07 Fracture PDF

Chapter 7
Fracture
Subjects of interest
• Introduction/ objectives
• Types of fracture in metals
• Theoretical cohesive strength of metals
• The development in theories of brittle fracture
• Fractographic observation in brittle fracture
• Ductile fracture
• Ductile to brittle transition behaviour
• Intergranular fracture
• Factors affecting modes of fracture
• Concept of the fracture curve
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
Objectives
• This chapter provides the development in the

theories of brittle fractures together with mechanisms
of fracture that might occur in metallic materials.
• Factors affecting different types of fracture
processes such as brittle cleavage fracture, ductile
failure or intergranular fracture will be discussed.

Introduction
Failure in structures leads to lost of
properties and sometimes lost of
human lives unfortunately.
Failed fuselage of the Aloha 737

aircraft in 1988.
Failure of Liberty Ships during

services in World War II.
Collapse of Point Pleasant suspension
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol bridge, West Virginia, 1967. May-Aug 2007
Types of fracture in metals
• The concept of material strength and fractures has long been
studied to overcome failures.
• The introduction of malleable irons during the revolution of
material construction led to the perception of brittle and ductile
fractures as well as fatigue failure in metals.
Ductile failure
Failure in metallic materials Ductile fracture involves a large
can be divided into two amount of plastic deformation and
main categories; can be detected beforehand.
Brittle failure
Theories of brittle fracture Brittle fracture is more catastrophic

and has been intensively studied.

Failure modes
Ductile fracture Brittle fracture
• High energy is absorbed by • Low energy is absorbed during

microvoid coalescence during transgranular cleavage fracture
ductile failure (high energy (low energy fracture mode)
fracture mode)
Less catastrophic More catastrophic
Theoretical cohesive strength of
metal
• In the most basic term, strength is due to the cohesive forces
between atoms.
• The attractive and repulsive force acting on the two atoms
lead to cohesive force between two atoms which varies in
relation to the separation between these atoms, see fig.
The theoretical cohesive strength
σmax can be obtained in relation to
Cohesive force, σ
ao σmax the sine curve and become.

12
 Eγ s 
Separation σ max =   ...Eq. 1
between  ao 
atoms, x Where
γs is the surface energy
ao is the unstrained interatomic spacing.
Cohesive force as a function of
the separation between atoms. Note: Convenient estimates of σmax ~ E/10.
Fracture in single crystals
The brittle fracture of single crystals is related to the resolved

normal stress on the cleavage plane.
Sohncke’s law states that fracture occurs
when the resolved normal stress reaches a P
critical value. φ N
τR λ
From the critical resolved shear stress τR for slip A
Normal
stress
P cos λ P
τR = = cos φ cos λ ...Eq. 2 Slip
A / cos φ A Slip A’ plane
direction
The critical normal stress σc for brittle fracture

P cos φ P
σc = = cos 2 φ ...Eq. 3
P
A / cos φ A
Note: shear stress slip

tensile stress crack propagation fracture.
Example: Determine the cohesive strength of a silica fibre,
if E = 95 GPa, γs = 1 J.m-2, and ao = 0.16 nm.
12 12
 Eγ s   95 × 10 9 × 1 
σ max =   =  −9 
 = 24.4 GPa
 ao   0.16 × 10 
• This theoretical cohesive strength is exceptionally higher than

the fracture strength of engineering materials.
• This difference between cohesive and fracture strength is due to
inherent flaws or defects in the materials which lower the
fracture strength in engineering materials.
• Griffith explained the discrepancy between the fracture

strength and theoretical cohesive strength using the concept
of energy balance.

Theories of brittle fracture
Griffith theory of brittle fracture
The first analysis on cleavage fracture was initiated by Griffith

using the concept of energy balance in order to explain
discrepancy between the theoretical cohesive strength and
observed fracture strength of ideally brittle material.
The development in cleavage fracture models
• Modified Griffith theory by Irwin and Orowan.

