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Statistical Method for Assessing the Uniaxial Compressive Strength of

Carbonate Rock by Schmidt Hammer Tests Performed on Core Samples

Article  in  Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering · January 2012

DOI: 10.1007/s00603-012-0230-5

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Rock Mech Rock Eng (2013) 46:199–206
DOI 10.1007/s00603-012-0230-5
TECHNICAL NOTE
Statistical Method for Assessing the Uniaxial Compressive
Strength of Carbonate Rock by Schmidt Hammer Tests
Performed on Core Samples
G. Bruno • G. Vessia • L. Bobbo
Received: 5 September 2011 / Accepted: 12 February 2012 / Published online: 6 March 2012
Ó Springer-Verlag 2012
Keywords Percentile method  Sedimentary carbonate
rocks  Schmidt hammer rebound RL–rc relationship
1 Introduction
Extensive efforts have been devoted to derive rock
mechanical properties from the Schmidt hammer rebound
index (R) performed on core samples. From R measure-
ments, the uniaxial compressive strength of rock (rc) can
be calculated by means of several mathematical expres-
sions, as reported in Table 1.
In this respect, R can be considered as a rapid and cheap
indirect measure of compressive strength, but it often
shows a large scatter due to the uncertainties pertaining the
testing technique, the inherent variability of rock proper-
ties, and the transformation model from R to rc.
In this paper, the authors propose a new empirical
relationship between rc and R measurements, based on
the statistical percentile method applied to sedimentary
G. Bruno
Department of Water Engineering and Chemistry,
Technical University of Bari, Bari, Italy
e-mail: giovanni.bruno@poliba.it
G. Vessia (&)
Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Ricerca per
la Protezione Idrogeologica, Via Amendola 122,
70126 Bari, Italy
e-mail: g.vessia@ba.irpi.cnr.it
L. Bobbo
Freelance Civil Engineer, Bari, Italy
e-mail: ing.luigi.bobbo@gmail.com
carbonate rocks whose uniaxial resistance falls within the
range of feasibility of the Schmidt hammer test.
2 Physical Criterion for Dataset Validation
The R measurements can be performed using two types of
Schmidt’s hammer: the L and N types. They are charac-
terized by impact energies of 0.735 and 2.207 Nm,
respectively. The literature provides equations to transform
RN into RL measures, and some of them are summarized in
Table 2 (Ayday and Göktan 1992).
According to Aydin (2008), the Schmidt hammer test
should not be used for very weak or extremely strong rock
materials, which means that the optimal rc range should
fall between 20 and 150 MPa.
As far as the sedimentary carbonate rocks are con-
cerned, 97 pairs of RL (L-type) or RN (N-type) and rc
measurements have been collected from various authors’
unpublished data and published studies (Deere and Miller
1966; Katz et al. 2000; Kahraman 2001; Kahraman et al.
2003; Yaşar and Erdoğan 2004a, b; Güney et al. 2005;
Fener et al. 2005; Karakus et al. 2005; Shalabi et al.
2007; Kiliç and Teymen 2008; Yagiz 2009). Table 3
shows the rc dataset values: they vary between 10.54 and
244.76 MPa. According to the rock classification by the
Geological Society of London, Engineering Group
Working Party (1970) based on uniaxial compressive
strength, 98% of the considered datasets fall between
moderately weak to very strong rock classes (Fig. 1).
Such evidence is in good agreement with the afore-
mentioned recommendations of Aydin (2008) on the
validity of the Schmidt hammer test. Hence, 95 out of 97
values of rc falling between 5 and 200 MPa will be used
hereafter.
123
200 G. Bruno et al.

