Resources, Conservation & Recycling 132 (2018) 121–129

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Resources, Conservation & Recycling

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Full length article

Characteristics of plastic bags and their potential environmental hazards T

a,b,⁎ c a,b
Ohidul Alam , Mukaddis Billah , Ding Yajie
a
UNEP_Tongji Institute of Environment for Sustainable Development (IESD), Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR China
b
State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR China
c
School of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The main environmental and health concerns for plastic bag (PB) consumption are the release of heavy metal
Characteristic (HM) and chlorine (Cl) during its service life and disposal. The objective of the investigation was to characterize
Decomposition different PBs made of commonly used polymers and colors. The elemental compositions, heating values and total
LCV metal contents of the samples were measured by an elemental analyzer, a sulphur/halogen analyzer, a bomb
HM
calorimeter, and an ICP–OES, respectively; leaching behaviours of metals by stimulants (distilled water, HCl,
Leaching
acetic acid) and temperature (cooling, sunlight, heating); and thermal decomposition rate by treating in tube
Plastic bag
furnace at different temperatures with air flow. Results demonstrated that PVC bags contain 40%–56% of Cl
while others 70%–90% of C followed by H and insignificant quantity of N and S. All samples showed the lowest
moisture content (˂1%) and higher LCV (18–47 MJ/kg). 5 out of 33 PB samples exhibited Cr and Cd contents
exceeded standards (ASTM F963); i.e., Cr in black HDPE (63 mg/kg), multi–color LDPE (78 mg/kg) and black
LDPE (67 mg/kg), while Cd in purple PVC (334 mg/kg) and black PVC (135 mg/kg). A noteworthy quantity of
Pb, Cr and Cd leaching was noticed in all samples where HCl and heating treatment demonstrated the highest
amount of metals leaching, and most of the samples crossed EPA standards. Furthermore, different polymers
exhibited different mass reduction ratios (85%–99%) during thermal treatment at 850 °C and 950 °C.

1. Introduction used as reinforcing constituent for concretes (Bhogayata and Arora,

Plastic is used everywhere in modern times, for instance, household,
industry, institution, construction and vehicle etc., and has replaced
many conventional materials and products (Greenfeet, 2004;
PlasticsEurope, 2013). The global plastics production has increased
annually and a significant part of it is used for packaging (in Europe
39%) (Luijsterburg and Goossens, 2014). A large quantity of plastics is
discarded daily and a part of them are recycled due to the high market
value and demand (Thompson et al., 2009; Velis, 2014). Both informal
sectors and households together recovered 6.5–8.5 million tons/year of
plastic in India. Thus, about 50%–80% of the produced plastics are
recycled in India (Nandy et al., 2015). However, plastic bag waste
(PBW), plastic packaging waste (PPW) and metalized plastic waste
(MPW) are relatively unfit for effective recycling and contributes to the
littering and expanding dumping or landfill areas (Bhogayata and
Arora, 2017; Luijsterburg and Goossens, 2014; Williamson, 2003).
Disposal of such wastes in landfills leads to remain locked valuable
resources; consequently new materials and energy are required for
plastics production along with introducing more hazardous wastes into
environment (Mutha et al., 2006). Amongst, the MPW fibers can be
2017).
In recent decades, plastic bag (PB) has emerged as one of the most
effective products worldwide. It has gained increasing popularity
amongst consumers and retailers due to being functional, lightweight,
strong, cheap, and a hygienic way of transporting (Smith, 2004; UNEP,
2005). It has become a common form of packaging for goods, foods,
medicines and chemicals now. Therefore, globally PBs production is
increasing extremely day to day (Ayalon et al., 2009; Bahri, 2005).
Likewise, a large amount of different types of packaging materials are
consumed worldwide and discarded. For example, the total amount of
PPW surged from 0.2–1.5 million metric tons between 2015 and 2017
in China (Song et al., 2018). Shanghai (Reuters) (2017) estimated that
the postal and courier businesses consumed around 331 million
packages in a single day and left 0.16 million tons of PPW.
There are two collection schemes for PPW, either curb-side or via
drop–off locations (Groot et al., 2014). Curbside system can increase
collection efficiency of PPW and be environmentally more beneficial
(Yıldız-Geyhan et al., 2016). Post–consumer PPW can be collected for
recycling via source separation or post-separation (Groot et al., 2014).
The application of a well–developed informal collection system can be

