What refrigeration?

It is a continues extraction of heat from the from a body whose temperature is already below the
temperature of its surroundings.

Or the process of removing heat from a substance under controlled condition.

The process of reducing and maintaining the temperature the temperature of a body below the
general temperature of its surroundings.

A substance which works in a heat pump to extract heat from a cold body and deliver to a hot body
is called refrigerant.

A refrigerator is reversed heat engine.

System of units

There are four system of units which are commonly used and universally recognized.

1- C.G.S units 2- F.P.S units 3- M.K.S units 4- S.I units

Mass: it is the amount of matter contained in a given body and does not vary with the change of its
position on the earth’s surface. The mass of a body is measured direct comparison with a standard
mass by using a lever balance.

Weight: it is the amount of pull, which the earth exerts upon a given body. Since the pull varies with
the distance of the body from the centre of the earth. (latitude $ elevation).

The earth’s pull in metric units, at sea level and 45◦ latitude, has been adopted as one force unit and
named as one kilogram of force thus it is definite amount of force. But, unfortunately it has the
same name as the unit of mass. The weight of body is measured as the use of a spring balance,
which indicates the varying tension in the spring as the body is moved from one place to place.

Relation between mass and weight is W = mg.

Force

It is an important factor in the field of engineering science, which may be defined as an agent which
produces or tends to produce, destroy or tends to destroy motion.

The applied force or impressed forced is directly proportional to the rate of change of momentum.

An impressed force is an action exerted upon a body, in order to change its state,
either of rest, or of moving uniformly forward in a right line.
Momentum = Mass × Velocity

Thus change of momentum = mv-mu

mv−mu m( v−u) v−u

And the rate of change of momentum ¿ ¿ = ma………(a= ).
t t t
Thermodynamics
It is a space where some thermodynamic process is taking place. It is a region where
our attention is focussed for studying a thermodynamic process.
A thermodynamic system has its boundaries and anything outside the boundaries is
called its surroundings.
Thermodynamic systems can be classified into three:
1- Closed system 2- Open system 3- Isolated system
1- Closed system: this is a system of fixed mass and identity whose
boundaries are determined by the space of the matter occupied in it.
The closed system does not permit any mass transfer across its boundary,
but it permits transfer of energy.
2- Open system: the mass of the working substance crosses the boundary
of the system. Heat and work may also cross the boundary.
and open system permits both mass and energy transfer across the boundary
and mass within the system may not be constant.
3- Isolated system: a system which is completely uninfluenced by the
surroundings. Thermos is an example of this system.
Properties of a system
The state of a system may be identified or describe by the certain observable
quantities such as volume, temperature, pressure and density etc. all
quantities which identify the state of a system are called properties.
Example: temperature, pressure, enthalpy, density, viscosity, specific volume,
etc.
Classification of properties of a system
1. Extensive: properties which depend on the mass of the system.
Example: volume, total mass and total energy.
2. Intensive: properties which do not depend on the mass of the system.
Example: temperature, pressure and density, specific volume.

State of a system
The state of a system (when the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium)
is the condition of the system at any particular moment which can be
identified by the state of its properties such as pressure, volume,
temperature etc. the number of properties which are required to describe a
system depends upon the nature of the system.
Temperature
It is an intensive thermodynamic property, which determines the degree of hotness
or the level of heat intensity of a body. A body is said to be at a high temperature or
hot, if it shows high level of heat intensity in it. Similarly, a body is said to be at low
temperature or cold, if it shows a low level of heat intensity.
The freezing point of water is marked 0 ◦ for Celsius and at the boiling point is
marked 100 but Fahrenheit 32 at the freezing point and 212 for boiling point of water.
The relation between Celsius scale and Fahrenheit scale is given by:
C F−32 K−273
= =
100 180 180