Table 1 Relationships between

Author Formula r
rebound index R and
compressive strength of O’Rourke (1989) rc = 702 9 R - 1104 0.77
carbonate rocks rc and
corresponding correlation Sachpazis (1990) rc = 4.2937 9 R - 67.515 0.91
coefficient r Cargill and Shakoor (1990) rc = 1.8 9 10-2 9 cd ? 2.9 0.98
Yılmaz and Sendır (2002) rc = e[0.059 9 R ? 0.818]
0.98
Yaşar and Erdoğan (2004a, b) rc = 4 9 10-6 9 R4.2917
N 0.89
Shalabi et al. (2007) rc = 3.201 9 RL - 46.59 0.76

Table 2 Relationships between

RN and RL indexes (after Ayday
and Göktan 1992)
Relationship between RL and RN r2
1 RL = 1.180 ? 0.717 9 RN 0.842
2 RL = 1.003 ? 0.769 9 RN 0.879
3 RL = 0.605 ? 0.677 9 RN 0.882

Table 3 Ninety-seven RL–rc pairs of measurements referring to sedimentary carbonate rock: 95 pairs fall in the rc range of 5–200 MPa; two
pairs fall outside the selected range
Within the range 5–200 MPa Outside the range 5–200 MPa
RL rc (MPa) RL rc (MPa) RL rc (MPa) RL rc (MPa) RL rc (MPa)

15.00 10.54 39.87 42.10 27.00 62.40 40.00 90.32 44.00 214.43
20.58 11.50 32.00 43.30 43.00 63.90 43.80 92.00 51.00 244.76
17.00 11.59 26.00 43.44 42.58 66.60 56.60 92.60
16.00 11.75 26.00 44.40 42.00 67.80 36.00 93.10
29.04 15.70 39.87 45.10 40.55 68.00 37.84 96.30
25.00 19.90 36.49 45.20 40.55 68.00 45.00 96.60
24.98 20.10 48.83 46.32 34.46 68.40 47.00 97.91
24.98 20.10 26.00 46.70 26.33 70.50 45.00 109.90
25.00 21.40 35.00 49.10 39.00 71.42 60.00 110.24
29.00 21.60 35.13 49.90 32.00 72.60 37.84 111.00
24.00 21.90 33.60 50.33 39.00 73.40 40.55 112.00
29.00 21.90 31.00 51.02 39.00 73.77 35.81 122.00
19.00 24.18 42.20 51.20 35.00 76.00 41.90 123.80
28.70 32.00 37.84 51.30 39.87 76.10 41.90 123.80
32.53 32.00 37.84 51.30 42.58 77.50 41.43 126.10
40.00 32.20 38.00 52.30 36.00 81.40 41.23 127.00
25.00 32.40 43.00 52.40 44.74 82.00 56.90 131.91
26.00 32.90 39.70 52.49 53.25 82.12 57.50 138.21
32.42 36.10 36.00 54.20 33.00 84.30 48.00 149.20
23.00 36.20 25.00 55.40 46.64 85.20 48.00 149.20
37.00 39.40 43.00 57.60 33.00 86.40 46.00 151.68
38.52 39.50 40.00 59.60 39.00 86.94 38.52 160.00
33.00 40.60 23.62 61.50 37.00 88.70 41.23 163.00
35.00 41.90 34.86 62.00 51.55 89.17

Furthermore, for homogeneity reasons, RN measures values lower than 100 MPa. This means that RL measure-
have been converted into RL values provided that, as shown ments are more suitable for such a range of values (Aydin
in Fig. 1, the rc measurements are mostly populated with 2008).