⁎
Corresponding author at: UNEP_Tongji Institute of Environment for Sustainable Development (IESD), Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR China.
E-mail address: ohid776@gmail.com (O. Alam).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.01.037
Received 12 December 2017; Received in revised form 30 January 2018; Accepted 30 January 2018
0921-3449/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
O. Alam et al.
socially more beneficial than traditional formal and informal systems
(Yıldız-Geyhan et al., 2017). A packaging tax is an effective policy in-
strument for increasing the material efficiency, and subsequent de-
crease of waste generation and pollutants release (Dace et al., 2014).
PPWs collected from households has to be sorted, reprocessed, com-
pounded and reused according to the laws of several European and
Asian countries. The collection method for the PPW has hardly any
influence on the final quality of the recyclate; however, the sorting and
reprocessing steps have significant influence (Groot et al., 2014;
Luijsterburg and Goossens, 2014).
According to Miller (2012), about 500 billion to one trillion PBs are
consumed worldwide annually; i.e., 1.4–2.7 billion per day, over one
million per minute. Individual consumption of PB is comparatively high
in top GDP growth countries but developing countries suffered more
from PBs pollution due to dearth of awareness and illegal disposal
(Bahri, 2005, Islam, 2011). It was found that the annual PBs con-
sumption per capita was 1370 in Hong Kong, 286 in the United States,
263 in Israel, 252 in Taiwan, 235 in Japan, and 223 in China, respec-
tively (Bahri, 2005). Similarly, large amounts of PBs are discarded and
illegally disposed of that have brought diverse problems to the en-
vironment and the public health (Njeru, 2006; Ramaswamy and
Sharma, 2011). The result of unfair management of PBW and PPW is
the pollution of soil, air and water resources including increase of urban
flash–floods and reduction of agricultural productions (Briassoulis
et al., 2014; Eagle et al., 2016).
Many studies have been performed to investigate the environmental
and health hazards linked with PBW disposal (Ellis et al., 2005; Jalil
et al., 2013; Shamim et al., 2010). According to the suggestions of re-
searchers, PB with a minimum thickness of 20–50 μm has already been
banned in many countries, especially in developing countries while
minimum charge or levy is applied in regions or states in developed
countries (Miller, 2012). The alternative bags are also suggested but
unfruitful because people are more interested to use PB than other bags
(Dikgang et al., 2012; He, 2012; Ritch et al., 2009). Furthermore, the
regulation of the consumption of lightweight PB should also apply to
heavy weight PB to minimize waste volume (Steensgaard et al., 2017).
Unfortunately, what have made PB so useful, such as durability,
light weight, hygiene, and low cost, also make problematic when come
to its end–of–life phase. Because PBs are often thrown away after being
used once, their service life span is very short, estimated to be 20 min
averagely and maximum up to 1 year (Miller, 2012; Mutha et al., 2006).
Likewise, most plastic packages are discarded after a relatively short
service life and the resulting PPW and PBW are subsequently landfilled,
incinerated/recycled and disposed of elsewhere (Luijsterburg and
Goossens, 2014). They may gradually release toxicity and pollute sur-
rounding environment (Njeru, 2006; Ramaswamy and Sharma, 2011).
However, waste bags from nuclear facilities can generate high heat
(800 kW) indicating that special caution is needed for such waste
management (You et al., 2015). Rice straw co-pyrolysis with PBW
showed as a potential energy source with the greater percentage of PB
as feedstock materials (Anshar et al., 2017).
Plastic bags and packaging materials are manufactured by using dif-
ferent types of polymers whereas heavy metals (HMs) and organometallic
compounds (additives) are encapsulated with polymer matrix to optimize
its properties and to reduce production cost (Dilli, 2007; Lajeunesse,
2004). These additives can gradually be leached out into environment
throughout its life cycle in response to light or heat (Ahmad et al., 2012;
Cheng et al., 2010; Whitt et al., 2012). Global annual release of additives
from common consumer plastics such as PE, PS, PET and PVC into marine
environments was estimated to be between 35 and 917 tons, of which
most were derived from plasticized PVC (Suhrhoff et al., 2016). After and
during disposal of PBW or PPW, their environmental impact needs to be
concerned as they also have long term health effects indirectly (Al-Qutob
et al., 2014; Huerta-Pujol et al., 2010). However, the information is still
insufficient on metal contents in PB along with appropriate treatment
technology (Nakashima et al., 2011).
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Resources, Conservation & Recycling 132 (2018) 121–129
It is very important to monitor and regulate HM along with other
additives contents in PB (Ramaswamy and Sharma, 2011). PB is
non–biodegradable in natural way in aerobic or anaerobic or semi-
aerobic environment (Williamson, 2003; Kang and Zhu, 2014). Due to
several uncaring factors, globally around 96% of the daily generated
PBWs directly go to the landfills or dumpsites, and a tremendous
quantity of it is disposed of illegally (UNEP, 2005). They can last in
landfill – an anaerobic environment for hundreds of years. Even after
hundreds of years, they will merely photo degrade, not completely.
Thereby, collection and disposal of PBWs has become a global challenge
of late (Clapp and Swanston, 2009).
Compared to other plastic products, very little works have been
carried out on HM contents in PB. The contents of Pb and Cr in marine
PE litters in Japan were estimated as 45 and 14 mg/kg, respectively.
Here, the majority of the litters were found to contain HMs below
10 mg/kg, and few were found to exceed standard limits (Nakashima
et al., 2011). On the other hands, high levels of HMs were detected in
some PE rubbish and supermarket bags, where Cr and Pb in the rubbish
bags were found to exceed standards. Other metals were identified
within standards. Furthermore, there was no similarity among PBs of
different polymer types and colors in case of metal contents (Huerta-
Pujol et al., 2010).
Metals (pollutants) are added to PB as stabilizers and pigments, and
the HM contents in different PBs also vary based on regions (Al-Qutob
et al., 2014; Kumar and Pastore, 2007). When these PBs are disposed of
in dumpsites, they might contaminate water bodies, soil and plants in
surrounding areas by spreading toxic metals and chemicals (Sakurai
et al., 2006). On the other hand, PBWs have high heating value ranging
from 18 to 48 MJ/kg which are almost similar to the conventional fuels,
indicating energy recovery potential. Through thermal treatment such
locked energy can be recovered along with reducing CO2 emission and
HM leaching (Alam, 2015; Khan and Khan, 2015). Furthermore, at-
tention also needs to be concerned that, during thermal treatment of
PBWs through different methods – incineration, pyrolysis and gasifi-
cation (Ahmad et al., 2012; Olafisoye et al., 2013; Zhou et al., 2014),
the metals might transfer into flue gas and cause potential air pollution
(Wang et al., 2014; Wagner and Caraballo, 1997; Wey et al., 1998).
The absence of any known study on characteristics, especially ele-
mental compositions, HM contents, leaching behaviours, thermal de-
composition rate and energy contents in PB, has coupled the problems.
Thereby, the study was conducted to identify the characteristics of
commonly used PBs and their potential environmental hazards.
2. Methodology
2.1. Sampling and preparation
Total 33 PB samples were collected from several super markets in
Shanghai, China based on used polymer types, colors and intended uses
(Table 1). All the selected samples were repeated and also triplicated
when the first obtained values were not close. Here, samples were
chosen to reflect a broad range of used polymer matrix and colors that
may represent overall scenarios of daily consumed bags. Furthermore,
intended usage was considered during sample collection to identify
potential risks associated with PB consumption.
Seven widely used polymers in PB manufacturing were selected; i.e.,
(a) Polyethylene – PE, (b) High density polyethylene – HDPE, (c) Low
density polyethylene – LDPE, (d) Polyvinyl chloride – PVC, (e)
Polypropylene – PP, (f) Polystyrene – PS, and (g) Polyamide (nylon) –
PA. Six types of PBs with commonly used colors were selected from PE,
HDPE, LDPE and PVC polymers. But 3 types of PBs were selected from
PP, PS and PA polymers due to their comparatively lower usage in PB
production. At first, all the bags were cut into small pieces (< 2 mm)
with scissor (stainless) to reduce and bring homogenous size, then dried
at 50 °C for 24 h before further analysis.
O. Alam et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 132 (2018) 121–129