• Zener’s model of microcrack formation at a pile-up of
edge dislocations.
• Stroh’s model of cleavage crack formation by dislocation
pile-up.
• Cottrell’s model of cleavage crack initiation in BCC metals
• Smith’s model of microcrack formation in grain boundary
carbide film.
Griffith theory of brittle fracture
Observed fracture strength is Griffith explained that the discrepancy
always lower than theoretical is due to the inherent defects in brittle
cohesive strength materials leading to stress
concentration. lower the fracture
Crack propagation criterion: strength of the materials
Consider a through thickness crack of length 2a, σ
subjected to a uniform tensile stress σ, at infinity.

Crack propagation occurs when the released
elastic strain energy is at least equal to the 2a
energy required to generate new crack surface.
• The stress required to  2 Eγ s 

12
create the new crack surface σ =  σ
 π a  ...Eq. 4 Griffith crack model

is given as follows;
• In plane strain condition, 12
 2 Eγ s  The Griffith’s
Eq.4 becomes σ =   equation
 (1 − υ )πa 
2
...Eq. 5
Modified Griffith equation
• The Griffith equation is strongly dependent on the crack size a,

and satisfies only ideally brittle materials like glass.
• However, metals are not ideally brittle and normally fail with
certain amounts of plastic deformation, the fracture stress is
increased due to blunting of the crack tip.
• Irwin and Orowan suggested Griffith’s equation can be

applied to brittle materials undergone plastic deformation
before fracture by including the plastic work, γp, into the total
elastic surface energy required to extend the crack wall, giving
the modified Griffith’s equation as follows
12 12
 2 E (γ s + γ p )   Eγ p 
σf =  ≈   , when γ p >> γ 2 ...Eq. 6
 π (1 − υ 2
) a   (1 − υ )a 
2

Zener’s model of microcrack formation
at a pile-up of edge dislocations
The Griffith theory only indicated the stress required for crack
propagation of an existing crack of length 2a but did not explain
the nucleation of the crack.
Zener and Stroh showed that the crack nucleation of length 2c

occurs when the shear stress τs created by pile-up of n dislocations
of Burgers vector b at a grain boundary reaches the value of
Barrier
 2γ s 
τs ≈τi +   nb
 nb  ...Eq. 7 τs
Where τi is the lattice friction stress L 2c

rc e
in the slip plane. So u
Suranaree University of Technology Dislocation pile-ups at barrier. May-Aug 2007

Stroh’s model of cleavage crack
formation by dislocation pile-up
Stroh included the effect of the grain size d in a model, suggesting
the condition of the shear stress created by dislocation pile-up of
the length d/2 to nucleate a microcrack as follows
Eπγ
Dislocation pile-up
τ eff = τ y − τ i forming micocrack
(
4 1−υ 2 d ) ...Eq. 8 τ−τl
where σθθ
r
τeff is the effective shear stress d/2 σθθ
τy is the yield stress

σθθ
Note: This model indicates that the r
fracture of the material should depend

Stroh’s model of cleavage crack
only on the shear stress acting on the
formation by dislocation pile-up.
slip band.

Cottrell’s model of cleavage crack
initiation in BCC metals
Cottrell later suggested that the fracture process should be controlled
by the critical crack growth stage under the applied tensile stress,
which required higher stress than the crack nucleation itself as
suggested by Stroh.
σ
Cottrell also showed that the crack Applied stress
nucleation stress can be small if the (101) Slip plane

microcrack is initiated by intersecting a
[111]
of two low energy slip planes to 2
(001) Cleavage plane
provide a preferable cleavage plane. b = a[001]

