Dia Cinco PROT 401 - r0 PDF

Revision Table
Editor Tech TDS Date Rev Comments

Review Review #
CRT CRT 5/21/02 2 Tech review edits, corrected some formulas
CLS CLS 5/24/02 3 TDS review, fonts drawings and formatting changes
Power System Basics r4 1

Technical papers supporting this section:
6022.pdf, Z = V/I Does Not Make a Distance Relay by J. Roberts; A. Guzman; E.O.
Schweitzer, III
General books of Power System Protection.
Revision Table
Review Review #
LGP CLS 8/22/02 4 Objectives added
CLS 8/22/02 6 Rev table correction
LGP CLS 2-25-03 7 Convert to white, fix animations

This section is an introduction to the topic of transmission line protection using distance
relays.
l Further
h sections
i andd courses will
ill complete
l the
h wide
id andd interesting
i i topici off
distance protection.

For a perfect three-phase fault, only the positive-sequence impedance is involved in the
calculations.
l l i With
i h the
h usuall convention,
i theh phase
h “a” voltage
l andd current are equall to the
h
positive-sequence voltage and current.

The positive-sequence impedance diagram for a three-phase fault is as shown in the
figure.
fi
For this radial system, disregarding the influence of load, the fault current in each phase
is balanced and is equal to the phase current measured by the relays at the substation.
This current depends on the following parameters:
• System voltage
• Line impedance
• Distance to the fault
• Thevenin impedance equivalent to the system “behind” the substation bus
The Thevenin impedance depends on the conditions of the system, such as the topology
and system loading.

A phase instantaneous overcurrent element is set to detect fault currents up to 80 percent
off the
h line
li length.
l h This
hi gives
i enoughh security
i margini (20
( percent)) to avoid id non-selective
l i
operation for faults beyond the remote bus. The relay setting is calculated for a given
value of the equivalent ZS1.

As the system topology behind the substation bus changes, ZS1 changes. As a result, the
relay
l “reach” h will
ill change.
h The
h only
l way to avoid id non-selective
l i operationsi for
f faults
f l
beyond the remote bus is to calculate the instantaneous setting for the worst case value of
ZS1, which results in a shorter reach of the instantaneous element for all other system
configurations. It is highly probable that the system presents the worst case value for
relatively short periods of time, meaning that the relay reach will be permanently
sacrificed for a situation that occurs for short periods. This is a disadvantage of
instantaneous overcurrent relays.

Suppose that it is possible to design a relay that operates not when the current is larger
than
h a given
i threshold,
h h ld butb whenh theh phase
h voltage
l is
i less
l than
h theh current times
i a
constant, as shown in the figure.
This relay requires voltage and current information.

The inequality originally stated in terms of voltage and current implicitly states that the
relay
l willill operate when
h theh distance
di to the
h fault
f l is
i less
l than
h a given
i limit
li i distance,
di called
ll d
the distance relay reach.
Ideally, the reach of such a relay does not depend on the source impedance.

This relay is called impedance or “under-impedance” relay because the relay design is
suchh that
h the
h relay
l operates for
f an impedance
i d condition.
di i The h relay
l measures or “sees” a
given impedance, equal to the ratio of the applied sinusoidal voltage and the applied
sinusoidal current.

The apparent impedance is a concept used to describe the impedance “measured’ or
“seen” by
b a distance
di relay.
l It is
i defined
d fi d as the
h ratioi between
b the
h voltage
l andd current
phasors applied to the relay. For the particular case that has been described, these
quantities are Va and Ia.

The maximum reach of the distance relay, in terms of impedance, is normally an
adjustable
dj bl value
l off the
h relay.
l Therefore,
h f the
h same relay
l can bbe usedd ffor diff
different lines.
li

The figure shows the simplest design for an under-impedance relay. The current is passed
through
h h a single
i l amplifier.
lifi The
h magnitude
i d off the
h resulting
l i quantity
i is
i comparedd to the
h
magnitude of the voltage by a two-input magnitude comparator. The gain of the amplifier
Zr1 is the relay setting.
In the past, these devices were implemented through use of an electromechanical balance
unit. Today, in computer-based relays, the relay equation is directly implemented in the
relay routines.

This example shows the calculations involved in the determination of a simple impedance
relay
l setting.
i

The setting calculated in the former slide is in primary ohms. Because the relay is
connectedd to CTs andd VTs, the
h ratios
i off the
h instrument
i transformer
f must be
b considered.
id d
It is usual to find an impedance ratio ZTR = VTR/CTR to determine the secondary

impedance measured by the relay. This ZTR is also used to determine the actual relay
setting, in secondary ohms.

This is the same example as before, but now the relay setting is calculated in secondary
ohms.
h

The complex plane is commonly used to represent the apparent impedance measured by
di
distance relays.
l

A plain impedance relay will operate for any apparent impedance whose magnitude is
l than,
less h or equall to, the
h relay
l setting.
i In theh complexl plane,
l this
hi is
i representedd by
b the
h
region within a circle with radius equal to the relay setting. The border of the circle
represents the operation threshold of the relay.

The unit distance is the distance to the fault in per unit of the total line’s length. This
parameter is
i commonly l usedd in
i protective
i relaying.
l i

If the apparent impedance of a distance relay is calculated for three-phase bolted faults
along
l the
h line,
li for
f distances
di varying
i from
f 0 miles
il to L miles,
il theh resulting
l i set off complex
l
numbers can be plotted in the complex impedance plane.

This set of points is a line segment as shown in the figure. The segment has the same
l
length
h andd angle
l as the
h totall line
li impedance
i d andd is
i called
ll d the
h bolted
b l d fault
f l locus.
l

If the fault locus is superimposed with the relay operating characteristic in the same
complex
l plane,
l the
h resulting
l i plot
l indicates
i di the
h degree
d off protection
i off the
h relay.
l The h case
shown in the figure represents a case in which the relay has been set to reach faults up to
~80 percent of the line.

During normal load conditions, the impedance “seen” by a distance relay has a magnitude
muchh llarger than
h the
h length
l h off the
h bolted
b l d fault
f l locus
l (line).
(li ) When
h a fault
f l occurs, the
h
impedance moves instantly to a point in the complex plane located on, or very near, the
bolted fault locus. The accuracy of this statement for non-bolted faults will be shown
later.

There are three traditional distance elements: impedance-type, reactance-type, and mho-
type distance
di elements.
l
The figure shows the operation equation and operating characteristic of a mho distance
element. The characteristic is the locus of all apparent impedance values for which the
relay element is on the verge of operation. The operation zone is located inside the circle,
and the resraint zone is the region outside the circle.
The mho characteristic is a circle passing through the origin of the impedance plane. The
mho element operates for impedances inside the circle
circle. The characteristic is oriented
towards the first quadrant, which is where forward faults are located. For reverse faults,
the apparent impedance lies in the third quadrant and represents a restraint condition. The
fact that the circle passes through the origin is an indication of the inherent directionality
of the mho elements. However, close-in bolted faults result in a very small voltage at the
relay that may result in a loss of the voltage polarizing signal. This needs to be taken into
consideration when selecting the appropriate mho element polarizing quantity.
There are typically

Th t i ll two
t settings
tti in
i a mhoh element:
l t the
th characteristic
h t i ti diameter,
di t ZM, and d the
th
angle of this diameter with respect to the R axis, ϕMT. The angle is equivalent to the
maximum torque angle of a directional element. The mho element presents its longest
reach (greatest sensitivity) when the apparent impedance angle ϕ coincides with ϕMT.
Normally, ϕMT is set close to the protected line impedance angle to ensure maximum
relay sensitivity for faults and minimum sensitivity for load conditions.

The early electromechanical relays with a MHO characteristic used a product unit
(i d i cylinder
(induction li d element)
l ) to achieve
hi the
h torque equation:
i (θ θMT) > 0.
V2 – V I cos(θ-θ
Analog static relays used a two-input phase comparator to create the MHO characteristic.
The inputs to the comparator are properly mixed from the original voltage and current to
obtain the desired behavior.

These simple algebraic manipulations show how the voltage-current equations become
i
impedance
d equations.
i

The operation condition is the region within the MHO circle. Zr and the angle, defining
the
h circle
i l diameter,
di are the
h relay
l settings.
i
The shape and position of the circle can be changed by changing the inputs to the phase
comparator.
Currently, with computer-based relays, it is much easier to implement a MHO relay.

So far, a directional distance relay, which operates instantaneously and is set to reach less
than
h 100 percent off theh protected d li
line, has
h been
b described.
d ib d Two important
i principles
i i l off
protection have been missing:
1. What happens for a fault on the protected line that is beyond the reach of the relay?
2. If the relay operates instantaneously, it cannot be used as a remote back-up for a

relay protecting a line adjacent to the remote substation.
These two problems are overcome by adding time-delay

time delay distance relays. This is
accomplished by using the distance relay to start a definite time timer. The output of the
timer can then be used as a tripping signal.
The figure shows how a second zone (or step) is added to each of the directional
impedance relays. A third zone, with a larger delay, can also be added.
The operation time of the second zone is usually around 0.3 seconds, and the third zone
around 0.6 seconds. However, the required time depends on the particular application.
The ohmic reach of each zone also depends on the particular power system. The figure
and the next slide show a typical reach scheme for three zones.
What about Circuit Breakers 2, 4 and 5?

The slide shows how the instantaneous Zone 1, and the delayed Zones 2 and 3 look in a
complex
l impedance
i d plane
l if MHO units
i are usedd for
f allll three
h zones. Note the h reference
f to
buses A, B, and C of the previous slide, which indicate that the distance elements
correspond to the relays associate with Circuit Breaker 1, located at Substation A.

What about Circuit Breakers 2, 4, and 5?
The figure shows the operating time as a function of the electrical distance for six distance relays.
Here, the relays “looking” in both directions are shown. We show the characteristics for Relays 1,
3, and 5 above the system one-line diagram. We represent the characteristics for Relays 2, 4, and
5 below the one-line diagram.
Zone 1 must underreach the remote line end to make sure that it will not operate for faults in the
adjacent lines. Zone 2 is intended to cover the end of the protected line, so it must overreach the
protected line. Zone 3 is intended to provide remote backup protection to adjacent lines, so it must
overreachh the
th longest
l t adjacent
dj t line.
li
We typically leave a coordination interval (including breaker tripping time) between Zones 1 and
2 and between Zones 2 and 3 of adjacent distance relays. This means that the end of Zone 2 of a
backup relay should not overlap with the begininning of Zone 2 of the primary relay. The same is
true for adjacent third zones. This is not always possible, however.
In the figure, we can see that faults located in the central section of a given line are cleared by
simultaneous and instantaneous operation of the first zones at both line ends. Should a first zone
f il to
fail t operate,
t the
th remotet backup
b k relay l operates
t ini secondd or third
thi d zone. On
O the
th other
th hand,
h d faults
f lt
close to one line end will be cleared sequentially: the nearest line end will operate in first zone,
and the remote end will operate in second zone. This sequential fault clearing is a limitation of
distance protection, because it could jeopardize system stability.
An advantage of distance protection over directional overcurrent protection is that the distance
first zone reach depends less on system operating conditions than the reach of the instantaneous
overcurrent element. In other words, distance protection provides better instantaneous line
coverage.

The figure is an impedance-plane representation of a line protection scheme using mho
di
distance relays
l (both
(b h directions).
di i ) A longitudinal
l i di l system isi formed
f d by
b transmission
i i lines
li
AB, BC, AD, and DE. The line impedances are plotted on the complex plane, using
substation A as the origin of coordinates for convenience. The mho circles represent the
three zones of the distance schemes at both ends of line AB.

The figure shows several commonly used circular distance relay characteristics. For
analog
l relays,
l these
h characteristics
h i i can be
b obtained
b i d withi h phase
h and/or
d/ magnitude
i d
comparators. In microprocessor-based relays, they are implemented using mathematical
algorithms.

Another group of traditional distance relay characteristics.
The use of one characteristic or another depends on several factors associated with the
power system. These factors will be studied during this course.

Solid-state and digital relays permit creation of highly sophisticated distance
characteristics.
h i i An example l is
i the
h quadrilateral
d il l characteristic.
h i i You can shape
h the
h
characteristic to meet different line protection requirements. The price for this flexibility
is setting complexity: there are four settings in a quadrilateral characteristic.
The figure shows the popular qudrilateral charateristic. Proper applciation of this
characteristic will be explained later in this course.

So far, the design, operation, and setting of distance relays for three-phase bolted faults
h bbeen studied.
has di d In this
hi part off the
h course, iit will
ill be
b shown
h that
h theh voltage
l andd current
applied to the relay for it to correctly measure the “distance to the fault” depends on the
type of fault.
Different types of bolted short circuits on a transmission line will be studied to determine
the phase currents and voltages (Ia, Ib, Ic, Va, Vb, Vc) at the distance relay location.