Table 1 2.4. Heating value measurement

Classification and nomenclature of different plastic bags.
The heating values of the size–reduced PB samples were detected in
S.N. Polymer type Color Usage Name
a bomb calorimeter (MTUM-A4, Shanghai Mitong Tech. Ltd., China). A
1 Polyethylene (PE) White Food bag PE-1A weighed sample (0.1 g) was put in a crucible. Then, a wire was set to
Yellow Poly bag PE-2B make fire touching the sample. Subsequently, 10 mL of tap water was
Pink Document bag PE-3C
added into the bomb and the sample with connecting wire was placed
Purple Packaging bag PE-4D
Multi Shopping bag PE-5E into the bomb. After, the bomb was filled up with oxygen (O2) gas to
Black Garbage PE-6F facilitate making fire. Finally, the bomb was placed into the bomb ca-
2 High density polyethylene (HDPE) White Food bag HD-1A lorimeter and then ignited. After 10–15 min, combustion was finished
Yellow Poly bag HD-2B and the high calorific value (HCV) and low calorific value (LCV) were
Pink Document bag HD-3C
displayed which were recorded.
Purple Packaging bag HD-4D
Multi Shopping HD-5E
Black Garbage HD-6F 2.5. Elemental composition analysis
3 Low density polyethylene (LDPE) White Food bag LD-1A
Yellow Poly bag LD-2B
About 5.0 mg of each size–reduced PB sample was weighed and
Pink Document bag LD-3C
Purple Packaging bag LD-4D placed in a crucible, then put into the auto-sampler of the Vario EL·III
Multi Shopping bag LD-5E elemental analyzer (Elementar Company Ltd., Germany) for analyzing
Black Garbage LD-6F the concentrations of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and nitrogen (N). On
4 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) White Food bag PV-1A the other hand, about 10.0 mg of each sample was put into a crucible in
Yellow Poly bag PV-2B
the sulphur/halogen analyzer (ICS 3000, DIONEX Company Ltd.,
Pink Document bag PV-3C
Purple Packaging bag PV-4D United States) for analyzing sulphur (S) and chlorine (Cl). The analyzer
Multi Shopping bag PV-5E includes a high temperature burning system which transforms the S and
Black Garbage PV-6F Cl in the sample to SO3 and HCl, and an ion chromatograph which can
5 Polypropylene (PP) White Food bag PP-1A
detect the SO42− and Cl− in the gas absorption solution.
Pink Document bag PP-3C
Purple Packaging bag PP-4D
6 Polystyrene (PS) White Poly bag PS-1B 2.6. Determination of heavy metal contents
Pink Document bag PS-3C
Purple Packaging bag PS-4D The weighed (0.2 g) PB sample, and 20 mL of concentrated HNO3 acid
7 Polyamide or Nylon (PA) White Document bag PA-1C
were added into a PTFE vessel in sequence. The sample was soaked for half
Pink Poly bag PA-3B
Purple Packaging bag PA-4D an hour in the vessel locked with lid, then heated at 175 °C on the heat
plate (EHD36 Plus, LabTech, China) for 1.5 h, and then cooled to room
N.B.: White = 1, yellow = 2, pink = 3, purple = 4, multi = 5, black = 6; while food temperature. Then 2 mL of 30% H2O2 solution was added and the vessel
bag = A, poly bag = B, document bag = C, packaging bag = D and shopping bag = E, was heated for 1 h with lid. Subsequently, the vessel was uncovered to
and garbage bag = F.
evaporate the solution for 15 min (2–3 mL solution remained).
All the digestion solutions remained in the PTFE vessels were diluted
2.2. Reagents and materials with Milli–Q water and filtered through 0.45 μm membrane filters into
Erlenmeyer flasks by using chemically resistant vacuum pump. Then the
The guaranteed reagents used for acid digestion – nitric acid (HNO3) filtrates as well as 2 mL concentrated HNO3 were transferred into 50 mL
and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), while for leaching test – hydrochloric volumetric flasks. The solution was diluted to 50 mL with Milli–Q water.
acid (HCl) and acetic acid (CH3COOH) were purchased from Finally, 10 mL of each solution was taken from the flask and added into a
SinoPharm Company Limited, China. The multi–element standard so- test tube for inductively coupled plasma – optical emission spectroscopy
lution for inductively coupled plasma (ICP) analysis was supplied by (ICP–OES) analysis (720ES, Agilent, United States).
SPEX CertiPrep, United States. The high purity (99.99%) air used for The ICP–OES standard solutions with 0.0 ppm, 0.2 ppm, 0.4 ppm,
thermal treatment was supplied by Chun Yu Special Gas Company 0.6 ppm, 0.8 ppm and 1 ppm were prepared to create the calibration
Limited, Shanghai, China. graphs for the elements of interest. The concentrations of Pb, Cr, Cd,
All the glassware and experimental vessels were soaked in 10% Mn, Cu, Zn and Ba in the solutions from acid digestion were analyzed
HNO3 solution overnight before use to remove trace metals and other by ICP–OES, based on which, their contents (mg/kg) in different types
impurities. These wares were sequentially rinsed by tape water, dis- of PBs samples were calculated.
tilled water and Milli–Q water. Subsequently, PTFE vessels were dried
at 55 °C for 2 h, while others were air dried at room temperature. In 2.7. Heavy metal leaching test
addition, the crucibles were heated in a muffle furnace at 900 °C for 3 h
to destroy impurities. Seven PB samples were prepared and three stimulating solvents
were prepared for leaching test such as distilled water, HCl (inorganic
acid) and CH3COOH (organic acid). Specifically, using a 25 mL
2.3. Moisture content measurement Erlenmeyer flask, mixed 0.1 g prepared sample with 10 mL distilled
water. The mixture was agitated by continuous stirring for 10 min and
The size–reduced PB samples were weighed and then heated in an kept stand for 2 h at 60 °C. Then a 0.1 g sample was kept in 25 mL
oven (HH∙B11∙500-BS-II, Shanghai Yuejin Medical Instruments Co. Ltd., Erlenmeyer flask and mixed with 10 mL 0.07 M HCl solution. The
China) at 55 °C for 24 h and again weighed. The weight losses were mixture was protected from light and agitated continuously for 10 min
measured to calculate their moisture contents (Eq. (1)). and allowed to stand for 2 h at 60 °C. Similarly, 10 mL of 4% CH3COOH
was added with 0.1 g sample in a 25 mL Erlenmeyer flask and con-
(Initial weight − Final weight ) × 100
Moisture content (%) = tinuously stirred for 10 min. Then the samples were kept stand at 60 °C
Initial weight (1) for 2 h. Furthermore, all flasks were allowed to sit for 24 h in the
darkness and subsequently cooled in the room temperature.
All samples were tested for determining leaching behaviours at