Cleavage knife crack
a of length c for
a [111]
[111] + a [111] → a[001] ...Eq. 9 2 (101) Slip plane
displacement nb
2 2
This results in a wedge cleavage crack on σ

the (001) plane. Further propagation of this a
[111] + a [111] → a[001]
crack is then controlled by the applied 2 2
tensile stress. Cottrell’s model of cleavage crack
Suranaree University of Technology initiation in BCC metals May-Aug 2007
Smith’s model of microcrack formation
in grain boundary carbide film
Models proposed by Stroh and Cottrell Grain boundary carbide film
involve crack initiation by dislocation σ

Ferrite grain
pile-up of length D/2, but exclude the
effect of second phase particles. Ferrite grain
Microcrack
τeff
Smith then proposed a model for cleavage
fracture in mild steel concerning τeff
microcracking of grain boundary carbide by

dislocation pile-up of length equal to half of σ
the grain diameter D/2. D Co
Smith’s model of microcrack formation in

Microcrack is initiated when sufficiently high grain boundary carbide film
applied stress causes local plastic strain ...Eq. 10
within the ferrite grains to nucleate 2
microcrack in brittle grain boundary c   1
 4 C  τi 2  4 Eγ p
σ 2f  o  + τ eff2 1 +  o   ≥
carbide of thickness Co. d   π  d  τ eff  (1 − υ 2 )πd
Note: Further propagation of the GB carbide crack follows the Griffith theory.
Fractographic observation
in brittle fracture
The process of cleavage fracture
consists of three steps:
1) Plastic deformation to produce
dislocation pile-ups.
2) Crack initiation.
3) Crack propagation to failure.
Distinct characteristics of brittle

fracture surfaces:
1) The absence of gross plastic
deformation.
2) Grainy or Faceted texture.
3) River marking or stress lines.
Brittle fracture indicating the origin of the

crack and crack propagation path
Brittle fracture surface
• Cleavage fracture surface is Fatigue pre-crack front
characterised by flat facets (with its size

normally similar to the grain size).
• River lines or the stress lines are steps
between cleavage on parallel planes and
always converge in the direction of local
crack propagation.
Cleavage facet
River marking
or stress lines
ck
C ra h
r owt
g on
Twist boundary c ti
dire
Schematic of river-line pattern.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Brittle cleavage facet May-Aug 2007
Initiation of microcracks from
deformation and twins
• Microcracks can be • Microcracks can also be initiated at
produced by the deformation mechanical twins, especially in large
process, see fig. grained bcc metals at low
temperature.
• Crack initiation sites are due to the
intersections of twins with other twins
or intersection of twins with grain
boundaries.
250 x
Microcracks produced in iron by

tensile deformation at 133 K.
Cleavage along twin-matrix interfaces.

Crack initiation from particles in
cleavage fracture
Crack initiation site
• Inclusions, porosity, second-

phase particles or precipitates are
preferential sites (stress raiser)
for cleavage initiation.
• Fracture occurs along the
crystallographic planes.
• The direction of the river
pattern represents the direction
of the crack propagation.
Example: Crack initiation from carbide particles
observed in β-Ti alloy.
Titanium carbides act as stress raiser which are preferential
site for transgranular cleavage fracture.
Fatigue pre-crack front Fatigue pre-crack front
Group of brittle facets
carbide
High local tensile stresses raised by
dislocation pile-ups ahead of the carbide
cause micro-cracking of carbide, which
further propagate to cause global failure.
Effects of second phase particles on
tensile ductility
• Second-phase particles which are

readily cut by dislocation produce
planar slips, producing large
dislocation pile-ups which are
susceptible for brittle fracture.
• Second-phase particles which are

impenetrable by dislocations,
greatly reduce the slip distance
the number of dislocations is
sustained reduce the pile-up.
• Small spherical particles (r<1 µm) are more resistant to cracking.

• A soft ductile phase can also impart ductility to a brittle matrix.

Ductile fracture
Ductile fracture is a much less serious
problem in engineering materials since
failure can be detected beforehand due
to observable plastic deformation
prior to failure.
• Under uniaxial tensile force, after

necking, microvoids form and
coalesce to form crack, which then Microvoid Crack
Necking
propagate in the direction normal to formation and
coalescence
propagation
the tensile axis.