The three-phase, short-circuit case is repeated here to introduce the procedure to be used.
The line equations correspond to a symmetrical, or transposed, line. The three phases are
set to zero voltage at the fault location. The unit distance, m, is used as the distance to the
fault point.

Recall the relationships between the self and mutual impedances with the positive-
sequence and d zero-sequence impedances.
i d

The algebraic development shows that a single distance element is enough to detect
b l
balancedd three-phase
h h ffaults.
l Theh element
l should
h ld beb connectedd to any phase
h voltage
l andd
current to properly measure the positive-sequence impedance existing between the relay
location and the fault. This impedance is directly proportional to the distance.

For a b-c fault, the relevant border condition is that the voltages of phase b and c are
equall at the
h fault
f l point.
i

The algebraic manipulation leads to the conclusion shown in the slide.
A similar development can be done for a-b and c-a faults.

The table summarizes phase distance element connections. Line-to-line voltages and the
diff
difference off the
h currents off these
h lines
li are usedd as relay
l input
i signals.
i l The h result
l is
i that
h
the relay element, corresponding to the fault loop, measures the positive-sequence
impedance of the faulted line section.

The case of a Phase A-to-ground fault is studied by making the Phase A voltage equal to
zero at the
h fault
f l point.
i The h equation
i for
f Phase
h A is
i then
h algebraically
l b i ll manipulated
i l d as
shown in the next slide.

The result of the manipulation is that, for the relay to properly measure the positive
sequence impedance
i d between
b the
h relay
l location
l i andd the
h fault,
f l theh relay
l must receive:
i
• The phase “a” voltage
• The phase “a” current plus a residual current compensation factor.
The compensation factor, ko, is called the residual compensation factor, or the zero
sequence compensation factor because the residual current is three times the zero-
sequence current.
A similar result is obtained for b-to-ground and c-to-ground faults.

The table summarizes ground distance element connections. Phase voltages and
compensated d line
li currents are usedd as relay
l input
i signals.
i l The h current signal
i l is
i
compensated by adding a factor derived from the zero-sequence current. The multiplying
factor k0 is, in general, a complex number that depends on the line zero-sequence and
positive-sequence impedances.
There are two basic sources of error in this connection. One of these is line asymmetry.
By using a symmetrical component scope, it is assumed that the line is ideally transposed.
Untransposed lines, however, are becoming very common. Line asymmetry could
produce errors on the order of 5 percent in distance estimation. This error needs to be
accomodated by pulling back the relay first zone reach.
Another source of error is the typical assumption that angles ZL1 and ZL0 are equal. Under
this assumption, k0 is a real number. In analog relays, it is much easier to create a real
number than a complex multiplying factor.
There are other connections for ground distance elements. One of these uses the phase
voltage
lt andd a compensated
t d line
li currentt as input
i t signals.
i l The Th connection
ti uses the
th currents
t
of the other two lines (instead of the zero-sequence current) for compensation.
Asymmetrical lines are not a source of error for this connection. A drawback is
complexity: you must set two multiplying factors (instead of only k0).

The table summarizes the results obtained in the former development.
There are other ways of connecting (polarizing) the distance relays. This particular way is
called the self-polarizing scheme.
In the past, six relays (or measuring units) were required for each distance relay zone to
implement a non-switching scheme like this. Today, this protection can be implemented
in a single microprocessor-based relay.

In summary, distance protection uses current and voltage information to make a direct, or
i di
indirect, estimate
i off the
h distance
di to the
h fault.
f l Phase
h distance
di elements
l (21)
( ) are more
sensitive than phase directional overcurrent elements (67). On the other hand, ground
distance elements (21N) are less sensitive than ground directional overcurrent elements
(67N). A widely used combination for transmission line protection uses 21 elements for
phase fault protection and 67N elements for ground fault protection.

Transmission line protection is complex. Problems such as infeed, fault resistance,
unequall measuredd impedances
i d during
d i faults,
f l load
l d encroachment,
h andd mutuall coupling
li
affect the apparent impedance of distance relays. Fault resistance and mutual coupling
also affect ground directional overcurrent relays. These problems may be complicated by
the evolving character of many faults.

All these problems may affect distance and directional overcurrent relays. Cross-country
f l simultaneous
faults, i l faults,
f l andd CT saturation
i may alsol present a problem
bl forf differential
diff i l
schemes.
Series-compensated lines are extremely difficult to protect. All protection principles may
have problems, because of the possibility of voltage and current inversions. If the series
compensation capacitors are carefully selected, the possibility of current inversions can
be eliminated. In this case, a differential protection scheme may be the best option.

Three-terminal lines and short lines also have special protection requirements. The
ringdown
i d at subharmonic
bh i frequency
f resulting
l i from
f compensationi reactors may also
l
create protection problems.

A generation source connected between the relay location and the fault point affects the
value
l off the
h impedance
i d a distance
di relay
l estimates.
i This
hi is
i called
ll d the
h infeed
i f d effect.
ff The
h
intermediate generation source causes the relay to see an impedance that is equal to the
adjacent line multiplied by a factor. This factor is the ratio of the current in the adjacent
line to the relay current. The infeed-effect factor is, in general, a complex number with a
magnitude greater than unity. The infeed effect results in the relay estimating an
impedance value greater than the real impedance between the relay and the fault, ZL +
Z’L. This inaccurate impedance value estimation produces distance relay underreach.

The infeed effect needs to be taken into account when distance relay settings are
calculated.
l l d For example, l the
h third
hi d zone at A (see
( figure)
fi ) will
ill measure ZAB + ZBC for
f a
fault at C without infeed. When the intermediate source is present, the impedance
estimate is greater because of the IBC/IAB factor. The third zone needs to completely cover
the adjacent line BC for all system operating conditions. Thus, the third zone reach needs
to be set considering the possible infeed. As a result, the third zone may reach far beyond
substation C when the intermediate source is out of service. This factor needs to be
considered when checking adjacent third zones for possible overlap.
Infeed effect does not affect first zones, except in three-terminal lines. In this case, the
first zone needs to be set without infeed to make sure that the zone will not overreach the
remote line end. Setting a first zone in this manner results in the presence of the
intermediate source reducing the first zone reach, thus limiting the high-speed coverage
of the protected line.
The infeed effect also needs to be considered for second zone reach settings. In three-
terminal lines, the second zone should be set with maximum infeed at the third terminal
to ensure full coverage of the protected line. On the other hand, in two-terminal lines, the
second zone should be set for minimum infeed at the remote-end substation to avoid
overlapping with the beginning of the adjacent second zone.

Outfeed is the result of having two paths of current flow after the relay has monitored the
current. An outfeed
f d condition
di i may existi when
h two or more adjacent
dj lines
li are connectedd
in parallel. In three-terminal lines, outfeed may exist if there is a strong external tie
between two line terminals. The magnitude of the outfeed effect factor, I’ / I, is smaller
than unity, which produces a reduced impedance estimate. The result is relay overreach.
The outfeed effect also needs consideration when calculating settings for a distance relay.

6022.pdf, Z = V/I Does Not Make a Distance Relay by J. Roberts; A. Guzman; E.O.
Schweitzer, III
6063.pdf, Innovative Solutions Improve Transmission Line Protection (WPRC '97) by

Daqing Hou; Armando Guzman; Jeff Roberts
6010.pdf, Distance Relay Element Design by Jeff Roberts; Dr. Edmund O. Schweitzer
III
6065.pdf, Application Guidelines for Ground Fault Protection by Joe Mooney, P.E.;
Jackie Peer
Revision Table
Editor Tech Review TDS Review Date Rev # Comments
LGP CRT CLS 5/28/02 3 Minor Revisions, Tech Review, TDS Review
complete
CLS 8/13/02 4 Corrections from Pullman June course
markup notebook
LGP CLS 8/22/02 5 Add Objectives,
EB cls 2-13-03 6 convert to white

Transmission line protection is complex. Problems such as infeed, fault resistance,
unequall measuredd impedances
i d during
d i faults,
f l load
l d encroachment,
h andd mutuall coupling
li
affect the apparent impedance of distance relays. Fault resistance and mutual coupling
may also affect ground directional overcurrent relays. These problems may be
complicated by the evolving character of many faults.

All these problems may affect distance and directional overcurrent relays. Cross-country
f l simultaneous
faults, i l faults,
f l andd CT saturation
i may alsol present a problem
bl forf differential
diff i l
schemes.

Three-terminal lines and short lines also have special protection requirements. The
ringdown
i d at subharmonic
bh i frequency
f resulting
l i from
f compensation
i reactors may also l
create protection problems. Series-compensated lines are extremely difficult to protect.
All protection principles may have problems, because of the possibility of voltage and
current inversions. If the series-compensation capacitors are carefully selected, the
possibility of current inversions can be eliminated. In such a case, a differential
protection scheme may be the best option.
In this presentation, we will examine transmission line protection problems that exclude
CT saturation, CCVT transients, series-compensated lines, three-terminal lines, short
lines, and reactor-compensated lines.

Fault resistance affects all protection principles to some extent. For phase faults (three-
phase,
h line-line)
li li ) fault
f l resistance
i results
l largely
l l from
f the
h resistance
i off the
h arc between
b the
h
faulted conductors. If the fault is initiated by a tree or something else in the line, its
resistance should also be considered.
Ground fault resistance includes the resistance of the arc between the conductor and the
tower, the tower and tower footing resistance, and the ground return path resistance.
Ground faults may also involve other objects such as trees.
Ground fault resistance values are typically much greater than phase fault resistances
resistances. For
transmission line faults involving trees, for example, the fault resistance may be on the
order of hundreds of ohms.
In distribution lines, an important component of ground fault resistance is the contact

resistance between the fallen conductor and ground. For a conductor falling on dry
asphalt, for example, the fault resistance could be close to infinity. The detection of fallen
conductors in overhead distribution systems is a very complex protection problem.

Arc resistance is quite variable. A commonly accepted value for currents between 70 A
andd 20,000 A iis an arc voltage
l drop
d off 440 V per phase,
h independent
i d d off current
magnitude.

This is another empirical expression for arc resistance with the arc length in meters
(i
(instead
d off feet).
f ) Observe
b that
h there
h is i a 1.4 exponent ini the
h current ini this
hi expression.
i

The general effect of fault impedance is reduction in protection sensitivity. Fault
i
impedance
d reduces
d the
h fault
f l current values
l andd the
h voltage
l sag in
i the
h faulted
f l d phases.
h Fault
l
impedance also increases the value of the impedance measured by distance relays. Fault
resistance limits the sensitivity of all protective relay types.

The figure shows the effect of fault resistance on the impedance a distance element
measures in
i a radial
di l system. The
h distance
di element
l measures the
h fault
f l loop
l impedance,
i d
including the fault resistance. The result is a distance estimate greater than the real
distance to the fault. This inaccurate distance estimate makes the distance element
underreach.

An additional problem in looped lines is the infeed effect in the fault impedance. The
relay
l does
d not measure the
h current contribution
ib i to theh fault
f l from
f the
h remote-end d source.
As a result, RF in the impedance estimate is multiplied by an infeed effect factor IF / I.
The effect of this factor is twofold. The infeed effect increases the value of the apparent
fault resistance (the magnitude of the factor is greater than unity). The infeed effect factor
is, in general, a complex number, so the apparent fault impedance is no longer purely
resistive.

In this impedance plane representation, the effect of fault resistance in looped lines can be
seen. The
h di
distance element
l should
h ld measure an impedance
i d mZL. However, the h measuredd
impedance is Z. Observe that the infeed effect factor, IF / I, increases the value and
produces a phase shift in the fault resistance RF.

The power system model shown will be used to study the effect of RF and the power
angle, δ, on the apparent fault impedance. For simplicity, a homogeneous system (all
source and line impedances have the same angle) will be considered.

This figure shows the effect of RF and δ on the impedance estimate. For bolted faults, the
distance element measures the correct impedance value. An increase in the value of RF
increases the measured impedance and produces relay underreach.
In radial lines, or when δ = 0, the apparent impedance is purely resistive. A reactance-

type characteristic would avoid relay underreach. However, for δ ≠ 0, even a reactance
element may overrreach (δ > 0) or underreach (δ < 0). In other words, the direction of the
pre-fault power flow will determine the reactance element behavior.

A distance protection scheme has six basic relay elements. For the phase elements, the
li li voltages
line-line l andd the
h differences
diff off the
h line
li currents are usedd as input
i signals.
i l
Ground distance elements receive the phase voltages and the compensated line currents
as input signals. The zero-sequence current is used to compensate the line current inputs
of ground distance elements. These connections ensure that the fault-loop element(s)
correctly measure the fault-loop impedance. For example, for an ABG fault, three
distance elements correctly estimate impedance: AB, AG, and BG elements. The question
is, what impedances do the other three elements measure for this fault? These elements
p
need to measure impedances with values no lower than the fault-loopp impedance.
p This
ensures that the distance elements that measure the correct impedance value will make
the tripping decision.
The simple power system shown in the figure can be used for an analytical study of the
impedances measured by the different distance elements during faults. The idea is to
derive the expressions of the measured impedance using symmetrical component
techniques. In the figure, mZL is the impedance of the protected line section. The
positive-sequence
positive sequence value of this impedance, mZL1, is the correct value that the distance
elements measure. ZX is an impedance including mZL and the source impedance behind
the relay. The factor C expresses the infeed effect in the fault resistance.

