L13: The Bipolar Transistor

 In 1947, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain built the first

functioning point contact transistor at Bell Laboratories,
shown in Figure. It was nearly classified as a military secret,
but Bell Labs publicly introduced the device the following
year.
 The invention of the transistor earned the Nobel Prize in
Physics in 1956 for Bardeen, Brattain,
and their supervisor William Shockley.

FIGURE: First transistor (Property of

AT&T Archives)and
  The single-junction devices, pn junction
diode, can be used to obtain rectifying
current-voltage characteristics, and to form
electronics switching circuits.
 The transistor is a multifunction
semiconductor device that, in conjunction
with other circuit elements, is capable of
current gain, voltage gain, and signal-power
gain.
 The transistor is therefore referred to as an
active device whereas the diode is passive.
 There are two types of transistors: Field Effect
Transistor (FET) and Bipolar Junction
Transistor (BJT).

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  The Bipolar transistor has three separately
doped regions and two pn junctions,
sufficiently close together so that interaction
occur between the two junctions.
Transistor

Field Effect Bipolar

Transistor Junction
(FET) Transistor

Junction MOSFET
Field Effect Metal-oxide-
Transistor Semiconductor
FET

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  Since the flows of both electrons and holes
are involved in this device, it is called a
bipolar transistor.
 Since there is more than one pn junction in
the bipolar transistor, several combinations
of reverse- and forward-bias junction
voltages are possible, leading to different
operating modes in the device.
 The bipolar transistor is a current-controlled
current source.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  The bipolar transistor has three separately
doped regions and two pn junctions.
 Figure shows the basic structure of an npn
bipolar transistor and a pnp bipolar
transistor, along with the circuit symbols.
 The three terminal connections are called the
emitter, base, and collector.

Fig.: Simplified block diagrams and circuit symbols of (a) npn and (b) pnp
bipolar transistors.
Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen
  The width of the base region is small
compared to the minority carrier diffusion
length.
 The (++) and (+) notation indicates the
relative magnitudes of the impurity doping
concentrations normally used in the bipolar
transistor, with (++) meaning very heavily
doped and (+) meaning moderately doped.
 The emitter region has the largest doping
concentration; the collector region has the
smallest.
 The concepts developed for the pn junction
apply directly to the bipolar transistor.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  Fig.a shows a cross section of a classic npn
bipolar transistor fabricated in an integrated
circuit configuration, and Fig.b shows the
cross section of an npn bipolar transistor
fabricated by a more modern technology.

Fig.: Cross section of (a) a conventional integrated circuit npn bipolar

transistor and (b) an oxide-isolated npn bipolar transistor.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  We know that the reverse saturation current
through this diode depends on the rate at which
minority carriers are generated in the
neighborhood of the junction.

Fig.: - External control of the current in a reverse-biased p-n junction: (a)

optical generation; (b) junction l-V characteristics as a function of EHP
generation; (c) minority carrier injection by a hypothetical device.
SOLID STATE ELECTRONIC DEVICES, 6th Ed. by B. G. Streetman and S. K. Banerjee
 We found that the reverse current due to
holes being swept from n to p is essentially
independent of the size of the junction E field
and hence is independent of the reverse bias.
 The reason given was that the hole current
depends on how often minority holes are
generated by EHP creation within a diffusion
length of the junction—not upon how fast a
particular hole is swept across the depletion
layer by the field.
 As a result, it is possible to increase the
reverse current through the diode by
increasing the rate of EHP generation (Fig.).

SOLID STATE ELECTRONIC DEVICES, 6th Ed. by B. G. Streetman and S. K. Banerjee

 One convenient method for accomplishing
this is optical excitation of EHPs with light (hv
> Eg).
 With steady photo-excitation the reverse
current will still be essentially independent of
bias voltage, and if the dark saturation
current is negligible, the reverse current is
directly proportional to the optical generation
rate gop.
 The example of external control of current
through a junction by optical generation
raises an interesting question: Is it possible
to inject minority carriers in to the
neighborhood of the junction electrically
instead of optically?
SOLID STATE ELECTRONIC DEVICES, 6th Ed. by B. G. Streetman and S. K. Banerjee
  A convenient hole injection device is a
forward-biased p+-n junction.
 We know that the current in such a junction is
due primarily to holes injected from the p+
region into the n material.
 If we make the n side of the forward-biased
junction the same as the n side of the
reverse-biased junction, the p+-n-p structure
of Fig. results.

Fig.:Schematic representation
of a p-n-p device with a
forward-biased emitter
Junction and a reverse
Biased collector junction

SOLID STATE ELECTRONIC DEVICES, 6th Ed. by B. G. Streetman and S. K. Banerjee

 With this configuration, injection of holes
from the p+-n junction into the center n
region supplies the minority carrier holes to
participate in the reverse current through the
n-p junction.
 Of course, it is important that the injected
holes do not recombine in the n region
before they can diffuse to the depletion layer
of the reverse biased junction.
 Thus we must make the n region narrow
compared with a hole diffusion length.

