adeyemi et al., 2018b; Ooi and
Weyer, 2008). This method was also adopted by Adeyemi et al.
(2018a), where system identification was used to develop a data-driven
model for prediction of plant transpiration dynamics. The results ob-
tained stated that a second-order discrete-time transfer function model
adequately explained the dynamics with an average determination
coefficient of ± R 0.93 0.04 with incoming radiation, vapour pressure,
and leaf area index as inputs. While first principle-based models or grey
boxes are desirable, obtaining models that are effective and fit for
purpose may not always be practical, and precision irrigation agri-
culture has often depended on data-driven modelling for system iden-
tification instead.
A research work carried out by Winkler et al. (2016), was able to
overcome the physical constraint of the traditional irrigation system
with the emergence of a sprinkler node capable of sensing the local soil
moisture, communicating it wirelessly, and actuate its sprinkler based
on a centrally computed timetable. The author suggested that future
work may be directed to data-driven system identification, where soil
moisture and weather variables measurements leveraging on the IoT
and knowledge of fluid movement can be used to build the predictive
model over time to address the changing dynamics of the environment.
Although few of researchers have adopted the use of a predictive
model for control as seen in (Delgoda et al., 2016a,b; Lozoya et al.,
2016; Saleem et al., 2013; Puig et al., 2012) for irrigation control as
summarized in Table 4, there is still need for its enhancement to help
achieve water saving, minimize the energy needed for irrigation and to
ensure better yield by developing better predictive models, optimiza-
tion algorithm and by integrating IoT for enhancement of the mon-
itoring and real-time adaptive control. According to Koech and Langat
(2018), real-time optimal based control of the irrigation system is still is
rapidly attracting more research effort for surface irrigation because of
its ability to improve water use efficiency, as illustrated in Fig. 10.
Therefore, MPC has been an optimal based control, which offers a very
promising method for improving water use efficiency, as 40% of the
water consumed by irrigation can be saved using a predictive model
 E.A. Abioye, et al.

Table 4
Application of MPC for irrigation control.
References Method Parameters Considered Modelling Approach Control Objectives Improvement/Limitation

Lozoya et al. (2016) MPC Water flow, soil moisture System Identification The irrigation control aimed at minimizing the effective control Integrated WSN with the controller in an open field
signals (irrigation) while keeping the soil moisture below a certain condition. Parameter estimation was done offline.
threshold and taking into consideration environmental disturbances.
Puig et al. (2012) Non-linear MPC Water flow and pressure First-principles combined irrigation and water supply system, generate flow control Simulation-based, not implemented on a specific plant.
modelling strategies from sources to consumers and for irrigation
Delgoda et al. Robust MPC Soil moisture and irrigation First-principles Irrigation control to minimize both root zone soil moisture deficit Simulation-based and theoretical framework, validated
(2016a,b) amount modelling and irrigation amount with certainty equivalence control and using AQUACROP model
disturbance affine feedback control
Saleem et al. (2013) Linear MPC Soil moisture, Reference State space-based Control framework for real-time irrigation scheduling without Inaccurate simulation model, other weather variables not
evapotranspiration constraints handling. considered in estimating ET. No operational constraints
were considered on the control variable.