This table shows the expressions of the impedances phase distance elements measure for
two types off phase
h faults
f l (ABC
( andd BC faults).
f l ) For ABC faults,
f l all ll three
h elements
l
measure the loop impedance value, which unfortunately includes the fault impedance
term. For BC faults, only the fault-loop element BC correctly measures the impedance.
The other two elements (AB and CA) estimate higher impedances. This means that the
BC element will make the tripping decision for zone-end faults.

This table shows the expressions of the impedances measured by ground distance
elements
l for
f two types off phase
h faults.
f l
For ABC faults, all three elements measure the fault-loop impedance. In other words,
ground distance elements may respond to three-phase faults unless, for example, their
operation is supervised with a zero-sequence overcurrent element. This tendency to
operate is also present for other system balanced conditions such as normal load or power
swings. For phase-to-phase faults, the ground distance elements measure impedance
values greater than the fault-loop impedance.
The effect of ground faults on ground distance elements is not presented in this analysis.
The result is the same as for the phase elements. That is, the fault-loop element correctly
measures the impedance, and the healthy phase elements estimate impedance values
greater than the fault-loop impedance.

Digital simulation is an excellent tool for studying the impedances that distance elements
measure during
d i faults
f l in i complex
l power systems. The h figure
fi shows
h a power system
model that will be used for digital simulation studies.

The figure shows the impedances all distance elements measure for a close-in A-phase-
to-ground
d ffault
l for
f different
diff RF values
l (0
( to 4 ohms).
h )
Two mho-element characteristics are shown, a self-polarized mho characteristic (crosses

through the origin of coordinates) and a cross-polarized mho characteristic. As will be
seen in a future presentation, the effect of mho element polarization is to expand the
characteristic backwards in relation to the origin of coordinates for forward faults.
Polarization ensures mho element directionality for close-in bolted faults.
The figure indicates that only the AG distance element correctly measures the impedance
for this AG fault. It is also clear from the figure that a self-polarized mho element may
not see the fault. For a polarized mho element, the fault is well within the characteristic.
Other distance elements such as AB, CG, and CA may operate for this fault, so distance
element operation cannot be relied on to make single-pole tripping decisions. In this case,
for example, a three-pole trip would be issued instead of a single-pole trip for a single-
line-to-ground fault.

The figure shows the effect of displacing the fault location along the protected line. The
result
l is
i the
h appearance off fault
f l areas ini the
h impedance
i d plane.
l The
h impedance
i d eachh
distance element measures will lie inside the corresponding fault area. The position for
the measurement depends on fault location and fault resistance. The sides of the fault
areas marked with dots are the locii of the measured impedances for bolted (RF = 0)
faults. The straight lines parallel to those sides are the locii of the measured impedances
corresponding to the maximum RF value (4 ohms.)
The basic conclusion is the same as for the previous figure: there are several distance
elements prone to operate for a single line-to-ground fault. For single-pole tripping, the
tripping decisions of the distance elements cannot be used. A separate algorithm is
needed to determine the fault type for single-pole applications.

This figure shows the impedances the distance elements measure for a BCG fault at the
remote end d off the
h relay
l reach.
h The
h dots
d on eachh fault
f l locus
l represent different
diff values
l off
fault resistance (0 to 10 ohms).
For bolted faults, three distance elements (BC, BG, and CG) see the fault exactly at the
end of the reach corresponding to each element. When the fault resistance increases, the
impedance the CG element measures moves away from the relay characteristic. On the
other hand, the BC impedance penetrates the relay characteristic. This element
overreaches, so it must be blocked from operation for this fault. For simplicity, the effect
of the fault resistance on the BC element impedance is not shown. It is clear, however,
that this impedance also leaves the operation characteristic.

In summary, distance elements measure different impedances for unbalanced faults.
Phase
h elements
l can operate for
f close-in,
l i line-to-ground
li d faults,
f l andd groundd elements
l can
overreach for line-to-line-to-ground faults. A separate algorithm is needed to determine
the fault type. The information on the fault type can be used to decide on single-pole
tripping and to block the operation of ground distance elements for line-to-line-to-ground
faults.

Evolving faults present problems for all protection principles. Many faults evolve in some
way. The
h ffault
l resistance
i RF may vary withi h time.
i As a result,
l the
h fault
f l current is
i variable.
i bl
Another common type of fault evolution is a change of fault type. Many faults initiate as
line-to-ground faults and evolve into line-to-line-to-ground faults and/or three-phase-to-
ground faults.
For evolving faults, it is generally difficult to detect fault inception and fault type
changes.

Both phase and ground distance elements measure impedance for normal load conditions.
As can be seen in the figure, the measured impedance depends on the load flow
conditions. An increase in the apparent power, S, transferred over the line reduces the
magnitude of the measured impedance

The impedance angle depends on the direction of P and Q. For positive values of P and Q
(b h P andd Q flowing
(both l i intoi the li ) ϕ is
h line), i between
b 0° and
d 90° andd the
h measuredd
impedance lies on the first quadrant of the impedance plane. A negative Q value brings
the impedance to the fourth quadrant.
Accordingly, a negative P value will move the measured impedance to the other two
quadrants: to the second quadrant for a positive Q value and to the third quadrant for a
negative Q value.
The figure shows the possible regions of the measured impedance for normal load
conditions. For positive P values (Load OUT in the figure), the impedance is in the first
or fourth quadrants. For negative P (Load IN), the impedance is in the second or third
quadrants.

Checks for load encroachment problems can be performed by superimposing relay and
l d characteristics
load h i i on theh impedance
i d plane.
l In the
h figure,
fi it
i can be
b seen that
h certain
i load
l d
conditions result in penetration of the impedance in the relay characteristic.
A traditional solution to avoiding distance element misoperation is to shape the relay

characteristic to exclude the load impedance regions. A drawback of this solution is that it
limits the fault resistance coverage of the distance element.
A new solution is to create a relay load element having the same shape as the load
impedance regions.
regions This new element may be used to block the distance element.
element In this
case, only a small section of the relay characteristic is lost.

The relay is supposed to be protecting line L1, and its location is at Bus P. The fault
occurs on line
li A-B.

The figure shows the impedance measured by a distance relay for an external fault. As
expected,d the
h apparent iimpedance
d moves to an externall point.
i After
f theh fault
f l clears,
l the
h
apparent impedance does not return instantaneously to the load equilibrium point, but
there is a post-fault “slow” oscillation, or swing. The characteristics of the oscillation
depend on many parameters of the power system. The case shown in the figure shows
that the oscillation does not produce any relay misoperation.

The figure shows a case where the post-fault power swing enters into the relay first zone
operation
i characteristic.
h i i This
hi will
ill produce
d an undesired
d i d operation
i off the
h relay.
l

Parallel lines is a very common case in transmission systems. The magnetic field
produced
d d bby a faulted
f l d line
li influences
i fl the
h behavior
b h i off the
h voltages
l andd currents off a
neighboring line. This influence is called mutual coupling between lines.

The figure illustrates mutual coupling. For a ground fault on one of two double-circuit
lines, the zero-sequence current flowing at each line induces a voltage in the other line.
This effect modifies the voltage ground distance elements measure. If the mutually
coupled current flows in the same direction as the relay current, the measured voltage will
increase and the distance element will tend to underreach. On the other hand, if the
mutual current direction is opposite to that of the relay current, the relay element will
measure a lower voltage and tend to overreach.

Magnetic mutual coupling between multiple-circuit lines affects distance and directional
groundd relays.
l Typical
i l values
l off the
h zero-sequence mutuall coupling
li impedance,
i d Z0M, are
on the order of 50 percent to 70 percent of the zero-sequence impedance, Z0. Very low
coupling occurs in the positive-sequence and negative-sequence networks.

These expressions show the effect of mutual coupling on the impedance ground distance
elements
l measure. I0M isi assumedd to be
b positive
i i when
h it
i flows
fl in
i the
h same direction
di i as
Ires. The result is an increase in the apparent impedance, Z, and a relay underreach. A
negative value of I0M reduces the measured impedance, and the relay element
overreaches.

The figure shows the ground distance element behavior for a ground fault on a double-
circuit
i i transmission
i i line
li with
i h both
b h lines
li connectedd in
i parallel.
ll l For simplicity,
i li i it i is
i
assumed that the system is energized at one end only.
In the lower figure, the impedances ground distance elements measure at locations A, B,
and C are shown as a function of the distance, m, to the fault from location A. For relay
elements A and C, the apparent impedances, with mutual coupling, are represented by
full lines, and dotted lines are used to represent the measured impedances without mutual
coupling. The latter case gives the correct impedance values and serves as a reference for
analysis. For relay element B, the measured impedance plot without mutual coupling
would be a straight line from ZB = ZL at m = 0, to ZB = 0 at m = 1.
The effect of mutual coupling in this case is that none of the ground distance elements
correctly measure the distance to the fault. For relay elements A and C, the mutually
coupled current flows in the same direction as the relay current. These elements measure
higher impedance values and tend to underreach. For relay element B, the mutual current
flows opposite to relay current. The result is a lower apparent impedance value and a
tendency for the relay element to underreach.

The mutual-coupling error may be compensated for by providing the faulted-line relay
element
l with
i h information
i f i on the
h mutuallyll coupled
l d current. These
h equations
i show
h thath an
additional compensation term, k0M I0M, is needed in the relay current of the ground
distance element. The compensation factor, k0M, equals the ratio of the zero-sequence
impedance to the positive-sequence impedance of the protected line. Several commercial
distance relays have an additional current input for the mutually coupled current.

A limitation of mutual coupling compensation is that it eliminates the distance
measurement errors onlyl for
f the
h faulted-line
f l d li groundd elements.
l
In the parallel-line case that was presented before, compensation works for relays at
locations A and B and fails for the relay at C. The problem with the relay at C is that the
level of compensation needed depends on the fault location, m.
Another limitation of mutual coupling compensation is that I0M is not always available at
the relay location.

This figure shows cases in which the mutually-coupled current I0M is not available at the
relay location.

Experience shows that the first zone setting for the relay should be reduced to avoid
overreaching
hi for
f severe cases off zero-sequence mutuall coupling.
li In some cases, the
h first
fi
zone may need to be reduced by 60 percent.

It is convenient to use an impedance plane to represent the distance element operating
characteristic There are three traditional distance elements: impedance-type,
characteristic. impedance type reactance-type,
reactance type and
mho-type distance elements.
The figure shows the operation equation and the operating characteristic of the mho distance
element. The characteristic is the locus of all apparent impedance values for which the relay
element is on the verge of operation. The operation zone is located inside the circle, and the
restraint zone is the region outside the circle.
The mho characteristic is a circle passing through the origin of the impedance plane. The mho
element operates for impedances inside the circle, which is basically oriented toward the first
quadrant. This is the case for forward faults. For reverse faults, the apparent impedance lies in the
third quadrant of the impedance plane and represents a restraint condition. The fact that the circle
passed through the origin of coordinates is an indication of the inherent directionality of the mho
elements. However, close-in bolted faults produce deep voltage sags. The mho element may lose
the voltage polarizing signal for close-in faults. This fact needs to be considered in selecting the
appropriate mho element polarizing quantity.
There are only two settings in a mho element: the characteristic diameter, ZM, and the angle of
this diameter with respect to the R axis, ϕMT. This is equivalent to the maximum torque angle of a
directional element: the mho element presents the highest reach (highest sensitivity) when the
pp
apparent impedance
p g ϕ coincides with ϕMT.
angle
The value ϕMT should be set close to the protected line impedance angle. By doing this, it ensures
maximum relay sensitivity for faults and minimum relay sensitivity for load conditions, in which
ϕ < ϕ MT.
The other two conventional distance elements lack directionaly. The impedance-type
characteristic is a circle whose center is at the origin of coordinates. The reactance-type
characteristic is a straight line parallel to the R axis. Impedance-type elements need an additional
directional element. Reactance-type elements need a directional element and a resistance element
to limit the reach on both sides of the element characteristic.

6030.pdf, Statistical Comparison and Evaluation of Pilot Protection Schemes, E.O.