• The crack then rapidly propagate
through the periphery along the shear
plane at 45o, leaving the cub and
cone fracture.
Propagation along Typical cup and
shear plane cone fracture
Suranaree University of Technology Stages in cup and cone fracture May-Aug 2007
Microvoid formation, growth and
coalescence
• Microoids are easily formed at inclusions,

intermetallic or second-phase particles and
grain boundaries.
• Growth and coalescence of microvoids
progress as the local applied load
increases. Ductile dimples centred on
spherical particles
a) Random planar array b) Growth of voids to join c) Linkage or coalescence

of particles acting as each other as the applied of these voids to form free
void initiators. fracture surface.
stress increases.
Formation of microvoids from second
phase particles
Microvoids are formed by

1) Decohesion at particle-matrix interface.
2) Fracture of brittle particle
3) Decohesion of an interface associated
with shear deformation or grain
boundary sliding. Mechanisms of microvoid formation
Fractured carbide
Decohesion of carbide particles Fractured carbides aiding

from Ti matrix. microvoid formation.
Microvoid shape
Microvoid shape is strongly influenced by the type of loading.
Uniaxial
tensile Uniaxial tensile loading
loading Equiaxed dimples.
Shear loading
Elongated and parabolic dimples
Shear
pointing in the opposite directions
on matching fracture surfaces.
Tensile
tearing Tensile tearing
Elongated dimples pointing in the
same direction on matching fracture
surface.
Formation of microvoids or dimples owing to
uniaxial tensile loading, shear and tensile tearing
Ductile to brittle transition behaviour
BCC structure metals experience ductile-to-brittle transition
behaviour when subjected to decreasing temperature, resulting
from a strong yield stress dependent on temperature.
MACROSCOPIC (MICROSCOPIC) LEVEL OF OBSERVATION
• BCC metals possess limited DUCTILE INITIATION (MICROVOID UPPER SHELF
slip systems available at low COALESCENCE)
E DYNAMIC
DUCTIL
temperature, minimising the BRITTLE
(CLEAVAGE)
INCREASING SIZE OF
FIBROUS THUMNAIL
INITIATION
plastic deformation during the SLOW
fracture process.
DE
TOUGHNESS
SLOW
MO
LOADING
D
XE
MI
DYNAMIC
• Increasing temperature LOADING
E
BRITTL
allows more slip systems to INCREASING
SHEAR FULL SHEAR PROPAGATION
BRITTLE (CLEAVAGE) (CLEAVAGE OR (MICROVOID COALESCENCE)
operate, yielding general PROPAGATION MICROVOID
COALESCENCE)
LOWER SHELF
plastic deformation to occur
prior to failure. TEMPERATURE
Low temperature Brittle cleavage fracture
High temperature Ductile fracture

Theory of the ductile to brittle transition
The criterion for a material to change its fracture behaviour from
ductile to brittle mode is when the yield stress at the observed
temperature is larger than the stress necessary for the growth
of the microcrack indicated in the Griffith theory.
Cottrell studied the role of parameters, which influence the ductile-

to-brittle transition as follows;
The criterion for ductile to brittle
...Eq. 11
transition is when the term on
( )
τ i D 1 2 + k ' k ' = Gγ s β the left hand side is greater than
the right hand side.
where
τi is the lattice resistance to dislocation movement
k’ is a parameter related to the release of dislocation into a pile-up
D is the grain diameter (associated with slip length).
G is the shear modulus
β is a constant depending on the stress system.
Factors affecting ductile to brittle
transition
From equation, materials having high
lattice resistance τi ,grain size D and
(τ D
i
12
)
+ k ' k ' = Gγ s β
k’ has a high tendency to become
brittle with decreasing temperature.
• The τi in BCC material is strongly

dependent on temperature.
• Materials with high k’ i.e., Fe and Mo
are more susceptible for brittle fracture.
• Smaller grain sized metals can
withstand brittle behaviour better.
Note: Alloy chemistry and microstructure also
affect the ductile to brittle transition behaviour.
Effect of grain size on the yield and
In mild steel Ni lowers DBTT fracture stresses for a low-carbon
C, P, N, S, Mo raise DBTT steel tested in tension at -196oC.