15
Mao et al. (2018) Zone MPC Soil Moisture, the volume of water linear parameter Asymmetric zone tracking penalties to reduce irrigation under Simulation-based with a good prediction model. The
for irrigation varying (LPV) model weather uncertainties implementation of the test crop was not carried out.
Javalera et al. (2010) Distributed MPC The trajectory of tank level Model-free Distributed implementation combining learning techniques to Integration of reinforcement learning and computationally
perform the negotiation of variables in a cooperative multi-agent efficient.
environment to provide speed, scalability and computational effort
reduction.
Delgoda et al. (2013) Adaptive Multi Flow, the water level Discrete-time Real-time automatic flood control using multiple models to manage Does not consider nonlinear dynamics
MPC Linear Model river network
Shang et al. (2019) Data Precipitation, soil moisture, Data-Driven To optimize the trajectory of future soil moisture level to minimize It does not incorporate economic and environmental indices
Driven reference evapotranspiration water usage with the prediction of evapotranspiration into control objectives and constraints.
MPC
Dilini Delgoda et al. MPC Soil moisture, weather variables First principle model MPC calculates the irrigation demand of the individual fields PSO Computationally efficient through the use of PSO optimizer
(2014) optimizes the distribution of irrigation volume and timing based on and was useful only for large open field irrigation.
neighbouring fields requirements
Park et al. (2009) RHC Weather data and soil moisture, Predictive model Receding Horizon Control (RHC) to enable successful autonomous Integrated wireless data transfer and genetic algorithm for
salinity control of soil salinization. optimal control
Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 173 (2020) 105441
E.A. Abioye, et al.
Fig. 10. Advances in irrigation Technologies (Koech and Langat, 2018).
when compared with the conventional system or open-loop automatic
irrigation system (Lefkowitz, 2019).
However, not much work has been reported in the tuning of the
model predictive controllers using evolutional algorithms such as GA
and PSO, towards the realization of smart irrigation systems (with op-
timization and real-time control) for improving water use efficiency
(WUE). Future work should focus on adaptive model predictive control
to be able to track the changing dynamics and uncertainties effectively.
Also, due to the computation complexity of predictive and optimization
algorithms, which makes it challenging for its implementation on target
embedded systems, future work should focus on leveraging on in-
dustrial IoT servers for real-time control of the irrigation process.
5.2.4. Adaptive decision support system and other precision irrigation
control method
The characteristics of soil, plant, and weather variables that affect
the cropping system are dynamic and nonlinear; hence, they are time-
varying parameters. In farming, the properties that typically vary
within and between seasons which include crop coefficient, plant
growth, soil properties, and environmental factors. Therefore, those
factors have a direct effect on the timing and irrigation quantity needed
for ideal plant growth (Evans and King, 2012). The heart of an adaptive
decision support system includes the real-time monitoring of the var-
ious parameters using different types of sensors as well as the mod-
ification and adjustment of the adaptive rules in the decision support
system. Adaptive Decision Support System makes use of sensor feed-
back readings of soil, plant, and weather parameters stored on cloud
platforms to regularly re-adjust the scheduling algorithm to maintain
the required irrigation system efficiency.
The adaptive performance of the system is measured on how well
the changing dynamics of the plant in terms of infield temporal and
spatial variability is captured. The adaptability to parameter un-
certainties, spatial variabilities and the environmental disturbances on
irrigation systems have been extensively investigated by using optimal
control with the adaptive feature as well as variable rate water appli-
cation systems proposed by numerous researchers (Pereira et al., 2018;
Raine and Mccarthy, 2014; Smith et al., 2009; Evans and Sadler, 2008).
Also, several works on the adaptive control of machines based on
continuous move systems such as low energy precision application
(LEPA), centre pivot, a linear and lateral move for spatially variable
irrigation has been carried out (Debauche et al., 2018; Peters, 2014;
Smith et al., 2009). Due to their present automation stage and the big
coverage area using a single lateral pipe, these systems are particularly
suited for variable rate implementation (Adeyemi et al., 2017). A
sprinkler controlled with a modulated pulse on a self-moving linear
sprinkler system was applied by Evans et al. (2012b), where wireless
16
Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 173 (2020) 105441
sensor network-based DSS was optimized to adapt changes of crop type,
irrigation pattern, and field location for instructions on individual
sprinkler heads on how much water to apply and where it is needed.
Similarly, Patel et al. (2017) successfully applied a DSS for an on-
farm sensor-based irrigation water management to determine the
timing and volume of irrigation using a border, sprinkler, and drip ir-
rigation systems for wheat, maize, potato, and chili crops. However, the
usage and adoption of the various types of site-specific variable rate
(SS-VRI) precision irrigation technologies have generally been limited
by farmers and researchers. Thus, a potential barrier is that full im-
plementation of advanced SS-VRI generally has the most demanding
requirements and the most complicated and costly control systems of all
precision irrigation technologies (Evans and King, 2012).
Simulation models can be used to simulate crop reactions to irri-
gation and plant management based on the physical modelling of the
crop phenology by first principles (Mccarthy et al., 2014). These si-
mulation models offer the opportunity to enhance precision irrigation
strategies as the need for time-consuming field experiments is elimi-
nated (Cong et al., 2017).
A simulation framework called VARIwise, which was used for pre-
cision irrigation and capable of performing real-time decision support,
was proposed by Mccarthy et al. (2014). The framework was able to
integrate input information from real-time sensors for irrigation adap-
tive decisions. However, simulation models are necessary to assist ir-
rigation decisions making in order to achieve model precision; most
often, the information is limited to a particular plant that the platform
is accessible for that purpose. The limitation in data available for this
endeavour often limits the use of the platforms to specific crops. Si-
milarly, a crop water model newly developed by FAO, called Aqua
Crop, simulates the response of water to crop yield. It was calibrated
using ten years of daily weather data to grow winter wheat and sub-
sequently used to simulate yield under different sowing dates, irrigation
frequencies, and irrigation sequences (Ali and Abustan, 2013). The si-
mulation result shows that under the prevailing climatic and soil con-
ditions, irrigation frequency is the most water-efficient schedule for
wheat. The results further indicate a lower yield trend under late
sowing.
An optimization framework based on simulation for the ideal fer-
tigation schedule was developed by Cong et al. (2017). The problem is
represented in the form of decision tree graphs, and ant colony opti-
mization (ACO) is used as the optimization engine and a process-based
crop growth model to evaluate the objective function. The results show
that ACO was able to identify irrigation and fertilizer schedules that
result in better net returns while using less irrigation water and ferti-
lizer.
Also available in the literature is a crop process-based model called
E.A. Abioye, et al. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 173 (2020) 105441