Schweitzer III, John Kumm
AG93-06.pdf, Applying the SEL-321 Relay to Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)

Schemes, Jeff Roberts
AG95-29.pdf, Applying the SEL-321 Relay to Permissive Overreaching Transfer Trip

(POTT) Schemes, Armando Guzman, Jeff Roberts, Karl Zimmerman
AG96-19.pdf, Applying the SEL-321 Relay to Directional Comparison Unblocking

(DCUB) Schemes, Dean Hardister
6109.pdf, The Effect of Multiprinciple Line Protection on Dependability and Security by

Jeff Roberts, Demetrios Tziouvaras, Gabriel Benmouyal, Hector J. Altuve
Revision Table

Revie Revie #
w w
CRT 1/31/0 1 Adapted from Line Pilot Protection_r9

3

Pilot protection (or teleprotection) is a generic name for the design of different
transmission line protection alternatives that use a communications channel. The most
important advantage of pilot protection is the provision of high-speed tripping at all
terminals for faults anywhere on the line. Without pilot protection, high-speed tripping
for all terminals will only occur for faults that are within the area where the zone 1
elements overlap. Pilot protection is typically applied to transmission lines with nominal
voltage levels of 115 kV and greater.
For comparison purposes, pilot protection can be divided into two groups, directional
comparison systems and current-only systems.
Directional comparison protection uses the channel to exchange information on the status
of directional or distance elements at both terminals. If both elements operate, there is an
internal fault. If one of the elements operates and the other restrains, the fault is outside
the protected line. The most widely used pilot protection system is directional
comparison. The main reasons for this wide acceptance are the low channel requirements
and the inherent redundancy and backup of directional comparison systems. On the other
hand, these systems experience problems associated with loss-of-potential for blown VT
fuses, ferroresonance in wound potential VTs, and transient response issues of CCVTs.
Phase-comparison and current-differential systems use current information to make a trip

decision. However, these systems require a reliable, high-capacity communications
channel. Current-only systems exhibit good performance for complex protection
problems such as series compensated lines, short lines, evolving faults, cross-country
faults, mutual induction, power swings, and series impedance unbalance. Modern digital
fiber-optic communications channels fulfill the requirements of current-only pilot
protection systems.

High-speed clearing of faults along the entire line segment is required or desirable for
several reasons.
• A short circuit on a power system reduces the ability of the power system to
transfer power. Reducing the time that the short circuit exists on the power
system reduces the likelihood of the power system becoming unstable.
• High-speed reclosing is another means of improving power system stability.

Power transfer capability decreases for an out-of-service line. Automatic
restoration of the line with minimal delay,
delay allowing only for arc de-ionizing
de ionizing
time, can also reduce the likelihood of the power system becoming unstable. To
use this automatic restoration, both terminals must clear the fault
instantaneously.
• In step distance applications where you have a long line adjacent to a short line,
it may not be possible to coordinate the reach of Zone 2 for the long line with
the reach of Zone 1 for the short line. Thus, the entire short line may have to be
cleared
l d instantaneously
i t t l for
f coordination
di ti reasons.

Some additional advantages.
• Reduced duration of the voltage sag from the short circuit and resulting negative
impact on power quality.
• Clearing faults quickly reduces through fault duty on power transformers,

insulator damage due to sustained arcing, etc.

Optical fiber is becoming more and more available. A dedicated fiber-optic channel can
consist of a direct point-to-point fiber connection or a multiplexed fiber link. SONET,
“Synchronous Optical Network” can be part of a wide area communications network for
voice and data traffic that provides a non-dedicated communications link. The concern
with a non-dedicated teleprotection channel is that the channel delays may change as the
network reconfigures for a link failure. The effects of channel delays on the various
schemes will be discussed.

Microwave systems can be either digital or analog. These are often part of a wide area
communications network for voice and data traffic as well. Analog systems generally use
audio tone sets to put the teleprotection information into a voice channel. Channel delays
for audio tone sets on analog microwave can be 8-20 milliseconds. Digital microwave
can provide channel delays in the 3-4 millisecond range.

Power line carrier provides a reliable point-to-point path for sending teleprotection
information. The equipment to couple the signal to the high voltage power line can be
expensive. Also, the teleprotection scheme used must be designed to work if the channel
is lost during an internal fault that short circuits the communications channel. Power line
carrier channel equipment usually comes in two types, On/Off and FSK. The type used
depends upon the needs of the teleprotection scheme.

Private or leased lines also provide digital and audio tone communications channels.
Although the interface equipment can be expensive, the overall installation costs can be
reduced.
On the down side, there is the ongoing lease costs of the channel. Additionally, leased
lines are often unreliable. To encourage the owner of the leased line to improve the
reliability, you must document the availability, test results, etc. and provide them to the
owner.

In modern systems, the relay interface to the communications channel is digital using a
proprietary protocol. As an example, SEL’s MIRRORED BITS™ Technology
communicates the status of eight bits. The advantage of these systems is that more
information can be exchanged. The exchange of more information allows for the
inclusion of control to go along with the protection. These systems also simultaneously
monitor the health and availability of the communications channel.
ON/OFF carrier sets pass one bit of information. The units either transmit a signal or they
don’t.
FSK carrier sets always transmit something. Under normal conditions, they transmit a
Guard tone. When keyed, they shift the transmission frequency to a Trip tone. The sets
often include security measures, such as Trip After Guard and Guard Before Trip, to
ensure the integrity of the communications channel.

The figure shows a schematic diagram of a directional comparison system. This system
uses directional or directional-distance relay elements to distinguish internal from
external faults. For an internal fault, both relays see the fault in the forward (tripping)
direction; for an external fault, one relay sees the fault in the reverse (non-tripping)
direction.
Although the relays use current and voltage information to determine the fault direction,
the communications channel is used to exchange information about relay contact status.
In traditional systems, the relay interface to the communications channel equipment is via
contact inputs and outputs. The two-state type of information requires very low channel
throughput (about 1000 Hz bandwidth.) For these systems, the relay has no information
about the channel health.
An advantage of these tripping schemes is that channel time delay is not critical. A delay
in receiving the remote signal may delay tripping, but the delay does not affect whether
the trip or restrain decision is correct. The inherent backup provided by the directional
and/or distance elements ensures tripping (perhaps delayed) for internal faults with a
channel failure.

The advantages of directional comparison systems summarized in this slide. In particular,
the low channel requirements explain why more than 80 percent of transmission lines in
the United States have directional comparison protection systems.
Since only 1 bit of information is passed through the channel, a very low bandwidth is
required.
If the channel is inoperative, the fault is generally cleared in Zone 2 time.
When microprocessor relays are used, fault locating algorithms are used to aid in fault
locating. Current only systems do not have enough information to be able to provide any
fault location estimates.

Directional comparison pilot protection schemes are designed around sending one bit of
data across the teleprotection channel at very high speed. In some schemes, this one bit
tells the other end that it has permission to trip (permissive). In other schemes, the bit
represents a signal to tell the other end not to trip (block). There are many variations but
the most prevalent are the following:
• Permissive Overreaching Transfer Trip (POTT)
• Directional Comparison Unblocking (DCUB)
• Permissive Underreaching Transfer Trip (PUTT)
• Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)

At the minimum, a POTT scheme requires a forward overreaching element at each end of
the line. This is typically provided by a Zone 2 element set to reach about 120%-150% of
the line length. If each relay sees the fault in the forward direction, then the fault can be
determined to be internal to the protected line.
Relay 3 will key permission if it sees the fault in a forward direction. Relay 4 will be
allowed to trip if it sees the fault in a forward direction AND it receives permission from
Relay 3.
A reverse element is required for reasons that we will describe shortly.

shortly This is typically
provided by a Zone 3 element set in the reverse direction. It is important that the reach of
the reverse Zone 3 element be set for the element to always pick up for faults that can be
seen by the remote Zone 2 overreaching element.
It is important to note that in all of these schemes, an under-reaching Zone 1 element is

typically used to trip independent of the pilot protection scheme.
POTT communications can be achieved with ON/OFF or FSK.

FSK However,
However FSK is the
most common protocol.

The basic logic for a POTT scheme looks like this.
A trip requires pickup of Zone 2 overreaching elements AND receipt of permission

(RCVR) from the remote end.
Pickup of Zone 2 overreaching elements keys transmission of permission to trip (Key

XMTR) to the remote end.

A number of complications to a POTT scheme require additional logic.
• If the remote terminal is open, the relay on that terminal will not see the fault and
will therefore be unable to give the local terminal permission to trip. This problem
is addressed by echo key logic. The relay on the open terminal echoes the
permissive signal back to the closed terminal, allowing it to trip.
• If the one terminal is a much weaker source of fault current than the other, or its
normal source is out of service, it may not have sufficient current to pick up for the
fault In this case
fault. case, the weak terminal will not give the strong terminal permission to
trip. This problem is addressed similarly to the open terminal echo keying logic;
but it includes 27P & 59N elements to detect the weak feed condition.

Additional complications to a POTT scheme that require additional logic.
• If the channel fails completely, permission to trip cannot be sent. To deal with this
inability to send permission, the Zone 2 overreaching element also typically starts a
Zone 2 timer to allow backup tripping after a coordinating time interval to provide
backup step distance mode of operation in case of channel failure.
• Current reversals during the fault can cause unfaulted lines to trip.

Current Reversals
In double-circuit line applications, faults near one end of the line may result in a
sequential trip operation. This sequential trip happens when the instantaneous relay
elements trip the breaker nearest to the fault location (this trip is independent from the
communication tripping scheme). The breaker furthest from the fault must wait for a
permissive signal. The major problem with this sequential fault current clearance is that
it creates a current reversal in the healthy parallel line. If the protection for the healthy
line is not equipped to address this reversal, one terminal of the healthy (non-faulted) line
may trip incorrectly.
The figure shows the status at the inception of the fault. Relaying at Breaker 3 detects the
fault as being within Zones 1 and 2. The instantaneous Zone 1 element issues a trip
signal to the breaker independent of the communication-assisted tripping scheme. It is
the Zone 2 elements at Breaker 3 that issue a permissive signal to the protection at
Breaker 4. The protection at Breaker 4 detects the fault within Zone 2 but must wait for
the permissive signal from Breaker 3 before issuing a permissive trip output. In the event
that the permissive trip signal never arrives and the fault persists, Breaker 4 is tripped by
Zone 2 time-delayed protection.
The Zone 2 element at Breaker 2 also picks up at fault inception and issues a permissive
signal to the protection scheme at Breaker 1. At this time, the Zone 3 elements at Breaker
1 also pick up and identify the fault as being reverse (or out-of-section) to its location.

After Breaker 3 opens, the fault currents redistribute. When this redistribution occurs, the
Zone 2 element at Breaker 2 and Zone 3 element at Breaker 1 begin to drop out. If the
Zone 2 element at Breaker 1 picks up before the received permissive signal resets,
Breaker 1 trips due to this current reversal.
This scenario can easily occur when ground directional overcurrent relays are used as
they can often see an end zone fault on an adjacent line. It is less of a factor when ground
distance relays are used.
Another factor that contributed to this is the fact that the closing torque of an
electromechanical element would be much higher than the opening spring’s torque
resulting in a large disparity in pickup versus dropout times. This disparity is also true
with numerical relays, but to a much lesser degree.
To address this, a reverse element (Zone 3) is used to detect when the fault is initially
seen behind the relay. A dropout delay prevents the relay from keying permission upon a
transition from reverse to forward. The delay allows the remote terminal forward
element
l t time
ti tot drop
d out.
t

Same basic logic as POTT but can be even more secure. Underreaching elements are
used to key permissive trip to the remote terminal.
Because the keying elements are set with a shorter reach, you have slower operation and
less fault resistance coverage.
Because the permissive keying elements can only see faults within the protected line,
there is no danger of misoperation on current reversal situations. The remote terminal is
allowed to trip if it sees the fault as forward with its overreaching element and the remote
end sees it with its underreaching element.
element
This scheme should not be used in applications where you have a potential for weak feed
conditions on one of the terminals.

In a directional comparison blocking scheme, each line terminal has reverse looking
elements (Zone 3) and forward overreaching elements (Zone 2). The relay will send a
block signal to the remote end if it sees the fault in the reverse direction. Relay detection
of a fault in the reverse direction indicates that the fault is outside of the protected zone.
The logic allows the relay to trip if it sees the fault in the forward direction and does not
receive a blocking signal from the remote end.

This figure shows the fundamental logic involved. Pilot tripping occurs for an internal
fault if the local Zone 2 forward overreaching element operates and the remote Zone 3
reverse reaching element does not send a block signal within a settable time.
The channel coordination delay must allow time for the block signal to be received before
the tripping element can operate. If the block does not arrive, or is late, a DCB scheme
may overtrip. This scheme is often used with power line carrier and an ON/OFF
transmitter because the only time the signal must get through is when the fault is not on
the protected line.
One way to speed up the issuance of the blocking signal is to use non-directional carrier
start. In this case, a high-speed overcurrent element detects the fault and keys the
transmitter. Then the slower directional element will stop the signal if the fault is
forward. If the directional element detects that the fault is reverse (out of zone), the
blocking signal has already been sent. This can reduce the required carrier coordination
delay, resulting in increased security.