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Statistical Method for Assessing the Uniaxial Compressive Strength of Carbonate Rock
Fig. 1 Scatter plot from a dataset of 97 pairs of RL–rc values, classified according the strength classes of the Geological Society of London,
Engineering Group Working Party (1970)
As the RN transformation is concerned, Eq. 3 in Table 2
has been used due to its highest squared correlation coef-
ficient. Thus, only RL values both measured and calculated
have been reported in Fig. 1 and Table 3. In the case
studied, 97 RL values range between 15 and 60. Such a
range of values fall within the most common working
range (10–100) for the Schmidt hammer test, according to
the user guides.
Therefore, in order to use the selected 95 rc values, 95
corresponding RL values have been chosen (Table 3).
3 Statistical Procedure to Seek the rc–RL Relationship
The indirect estimation of rc from R measurements is a
common practice performed by means of several empirical
relationships. Nonetheless, some pitfalls shall be high-
lighted in order to improve the current procedure:
1. The physical range of applicability of the Schmidt
hammer test is often neglected;
2. The coefficients of correlation r of the suggested
equations are sometimes not provided or, at other
times, too low to consistently interpret the dataset
scatter: Table 1 shows some equations with their
r-values. According to a common practice, equations
with r-values higher than 0.7 shall be used;
3. Despite of statistical approach used for choosing the
best regression equation between rc and R, no
statistical tools are commonly used for testing the
presence of outliers within R and rc measurement
201
datasets used for calibrating and deriving the above-
mentioned empirical equations.
Accordingly, in order to avoid the previously listed
pitfalls, 95 pairs of RL and rc values (Table 3) have been
selected for this study according to the physical rule
illustrated in the preceding paragraph. Furthermore, a four-
step statistical procedure has been proposed to derive the
regression equation:
1. To verify the presence of outliers in the two datasets
(RL and rc values taken separately) by means of the
EDA technique;
2. To calculate the frequency histogram and the sample
cumulative function of the RL and rc datasets;
3. To generate a new sample dataset of percentile values
from each sample’s cumulative function;
4. To seek the best dependency law between rc and RL
percentile sample datasets by means of statistical tests.
The first step here, namely, the research of the outliers,
has been performed by means of the box and whisker plot
method (Tukey 1977). In the present case, no outliers have
been found within the RL dataset, whereas one outlier is
sought in the rc dataset (Fig. 2c, d). Thus, the pair
rc = 163 MPa and RL = 41.23 shall be eliminated on
statistical bases, provided that the anomalous values (such
as the outliers) heavily influence the sample statistics and
distributions. The box and whisker method does not pro-
vide a criterion for deciding whether or not the outlier shall
be eliminated because it does not recognize the source of
the anomaly. Thus, the sample probability distribution for
123
202 G. Bruno et al.

Fig. 2 Frequency histograms: a rc and b RL and box plot tests: c rc and d RL applied to the 95 pairs of selected values

RL has been estimated both considering and not consider- chosen comparing different formulations from the litera-
ing the anomalous value by means of Statgraphics Centu- ture reported in Table 4 and according to Benjamin and
rion XV (StatPoint Technologies, Inc. 2006). Here, the Cornell’s formulation (1970) k is taken equal to 8.
Chi-square test has been performed in order to choose the For the purpose of the present study, no assumption on
best sample probability distribution out of the following: the sample probability distribution is either needed or used
Normal, LogNormal, Weibull, and Gamma. because the percentile values have been used. Such values
These probability distributions, from a preliminary test are part of the measurement sample and they can be drawn
of fitting, resulted in providing the best correlation coeffi- from both the cumulative distribution and the probability
cients for the considered samples. density function. In this study, the cumulative distribution
For the Chi-square test, the probability value to reject function has been used and 21 percentile values have been
the null hypothesis was taken equal to 5%, that is, when the chosen out of the 95 data samples, at 5% probability
p-value is higher than 0.05, it means that the sample fol- increments, as shown in Table 5.
lows that distribution model. Hence, for the 95 rc values At the fourth step, the best regression model has been
dataset (where the outlier is considered), the best model is drawn from rc to RL pairs of percentile values by means
the Weibull distribution (p = 0.65). The same result of the statistical software Statgraphics Centurion XV
is obtained when the outlier is discarded. Such an outcome
is reported in Fig. 2a. Thus, in this case, the anomalous
value is not eliminated. The same test has been performed Table 5 RL and rc measured values from the dataset in Table 3,
for the 95 RL values dataset and is plotted in Fig. 2b. For corresponding to different percentile values
RL, the Normal distribution is the best fitting probability Percentile rc RL Percentile rc RL
model. After that, the frequency histograms for RL and rc value (%) (MPa) value (%) (MPa)
values were drawn in Fig. 2a, b. 0 10.54 15.00 55 67.94 38.52
Then, the sample cumulative functions for both RL and 5 18.64 22.27 60 71.89 39.28
rc datasets were calculated by adding the values belonging
10 21.72 24.99 65 76.24 40.00
to each histogram bin. The number of bins k has been
15 32.02 26.00 70 83.86 40.55
20 36.18 26.87 75 88.94 41.90
Table 4 Formulas for calculating the size of bins in histograms 25 42.00 30.02 80 93.74 42.66
Sturges (1926) 1 ? log2(n) 30 45.12 32.62 85 110.21 44.65
Freedman and Diaconis (1981) r 9 n1/3/2 IQR 35 49.82 34.37 90 123.80 46.86
Benjamin and Cornell (1970) 1 ? 3.3log(n) 40 51.30 35.08 95 141.51 52.06
Larson (1975) 1 ? 2.2log(n) 45 54.56 36.15 100 163.00 60.00
-1/3 50 62.00 37.84
Scott (1979) 3.49 9 r 9 n