SOLID STATE ELECTRONIC DEVICES, 6th Ed. by B. G. Streetman and S. K. Banerjee

  Figure shows an idealized impurity doping
profile in an npn bipolar transistor for the
case when each region is uniformly doped.
 Typical impurity doping concentrations in the
emitter, base, and collector may be on the
order of 1019, 1017, and 1015 cm-3,
respectively.

Fig.: Idealized doping profile of a uniformly doped npn bipolar transistor.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen
  The base–emitter (B–E) pn junction is forward
biased and the base–collector (B–C) pn
junction is reverse biased in the normal bias
configuration as shown in Fig.

Fig.: (a) Biasing of an npn bipolar

transistor in the forward-active mode

(b) minority carrier distribution in an npn

bipolar transistor operating in the forward
-active mode.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  This configuration is called the forward-
active operating mode: The B–E junction is
forward biased so electrons from the emitter
are injected across the B–E junction into the
base.
 These injected electrons create an excess
concentration of minority carriers in the base.
 The B–C junction is reverse biased, so the
minority carrier electron concentration at the
edge of the B–C junction is ideally zero.
 The electron concentration in the base is
expected to be like that shown in fig. b.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  The large gradient in the electron
concentration means that electrons injected
from the emitter will diffuse across the base
region into the B–C space charge region,
where the electric field will sweep the
electrons into the collector.
 It is required that as many electrons as
possible to reach the collector without
recombining with any majority carrier holes in
the base.
 For this reason, the width of the base needs
to be small compared with the minority
carrier diffusion length.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  If the base width is small, then the minority
carrier electron concentration is a function of
both the B–E and B–C junction voltages.
 The two junctions are close enough to be
called interacting pn junctions.

Fig.: energy-band diagram of the npn bipolar transistor under zero bias
and under a forward-active mode bias.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  It is clear that current lE flows into the emitter
of a properly biased p-n-p transistor and that
lc flows out at the collector, since the
direction of hole flow is from emitter to
collector.

Fig.: Summary of hole

and electron flow
in a p-n-p transistor
with proper biasing.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  In a good transistor the base current will be very
small since IE is essentially hole current, and the
collected hole current Ic is almost equal to IE.
 There must be some base current, however, due
to requirements of electron flow into the n-type
base region.
 We can account for lB physically by three
dominant mechanisms:
(a) There must be some recombination of
injected holes with electrons in the base, even
with Wb << Lp. The electrons lost to
recombination must be resupplied through the
base contact.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

 (b) Some electrons will be injected from n to
p in the forward-biased emitter junction,
even if the emitter is heavily doped compared
to the base. These electrons must also be
supplied by IB.
(c) Some electrons are swept into the base at
the reverse-biased collector junction due to
thermal generation in the collector. This
small current reduces IB by supplying
electrons to the base.
 The dominant sources of base current are (a)
recombination in the base and (b) injection
into the emitter region.
 Both of these effects can be greatly reduced
by device design.
Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen
  In a well-designed transistor, IB will be a very
small fraction (perhaps one-hundredth) of IE.
 In an n-p-n transistor the three current
directions are reversed, since electrons flow
from emitter to collector and holes must be
supplied to the base.
 The physical mechanisms for operation of the
n-p-n can be understood simply by reversing
the roles of electrons and holes in the p-n-p
discussion.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  The minority carrier concentrations are again
shown in Fig. for an npn bipolar transistor
biased in the forward-active mode.

Fig.: Minority carrier

distributions and basic
currents in a forward-biased
npn bipolar transistor.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  Ideally, the minority carrier electron
concentration in the base is a linear function
of distance, which implies no recombination.
 The electrons diffuse across the base and are
swept into the collector by the electric field in
the B–C space charge region.
 Collector Current:- Assuming the ideal linear
electron distribution in the base, the collector
current can be written as a diffusion current
given by IC1(electron diffusion) and IC2 (hole)

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  Hole diffusion current is given by

 Total Collector Current is given by

 Emitter Current: One component of emitter

current, IE1, shown in Fig. is due to the flow of
electrons injected from the emitter into the
base.
Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen
  This current, then, is equal to the collector
current IC1.
 Since the base–emitter junction is forward
biased, majority carrier holes in the base are
injected across the B–E junction into the
emitter.
 These injected holes produce a pn junction
current IE2 as indicated in Fig.
 This current is only a B–E junction current so
this component of emitter current is not part
of the collector current.
 Since IE2 is a forward-biased pn junction
current, we can write

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

 We as know that
 Hence the ratio of collector current to emitter
current is a constant.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  where α is called the common-base current
gain.
 Since IE2 is not part of the basic transistor
action, we would like this component of
current to be as small as possible.
 We would then like the common-base current
gain to be as close to unity as possible.
 Referring to Fig. and Equation, note that the
emitter current is an exponential function of
the base–emitter voltage and the collector
current is IC= αIE.
 The collector current is independent of the
base– collector voltage as long as the B–C
junction is reverse biased.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  We can sketch the common base transistor
characteristics as shown in Figure.
 The bipolar transistor acts like a constant
current source.