There are number of complications that need to be addressed with DCB schemes. We
have already discussed time coordination. Current reversals also must be addressed, with
logic similar to that used with the other schemes.
Loss-of-channel is a particular issue with DCB schemes. Because each terminal will trip
for lack of a block signal, these schemes will overtrip if the channel fails. This is
complicated by the typical use of an on/off type carrier set to obtain the highest possible
channel speed. An on/off carrier set is off in the normal state; it is turned on to block the
remote end.
For this reason, it is usually desirable to use an automatic carrier check back system with
on/off carrier sets. An automatic carrier check back system can be programmed to operate
several times a day. There is usually a master check back unit that keys the local
transmitter with a series of carrier pulses. The slave check back units monitor their local
receiver and recognize this code as a check back transmission instead of a fault
transmission. These units then respond by keying their local transmitter with an answer
code. If the master hears the answer on its local receiver, it knows that the channel is
viable. If it does not, it will typically alarm SCADA that the channel has failed. If an
internal fault occurs during a check back transmission, the relay will assert its “carrier
stop” output. The carrier sets give priority to “carrier stop” over “carrier start”. That is, if
both stop and start are asserted, the stop input takes precedence and the transmitter will
be turned off.

Like a POTT scheme, A DCUB scheme requires that relays at both ends of the line see
the in-section fault and transmit a trip signal to each other by use of a communications
channel. Overreaching Zone 2 elements are then allowed to trip with receipt of an
unblock signal. Typically, faults within Zone 1 reach are cleared by instantaneous
elements without regard for the receipt of the trip signal from the other end. Faults
outside Zone 1, but within Zone 2, must receive an unblock signal from the remote relay
for high speed tripping or wait for the Zone 2 timer to time out.
Many communications media can be used to transmit the trip signal to the other end.
These media include fiber-optic channels, company owned or leased telephone lines, and
power line carrier. When using power line carrier in a permissive scheme, getting the trip
signal through to the remote end can be difficult. In many instances, the signal is
transmitted on the same line that has the fault. This may reduce the signal to the point
where the remote end fails to receive the signal. It is in these cases that a Directional
Comparison Unblocking scheme can provide the means for fast clearing of the fault by
way of its Loss of Guard logic.
FSK channel equipment sends a guard tone continuously. Normally, a trip tone follows
the loss of the guard tone. The Loss of Guard logic creates a virtual Unblock signal that
allows high speed tripping for a short period of time. Thus, if the loss of channel is
caused by a fault, the high speed clearing of the fault is still accomplished.
If an external fault causes a failure of the communications channel, the Loss of Guard
logic will allow high speed tripping of the terminal that sees the fault in the forward
direction.

POTT and PUTT schemes can be less dependable because they will fail to trip high speed
during a channel failure. Conversely, DCB schemes will overtrip if the channel fails or if
the channel delay increases.
Directional comparison unblocking schemes combine the dependability of DCB schemes

with the security of POTT schemes but allow tripping during a window of time to
accommodate channel failure during a fault. DCUB schemes are attractive when the
power line is used for the communications medium.

DCB schemes should not be used with networked communications channels such as
SONET where the channel delay can change. For such cases, you would need a high-
speed channel such as a power line carrier On/Off channel.
POTT and DCUB schemes will not trip until the permission (or unblock) signal arrives,
so there are no concerns about channel delay for security. Channel delay does affect
ultimate tripping time.
If a fault on the power line can affect the teleprotection channel, a DCB or DCUB
scheme should be used
used. Examples where a power line fault could affect the teleprotection
channel include power line carrier or communications lines sharing right of way with the
protected power line.

Phase-comparison and current-differential systems only use current information. The
figure depicts a schematic diagram of current-only systems. Phase-comparison systems
compare the phase of the currents at the line terminals. For internal faults, these currents
are in phase. For external faults, the currents are approximately 180 degrees out of phase.

The system detects the current zero crossing at each line terminal and forms a square
wave signal. The local end receives the remote end square wave signal after a given
channel time delay, CD. A time delay, LD, is introduced in the local signal to compensate
for the channel time delay of the received signal. For internal faults, currents iL and iR are
in phase, the output of the AND gate lasts one-half cycle, the timer times out and issues a
trip. For external faults, iL and iR are 180 degrees out of phase, the output of the AND
gate is zero and the timer does nothing.
If LD = CD, the AND gate behaves as a coincidence detector of the positive half-cycle of
currents iL and iR. The coincidence timer issues a trip output when the coincidence time
of SL and SR is equal to, or greater than, the pickup time ΔT. The ΔT setting determines
the angular width of the phase comparator characteristic. For ΔT= one-quarter cycle, the
characteristic is 90° wide. That is, the logic will allow tripping if the currents are out of
phase by up to 90°. The dropout timer setting ΔT′ provides a trip output latch and should
be greater than t–ΔT, where t is the fundamental frequency period.
Signals SL and SR are never exactly in phase or 180 degrees out of phase. The main
sources of phase angle error for external faults are charging current, CT saturation, and
time delay compensation errors. For internal faults, there is a phase shift because of the
non-homogeneity between the sources and the line impedance.
The system, as described, will fail to trip for an internal fault during a communications
channel failure. Alternatively, a logic inversion can be introduced in the square wave that
is sent to the remote line terminal. Likewise, the received signal is inverted before the
phase comparison. This logic enhances dependability and allows tripping when there is
no received signal, but can misoperate for an external fault during a communications
channel failure.

The system depicted in the previous slide is a half-wave or a single phase comparison
scheme. That system provides a comparison for the positive half-cycle only. This
introduces a half-cycle latency in the trip decision. Alternatively, a full-wave, or dual
phase comparison, system can be used. Two sets of square waves are formed at each line
terminal and compared independently. AND 1 detects the time coincidence of the
positive half-cycle square waves SL+ and SR+. AND 2 detects the time coincidence of
the negative half-cycle square waves SL- and SR-. The system can make a tripping
decision on either half-cycle, thus providing faster operating speed.
For simplicity, local and channel time delays are not shown in the figure.

The most widely used phase comparison system is a non-segregated scheme. The pulse
generated at each line terminal is a composite signal that combines the phase currents to
form a unique single-phase voltage. A typical composite signal, VF, is a weighted
combination of the current symmetrical components.
The high bandwidth of modern digital communications channels permits implementation

of segregated phase comparison systems. These systems fulfill an independent phase
comparison for each phase current. This is a more expensive scheme, but it provides
faulted phase identification for single-pole tripping and enhances the protection behavior
for evolving faults, cross country faults, inter-circuit faults, and series compensated lines.

The basic phase-comparison principle only exchanges phase information between line
terminals. This principle fails for internal faults with outfeed, such as when one current
flows in one terminal and out of the other terminal. This figure shows a possible outfeed
condition. A high-resistance internal fault, for which the load current is greater than the
fault current, is a typical case of an outfeed situation.

The percentage differential principle, originally developed for the protection of
transformers and generators, was extended to the protection of short transmission lines in
the 1930s. The traditional system uses a telephone-type pilot wire channel to exchange
analog information between the line terminals. Composite sequence networks form
voltage signals that contain magnitude and phase information on the currents at the line
terminals. Percentage differential relays at each end respond to the currents derived from
the comparison of these voltages through the pilot wire. The system operates as a
percentage differential relay at lower levels of fault current. At higher currents, the
y
system becomes a phase
p comparison
p system
y because of the effect of the saturating
g
transformer included in the scheme. The transformer is intended to provide isolation
from ground potential rise in the copper conductor channel. The introduction of fiber
optic channels permitted provision of the percentage-differential characteristic for all
levels of fault current.
The figure depicts two typical percentage differential characteristics. A differential relay
compares the magnitude of an operating current with the magnitude of a restraining
current. The relay is on the verge of operation when the equation defining the
characteristic is fulfilled. The operating region is the region above the operating
characteristic. A variable-percentage or dual-slope characteristic (dotted lines in the
figures) increases relay security at higher fault levels.

Percentage differential elements compare an operating current (also called differential
current) with a restraint current. The operating current, IOP, is the magnitude of the
phasor sum of the currents entering the protected element.
IOP is proportional to the fault current for internal faults and approaches zero for other
operating (ideal) conditions.
The slide shows the most common alternatives for obtaining the restraint current, IRT.

The differential current is not exactly zero for external faults. The most common causes
of false differential current in transmission line differential relays are the following:
· Line charging current
· Tapped load
· Channel time-delay compensation errors
· Current transformer saturation
Line charging current is significant in cable lines or long overhead lines.
The false differential current created by tapped loads may be the result of load current,
low-side faults, or inrush current in the tapped transformer.
The effect of line charging current and load current can be eliminated by using a
negative-sequence or zero-sequence differential element.
Channel time-delay compensation errors and current transformer saturation contribute to

false differential current in all types of differential elements. To address these two
sources of error, the operating characteristic of the differential element needs to be
carefully designed.

Some advantages of phase-segregated current based systems are:
· They do not require voltage information (this avoids problems such as loss-of-
potential for close-in faults, blown potential fuses, ferroresonance in VTs and
transients in CVTs.)
· They are immune to:
Mutual induction effects
Power swings
Series impedance unbalance (open-pole conditions, unequal gap

flashing on series-compensated lines, etc.)
Current reversals in parallel-line configurations

Other advantages of phase-segregated current based systems are:
· They perform well for evolving, inter-circuit, and cross country faults.
· They are easily applied to short transmission lines
· They tolerate high line loading
· Depending upon the operating characteristic, current-only systems may

handle outfeed conditions during high-resistance faults and in series-
compensated and three-terminal lines.
The basic limitations of current-only systems are related to the communications channel:
they need a reliable, high-capacity channel. These limitations are rapidly disappearing
with the modern digital fiber-optic communications channels. In addition, digital
technology permits inclusion of many protection functions in a relay unit. It is now
possible to combine a directional comparison and a current based pilot system in the
same relay.y This diversity
y of operation
p pprinciples
p in the same unit may y enhance the
overall performance without a significant increase in cost. In applications where
reliability also demands duplicate hardware, you may install two such relay units and
obtain four separate protection functions running on two separate hardware platforms.

Current based line protection systems may perform phase comparison or amplitude
comparison of quantities derived from the currents at the line terminals. It is customary
to use a polar diagram to represent the operating characteristic of phase comparison
systems. A scalar diagram showing the operating current as a function of the restraint
current is the typical way of representing the differential relay operating characteristics.
Taking into account that relay input signals are complex quantities, the most
comprehensive way to represent relay characteristics is to use a complex plane defined by
the ratio of the relay input signals. For relays having current and voltage input signals,
the complex plane could be an impedance or an admittance plane. For relays with only
current or voltage inputs, the complex plane is a current ratio or a voltage ratio plane,
respectively.
For a differential relay, we may define a complex variable given by the ratio of the
remote current to the local current. The equation shown in this slide is the base for the
Cartesian-coordinates or polar-coordinates versions of the current ratio plane.
Warrington introduced the term alpha-plane to designate this plane.

This figure shows a family of percentage differential relay operating characteristics for
different values of the slope, K. These characteristics correspond to the relay having a
slope characteristic that crosses the origin of coordinates. The relay restraint quantity is
the difference of the input currents. Relay characteristics are circular.
The operating region is the area out of the circle, and the restraint region is inside the
circle. Note that the
–1 + j0 point corresponding to an ideal through-current condition is inside the relay
restraint region.

This figure depicts another family of characteristics corresponding to a relay having a
slope characteristic that crosses the origin of coordinates. The relay restraint quantity for
this case is the sum of the input current absolute values. Relay characteristics are not
circular. Note that the value of the slope, K, determines not only the size, but also the
shape of the relay characteristic.
Dual-slope differential relays may have two different types of slope characteristics. The
first slope characteristic may be a straight line crossing the origin of coordinates or may
intersect on the restraint current axis. The second slope characteristic always has an
intersect on the restraint current axis.
Thus, the dual-slope differential relay will have two different characteristics in the
current-ratio plane. The restraint current value determines the characteristic that is active
for a given power system operating condition.

The current-ratio plane is an excellent tool for analyzing the response of current only
protection systems for different power system conditions and to the signal corruption
resulting from the protection scheme elements. The method for analyzing relay operation
is to superimpose on the same current-ratio plane the relay characteristic and the current-
ratio trajectory resulting from the fault or abnormal condition in the power system. This
method is equivalent to the operation analysis of distance relays in the impedance plane.
For power system and protection scheme steady-state conditions, the current-ratio
trajectory reduces to a point. Under transient conditions, the trajectory will converge to a
final steady-state point in the current-ratio plane. This figure depicts current-ratio plane
regions for steady-state fault and load conditions. If we disregard all possible sources of
errors, the point representing the system condition falls along the real or a-axis. For ideal
through-current conditions (normal loads or external faults), a = –1. For internal faults
with infeed from both line ends, a > 0. For internal faults with outfeed at one terminal, a
< 0. Note that the relay characteristic should have the point a = –1 in the restraint zone
and all the fault regions in the operation zone.