Table 5
Commercial irrigation system.
Company Product Description References

Baseline Baseline’s Smart Watering Solution Soil moisture sensor for smart irrigation https://baselinesystems.com/
Decagon Device Irrigation Monitoring System, MPS-2 The sensor senses soil water for smart Irrigation https://www.metergroup.com
matric potential sensor
Rain Bird ST8I-Wifi Smart Irrigation indoor Wifi IoT- based controller for scheduling of Irrigation https://www.rainbird.com/
Controller
Toro Automatic Irrigation Remotely control and manage the irrigation system https://www.toro.com/en/irrigation
Water Sense Weather-based Irrigation Controllers Use real-time weather data to adapt irrigation schedules https://www.epa.gov/watersense/
properly irrigation-controllers
Rachio Rachio 3 Smart Sprinkler Controller+ Shared remote access allows irrigation pros to monitor and https://www.rachio.com/rachio-3/
adjust schedules anytime, anywhere.
Edaphic Scientific Environmental Research & Monitoring WSN monitors soil moisture, hydrology, weather, nutrient, EC, https://www.edaphic.com.au/
Equipment water quality.
Morin's ECO Smart Irrigation Systems Use to grow lawns and landscapes for efficient water savings. https://morinslandscaping.com/
Hunter Irrigation Sprinkler Systems Residential and commercial Irrigation system https://www.hunterindustries.com/
Blue Spray Web-Based, Wireless (Wifi) Irrigation Supports weather forecast, user-friendly, automatic delay after. https://www.bluespray.net/
Controller Make use of rain sensor, flow sensor, door sensor
Jains Sprinkler and drip irrigation system Smart irrigation network using sprinkler and drip network. https://www.jains.com/
Irritec Fertigation Automation Automated fertigation for management of pH and EC with radio https://irritec.ie/
system
Huisong Irrigation Center pivot irrigation system Smart farming irrigation machines for water sprinkling https://huisongirrigation.en/
FlyBird Innovations Sensor-based irrigation controller Ensures smart irrigation and fertigation of crops based on https://csrbox.org/
weather, soil parameters sensed.