Intergranular fracture
• Intergranular failure is
Intergranular fracture
a moderate to low energy with microvoid
coalescence
brittle fracture mode resulting
from grain boundary
separation or segregation of
embrittling particles or
precipitates.
• Embrittling grain
boundary particles are Intergranular fracture
without microvoid
weakly bonded with the coalescence
matrix, high free energy

and unstable, which leads to
preferential crack
propagation path.
Intergranular fracture with and without

microvoid coalescence.
Factors affecting modes of fracture
Brittle fracture Ductile fracture
Large grained materials Fine grained material

Metallurgical aspect
with GB particles. without GB particles.
Temperature Low temperature High temperature
State of stresses Triaxial state of Absence of the notch

stresses (notch effect)
(notch effect)
Strain rate High strain rate Low strain rate
Loading condition Hydrostatic pressure

(suppress crack initiation)

Metallurgical aspect of fracture
• Microstructure in metallic materials are highly complex.
• Various microstructural features affect how the materials fracture.
There are microstructural

features that can play a role in
determining the fracture path,
the most important are;
Second phase
Particles and precipitates

Microstructural features in metallic materials
Grain size
• High strength materials usually possess
several microstructural features in order to
optimise mechanical properties by Fibering and texturing
influencing deformation behaviour /
fracture paths.
State of stresses (notch effect)
The difference in the state of stresses in the presence of a
sharp crack or notch affects fracture in materials.
A notch or a sharp crack increases the tendency

for brittle fracture in four important ways;
1) Producing high local stresses

2) Introducing a triaxial state of stresses
3) Producing high local strain hardening and cracking
4) Producing a local magnification to the strain rate.
Note: the notch also raises the plastic-constraint factor q,

which does not exceed the value of 2.75

notch effect
The presence of the notch alters stress distribution
• In a thin plate, stress in the z

(thickness) direction is absence,
the specimen is not constrained.
• In thicker plate, σy (in the

tensile direction) is constrained
due to the reaction of σz and
σx, leading to triaxial state of
stresses.
• Triaxial stresses limit plastic
deformation ahead of the crack
tip raising the general yield
material prone to brittle
fracture
Elastic stresses beneath a notch in thin
and thick plates
Effects of combined stress and
hydrostatic pressure on fracture
Combined stress Hydrostatic pressure
• Yielding under complex states of • hydrostatic pressure is triaxial

stress is difficult to predict. compressive stress resist fracture
• Available data on ductile metals, and increase ductility.
i.e., Al and Mg alloys and steel • Hydrostatic pressure exerts no
indicate that the maximum-shear shear stress, it therefore does not
stress criterion for fracture are in influence crack initiation but
the best agreement. affects crack propagation.
Proposed fracture criteria for biaxial Effect of hydrostatic pressure on

state of stress in ductile metal ductility in tension
Concept of the fracture curve
Ludwik proposed that a metal has a fracture stress curve
in addition to a flow curve (true stress - true strain curve)
and that fracture occurs when the flow curve intersects
the fracture curve.
• The plastic deformation is
inhibited when strain hardening, e curve
Fractur
triaxial stress, or high strain rate,
e
causing sufficiently high stress to rv
True stress σ
Fracture strain
cu
w
break the material. Flo
• Fracture stress is difficult to

measure since most metals exhibit
small plastic deformation prior to
failure even in the presence of the True strain ε
notch and at very low temperature. Intersection of flow curve and
fracture curve.