Fig.: Ideal bipolar transistor

common-base current–voltage
characteristics.

 Base Current: As shown in minority carrier

distribution Fig., the component of emitter
current iE2 is a B–E junction current so that
this current is also a component of base
current shown as iBa.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  This component of base current is
proportional to exp(VBE/Vt).
 There is also a second component of base
current.
 We have considered the ideal case in which
there is no recombination of minority carrier
electrons with majority carrier holes in the
base.
 However, in reality, there will be some
recombination.
 The ratio of collector current to base current
is a constant since both currents are directly
proportional to exp(VBE/Vt).
 where β is called the common-emitter current
gain.
Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen
 COMMON-BASE CONFIGURATION
 In Fig., a p-n-p transistor is shown in a
grounded-base configuration.
 This circuit is also referred to as a common-
base, or CB, configuration, since the base is
common to the input and output circuits.
 For a p-n-p transistor the largest current
components are due to holes.

Fig.: A p-n-p transistor biased in the active

region (the emitter is forward-biased and
the collector is reverse-biased).

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  To fully describe the behaviour of a three-terminal
device such as the common base amplifiers of Fig.
requires two sets of characteristics—one for the
driving point or input parameters and the other for
the output side.
 The input set for the common-base amplifier as
shown in Fig. will relate an input current (IE) to an
input voltage (VBE) for various levels of output
voltage (VCB).

Fig.: Input or driving point

characteristics for a common
-base silicon transistor
amplifier.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  The output set will relate an output current
(IC) to an output voltage (VCB) for various
levels of input current (IE) as shown in Fig.

Fig.: Output or collector

characteristics for a
common-base
transistor amplifier.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  The output or collector set of characteristics
has three basic regions of interest, as
indicated in Fig.: the active, cutoff, and
saturation regions.
 The active region is the region normally
employed for linear (undistorted) amplifiers.
 In the active region the collector-base
junction is reverse-biased, while the base-
emitter junction is forward-biased.
 The active region is defined by the biasing
arrangements of Fig.
 At the lower end of the active region the
emitter current (IE) is zero, the collector
current is simply that due to the reverse
saturation current ICO, as indicated in Fig.
Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen
  The current ICO is so small (microamperes) in
magnitude compared to the vertical scale of
IC (milli-amperes) that it appears on virtually
the same horizontal line as IC =0.
 The notation most frequently used for ICO on
data and specification sheets is ICBO.
 Because of improved construction techniques,
the level of ICBO for general-purpose
transistors (especially silicon) in the low- and
mid power ranges is usually so low that its
effect can be ignored.
 However, for higher power units ICBO will still
appear in the microampere range.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  In addition, keep in mind that ICBO, like Is, for
the diode (both reverse leakage currents) is
temperature sensitive.
 In addition, keep in mind that ICBO, like Is, for
the diode (both reverse leakage currents) is
temperature sensitive.
 At higher temperatures the effect of ICBO may
become an important factor since it increases
so rapidly with temperature.
 For Silicon or Germanium, the reverse
saturation current (Reverse leakage current)
approximately doubles for every 10 0C rise in
temperature.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  Note in Fig. that as the emitter current
increases above zero, the collector current
increases to a magnitude essentially equal to
that of the emitter current as determined by
the basic transistor-current relations.
 Note also the almost negligible effect of VCB
on the collector current for the active region.
 The curves clearly indicate that a first
approximation to the relationship between IE
and IC in the active region is given by

 As inferred by its name, the cutoff region is

defined as that region where the collector
current is 0 A, as revealed on Fig.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  In the cutoff region the collector-base and
base-emitter junctions of a transistor are
both reverse-biased.
 The saturation region is defined as that
region of the characteristics to the left of VCB
=0 V.
 The horizontal scale in this region was
expanded to clearly show the dramatic
change in characteristics in this region.
 In the saturation region the collector-base
and base-emitter junctions are forward-
biased.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  We know that the width W of the depletion
region of a diode increases with the
magnitude of the reverse voltage.
 Since the emitter junction is forward-biased
but the collector junction is reverse-biased in
the active region, then in Fig. the barrier
width at JE is negligible compared with the
space-charge width W at JC.
 The transition region at a junction is the
region of uncovered charges on both sides of
the junction at the positions occupied by the
impurity atoms.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  As the voltage applied across the junction
increases, the transition region penetrates
deeper into the collector and base.