The key factors to consider in defining the required shape of a line differential relay
characteristic in the current-ratio plane are channel time-delay compensation errors,
power system impedance non-homogeneity, CT saturation, and low frequency
oscillations in series-compensated lines. The effect of line charging current and the
system power angle can be virtually eliminated using negative-sequence or zero-sequence
currents. Additionally, there are design solutions to address the tapped load problem.
Therefore, it is unnecessary to take these three factors into account to define the shape of
the relay characteristic.
The effect of channel time-delay compensation errors is to create a rotation of the ideal
fault and load regions in the current-ratio plane. The angle of the rotation equals the error
in angle θ created by channel asymmetry. The effect of the system impedance non-
homogeneity is to produce a rotation of the ideal internal fault region in the current-ratio
plane. In a worst-case scenario, the angle error adds to that produced by channel
asymmetry. This figure shows the combined effect of channel asymmetry and system
impedance non-homogeneity.

Line charging current flows into the line at both line terminals and creates a false
differential current. This figure represents the current components that exist in the line for
a normal load condition.
The figure also depicts the current-ratio locus for different values of ILOAD. The trajectory
is not circular in the general case. Note that, for small load currents, the current-ratio
value lies in the right semi-plane. The only way to avoid relay misoperation is to set the
relay minimum pickup current greater than the line charging current value. For
differential elements responding to the phase currents, this sensitivity limitation affects
the relay fault resistance coverage for internal faults. The negative-sequence or zero-
sequence components of the charging current are very low when compared to the
positive-sequence or phase values. Thus, a negative-sequence or a zero-sequence
differential element can be set much more sensitive than a phase element.

A tapped load not included in the line differential measurement creates an operation
current component in the differential scheme. This figure shows the current distribution
in a line with a tapped load. The tapped load current, IT, may be load or fault current.
Fault currents can correspond to internal or secondary-side faults in the tapped
transformer.
When ITL = ITR, the current-ratio locus has the general aspect of that of the previous slide.
When ITL ≠ ITR, the trajectory still begins at a = –1 (for ILOAD >> IT), and ends in the
right part of the real axis.
The differential relay pickup must be set greater than the load current of the tapped load.
Negative-sequence and zero-sequence differential elements can be set more sensitive than
the phase elements, because negative-sequence and zero-sequence differential elements
only respond to load unbalance.
Tapped load fault current must also be taken into account. A possible solution is to
desensitize the relay to the maximum tapped load fault current. The type of fault to
consider
id depends
d d on the
th differential
diff ti l element;
l t three-phase
th h fault
f lt for
f the
th phase
h elements,
l t
phase-phase or phase-phase-ground faults for the negative-sequence elements, and phase-
phase-ground or phase-ground faults for the zero-sequence elements. If one of the tapped
transformer windings is connected in delta, a zero-sequence differential relay does not
respond to secondary-side ground faults, but the relay will still respond to internal
transformer primary winding ground faults. Another solution is to have the differential
relay time coordinated with the tapped load overcurrent protection devices. The simplest
means of accomplishing this is to use the calculated total phase or sequence current as the
input to a time-overcurrent (TOC) element. In turn, the TOC element is coordinated with
the overcurrent protection of the tapped load. It is interesting to note that by using total
line current, we in fact are turning the looped or multi-feed coordination problem into a
radial line coordination exercise.

Saturation of a current transformer (CT) for an external fault produces a false operating
current in a differential protection scheme. To avoid relay misoperation, it is necessary to
desensitize the relay by selecting the appropriate value of the slope, K.
The current-ratio plane can be used to visualize the effect of CT saturation and to
determine the relay slope setting.
This figure shows the secondary CT currents and the resulting differential current for a
fault with maximum dc offset. Recall that the differential current should be zero for an
external fault under ideal conditions.
conditions

This figure depicts the current-ratio trajectory corresponding to the filtered currents
shown in the previous slide. The procedure for obtaining this figure involved calculation
of the fundamental phasor values of currents, using the output signals of the 16 samples-
per-cycle cosine filters. The phasor ratio is then determined and the results are plotted on
the complex plane. A slope value in the differential relay is selected such that the relay
characteristic encloses all the cluster of points.

This figure depicts the characteristic of a new differential element for line protection.
The relay restraining region in the current-ratio plane is the area comprised between two
circle arcs and two straight lines and includes the a = –1 point.
The characteristic is created by combining amplitude and phase-comparison. Amplitude

comparison provides the circular parts of the characteristic with a setting R. The radii of
both circle arcs are reciprocal.
Phase comparison provides the linear parts of the characteristic and defines the angular
setting α.
α Note that the characteristic can be set to match perfectly with the different fault
and load regions depicted in the previous slide and accommodate CT saturation.

This figure presents a comparison between the new characteristic and that of a traditional
differential element (assuming a circular characteristic for simplicity). Both relays are set
for the same level of tolerance to outfeed. The traditional differential relay has very low
tolerance to channel asymmetry.

If we decided to increase the slope of the traditional differential relay to accommodate a
high level of channel asymmetry, the relay loses sensitivity to internal faults with outfeed.

R i i Table
Revision T bl
Review Review #
CRT 1/31/03 1 Adapted from System Aspects of Protection_r4

In a lossless system, active power transfer depends on the voltage manitudes, the series
angle δ.
reactance and the angle between the voltages or power angle,
reactance, δ The direction of active
power depends on the sign of δ: power flows from the line end having the leading voltage to
the line end having the lagging voltage.
To increase the power transfer capability of the power system you can raise the system
voltage level, reduce the series reactance, or apply a combination of both. The reactance can
be reduced by adding interconnecting lines or connecting series capacitors in transmission
lines.

Power systems normally operate at close to the nominal frequency. All synchronous
machines connected to the power system operate at the same average speed.
speed The generator
governors maintain the machine speed close to its nominal value. There is a balance between
generated and consumed active power under normal power system operating conditions.
Random changes in load and system configuration constantly take place and impose small
disturbances to the power system. The ability of a power system to maintain normal
operating conditions during these small, slow changes of system loading is called steady-
state stability or system stability for small perturbations.
This figure depicts the power-angle curve. The transfer power P is a sine function of the
power angle δ. We operate the system at a given angle δ0, corresponding to a transfer power
P0.
The load can be increased in small steps until the tip of the power curve is reached. An
increase of the transfer power, P, follows to each increase in the load demand power, P0.
Beyond the curve maximum (δ>90°) a load increase causes a decrease in the transfer power
and the system losses synchronism. PMAX represents the steady
steady-state
state stability limit for an
ideal lossless system. This is the maximum power that the electrical system can transfer.

Power system faults, line switching, generator disconnection, and the loss and application of
large blocks of load result in sudden changes of the electrical power
power, whereas the
mechanical power input to generators remains relatively constant.
These major system disturbances cause severe oscillations in machine rotor angles and
severe swings in power flows. Transient stability (or stability for large perturbations) is the
ability of a power system to return to synchronous operation following a large disturbance,
such as a fault. A transient unstable system will loose synchronism as a result of the
disturbance, with groups of machines accelerating or decelerating away from the
synchronous speed
speed.
A simplified two-machine power system is used to present the basic concepts of transient
stability. Four power system states are identified as a result of a fault in the system. In the
pre-fault state, both lines are in service, the equivalent reactance X has the minimum value
and the system power transfer capability has the maximum value. When the fault occurs, the
transfer reactance X suddenly increases and reduces the power transfer capability of the
system.
Tripping of breaker 1 does not clear the fault, but reduces its severity for the power system.
As a result, the transfer capability increases. Finally, breaker 2 trips and clears the fault. The
system reaches the post-fault state with the faulted line out of service. The system power
transfer capability recovers to a level which is lower than the pre-fault power transfer
capability.
Each one of the system changes (fault inception, breaker 1 tripping, and breaker 2 tripping)
cause the system rotor angles to oscillate
oscillate. A transient stable system moves from the pre
pre-fault
fault
to the post-fault steady state through stable, damped oscillations.

This figure depicts the so-called
so called equal
equal-area
area criterion to assess transient stability in two
two-machine
machine power
systems.
The figure shows the power-angle curves corresponding to the four states of the power system presented in
the previous slide. In our analysis we will consider the left-side machine in the previous slide to be the
equivalent generator and the right-side machine to be the equivalent motor. In the pre-fault state the
mechanical power input to the generator, P0, the mechanical power output from the motor, and the electrical
transfer power, P, are all equal (for this ideal lossless system.)
Upon fault inception the power

power-angle
angle curve moves from the “pre-fault”
pre fault curve to the “fault”
fault curve (see the
figure). The fault reduces the system power transfer capability from point 0 to point 1. The mechanical
power has not changed, so the generator accelerates and the motor decelerates, both increasing the angle δ
(trajectory from point 1 to point 2).
Breaker 1 tripping changes the power-angle curve to the “Fault (one breaker open)” curve. The resulting
increase in the power transfer capability (trajectory from point 2 to point 3) is not enough and angle δ
continues to increase (trajectory from point 3 to point 4). Breaker 2 tripping clears the fault and the power-
angle curve moves to the “post-fault” state. The power transfer capability is now greater than the mechanical
power (trajectory
(t j t from
f point
i t 4 to
t point
i t 5),
5) so the
th generator
t decelerates
d l t andd the th motort accelerates.
l t However,
H
angle δ continues to increase (trajectory from point 5 to point 6), because rotors do not change speeds
instantly.
Area 1 in the figure represents the kinetic energy added to the rotors. Area 2 represents the kinetic energy
returned to the system. Angle δ will grow up to that value for which Area 2 equals Area 1 (Point 6). At this
point the swing reverses, and δ oscillates around a final value. The final value is the δ corresponding to the
intersection of the mechanical power (horizontal straight line) and the post-fault power-angle curve. The
oscillation is damped by resistance in the power system, the generator voltage regulator action, and the
generator governor action.
The foregoing discussion refers to a stable power system. If Area 2 is smaller than Area 1, the system cannot
maintain synchronism and goes out of step.
To preserve system transient stability it is important to keep the accelerating area (Area 1) as low as possible.
Fast fault clearing reduces this area and enhances system stability.

The system power transfer capability during the fault depends on the fault type and fault
location.
location
These figures show the sequence network interconnections for different fault types in a
simple two-machine power system with a single tie line.

In order to calculate the series, or transfer reactance, between machines in the faulted system
of the previous slide
slide, we need to make a wye-delta conversion.
conversion
Notice that the reactance XZ of the wye connection appears in the denominator of the
expression for the transfer reactance X. The smaller the XZ the larger the X.
XZ is the reactance connected in the fault point of the positive-sequence network in the
previouos slide. XZ equals zero for a 3PH fault (X tends to infinity). XZ corresponds to a
given combination of X2 and/or X0 for other fault types. It is clear that XZ and hence X
p
depend on the fault type.
yp

This figure depicts the power-angle curves for different fault types in a power system with
two parallel lines.
lines The most critical fault for system stability is the three-phase fault
fault. In
general, fault types involving more phase conductors are more critical for stability.

This figure depicts the case of an unstable system. Slow fault clearing causes a large
accelerating area which can not be compensated by a corresponding decelerating area.
area

Fast fault cleating reduces the accelerating area and the system happens to be stable for the
same fault as in the previous slide.
slide This slide shows the importance of applying fast relays
and breakers in transmission systems.

The figure shows the angular behavior of stable and unstable power systems. In a stable
system δ oscillates in a damped mode around a final value
system, value. The system reaches a new
steady-state operation point.
In an unstable system, δ grows monotonically and the machines loose synchronism.

Unstable operation is undesirable, as it creates high currents and power flows, as well as
unusual voltages. Unstable operation also causes severe generator torque oscillations.
Voltage fluctuations may also affect the power station auxiliaries, which may need to be
tripped.
Unstable system oscillations need to be detected and the appropriate tripping decisions need
to be made in order to divide the system into electrical islands.

Current and voltage oscillations caused by power swings may affect phase overcurrent,
phase directional overcurrent,
overcurrent and distance elements.
elements
Negative- and zero-sequence quantities are, in general, low during power swings (except
when the swing coincides with an unbalanced fault). In general, relays responding to
negative- and zero–sequence quantities are less affected by power swings than phase relays.
Differential relays are immune to power swings. The current enters at one end of the
differential protection zone and leaves the other end. The relay differential current is
ppractically
y zero for a ppower swing.
g

A distance relay is affected the most by a power swing. One way to visualize why that is, is
to consider what happens to the voltage at the theoretical electrical center of the system
system. In
our simple two bus case, with no losses and no VAR flow, the voltage at the electrical center
of the system is going to be as shown.

As the two systems pull apart during a disturbance (the power angle “δ” gets larger), the
voltage at the electrical center of the system becomes depressed
depressed.

The greater the swing of the power angle “δ”, the greater the voltage depression at the
electrical center of the system.
system At the point that the two systems are 180 degrees apart
apart, the
voltage at the electrical center will be zero in magnitude.
Coincidentally, during the part of the swing where the power angle “δ” is greatest, the
current magnitude will be at maximum.
Intuitively, we would expect an impedance relay to see the depressed voltage and increased
current as a short circuit and operate.

