Introduction

 What is Manufacturing ?

The word manufacturing is derived from two Latin words

manus and factus. Manus means hand and factus means
make. So the combination of this two words mean made by
hand.
In broadest sense, manufacturing is a well organized method of
converting raw material to end product .

It can be defined in two ways.

1. Technologically and
2. Economically
 Classification of Manufacturing Processes

Manufacturing
Processes

Processing Operation Assembly Operation

Property Surface
Permanent Mechanical
Shaping Process Enhancing Processing
Joining Processes Fastening
Processes Operation

Cleaning &
Solidification Threaded
Heat Treatment Surface Welding
Processes Fasteners
Treatments

Coating & Permanent

Particulate Brazing &
Deposition Fastening
Processing Soldering
Processes Methods

Deformation Adhesive
Processes Bonding

Material
Removal Process
Processing Operation
A processing operation uses energy to alter a work part's shape, physical
properties, or appearance in order to add value to the material. The forms of
energy include mechanical, thermal, electrical and chemical. More than one
processing operation is usually required to transform the starting material into
final form.
Shaping Processes:
It alter the geometry of the starting material by various methods. Common
shaping processes are casting, forging and machining.

i) Solidification Processes
The processes in which the starting material is a heated liquid or semi liquid
that cools and solidify to form the part geometry.

ii) Particulate Processing

The processes in which the starting material is powder that squeezed first into a
die cavity under high pressure for getting desired geometry and then heated to
bond the individual particles together .
iii) Deformation Processes
The processes where starting material is a ductile solid that is deformed to shape the part.

iv) Material Removal Process

The processes in which the starting material is a solid, from which material is removed so
that the resulting part has the desired geometry.

Property enhancing processes:

This process add value to material by improving its physical properties without changing
its shape. Heat treatment is the most common example.

i) Heat treatment:
Heat Treatment is the controlled heating and cooling of metals to alter their physical
and mechanical properties without changing the product shape.

Physical properties are the Measurable properties which describe the physical system's
state such as Density.
Mechanical property is a property which is the behavior of the material when its
linked to the application of force such as Strength.
Surface processing operations:
They are performed to clean, treat, coat or deposit material onto the exterior
surface of the work. Painting is an example.
i)Cleaning & Surface Treatment:
Cleaning includes both chemical and mechanical processes to remove dirt, oil and
other contaminants from the surface. Surface treatments includes mechanical like
sand blasting and physical processes like ion implantation.
ii) Coating & deposition processes:
This processes apply a coating of material to the exterior surface of the work part.
Electroplating , painting are common coating and deposition processes.
Assembly Operation
The second basic type of manufacturing operation is assembly in which two
or more separate parts are joined to form a new entity. Parts are joined either
permanently or semi permanently.
i) Permanent joining processes are welding, brazing, soldering and adhesive
bonding.
ii) Mechanical Fastening:
One technique is using screws, bolts and other treaded fasteners. Other is
using rivets, press fitting, and expansion fits.
 Casting
The process in which molten metal flows by gravity or other force
into a mold where it solidifies in the shape of the mold cavity is
casting. It is one of oldest shaping processes, dating back 6000
years.
The term casting also applies to the part made
in the process
 Steps in casting seems simple:
1. Melt the metal
2. Pour it into a mold
3. Let it freeze

Mold preparation Metal Heating Pouring Cooling Processing

 Capabilities and Advantages of Casting
 Versatile process, can create intricate geometric shapes,
internal cavities, hollow sections.
 Near net shape (can produce net shape or near net shape)
 No limit to size (small (~10 grams)  very large parts (~1000
Kg)
 Economical because of little wastage (extra metal is re-
used)
 Isotropic: cast parts have same properties along all directions
 Relatively quick process
 Reasonable to good surface finish
 Some casting methods are quite suited to mass production
 Can be performed on any metal that can be heated to the
liquid State.
 Limitations of Casting

 Different disadvantages for different casting processes:

 Limitations on mechanical properties.

 Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the castings made by sand
casting processes are a limitation to this technique. Many new casting
processes have been developed which can take into consideration the
aspects of dimensional accuracy and surface finish. Some of these
processes are die casting process, investment casting process, vacuum-
sealed molding process, and shell molding process.
 Safety hazards to workers when processing hot molten metals
 Environmental problems
 Desirable Mold Properties
 Strength - Ability of the sand to maintain its shape
 Permeability - Ability to allow venting of trapped gases through
the sand. A higher permeability can reduce the porosity of the
mold, but a lower permeability can result in a better surface finish.
Permeability is determined by the size and shape of the sand
grains.
 Thermal stability - Ability to resist damage, such as cracking,
from the heat of the molten metal.
 Collapsibility - Ability of the sand to collapse, or more accurately
compress, during solidification of the casting. If the sand can not
compress, then the casting will not be able to shrink freely in the
mold and can result in cracking.
 Reusability - ability to reuse sand from broken mold to make
other molds.
 The Pattern
A full size model of the part, slightly enlarged to account for
shrinkage and machining allowances in the casting is called pattern.
It is a replica of the object to be cast, used to prepare the cavity into
which molten material will be poured during the casting process.
Some internal surfaces may not be included in the pattern, as they
will be created by separate cores.
 Pattern materials:
Several different materials can be used to fabricate a pattern

 Wood - Wood is very common because it is easy to shape and

is inexpensive, however it can warp and deform easily. Wood
also will wear quicker from the sand.
 Metal - is more expensive, but will last longer and has higher
tolerances. The pattern can be reused to create the cavity for
many molds of the same part. Since its lasts longer, therefore
reduce tooling costs.
 Plastic – They are light in weight, durable, corrosion resistive.
 Wax and Plaster of Paris are also used, but only for
specialized applications.
 Types of Patterns
(The common types of patterns are:

1) Single piece pattern

2) Split piece pattern
3) Loose piece pattern
4) Gated pattern
5) Match pattern
6) Sweep pattern
7) Cope and drag pattern
8) Skeleton pattern
9) Shell pattern
10) Follow board pattern
Furnaces for Casting Processes
 Furnaces most commonly used in foundries:
 Cupolas
 Direct fuel-fired furnaces
 Crucible furnaces
 Electric-arc furnaces
 Induction furnaces
Additional Steps After
Solidification
 Trimming
 Removing the core
 Surface cleaning
 Inspection
 Repair, if required
 Heat treatment
 General Defects: Misrun
A casting that has solidified before completely filling mold
cavity

Figure : Some common defects in castings: (a) misrun

 General Defects: Cold Shut
Two portions of metal flow together but there is a lack of
fusion due to premature freezing

Figure : Some common defects in castings: (b) cold shut

 General Defects: Cold Shot
Metal splatters during pouring and solid globules form and
become entrapped in casting

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (c) cold shot

 General Defects: Shrinkage Cavity

Depression in surface or internal void caused by

solidification shrinkage that restricts amount of
molten metal available in last region to freeze

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (d) shrinkage cavity

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
M P Groover, Fundamentals of
Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Sand Casting Defects: Sand Blow
Balloon-shaped gas cavity caused by release of
mold gases during pouring

Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (a) sand blow

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

M P Groover, Fundamentals of
Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Sand Casting Defects: Pin Holes
Formation of many small gas cavities at or
slightly below surface of casting

Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (b) pin holes

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
M P Groover, Fundamentals of
Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Sand Casting Defects: Penetration
When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may
penetrate into sand mold or core, causing
casting surface to consist of a mixture of sand
grains and metal

Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (e) penetration

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
M P Groover, Fundamentals of
Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Sand Casting Defects: Mold Shift

A step in cast product at parting line caused by

sidewise relative displacement of cope and drag

Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (f) mold shift

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

M P Groover, Fundamentals of
Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Cooling Curve for a Pure Metal
 A pure metal solidifies at a constant temperature equal
to its freezing point (same as melting point)

Figure : Cooling curve for a pure metal during casting.