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O. Alam et al.
different temperatures, such as ice–cooling, sunlight and heating
(100 °C). At first, 0.1 g sample was kept in a 25 mL Erlenmeyer flask and
poured 10 mL ice-cooled water. Then the mixture was stirred for 10 min
and kept stand in the dark for 24 h. In heating test, a 0.1 g sample was
kept in a 25 mL Erlenmeyer flask and poured 10 mL distilled water.
Then the mixture was stirred for 10 min and kept stand in the sunlight
for 24 h (i.e., it was a sunny day without rain). Likewise, a 0.1 g sample
was kept in a 25 mL Erlenmeyer flask and poured 10 mL boiled water
(100 °C). Then the mixture was also agitated for 10 min and kept stand
in the dark for 12 h.
Finally, all samples were filtered through 0.45 μm filter paper and
then the remained solids and dilution solution were separated. The final
solutions were digested and then Pb, Cr and Cd concentrations were
measured by ICP–OES.
2.8. Measurement of thermal decomposition rate
The apparatus used in the study was composed of an electric heated
tube furnace. A quartz tube was housed in a glass fiber lined insulated
steel shell, and a corundum crucible moved by a quartz rod was used to
feed the sample into the combustion chamber. The chamber tempera-
ture was monitored by a thermocouple and controlled by a program-
mable temperature controller. A quartz–fiber filter was set up down-
stream from the combustion chamber. The temperature of the filter
together with its holder was maintained above 120 °C by heating belt to
prevent the flue gases from condensing while flowing through the filter.
The tube furnace was heated from room temperature to 350, 550,
650, 750, 850 and 950 °C, respectively at a rate of 10 °C/min under an
air flow rate of 1 L/min. After reaching the set temperature, the crucible
with 1–2 g of the PB sample was slowly put into the center of the quartz
tube in the tube furnace and heated for 30 min. The treatment was
repeated for 3–4 times to increase residues mass. Then the residues
(bottom ash) in the crucibles were weighed and recorded.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Elemental compositions of plastic bag
Elemental compositions of PB influence in pollutants release and
energy recovery efficiency. From (Fig. 1), it is seen that different
polymer made of bags contain the highest amount of C; that
Fig. 1. Percentage of elemental compositions in different plastic bags.
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Resources, Conservation & Recycling 132 (2018) 121–129
is, > 75.68% in PE, > 77.86% in HDPE, > 74.70% in LDPE, > 35.95%
in PVC, > 84.66% in PP, > 89.87% in PS and > 75.42% in PA bags,
respectively. The comparatively lower quantity of H; that is, < 24.14%
in PE, < 22.88% in HDPE, < 25.16% in LDPE, < 11.25% in PVC, <
12.91% in PP, < 7.53% in PS and < 13.17% in PA bags; while insig-
nificant amount (< 1.0%) of N except PA bag, S, and Cl except PVC
bag. Here, PA bag contain 5.57%–8.68% N and 39.86%–56.37% Cl in
PVC bag. Hence, PVC bag are potential source of Cl release into en-
vironment which can be converted into toxic chemicals (e.g., dioxin
and furan) after reacting with air and free Cl (Wey et al., 1998; Chen
et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2014). Therefore, use of PVC polymers should
be banned in PB productions because every day large volume of PBs is
consumed and similar amount of is discarded. Though these polymers
chemical structures are composed of primarily C and H; but some
plastics contain other elements, for instance, PET contains oxygen (O),
PVC contains Cl and nylon contains O and N (EPIC, 2004; Whitt et al.,
2015).
3.2. Calorific value and moisture content in plastic bag
PB contains higher percentage of C like as other polymer product
that indicates a huge amount of energy is locked in discarded PBs.
Furthermore, all PB samples contain less moisture (< 0.1%); therefore,
they possess high LCV ranged from 18 to 46 MJ/kg (Table 2a). There is
very little difference between HCV and LCV due to the lowest moisture
contents. However, these calorific values are lower than the values
obtained by Dulong and Vandralek formulas from pure polymers
(Nzihou et al., 2014) and it may be due to the influence of additives and
colors. It is obvious that many of the common plastics have relatively
HCVs that in some instances approach the value for fuel oil (Table 2b).
Plastics are hydrocarbons in the same way that fuel oil is a hydro-
carbon. The higher the relative content of C the higher the calorific
value and PE which is composed totally of C and H could be labeled as
“frozen natural gas or fuel oil” (EPIC, 2004; Bujak, 2015). However, Das
and Pandey (2007) found 46.5 and 19 MJ/kg in PE and PVC, respec-
tively while Themelis et al. (2011) found 44, 28, and 19 MJ/kg in
HDPE, LDPE and PVC, respectively. Thereby, thermal treatment of PB is
a potential source of energy as well as to reduce CO2 emissions. In
addition, thermal treatment of PBW is a sustainable solution for better
and pollution free environment (Wagner and Caraballo, 1997; Wey
et al., 1998).
O. Alam et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 132 (2018) 121–129