DSS for Agro-technology Transfer (DSSAT). This software consists of 16
different crop models with software to evaluate and apply the crop
models for various purposes. However, it is increasingly difficult to
maintain the DSSAT crop models, because different sets of computer
code were written for different crops with little attention to software
design at the level of crop models themselves (Jones et al., 2003).
Levidow et al. (2014) suggested that for farmers and researchers to be
able to use a DSS efficiently, it should not be too complicated but user-
friendly, affordable, and informative systems helpful to achieve preci-
sion irrigation.
6. Commercial irrigation system for farmers and researchers
As precision irrigation control is crucial to increase productivity and
ensuring food security, so many companies have developed a smart
watering system that may help achieve high water-saving and precise
irrigation; few are highlighted in Table 5. Most of the products aim to
achieve precision irrigation and reducing the stress involved in manual
irrigation.
However, the high cost of acquiring these state-of-the-art devices
poses a significant challenge to farmers and researchers. Also, most of
these commercial irrigation systems available in the market are custom-
built, therefore, making them difficult to be appropriately tuned and
adaptively controlled.
Furthermore, most of the commercial irrigation systems do not
consider soil, plant, weather parameters conditions in making irrigation
decisions for optimal water saving. Also, the effect of disturbances to
plants such as evapotranspiration, signifying water loss from plants and
the surface of the soil, the changing and nonlinear dynamics of plants
cannot be correctly manage by most of the commercial products.
7. Future research directions
The essence of this review work is to explore the various efforts and
progress that have been made to improve water use efficiency, water-
saving, and above all, to achieve food security using the IoT- based
monitoring and applied control systems. From the review, researchers
and farmers can leverage on recent developmental evolution on the IoT
for real-time monitoring and data collection for data-driven control,
machine, and deep learning for intelligent prediction of agricultural
processes such as yield, water consumption, and weather. Further in-
vestigation is needed on the use of normalized dimension vegetation
index (NDVI), lea area index (LEA) as well as other technical indexes in
deciding and planning irrigation scheduling for large irrigation farm
area. Also, accurate model-based predictions can guide farmers to
prepare for the activities and guide against unusual changes that can
affect agricultural practices.
Furthermore, different control algorithms in the context of irriga-
tion systems have been discussed; researchers should focus on enhan-
cing any of the model-based and adaptive controllers with real time
monitoring for precision irrigation. The integration of evolutional al-
gorithms such as Genetic Algorithm, Ant Colony and Particle Swarm
Optimization for parameters tuning of adaptive irrigation controllers, is
important for the adaptation of nonlinear and changing dynamics of
soil, plant and weather variables while ensuring optimal precision ir-
rigation for enhancement of irrigation technology. In addition, the
development of the digital and complex irrigation technology is really
important to be explored, so that developed technology will provide a
stable, suitable, and affordable system for ordinary farmers in im-
proving the water use efficiency while minimizing water scarcity for
agricultural activities. Though, the various types of monitoring and
advanced control strategies for precision irrigation have been discussed
in this review, and they might not have covered all the approaches in
kinds of literature. Interested readers can refer to the cited references in
the paper, from which more related articles could be accessed.
8. Conclusion
The global awareness on the effect of global warming and climate
change on water scarcity and food security is on the increase, which has
challenged researchers to brace up more efforts developing cutting edge
strategies on real-time monitoring and control for precision agriculture
that can mitigate the effect of this inevitable phenomenon. This review
on the monitoring and control strategies for precision irrigation systems
is based on the previous and relevant research work that has been done
to help achieve water saving in agriculture. This review article has been
able to give a clear picture of research trends in developing advanced
control strategies for precision irrigation and to assess research op-
portunities in studies that can ensure water saving, improve crop yield
and optimize the energy needed for irrigation. It is expected to generate
new ideas and inspire readers on how current monitoring and advance
control approaches can be enhanced towards achieving improved pre-
cision irrigation for food security and help achieve water saving on
forestalling imminent water crises.

17
E.A. Abioye, et al.
Declaration of Competing Interest
There is no conflict of interest in the submission of this manuscript.
The manuscript is approved by all authors for publication.
Acknowledgment
The authors are grateful to the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia and
the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia, for their partial financial
support through their research funds, Vote No. R.J130000.7851.4L710,
R.J130000.7351.4B428 and Q.J130000.2651.17J53.
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2020.105441.
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