Notch effect on transition temperature
The fracture stress σf is much less temperature sensitive
than the flow stress σo.
• The σo of the unnotched specimen

is lower than σf at temperatures
above the transition temperature.
qσ o
• The metal therefore deforms Cleavage
Strength
strength
plastically before fracture. Below the σf
transition temperature σo > σf, metal
fails without plastic deformation. σo
• The presence of the notch
raises the σo by the plastic- Transition temperature
in simple tension
Notch transition
temperature
constraint factor q. This shifts Temperature
the transition temperature to the
right hand side. Description of transition temperature

References
• Dieter, G.E., Mechanical metallurgy, 1988, SI metric edition,

McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-100406-8.
• Sanford, R.J., Principles of fracture mechanics, 2003, Prentice
Hall, ISBN 0-13-192992-1.
• W.D. Callister, Fundamental of materials science and
engineering/ an interactive e. text., 2001, John Willey & Sons, Inc.,
New York, ISBN 0-471-39551-x.
• Hull, D., Bacon, D.J., Introduction to dislocations, 2001, Forth
edition, Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN 0-7506-4681-0.
• Smallman, R.E., Bishop, R.J., Modern physical metallurgy &
materials engineering, 1999, sixth edition, Butterworth-Heinemann,
ISBN 0-7506-4564-4.

References
• Cottrell, A.H., Theory of brittle fracture in steel and similar metals,
1958, Transactions of the metallurgical society of AIME, Vol. 212,
p. 192-203.
• Stroh, A.N., Advanced Physics, 1957. Vol 6: p. 418

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Chapter 7

• This chapter provides the development in the

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Failed fuselage of the Aloha 737

Failure of Liberty Ships during

Theories of brittle fracture Brittle fracture is more catastrophic

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Ductile fracture Brittle fracture

• High energy is absorbed by • Low energy is absorbed during

ao σmax the sine curve and become.

The brittle fracture of single crystals is related to the resolved

The critical normal stress σc for brittle fracture

Note: shear stress slip

• This theoretical cohesive strength is exceptionally higher than

• Griffith explained the discrepancy between the fracture

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

The first analysis on cleavage fracture was initiated by Griffith

The development in cleavage fracture models

• Modified Griffith theory by Irwin and Orowan.

Consider a through thickness crack of length 2a, σ

subjected to a uniform tensile stress σ, at infinity.

• The stress required to  2 Eγ s 

create the new crack surface σ =  σ

 π a  ...Eq. 4 Griffith crack model

• The Griffith equation is strongly dependent on the crack size a,

• Irwin and Orowan suggested Griffith’s equation can be

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Zener and Stroh showed that the crack nucleation of length 2c

Where τi is the lattice friction stress L 2c

Suranaree University of Technology Dislocation pile-ups at barrier. May-Aug 2007

τy is the yield stress

Note: This model indicates that the r

fracture of the material should depend

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Cottrell also showed that the crack Applied stress

nucleation stress can be small if the (101) Slip plane

provide a preferable cleavage plane. b = a[001]

This results in a wedge cleavage crack on σ

involve crack initiation by dislocation σ

microcracking of grain boundary carbide by

Smith’s model of microcrack formation in

Distinct characteristics of brittle

Brittle fracture indicating the origin of the

• Cleavage fracture surface is Fatigue pre-crack front

characterised by flat facets (with its size

Schematic of river-line pattern.

Microcracks produced in iron by

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Crack initiation site

• Inclusions, porosity, second-

Group of brittle facets

• Second-phase particles which are

• Second-phase particles which are

• Small spherical particles (r<1 µm) are more resistant to cracking.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

• Under uniaxial tensile force, after

the tensile axis.

• Microoids are easily formed at inclusions,

a) Random planar array b) Growth of voids to join c) Linkage or coalescence

Microvoids are formed by

Decohesion of carbide particles Fractured carbides aiding

Microvoid shape is strongly influenced by the type of loading.

• BCC metals possess limited DUCTILE INITIATION (MICROVOID UPPER SHELF