Answer to the question number 1

Properties of pn junction:
After the formation of pn-junction, the free electrons near the junction in the n region begin
to diffuse across the junction into the p region where they combine with the holes near the
junction. The result is that n region loses free electrons as they diffuse into the junction. This
creates a layer of positive charges(pentavalent ions) near the junction. As the electrons
move across the junction, the p region loses holes as the election and the holes combine.
The result is that there is a layer of negative charges(trivalent ions) near the junction. These
two layers of positive and negative charges form a depletion region or a depletion layer. The
term depletion is due to the fact that near the junction, the region is depleted(i.e. emptied)
of charge carriers due to the diffusion across the junction.
One the pn junction is formed and the depletion layer is created, the diffusion of free
electrons stops because the depletion layer acts as a barrier to the further movement of
free electrons across the junction. The positive and the negative set up an electric field as
shown by the black arrow in the second figure below.
 Answer to the question number 2

i. Light-Emitting Diode (LED)

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a diode that gives off visible light when forward biased. Light-
emitting diodes are not made from silicon or germanium but are made by using elements
like gallium, phosphorus and arsenic. By varying the quantities of these elements, it is
possible to produce light of different wavelengths with colours that in-clude red, green,
yellow and blue.
When light-emitting diode (LED) is for-ward biased as shown in the below the electrons
from the n-type material cross the pn junction and recombine with holes in the p-type
material. these free electrons are in the conduction band and at a higher energy level than
the holes in the valence band. When recombination takes place, the re-combining electrons
release energy in the form of heat and light. In germanium and silicon diodes, Almost entire
energy is given up in the form of heat and emitted light is insignificant. But materials like
gallium arsenide, the number of protons of light energy is sufficient to produce quite intense
visible light.

LED Symbol:
 ii. Zener Diode
A zener diode is a special type of diode that is designed to operate in the
reverse breakdown region.
A zener diode is heavily doped to reduce the reverse breakdown voltage. This
causes a very thin depletion layer. As a result, a zener diode has a sharp
reverse breakdown voltage Vz This is clear from the reverse characteristic of
zener diode shown in the Figure below. Note that the reverse characteristic
drops in an almost vertical manner at reverse voltage Vz. As the curve reveals,
two things happen when Vz is reached :
(i) The diode current increases rapidly.
(ii) (ii) The reverse voltage Vz across the diode remains almost constant.
In other words, the zener diode operated in this region will have a
relatively constant voltage across it, regardless of the value of current
through the device. This permits the zener diode to be used as a
voltage regulator.

Zener Diode symbol:

 Answer to the question number 3

(i) Working of npn transistor. The figure below shows the npn transistor
with forward bias to emitter-base junction and reverse bias to collector-
base junction. The forward bias causes the electrons in the n-type
emitter to flow towards the base. This constitutes the emitter current IE.
As these electrons flow through the p-type base, they tend to combine
with holes. As the base is lightly doped and very thin, therefore, only a
few electrons (less than 5%) combine with holes to constitute base
current IB. The remainder (more than 95%) cross over into the collector
region to constitute collector current Ic. In this way, almost the entire
emitter current flows in the collector circuit. It is clear that emitter
current is the sum of collector and base currents i.e. IE = IB + Ic

(ii) Working of pnp transistor. As the figure below shows the basic connection of a pnp
transistor. The forward bias causes the holes in the p-type emitter to flow towards
the base. This constitutes the emitter current IE . As these holes cross into n-type
base, they tend to combine with the electrons. As the base is lightly doped and very
thin, therefore, only a few holes (less than 5%) combine with the electrons. The
remainder (more than 95%) cross into the collector region to constitute collector
current Ic. In this way, almost the entire emitter current flows in the collector
circuit. It may be noted that current conduction within pip transistor is by holes.
However, in the external connecting wires, the current is still by electrons.
 Answer to the question number 4

Common Base Connection

In the common Base Connection circuit arrangement, input is applied between
emitter and base and output is taken from collec-tor and base. Here base of
the transistor is common to both input and output circuits and hence the name
common base connection. Figure (i) below shows a common base npn
transistor circuit whereas Figure (ii) shows the common base pnp transistor
circuit.

Input characteristics of Common Base Connection.

This is the curve between emitter current and emitter-base voltage at constant collector-
base voltage. The emitter current is generally taken along y- taxis (mA) and emitter-base
voltage along x-axis. The figure below shows the input characteristics of Common Base
arrangement . The following points may be noted from these characteristics :
(i) The emitter current increases rapidly with small increase in emitter-base voltage. It
means that input resistance is very small.
(ii) The emitter current is almost independent of collector-base voltage.This leads to
the conclusion that emitter current is almost independent ' • (my) I A 1 of collector
voltage. 0 10 20 30 40 50 VEB Input resistance. It is the ratio of change EMITTER-
BASE VOLTAGE