Table 2a
Moisture content and calorific value of different plastic bags.

Polymer type Name Moisture content (%) High calorific value (HCV) (MJ/kg) Low calorific value (LCV) (MJ/kg) HCV, MJ/kg (Formula)

PE PE-1A 0.07 ± 2.3 36.87 ± 2.63 36.75 ± 0.56 49.15 (DL) & 54.13 (VL)
PE-2B 0.11 ± 5.1 37.94 ± 1.98 37.56 ± 2.44
PE-3C 0.03 ± 1.0 33.78 ± 0.85 33.44 ± 1.22
PE-4D ND 41.86 ± 7.23 40.97 ± 2.98
PE-5E 0.01 ± 3.4 39.68 ± 6.44 39.25 ± 3.49
PE-6F 0.05 ± 1.2 38.23 ± 0.09 37.89 ± 2.11
HDPE HD-1A 0.18 ± 3.3 32.81 ± 0.38 32.76 ± 0.49 46.31 (DL) & 50.92 (VL)
HD-2B 0.05 ± 2.0 39.28 ± 3.34 39.22 ± 3.33
HD-3C 0.05 ± 1.6 39.60 ± 1.08 39.54 ± 5.10
HD-4D 0.10 ± 6.1 39.03 ± 2.35 38.97 ± 2.22
HD-5E ND 42.96 ± 0.26 42.89 ± 1.74
HD-6F 0.04 ± 2.7 35.09 ± 1.12 34.53 ± 4.56
LDPE LD-1A 0.04 ± 1.3 46.80 ± 4.29 46.73 ± 3.25 46.20 (DL) & 50.79 (VL)
LD-2B 0.05 ± 3.3 43.46 ± 2.89 43.39 ± 4.32
LD-3C 0.07 ± 1.9 34.34 ± 0.71 34.28 ± 0.99
LD-4D 0.03 ± 0.8 35.36 ± 0.58 35.30 ± 0.37
LD-5E 0.03 ± 1.4 37.46 ± 1.34 37.40 ± 1.66
LD-6F 0.02 ± 2.5 34.57 ± 0.99 33.98 ± 0.85
PVC PV-1A 0.27 ± 6.2 20.96 ± 0.06 20.81 ± 0.14 21.46 (DL) & 23.58 (VL)
PV-2B ND 23.55 ± 0.11 23.45 ± 0.23
PV-3C 0.16 ± 1.7 21.87 ± 0.18 21.66 ± 0.11
PV-4D 0.01 ± 1.1 22.56 ± 0.04 21.67 ± 0.44
PV-5E 0.10 ± 0.5 24.85 ± 0.55 24.82 ± 1.34
PV-6F 0.03 ± 1.8 19.45 ± 0.08 18.78 ± 0.22
PP PP-1A 0.06 ± 0.7 46.63 ± 5.21 46.35 ± 4.52 41.52 (DL) & 45.46 (VL)
PP-3C 0.25 ± 0.3 44.53 ± 2.22 44.46 ± 2.54
PP-4D 0.13 ± 1.1 45.33 ± 4.52 44.79 ± 3.77
PS PS-1B ND 39.94 ± 3.36 39.87 ± 2.89 37.46 (DL) & 40.86 (VL)
PS-3C 0.19 ± 2.2 37.88 ± 1.29 37.25 ± 2.33
PS-4D 0.12 ± 1.3 36.80 ± 0.89 36.63 ± 0.08
Nylon (PA) PA-1C 0.17 ± 3.0 36.65 ± 0.66 36.58 ± 0.12 43.67 (DL) & 48.01 (VL)
PA-3B 0.14 ± 1.5 37.53 ± 1.23 36.95 ± 2.34
PA-4D 0.09 ± 0.6 35.77 ± 0.87 35.12 ± 1.12

N.B.: DL = Dulong formula, VL = Vandralek formula, and ND = Zero (0) moisture content.