Fig. :a)The potential variation

through a p-n-p transistor.
(b) The injected minority-carrier
charge density within the base.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  Since the doping in the base is ordinarily
substantially larger than that of the collector,
the penetration of the transition region into
the base is much smaller than into the
collector.
 If the metallurgical base width is WB, then the
effective electrical base width is W`B= WB – W.
 This modulation of the effective base width
by the collector voltage is known as the Early
effect.
 The decrease in WB` with increasing reverse
collector voltage has three consequences:
First, there is less chance for recombination
within the base region.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  Hence α increases with increasing |VCB |.
 Second, the concentration gradient of
minority carriers pn is increased within the
base.
 Since the hole current injected across the
emitter is proportional to the gradient of pn at
JE, then IE increases with increasing reverse
collector voltage.
 Third, for extremely large voltages, WB` may
be reduced to zero, causing voltage
breakdown in the transistor and the control
of Base lost over the Emitter Current. This
phenomenon is known as punch-through.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  Most transistor circuits have the emitter, rather
than the base, as the terminal common to both
input and output.
 Such a common-emitter (CE), or grounded-emitter,
configuration is indicated in Fig.
 In the common-emitter configuration, the input
current and the output voltage are taken as the
independent variables, whereas the input voltage
and output current are the dependent variables.

Fig.: A transistor common-emitter

configuration.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  We may write

 Equations describe the family of input

characteristic curves, and the family of output
characteristic curves respectively.
 The Input Characteristics:-In Fig. the abscissa is
the base current IB, the ordinate is the base to
emitter voltage VBE, and the curves are given for
various values of collector to emitter voltage VCE.
 We observe that, with the collector shorted to the
emitter and the emitter forward-biased, the input
characteristic is essentially that of a forward-
biased diode.
 If VBE becomes zero, then IB will be zero, since
under these conditions both emitter and collector
junctions will be short-circuited.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  In general, increasing |VCE | with constant VBE
causes a decrease in base width WB` and
results in a decreasing recombination base
current.

Fig.: Typical common-emitter input

characteristics of the p-n-p
germanium junction transistor

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  The Output Characteristics: In Fig. the
abscissa is the collector-to-emitter voltage
VCE, the ordinate is the collector current IC ,
and the curves are given for various values of
base current IB.

Fig.: Typical common-emitter output

Characteristics of a p-n-p germanium
Junction transistor.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  For a fixed value of IB, the collector current is
not a very sensitive value of VCE.
 This family of curves may be divided into
three regions (Active, Cutoff and Saturation
regions), just as was done for the CB
configuration.
 In the active region the collector junction is
reverse-biased and the emitter junction is
forward-biased.
 In Fig. the active region is the area to the
right of the ordinate VCE = a few tenths of a
volt and above IB = 0.
 In this region the transistor output current
responds most sensitively to an input signal.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  From Kirchhoffs current law (KCL) applied to
Common Emitter Circuit, the base current is
IB = – (IC + IE)
And we know that IC = ICO – αIE
Combining both equations

If we define β by
then Eq. becomes

Note that usually IB >> ICO, and hence IC ≈ β IB in

the active region.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  The Ebers–Moll model, or equivalent circuit, is
one of the classic models of the bipolar
transistor.
 This model is known as Diode-diode model.
 This particular model is based on the
interacting diode junctions and is applicable
in any of the transistor operating modes.
 Figure shows the current directions and
voltage polarities used in the Ebers–Moll
model.

Figure: Current direction and

voltage polarity definitions for
the Ebers–Moll model.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  The currents are defined as all entering the
terminals so that

 As we know collector current equation

 And Emitter current equation

Fig.: Basic Ebers–Moll

equivalent circuit.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  Figure shows the equivalent circuit
corresponding to Equations of IC and IE.
 The current sources in the equivalent circuit
represent current components that depend
on voltages across other junctions.
 The Ebers–Moll model has four parameters:
αF, αR, IES, and ICS.
 The reciprocity relationship states that

 Since the Ebers–Moll model is valid in each of

the four operating modes.
 In the saturation mode, both B–E and B–C
junctions are forward biased, so that VBE > 0
and VBC >0.

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  The B–E voltage will be a known parameter
since we will apply a voltage across this
junction.
 The forward-biased B–C voltage is a result of
driving the transistor into saturation and is
the unknown to be determined from the
Ebers–Moll equations.
 Normally in electronic circuit applications, the
collector–emitter voltage at saturation is of
interest.
 We can define the C–E saturation voltage as

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen

  By using these four equation we can find
VCEsat as given by

Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles by Donald A. Neamen