This slide shows voltage and current waveforms of an out-of-step system condition which
evolves to a 3PH fault at cycle 30.
30
Notice the oscillations in the system voltage and the current during this out-of-step condition
and that the voltage is at minimum when the current is at maximum.

Impedance measured by distance relays during power swings tend to oscillate as a result of
voltage and current oscillations.
oscillations The apparent impedance may penetrate the relay operating
characteristic and cause a misoperation.
A simple two-machine system can be used to analyze the behavior of the apparent relay
impedance during power swings. Considering the power swing to be a balanced system
condition, the system can be represented by its positive-sequence network. The task is to
obtain an expression of the apparent impedance as a function of the power angle, δ. Then,
letting δ vary with time, the effect of the power swing on the apparent impedance trajectory
can be simulated.
simulated Superimposing the trajectory on the distance relay operating characteristic
provides an indication of the relay behavior for the power swing.

This figure shows the impedance trajectory in the complex plane. The locus is a straight line
which is perpendicular to the system total impedance ZT = ZS + ZL + ZR. The locus
intersects ZT in its midpoint.
A given point of the locus is the end of the measured impedance phasor, Z, for a given δ
value. When δ varies with time during the power swing, the point moves along the
impedance locus.
It can be shown that, when δ increases with time, the point moves from right to left on the
locus ((see the figure).
g ) This is the case when the machine behind the relayy is the equivalent
q
generator and accelerates with respect to the equivalent motor located in front of the relay.
On the other hand, when δ decreases with time, the point moves from left to right. In this
case, the equivalent motor is behind the relay and decelerates with respect to the equivalent
generator located in front of the relay.
For δ = 0 the measured impedance tends to infinity in this system. This is a zero-load-flow
condition. In addition to that, there is no reactive power flow, because VS=VR. Thus, there is
no current and Z → ∞.
For δ = 180° the end of the measured impedance coincides with the point of intersection of
the locus with ZT. We call this point the electrical center of the power system. In this
condition the relay measures a low impedance value and may misoperate.

The impedance locii for n≠1 are circles centered on the prolongations of the total system
impedance ZT. The figure shows impedance trajectories for three different n values.
values

This figure shows the equations to calculate the radius of the circular locus and the distance
from its center to the end R of ZT, OR.
OR The figure refers to the case of n>1.
n>1
For n<1 the circle center, O, is located on the prolongation of ZT beginning at end S. Use the
same equations to calculate the circle radius and the distance from the center to end S (OS
rather than OR). Substitute 1/n as the value for n in the equations when n<1.

Initially, a simple two-machine system was used to study the power swing problem because
such a system allows us to obtain an analytical expression for the relay apparent impedance.
impedance
In a complex power system there is no analytical expression for the apparent impedance.
Digital simulations need to be performed to obtain the impedance trajectories. A transient
stability computer program may calculate the positive-sequence impedances measured by
distance elements.
The figure shows typical impedance trajectories for stable and unstable power swings. In a
stable p
power swing, g, δ g
grows upp to a ggiven maximum value ((typically
yp y between 90° and 180°))
during the first oscillation and then recovers. The impedance trajectory typically does not
leave the first (and eventually fourth) quadrant, or the second (and eventually third)
quadrant, depending upon the initial system operating point. During an unstable power
swing, δ continues to grow (or to decrease) monotonically and never recovers. The resulting
impedance locus moves from the first or fourth quadrant to the second or third quadrant, or
vice versa, depending upon the initial system operating point.
Distance relay operating characteristics and power swing impedance locii can be
superimposed on the same impedance plane to analyze relay operations. In the figure we see
that distance relays are prone to operate for both unstable or stable power swings. The
distance element will trip if the apparent impedance stays inside the characteristic for a time
longer than the relay operating time for that particular zone. Instantaneous first zones are
particularly sensitive to power swings. However, second and third zones may also
misoperate for slow power swings.

A recommended basic protection philosophy for power swings is to avoid tripping when the
system is recovering from a stable swing.
swing On the other hand,
hand there is a need to protect the
system against unstable (out-of-step) operating conditions. Unstable swings need to be
detected so that the system can be separated into electrical islands.

For out-of-step conditions, the system needs to be divided at points that provide good
load/generation balance in the resulting islands
islands. These islanded systems can continue to
operate without disconnecting signigicant blocks of generation and/or load. Finally, the
islands can be synchronized again to restore the power system.
This islanding procedure requires tripping only at selected places and to block tripping at all
the other places.

An important recommendation is to not trip a line when the angle between the source
voltages δ,
voltages, δ is close to 180
180°. Tripping in this condition would impose a high stress on the
breaker and could cause restrikes and consequential damage to the breaker.
It is also important for the system operators to clearly identify the faulted element(s) in order
to properly initiate the system restoration process after a disturbance. When a healthy
transmission line is tripped for system islanding purposes, the system operators should be
informed that the line is healthy. A way of doing that is to automatically reclose one end of
the line and to leave the line in service in this condition.

This figure illustrates the concept of system islanding. During normal operation the
generator output power is approximately equal to the total system load.
load
If the system becomes unstable as a result of some transient event, we should divide the
system at the point shown by the dotted line in the figure. This system separation provides
the best possible balance between generation and load in the resulting islands.
To provide the required system islanding we need to detect the power swing at all system
locations, trip the required line(s), and block tripping at the other locations.
In a complex power system it is difficult to determine the islands to create for out-of-step
conditions. The problem is that the required islands depend on the system operation
condition at the moment of the disturbance and the type of disturbance.
A traditional approach to this problem is to make extensive off-line computer-based

contingency studies to determine the islands to create for different operation scenarios.
Based on this information, system operators may select between different out-of-step
tripping schemes and activate the scheme that fulfills the present operation condition. This
requires having out-of-step relays in more locations than those required for a given scheme.
Synchronized phasor measurements provide the possibility of implementing real-time,

adaptive out-of-step protection. This is an open research topic that offers the possibility of a
solution to this complex problem.

Both faults and power swings may cause the apparent impedance to enter into a distance
element operating characteristic
characteristic. The basic way of discriminating between faults and power
swings is to observe the impedance rate of change.
A short circuit is an electromagnetic transient process with a low time constant. The
apparent impedance changes from the pre-fault value to the fault value in a very short time
(a few milliseconds).
A power swing is an electromechanical transient process with a time constant much higher
p
than that of a fault. The impedance change
g is slower for a power
p swingg than for a fault. For
example, if the frequency of the electromechanical oscillation is about 1 Hz and the
impedance excursion required to penetrate the relay characteristic takes about half a period
(a change in δ of 180°), the impedance change occurs in about 0.5 seconds.
The figure shows one method way of implementing the logic to block distance elements
during power swings (68). The logic uses two distance-type characteristics (quadrilateral
characteristics in the figure). The idea is to measure the time required for the apparent
impedance to move between the two characteristics, and compare that time with a threshold
value.

In the 68 logic, TI – T0 is the time interval during which the apparent impedance is between
the inner and the outer blocking characteristics
characteristics. A threshold time,
time TBLOCK,
TBLOCK is used for
comparison. For power swings, the inequality condition shown is satisfied and all the zones
of both phase and ground distance elements are blocked. Recall that ground distance
elements measure positive-sequence impedance and are also prone to misoperate during
power swings.

This is the logic diagram of the 68 function as applied to a distance element.

A second major protection function related to power swings is to distinguish unstable from
stable swings.
swings This is the function of the out-of-step tripping logic (78).
(78)
The figure depicts a widely used principle for out-of-step detection. Two blinders are used
which divide the impedance plane in three areas. The blinders should be located at both
sides of the system impedance.
During faults or stable swings the apparent impedance moves from Area 1 to Area 2 or from
Area 3 to Area 2, depending upon the initial operating conditions of the system. On the other
hand,, an unstable swingg causes the apparent
pp impedance
p to cross all three areas of the
impedance plane. This information can be used as the base for out-of-step detection logic.
The logic initiates breaker tripping when δ is less than 180° and decreasing to a more
favorable value for breaker operation.
The blocking and tripping out-of-step functions can be combined in a single scheme having
four blinder characteristics. In this case, the inner blinders are used for out-of-step tripping
(78) and the combination of the outer and inner blinders are used for power swing blocking
(68).

The figure shows the one-line diagram of a power system and helps illustrate the concept of
backup protection
protection. For a fault at CD
CD, breakers 5 and 6 should operate as the primary
protection. If breaker 5 fails to operate, there are two possibilities for removing the
contribution from A and B: open breakers 1 and 3 or breakers 2 and 4.
Breakers 1 and 3 are located in remote substations. Relying on them alone is remote backup
protection. An advantage of remote backup protection is low cost. The remote backup
protection is part of the protection equipment that is needed for primary protection functions
of adjacent system elements. Additional investment in equipment is not needed.
Breakers 2 and 4 can provide local backup protection. They are located in the same
substation. Local backup protection is more expensive than remote backup since it needs
additional equipment. The advantages of local backup, over remote backup, are greater
sensitivity, greater selectivity, and faster operating speed.
Backup protection requires a time delay for proper coordination. The primary protection
must be given the opportunity to operate before allowing the backup protection to operate.

Breaker failure relaying is one form of local backup protection. Consider using breaker
failure relaying instead of remote backup if any of the following conditions are true:
• Remote backup fault clearing time is greater than maximum allowed fault clearing
time due to system stability or equipment damage considerations.
• Critical loads, which can be maintained using local breaker failure relaying, are lost
due to remote fault clearing.
• Remote fault clearing may be sequential, requiring the local fault contribution to be
cleared before remote relaying can detect the fault.

When designing the speed of the protection system, the following items need to be
considered:
• Power quality due to delayed clearing
• Equipment damage
• System stability
Power quality and equipment damage are secondary considerations when compared
to system stability. However, they should still be considered.
System stability is usually the most critical consideration. Delayed clearing of faults
can cause system swings and loss of stability. The primary protection systems
should be designed with adequate speed and redundancy to prevent the loss of
stability. Since the circuit breaker is an important part of the protection system,
consideration needs to be given to delayed clearing due to a failure to interrupt
(breaker failure). If the system goes unstable, the impact can be far beyond the local
system.

When determining whether to rely upon remote backup or to apply local backup, it needs to
be determined if additional loads can be maintained by using local backup.
backup
For example, if there are critical loads tapped off of an adjacent line, service can be
maintained to that load by applying breaker failure protection and tripping the adjacent
breaker directly, instead of relying upon remote relays to clear the fault.

With radial Systems this is relatively easy.
• Can the upstream relays be set to see past the next fault interruption device?
• Limitation is usually on circuit loading.
For
o networked
etwo ed systems,
syste s, in-feed
eed limits
ts sensitivity
se s t v ty beyond
beyo d the
t e remote
e ote bus.
• Concern with long reach settings on Zone 3 relays due to susceptibility to

load encroachment and power swings. Later we will see how the application
of breaker failure protection can help by removing in-feed.

As the system changes, fault current levels and the distribution of in-feed currents
change. This will affect the careful analysis of overlap and coordination settings that
are required if you are going to rely upon remote backup exclusively.
Local breaker failure protection reduces the burden of analysis and maintenance of
the remote backup settings.
The need to consider its coverage of adjacent zones is minimized.

This logic diagram shows the basic breaker failure scheme logic. The basic scheme is for a
single-bus single-breaker arrangement.
single-bus, arrangement During a fault,
fault the 50 element and the line
protective relay assert. The AND output goes high and the 62 timer starts. If the trip input
and 50 element both remain asserted until the timer expires, a breaker failure is declared.
The scheme resets when either element drops out.

This scheme is recommended for single breaker, breaker-and-a-half, and ring-bus
arrangements In a complex bus arrangement
arrangements. arrangement, each breaker must have its own timer(s).
timer(s)
When the trip input is asserted, the 62 pickup timer starts. If the 50 element is asserted when
the 62 timer expires, a breaker failure is declared. If the trip input is de-asserted before the
62 timer expires, the timer resets. In this scheme, timing begins with the trip command. In
the previous scheme, timing does not begin until the 50 element also asserts.
In a breaker-and-a-half or ring-bus application, one breaker’s 50 element may not assert

p
until the companion breaker opens.
p In those instances,, this scheme will reduce overall
breaker failure clearing time.

Scheme A is intended to be used in single-breaker, ring-bus, or breaker-and-a-half
installations.
installations
When the relay trip input is asserted, the 62 pickup timer starts. After the pickup time
elapses, the 62 timer output asserts and closes the switch. The timer output remains asserted
for one cycle. A breaker failure is declared if the 50 element asserts during the one-cycle
window. This scheme was invented to eliminate problems with slow dropout of the fault
detector in non-numerical relay designs.