Table 2b Table 3
Calorific value of different plastic materials and conventional fuels. Standards for heavy metal contents (mg/kg) in plastic products.

Material Name LCV, MJ/kg Metals/ ASTM ISO EN71 94/62/EC EU No. 10/
metalloid F963 8124-3 (Toy) (Packaging 2011 (Food
Das and Themelis EPIC PB in (Toy) (Toy) material) contact
Pandey et al. (2011) (2004) this material)
(2007) study
Pb 90 90 90 100 60a
Plastics PE 46.5 – 46.5 33–41 Cr 60 60 60 100 (Cr6+) 60a
HDPE – 44.0 – 32–43 Cd 75 75 75 100 60a
LDPE – 28.0 – 33–47 Ba 1000 1000 1000 – –
PVC 19.0 19.0 19.0 20–25
PP 45.0 44.0 45.0 44–46 a
Migration limits; mg/kg food.
PS 41.6 41.0 41.6 36–40
PA (Nylon) – – – 35–37
PET 21.6 24.0 21.6 –
(Table 3). But, still there is no specific standard for metals in PB though
Avg. plastics 30.0 – – – a huge volume of PB is consumed every day and their application has
Conventional fuel Methane 53.0 – – – also been diversified.
Gasoline 46.0 – – – Some of HMs blended in PB is toxic and excess level of which can
Fuel oil 43.0 – 48.5 –
create environmental and public health hazards. Unfortunately, there is
Coal 30.0 – 27.0 –
no unique standard for adding HMs in PB rather unregulated and un-
wanted quantity of metals is mixed. From (Fig. 2), it is seen that Pb
3.3. Heavy metal content in plastic bag concentration is Not detectable (ND) to 32, 13–47, ND–46, ND–37,
14–31, ND–8 and 9–15 mg/kg in PE, HDPE, LDPE, PVC, PP, PS and PA
Manufacturers’ decant many HMs as additives into plastic made of bags, respectively; none of the samples exceeded standard limits. 18 out
objects (e.g., plastic bags) to give them required strength, quality, and 33 PB samples demonstrated Cr concentration below 10 mg/kg; amidst,
pigment. Thus HMs/metalloids in plastic products make them threat for 62.6 mg/kg in black color HDPE, and 78.4 mg/kg in multi–color LDPE
environment and health. Hence, plastic toys and packaging products and 67.3 mg/kg in black color LDPE bags that crossed the standards of
are also risky; therefore, many countries have their own standards for ASTM F963 (U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, 2012), AS-NZS
them, especially ASTM F963 (U.S. Consumer Product Safety 8124-3 (Joint Technical Committee CS-018 8124-3, 2012) and food
Commission, 2012), AS-NZS 8124-3(or ISO 8124-3) (Joint Technical contact materials by EU No. 10/2011(European Commission, 2014).
Committee CS-018 8124-3, 2012), EN 71 (Eurofins, 2013), 94/62/EC Likewise, 20 out of 33 PB samples Cd content exhibited between ND
(CBI Market Information Database, 2011), and EU No. 10/2011 and 10 mg/kg where 334.2 mg/kg in purple and 135 mg/kg in mul-
(European Commission, 2014) are worldwide followed standards ti–color PVC bags exceeded standards.

125
O. Alam et al.
Fig. 2. Different heavy metal contents in different plastic bags (Here, dotted red circle indicate that the value has crossed standards). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this
figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
The relatively lower toxic and minor role in public health concern
metals (e.g., Mn, Cu, Zn and Ba) were also studied and showed HM
contents below standard limits. 25 out of 33 PB samples exhibited lower
Mn content ranged from ND to 10 mg/kg and the highest Mn con-
centration was detected 32.4 mg/kg in pink colored PE bag. It was
found that Cu, Zn and Ba concentration is high in most of the samples
but less than standards ranging from ND–157.9, ND–365.1 and
ND–611.1 mg/kg, respectively. Amongst, the highest metal content was
found 158 mg/kg of Cu in pink LDPE, 365 mg/kg of Zn in yellow HDPE
and 611 mg/kg of Ba in pink LDPE bags.
Similarly, Huerta-Pujol et al. (2010) found 87 mg/kg of Cr and 458 mg/
kg of Pb in trash PE bags that crossed standard limits for plastic toys by
ASTM F963 (U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, 2012). Nakashima
et al. (2011) measured Pb and total Cr contents infrequently exceeded
100 mg/kg in PE litter samples collected from Ookushi beach that is,
regulated by EU regulation on packaging materials and packaging waste
(European Committee for Standardization, 2002). Furthermore, most of the
PE litter samples were found to contain metals lower than 10 mg/kg.
126
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 132 (2018) 121–129
(Kiyataka et al., 2014) measured Pb contents 393.7, 366.1 and
462.4 mg/kg in 3 samples of HDPE yoghurt packaging to cross EU stan-
dards (European Committee for Standardization, 2002) for metals in
packaging materials and packaging wastes and the other metals were
within limit of quantification in a maximum number of samples. (Bode
et al., 1989) found Cd level in household mixed plastics wastes exceeded
the standards by AS-NZS 8124-3 (Joint Technical Committee CS-018
8124-3, 2012) extremely in some samples; that is, > 1000 mg/kg and
high contents were occasionally found for Sr, Se, Ba, Sb, and Hg that also
varied based on used colors. Whitt et al. (2012) showed on an average Cd,
Cr, Ni and Pb contents as 8.82, 6.76, 9.43 and 0.15 mg/kg, respectively in
29 recycled PET food packaging while the highest values in individual
samples were 16.33, 12.14, 17.37 and 0.32 mg/kg, respectively.
3.4. Leaching behaviours of metals from plastic bag
As additives, enfold HMs are enfolded in different PBs that are not
chemically bound with polymer matrix. They can be readily leached out
O. Alam et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 132 (2018) 121–129

Table 4a
Stimulant influenced metal (mg/kg) leaching behaviours of plastic bag.