123
Statistical Method for Assessing the Uniaxial Compressive Strength of Carbonate Rock
(StatPoint Technologies, Inc. 2006). The resulting best
regression model is the multiplicative model:
rc ¼ expð4:04 þ 2:28  lnðRL ÞÞ ð1Þ
with the correlation coefficient r2 equal to 97.52% (Fig. 3a).
Finally, the Durbin–Watson test has been performed on the
residuals from Eq. 1 to verify that they are not correlated; this
means that Eq. 1 correctly interprets the mean trend of the
considered pairs. The Durbin–Watson statistic, in this case, is
equal to 1.12 (p = 0.0079), which means that a correlation
among residuals does not exist at a probability level of 95%.
Thus, Eq. 1 is a good trend model for the dataset.
The statistical analysis carried out in steps 1–4 does not
imply any assumption on the probability distribution of the
datasets. This means that such a procedure needs a large
database of measurements of RL and rc to be calibrated. The
advantages of the proposed method are shown and discussed
in the following section, where the proposed Eq. 1 has been
compared with other expressions derived from regression
analyses on rc and R pairs suggested in the literature.
4 Discussion
In the preceding section, 95 measurements out of 97 have
been considered to derive rc–RL correlations based on a
physical criterion (5 \ rc \ 200 MPa) and the use of sta-
tistical tools (box and whisker plots and percentile
method). Whether or not the 95 pairs of rc–RL values
(Table 3) are used to estimate the best regression model,
Fig. 3 Regression models based on the 95 measurements dataset:
a Eq. 1 from the percentile method; b Eq. 2 from the direct method
203
for this case of sedimentary carbonate rock, the following
double reciprocal equation arises (Fig. 3b):
1
rc ¼ ð2Þ
0:022 þ 1:41=RL
with correlation coefficient value r2 equal to 69.09%. The
Durbin–Watson statistic in this case is equal to 1.47
(p = 0.0074), which means that a correlation among
residuals does not exist at a probability level of 95%.
Equations 1 and 2 are plotted in Fig. 4 for comparison
purpose:
– Eq. 1 is drawn from the percentile statistical approach
applied to the 95 selected RL and rc pairs of values,
whose rc values fall within the range 5–200 MPa;
– Eq. 2 is the best regression curve based on the original
95 pairs of RL and rc values.
Equation 1 shows a flatter trend than Eq. 2, as can be
seen from Fig. 4. Moreover, Eq. 2 seems to be more
influenced by the higher values compared to Eq. 1. As a
matter of fact, for RL [ 45, Eq. 2 overestimates rc values
with respect to Eq. 1, whereas for lower RL values, the two
equations provide similar rc estimates. Thus, Eq. 1 seems
to be influenced by the central values with respect to the
extreme values. This is good behavior, provided that the
extreme values, corresponding to high and low RL values,
are commonly less numerous and more scattered.
Furthermore, Fig. 5 shows a comparison among Eq. 1 in
this paper and some equations from the literature based on
sedimentary carbonate rock datasets. As can be seen, Eq. 1
from the present study shows a mean trend within the rc
range considered. Such behavior can be due to the large
range of RL values covered by the present study’s dataset,
although the percentile method seems to contribute to the
meaningfulness of the proposed correlation.
Such outcome suggests to use Eq. 1 whenever rc values
ranging from moderately weak to very strong rock shall be
estimated from the Schmidt hammer test, especially for
sedimentary carbonate rock (Fig. 1). Thus, the statistical
procedure based on the relationship among percentile val-
ues can be considered as a powerful and rational tool for
reducing the influence of the original scatter of rc–RL
measurement datasets on the regression equation. The
robustness of the procedure can be improved by enlarging
the size of the dataset used.
5 The Case Study of Bari Limestone
The proposed model, Eq. 1, has been applied to predict rc
values for the Mesozoic detritic and dolomitic limestone of
the Apulia Formation called ‘‘Limestone of Bari’’. It is
123
204 G. Bruno et al.