Absolute temperature:
Absolute temperature is temperature measured using the Kelvin scale where
zero is absolute zero. The zero point is the temperature at which particles of
matter have their minimum motion and can become no colder (minimum
energy). Because it is "absolute," a thermodynamic temperature reading is not
followed by a degree symbol.
As matter of fact , the zero readings of Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are
chosen arbitrarily for the purpose of simplicity. It helps us in our calculations,
when changes of temperature in a process are known. But, whenever the value
of temperature is used in equations relating to fundamental laws, the value of
temperature whose reference point is true zero or absolute zero is used.
Thermodynamics equilibrium
A system i
s said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium, if it satisfies the following three
requirements of equilibrium.
1. Mechanical equilibrium: a system is said to be in mechanical equilibrium,
there is no unbalanced forces acting on any part of the system or the system
as a whole. The pressure in the system is same at all points and does not
change with time.
2. Thermal equilibrium: a system is said to be in thermal equilibrium, when
there is no temperature difference between the parts of the system or
between the system and the surroundings. In other words the temperature of
the system does not change with time and has the same value at all points of
the system.
3. Chemical equilibrium: a system is said to be in chemical equilibrium, when
there is no chemical reaction within the system and the chemical composition
is same throughout the system, which does no change with time.

Pressure
The term pressure may be defined as the normal force per unit area. The unit of
pressure depends upon the units of force and area.
1 bar = 1×105 N/m2 = 0.1×106 N/m2
 1Pa = 1N/m2
We know that the atmospheric pressure is 760mm of Hg
1 mm of Hg is (1013×102)/760=133.3N/m2
1N/m2 == 760/(1013×102)=7.5×10-3 mm of Hg

Gauge pressure and absolute pressure

All the pressure gauges read the difference between the actual pressure in any
system and the atmospheric pressure. The reading of pressure gauge is known as
gauge pressure. While the actual pressure is called absolute pressure.
Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure
The negative gauge pressure is known as vacuum pressure.
Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure - vacuum pressure
Terms to be known
Exact differential
Inexact differential
Point function
Path function
Infinitesimal
Quasi-static
Normal temperature and pressure (N.T.P)
Standard temperature and pressure (S.T.P)
Energy
The energy is defined as the capacity to do work. In other words a system is said to
possess energy when it capable of doing work.
Energy possessed by a system is of the following two types:
1. Stored energy 2. Transit energy
The stored energy: is the energy possessed by a system within its boundaries. The
potential energy, kinetic energy and internal energy are the examples of stored
energy.
The transit energy: is the energy possessed by a system which is capable of
crossing its boundaries. The heat, working and electrical energy are examples of
transit energy.
 Types of stored energy
1. Potential energy: it is the energy possessed by a body or system for doing
work by virtue of its position above the ground level.
PE = m g z
2. Kinetic energy: it is the energy possessed by a body or a system for doing
work by the virtue of its mass and velocity of motion.
KE=1/2 mv2
3. Internal energy: it is the energy possessed by a body or a system due to its
molecular arrangement and motion of the molecules. It is usually represented
by U.
Total energy of the system E = PE+KE+U
When the system is stationary and the effect of gravity is neglected
then, PE=0, and KE=0 in such case E=U or e=u

Heat
The heat is defined as the energy transferred without transfer of mass across the
boundary of a system because of temperature difference between the system and
the surroundings. Represented by Q and is expressed in joule (J).
Heat can be transferred into three distinct ways
a. Conduction: transfer of heat through solids takes place takes place by
condition.

b. Conviction: transfer of heat through fluids takes places by conviction.

c. Radiation: is an electromagnetic wave phenomena in which energy can be
can be transported through transparent substances and even through a
vacuum.
The heat is form of transit energy which can be identified only when it only when it
crosses the boundary of the system. It exist only during transfer of energy into or out
the system.
Sensible heat: when a substance is heated and the temperature rises as heat is
added, the increase in heat is called sensible heat. Similarly when heat is removed
from a substance and the temperature falls the heat removed is called sensible heat.
The heat which causes change in temperature in a substance.
Latent heat: all pure substances are able to change
 is defined as the amount of thermal energy (heat, Q) that is absorbed or
released when a body undergoes a constant-temperature process. The
equation for specific latent heat is:
L = Q / m
where:

 L is the specific latent heat

 Q is the heat absorbed or released
 m is the mass of a substance

The most common types of constant-temperature processes are phase

changes, such as melting, freezing, vaporization, or condensation. The energy
is considered to be "latent" because it is essentially hidden within the
molecules until the phase change occurs. It is "specific" because it is expressed
in terms of energy per unit mass. The most common units of specific latent
heat are joules per gram (J/g) and kilojoules per kilogram (kJ/kg).
Specific heat
The amount of heat required to raise temperature of a unit mass of any substance
through one degree. It noted by c expressed as kj/kg k
Q= mc(T2-T1)