Name Pb Cd Cr

DW AA HCl DW AA HCl DW AA HCl

PE 2.172 2.921 4.592 ND ND 1.337* 1.261 3.917 5.819*

HDPE 1.526 2.467 6.585* 0.913 1.215* 2.795* 1.337 3.532 4.778
LDPE 1.852 3.218 4.263 2.335 2.973* 4.118* ND ND 0.055
PVC ND ND 0.703 3.293 9.729* 19.572* 2.235 3.156 5.125*
PP 1.635 5.622* 8.269* 0.168 0.835 2.253* ND 0.992 2.238
PS 0.339 2.154 3.815 ND 0.873 3.395* ND ND 0.890
PA 0.148 3.372 4.231 ND ND 0.045 0.754 2.364 4.875
EPA standards 5.0 1.0 5.0

N.B.: DW = Distilled water, AA = Acetic acid, ND = Not detected and (*) indicate that the value has crossed standard limits.

in response to light, heat and stimulants. Thus, leached out metals can
spread into environment which in long term will be exhausted by
human being through taking foods and drinking water (Cheng et al.,
2010; Khan and Khan, 2015; Ahmad et al., 2012; Kang and Zhu, 2014).
Therefore, leachable metal contents in PBs are risk for the exposers’
health; i.e., consumers and retailers. Determination of leaching beha-
viours of different PBs is very important to know the potential metals
hazards associated with consumption of PB (Mahar and Almeida, 2009;
Sakurai et al., 2006).
From (Table 4a), it is noticed that the leaching behaviours of dif-
ferent metals varied based on used stimulant solvents. The order of
leaching behaviour of different stimulants is HCl˃ Acetic acid˃ Distilled
water (DW). Most of the samples demonstrated leaching behaviour less
than standard allowable leaching limits of Pb, Cr and Cd. Furthermore,
they showed leachable amount of metal contents in PBs ˂10% of the
original metal contents in PB. The highest metal leaching behaviour
was noticed in HCl solution, especially Cd due to being strong acid and
most of the samples exhibited leachable amount of metals that crossed
standard limits to leach out from hazardous solid waste (Balentine,
1995). Khan and Khan (2015) found leaching tendency ˂2.0 mg/kg of
Pb and Cr in different HDPE food packaging containers at 60 °C in 2 h
treatment by using distilled water and acetic acid. Similarly, Pb was
leached out 1.8 and 2.1 mg/kg by acetic acid and HCl from red rubber
ball but Cd leach out amount was below detection limit (Mahar et al.,
2009). Furthermore, use of HCl as dilute solution demonstrated on an
average leachable amount of Pb, Cr and Cd as 1.54% from original
metal contents in PVC toys and PE building block at 37 °C in 1 h (Kang
and Zhu, 2014). The leachable amount of HM contents in PB and toys
are potential threat for the environment and the public health.
Likewise, different temperatures (i.e., ice–cooling, sunlight and
boiling water) have influence in leaching behaviours of different metals
from PB. It was found that there is a significant amount of leachable Pb,
Cr and Cd in different polymer made of PBs and details shown in
(Table 4b). The decreasing order of leaching trend by different tem-
perature is ice–cooling˂ sunlight˂ heating. Amongst, ice–cooling
showed lowest HM leaching (i.e., ˂5%) tendency from different types of
PBs. But heating demonstrated increasing trend of HM leaching amount
from different PBs. Sunlight treatment showed approximately 1.5%–2%
more leaching quantity of HM from PB than ice–cooling treatment.
Further, heating with boiling water (100 °C) exhibited about 2%–5%
more leaching amount of HM from PB. Most of the samples showed
leaching quantity of Pb, Cr and Cd during sunlight and heating treat-
ment exceeded standard limits to leach out from hazardous solid waste
(Balentine, 1995).
Cheng et al. (2010) showed the leachable amount of Sb in HDPE,
LDPE, PVC, PP and PS bottles was ˂2 μg/L in 24 h treating by ice–-
cooling, sunlight and heating. There was seen little difference in
leaching quantity of Sb between boiling water heating and microwave
heating. Furthermore, most of the samples exhibited leachable amount
below detection limit. 5 min microwave heating demonstrated ˂0.2 ppb
and ˂0.5 ppb Pb, Cr and Cd leaching from recycled PET food packaging
with water and 5% citric acid, respectively (Whitt et al., 2014). Simi-
larly, 5 min microwave treatment with 5% citric acid showed ˂0.5 ppb
Cr migration from recycled PET at 7.2 °C while temperature was in-
creased to 22.2 °C then it showed no significant difference in HM mi-
grating (Whitt et al., 2015).
3.5. Thermal decomposition ratio of plastic bag
Thermal treatment of solid waste is applied for fuel and energy re-
covery from all types of waste, such as MSW, plastic waste, biomass and
farm waste. Every types of waste have individual thermal decomposition
temperature. Similarly, different polymers have different thermal decom-
position temperature (EPIC, 2004). The melting point is important for fuel
collection from PBW. Chemical (catalytic cracking) treatment is also used
for fuel collection from PBW. As PBs are made of different types of poly-
mers, so they aren’t decomposable in biological or natural process but can
be decomposed by chemical and thermal process (Stelmachowski, 2014;
Bhaskar et al., 2003). We focused on thermal decomposition ratio (i.e.,
incieration) only for PB disposal in this study.