Fig. 4 Comparison between the

different rc–RL relationships
based on the 95 measurements
dataset of sedimentary
carbonate rocks: Eqs. 1 and 2

Fig. 5 Comparison between

Eq. 1 and different R–rc
relationships from the literature

Table 6 RN measures from the

Sample no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
case study
RN 35 38 40 42 42 42 43 44 44 44 44 45 45
Sample no. 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
RN 45 45 46 46 48 48 48 48 50 50 50 50 50
Sample no. 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37
RN 50 50 50 51 52 52 52 52 52 54 54

quite a variable formation depending on the degree of commonly fall within the range 25–90 MPa (Camusso
alteration, the number of fractures, and the Karstic degree; et al. 2005; PROGER 2006; Piano Particolareggiato di
for such sedimentary carbonate rock, the rc values Zona C3—Comune di Giovinazzo 2007).

123
Statistical Method for Assessing the Uniaxial Compressive Strength of Carbonate Rock
Table 7 Results from the case study: line 1 shows RN measurements from Bari limestone; line 2 shows RL values calculated from RN measures
by Ayday and Göktan’s relationship (Eq. 3 in Table 2); line 3 shows rc calculated values by means of Eq. 1
Sample no. 1 2 3 4–6 7 8–11
RN 35 38 40 42 43 44
RL 24.30 26.33 27.69 29.04 29.72 30.39
rc (MPa) 26.21 31.50 35.35 39.42 41.57 43.74
Thirty-seven RN measurements (Table 6) have been
performed on core samples of 101 mm in diameter and
according to International Society for Rock Mechanics
(ISRM) recommendations (Aydin 2008); that is, each RN
value has been drawn by averaging 20 rebound values.
Then, RL values (Table 7) were derived from RN mea-
surements according to Eq. 3 in Table 2. For each RL
value, rc has been calculated by means of Eq. 1. These
values are reported in Table 7. As can be seen, the calcu-
lated rc values vary from 26 to 70 MPa, in accordance to
the range reported by the literature for such limestone.
Again, the present case study provides a suggestion for
using Eq. 1 for sedimentary carbonate rocks whose rc
values range from weak to very strong (Fig. 1).
6 Conclusion
In the present study, a new rc–RL equation has been proposed
according to a four-step procedure, which is statistically
based. It has been tested on carbonate sedimentary rocks (Bari
Limestone). The prominent outcomes are summarized below:
1. The percentile method does not need any hypothesis on
the theoretical probability distribution of RL and rc
samples because it uses the sample cumulative function;
2. The relationship sought by means of the percentile
method shows a mean trend among the relationships
drawn from the literature;
3. The physical rule for preliminarily reducing the
extreme values of rc–RL measurements avoid the lack
of precision in the Schmidt hammer test.
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