Table 4b
Temperature influenced metal (mg/kg) leaching behaviours of plastic bag.

Name Pb Cd Cr

Cooling Sunlight Heating Cooling Sunlight Heating Cooling Sunlight Heating

PE 0.692 1.893 3.578 ND 0.905 2.067 0.356 2.703 6.231*

HDPE ND 1.245 2.984 1.913 2.683 4.572 1.033 3.110 5.302*
LDPE 0.325 0.591 3.215 2.095 3.694 6.456* ND 0.094 1.234
PVC 1.236 2.582 5.972* 2.053 6.720* 9.758* 1.201 2.791 5.023*
PP 0.458 3.217 7.892 0.579 1.928 3.459 0.074 1.021 3.054
PS 1.557 2.998 5.216* ND 0.693 3.108 ND ND 0.291
PA ND 2.027 4.509 ND 0.056 0.825 0.892 2.556 5.219*
EPA standards 5.0 1.0 5.0

N.B.: DW = Distilled water, AA = Acetic acid, ND = Not detected and (*) indicate that the value has crossed standard limits.

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O. Alam et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 132 (2018) 121–129

Table 5
Degradation ratio of plastic bag by thermal treatment with air flow.

Polymer type Decomposition ratio (%)

350 °C 550 °C 650 °C 750 °C 850 °C 950 °C

PE 26.24 ± 7.2 85.69 ± 3.3 88.63 ± 2.9 90.29 ± 4.1 91.05 ± 1.6 92.23 ± 3.5
HDPE 31.64 ± 1.8 83.39 ± 5.3 90.30 ± 3.2 91.69 ± 2.2 91.83 ± 6.0 91.96 ± 0.9
LDPE 9.39 ± 0.7 76.08 ± 2.4 77.73 ± 5.5 84.64 ± 6.1 86.17 ± 3.7 89.33 ± 4.5
PVC 69.77 ± 1.3 97.09 ± 9.2 98.74 ± 2.6 99.55 ± 3.9 99.65 ± 6.5 99.70 ± 2.1
PP 28.49 ± 0.3 69.25 ± 1.1 82.13 ± 8.3 85.44 ± 1.2 87.59 ± 4.4 88.27 ± 1.4
PS 36.72 ± 5.0 74.22 ± 3.0 79.26 ± 4.6 86.77 ± 3.4 88.57 ± 1.7 89.45 ± 5.0
PA 15.67 ± 4.4 72.49 ± 5.1 78.95 ± 2.0 83.28 ± 2.7 84.66 ± 3.0 85.39 ± 6.3

From (Table 5), it is seen that the decomposition ratios of all types
of PBs were insignificant at 350 °C with air flow treatment. When the
temperature increased from 550 °C to 850 °C, their decomposition ratios
rapidly increased but slow for further increase. The maximum mass
reduction of PB was found at 850 °C and 950 °C. The highest mass re-
duction ratio 99% was noticed of PVC bag, while the lowest reduction
ratio 89% was found of LDPE bag at 950 °C. HDPE and PE bags showed
about 92% mass reduction at 950 °C. Likewise, the maximum mass
reduction of PP, PS and PA bags were 88%, 89% and 85%, respectively
at 950 °C. Though increase of additional temperature showed increasing
trend of mass reduction but very insignificant. Therefore, it was ob-
served that between 850 °C and 950 °C there was little bit difference in
the terms of PB mass reduction. Bujak (2015) showed that 985 °C is
effective for energy recovery and 280 °C is suitable for liquid fuel col-
lection during thermal treatment of plastic waste. But chlorine emission
from plastic waste, particularly from PVC during thermal treatment is a
big problem worldwide. The thermal degradation of PE, PP, PS and PVC
at 430 °C under air flow showed the formation of chlorinated hydro-
carbons increased in liquid products and also drastic decrease in the
formation of inorganic chlorine content (Bhaskar et al., 2003).
4. Conclusion
The proper consciousness about PB is very important to minimize
environmental and health problems related to discarded PBs. Being
non-biodegradable, PBs block water flow and make unfertile agri-
cultural soil by inhibiting pass of nutrients in soil. Environmental
composition and additives in PB play significant roles in pollution
emissions. High Cl content in PVC bag is potential source of toxic
chemical release such as dioxin and furan. Likewise, some PBs contains
high concentration of toxic metals that exceeded standard limits. In
contrast, PB possesses the lowest moisture content but high LCV.
Thereby, through thermal treatment this calorific value can be re-
covered along with minimizing pollution. Therefore, it is needed to
conduct further study on how to dispose discarded PBs with minimum
pollution.
Based on literature reviews and findings of the study, we are re-
commending the following suggestions for the policy makers:
○ Reusable PB is better than single use bag to reduce PBW volume,
○ Source segregation is important for effective management and dis-
posal of PBW,
○ Use of PVC polymer in PB or packaging materials production should
be banned to eliminate the high possibility of HM and Cl emissions,
○ Formulating standards for toxic HM (additives) such as Pb, Cr, Cd,
Hg and As is significant to curtail metals release and leaching,
○ Thermal treatment of PBW along with energy/fuel recovery is the
best solution, and
○ Reusing PBWs with other wastes in construction materials is also
viable option.
Acknowledgement
This study was financially supported by the National Basic Research
Program of China (973 Program, No. 2011CB201500).
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