This is a typical breaker failure timing diagram for the logic described as a multi-breaker
scheme logic.
logic In this logic
logic, the timer is started by the protective relay BFI (Breaker Failure
Initiate) logic only. The output of the timer is supervised by the 50 element. The timer can
be stopped by protective relay dropout; however, the reset time of the protective relay may
not necessarily be fast. This can cause the timer to continue timing after the fault is cleared.
The 50 element is there for two purposes: to provide independent confirmation that a fault is
occurring; and to provide a fast reset characteristic to prevent tripping.
If the 50 element is asserted when the timer expires, a breaker failure is declared and backup
tripping occurs.
occurs Thus,
Thus for a normal operation
operation, the timer setting must be longer than the worst
case breaker interrupt time plus the dropout time of the 50 element. The time remaining is
called the safety margin.

In schemes for detecting breaker failure to clear a fault, it is important to be able to detect as
quickly as possible not only the pickup but the dropout of fault-detecting overcurrent
elements. Half-cosine filtering is often used to accelerate the detection of element pickup
and dropout. However, dropout detection can be delayed by a phenomenon called CT
subsidence current. This current may appear as a small, exponentially decaying dc current
with a fairly long time constant.
The effect of this current upon the half-cosine filter may be to create artificial phasor
magnitudes large enough to prevent proper detection that the primary ac current actually has
been interrupted.
interrupted This failure to detect interruption of the primary ac current may delay
detection of overcurrent element dropout by some fraction of a cycle. As a result, longer
time coordination intervals must be used in the breaker failure logic to preserve security.

Consider Substation C, Breaker 4. In this example, assume that pilot protection has not been
applied since stability is not a concern in this region of the power system
system. For a failure of
breaker 4, if remote backup is relied upon exclusively, relays at 1, 7, & 8 would have to see
100% of line BC. When in-feed is considered, the zone 3 relays at these remote terminals
would have to have extremely long reach settings. Long reach settings are more susceptible
to power swings or load encroachment.
If breaker failure protection is applied for local backup, you do not have to rely upon those
relays at all.

Lets look at the situation assuming that we have applied a breaker failure protection system.
Breaker 4 will be called upon to trip for two zones of the power system
system.
• Fault on Line BC
• Fault on Bus C
• For a failure of Breaker 4, consider each in turn. Breakers 3, 5, and 6 are tripped and
locked out by the breaker failure protection system.
The onl
only breaker to consider is Breaker 2 at S
Substation
bstation B
B. Local back
backup,
p via
ia direct transfer
trip (DTT), can be employed at the expense of adding a teleprotection channel. Or, remote
backup can be relied upon to supplement local backup protection for this breaker.
Consider each zone in turn.
• Fault on Line BC -- breaker 2 trips normally,there is no concern with sensitivity.
• Fault on Bus C -- Breaker 2 trips

p in Zone 2. There is no concern with sensitivity.
y
Adding a DTT system can speed clearing and prevent auto reclose of Breaker 2.
Notice that for straight bus applications, for any breaker failure, all breakers around the bus
can be tripped. Earlier in the presentation, it was mentioned that sometimes, a single timer
and lockout (possibly even the bus differential lockout) is used for all breakers on the bus.

Consider Substation C. Again, assume that pilot protection has not been applied. In this case,
a breaker has been omitted from the straight bus for the transformer position.
position Breaker 4 will
be called upon to trip for three zones.
• Fault on Line BC
• Fault on Bus C
• Fault in the transformer. (Breakers 3, 4, 5, & 6 are tripped, the MOD opened, and
the breakers reclosed)
Consider a transformer fault. Breakers 3, 5, and 6 are tripped and locked out by the breaker
failure protection system.
Breaker 2 at Substation B is again the concern. Local backup, via direct transfer trip (DTT),
can be relied on at the expense of adding a teleprotection channel. Or, remote backup can be
relied upon to supplement local backup protection for this breaker.
For the transformer zone

zone, relays at Breaker 2 may not have the necessary sensitivity to detect
all the faults that are detected by the sensitive transformer protection. In this case, local
backup via DTT would improve the application. Otherwise, the MOD is sacrificed and is
used to clear the fault. The MOD would not be interlocked with Breaker 3, 4, and 5 and
would open under fault. This will cause a flash-over and bus fault that can be seen by the
relays at Breaker 2. This approach considers the probabilities that transformer faults are rare
and a breaker failure is even more rare. However, in this case, damage would be extensive.

Consider Breaker 4 at Substation C which has a ring bus. With a ring bus, multiple breakers
have to be tripped for any fault
fault. Again
Again, in this example
example, assume that there are no stability
problems and pilot protection has not been applied. Sensitivity still needs to be considered.
• For a Fault on BC, breaker 2, 4, and 6 are tripped.
• If breaker 4 fails, breakers 2 and 6 are already open from the original trip.
• Breaker 3 is tripped by the breaker failure system which removes the source of
infeed from D.
• Breaker 1 is the one of concern. The relays at breaker 1 must have enough
sensitivity to see 100% of Line BC (or CD if we consider the failure of breaker 3).
Removal of infeed by local breaker failure helps since the line is now radial.
• If remote backup is relied on for this condition, all of line BC needs to be covered
by Zone 3. The addition of DTT can allow clearing in breaker failure time and
reduce the reliance on the Zone 3 reach.

6001.pdf, A Review of Impedance-Based Fault Locating Experience, E.O. Schweitzer III
6089.pdf, New Multi-ended Fault Location Design for Two or Three-Terminal Lines,
Demetrios Tziouvaras, Jeff Roberts, Gabriel Benmouyal
Revision Table
Review Review #
CRT CRT CLS 4/30/02 1 Edits, notes added, made non-SEL specific
CLS CLS 5/22/02 2 TDS review, formatting changes
CLS 6/5/02 3 B&W corrections
ti
CLS 7/17/02 4 Equation error fix
CLS 8/19/02 5 Objectives added
EB CLS 2-13-03 6 Convert to white
LGP CLS 2-25-03 7 Fix animations, etc.

To accurately locate all fault types, the phase-ground voltages and currents for each phase
must be
b measured.d
To prevent transients from impacting the calculation, the fundamental components of the
measurements are extracted and converted to a phasor quantity.
Knowing the fault type is essential for accurate single-ended fault locating, because the
fault type determines the measuring loop used in the calculation.

Single-end fault locating is easy to implement in a digital relay. Basically, it is free.
Because communication
i i with i h the
h remote endd is
i unnecessary, allll that
h needs
d to beb done
d is
i
to implement the algorithms.
However, because several assumptions concerning the system are necessary, the single-
end method is affected by system conditions. Zero-sequence mutual coupling and system
non-homogeneity impact the accuracy of single-end fault locating.

Two-end methods provide accurate fault locating without reliance on assumptions
concerning
i the
h system. However, theh accuracy comes at a price;
i the
h relay
l must now
receive the measured voltages and currents from the remote end. On the plus side, the
accuracy of the two-end method is not affected by zero-sequence mutual coupling.
Two-end fault locating can be used with synchronized data or data that are not
synchronized.

The basic approach starts with an equation for the voltage at one end of the line using the
current measuredd bby the
h relay,
l theh totall fault
f l current, andd the
h fault
f l resistance.
i The
h
following equation is considered the universal ground fault voltage equation and is the
basis for many distance elements and fault locating algorithms.
V = m•Z1L•I + RF•IF
Where: m = per-unit distance to the fault
Z1L = total positive-sequence impedance of the line
I = current as measured by the relay
RF = fault resistance
IF = total fault current = IFS + IFR = fault current from source S + fault
current from source R
Because the fault resistance and total fault current are unknown, the goal is to minimize
the effect of this resistance and current on the calculation.

Under fault conditions, the apparent impedance should equal that of the line to the fault
l
location,
i plusl the
h fault
f l impedance.
i d Given
i that
h a transmission
i i line
li is
i highly
hi hl reactive,
i andd
that fault impedance tends to be resistive, the reactive component of the apparent
impedance is proportional to the distance to the fault.
From the basic equation, a simple reactance-based, fault-locating algorithm can be

created. To create the algorithm, it is necessary to manipulate the equation and solve for
m. To start, divide all terms by I, the current measured by the relay.

Although
lh h the
h quantities
i i within
i hi the
h equation
i are phasors,
h the
h equality
li still
ill holds
h ld true for
f
the real part of the equation as well as for the imaginary part of the equation. The
imaginary portion of the equation is used to extract the reactance component.
If the rightmost term of the equation is assumed to be zero, the fault location can be
approximated by using the positive-sequence impedance of the line, the measured
voltage, and the measured current. However, the assumption introduces an error factor.
For the special cases when RF = 0 or when the angle of the measured current is equal to
the angle of the total fault current, the error is zero. If RF ≠ 0, the error depends on the
angular difference between the load current and the fault current. For radial lines, the
angular difference will be zero.

What is the effect in the apparent impedance if the load angle, δ, ισ 30°? Because the
f l current, IF, and
fault d the
h current through
h h the
h relay,
l I, are no longer
l in
i phase,
h the
h fault
f l
resistance appears to the relay as a complex impedance. The imaginary part of V/I is less
than the reactance from the relay to the fault.
As a result, the calculated fault location will be greater than the actual location.
Alternatively, if the load angle is negative, the converse will be true. That is, the
calculated fault location will be nearer than the actual location.

This is the system used to examine A-phase-to-ground elements for A-phase-to-ground
f l The
faults. h figure
fi shows:
h
• The local source impedance ZS, the relay location
• The line impedance ZL
• The fault location (m)
• The fault resistance RF, an open switch, the remote source impedance ZR.
Τηε ϖαλυε δ is the load angle. This is the angle between the voltage behind the local
source impedance, ZS, and the voltage behind the remote impedance, ZR.

This plot shows the apparent impedance, in the impedance plane, for different values of δ,
andd fault
f l resistance.
i
If the apparent impedance Z is tested against the rectangular characteristic:
• The algorithm overreaches for load-out conditions, δ > 0.
• The algorithm underreaches for load-in conditions, δ < 0.
For δ = 0, there is no load flow; the algorithm neither overreaches nor underreaches.

The Takagi method uses pre-fault current, fault current, and voltage. The approach is to
fi d a quantity
find i that,
h when
h multiplied
l i li d by
b the
h fault
f l voltage
l term (R
( F•IF),
) provides
id a purelyl
resistive result. Then, when the imaginary component is selected, it is independent of
fault resistance.
The superposition current from a bus is equal to the difference between the fault current
and the pre-fault current. Because IS is a part of the fault current, it can be expected to be
in close phase relationship with the fault current, especially when most of the current
comes from that bus.

Instead of dividing through by I, Takagi multiplies by the complex conjugate of the
superposition
i i current.
The Takagi method still contains an error that is introduced when the angular difference
between IF and IS is not zero. In most cases, this method offers substantial improvements
over the simple reactance method.

As can be seen, the Takagi method is not impacted by differing load angles and fault
resistance
i for
f this
hi mid-line
id li fault.
f l

Using a methodology similar to Takagi, another fault locating algorithm can be created.
Now, the
h basic
b i equationi is
i modified
difi d by
b multiplying
l i l i through
h h by
b the
h measuredd residual
id l
current shifted by the angle T.
Shifting the residual current by the angle T is to compensate for the angular difference in
the measured current and the fault current.

From the zero-sequence component diagram, the ratio of the residual current to the fault
current can be
b calculated.
l l d The h angle
l off the
h ratio,
i T, is
i usedd in
i the
h new algorithm
l i h to assist
i
in eliminating the fault resistance term.

The angle T is typically valid for one fault location only. However, T is constant if the
angle
l off the
h zero-sequence source impedance
i d is
i equall to the
h angle
l off the
h zero-sequence
line impedance. That is, T is constant for a homogeneous system.

As with the Takagi method, the zero-sequence current method, with angle correction,
provides
id substantial
b i l improvement
i over the
h simple
i l reactance method.
h d

When applying this type of algorithm, the selection of T is critical.

The accuracy of the single-end methods presented are complicated by the following:
• Zero-sequence mutual coupling
• Tapped load
• Impedance calculation errors
• Series compensation
• N h
Nonhomogeneity
it

If two circuits are in close proximity to each other, there is zero-sequence mutual
coupling
li between
b the
h circuits.
i i
When a ground fault occurs, a voltage measured by a relay includes an induced voltage
proportional to the zero-sequence current in the other circuit. Because there is no
corresponding change in the measured current, an error is introduced to any calculation
that makes use of the measured voltage.
Whether the error is additive or subtractive depends on the direction of the current in the
unfaulted circuit.
circuit

If the two circuits maintain the same spacing throughout the entire length of the lines, the
zero-sequence mutuall coupling
li isi constant. There
h are methods
h d off accounting
i forf constant
mutual coupling. Trying to compensate for mutual coupling is complicated if the mutual
coupling is not constant. The lines depicted above demonstrate conditions where the
mutual coupling is not constant.

For lines with constant mutual coupling, a constant could be added to the algorithm to
compensate for
f the
h mutuall coupling.
li Alternatively,
l i l theh measuredd residual
id l current in
i the
h
unfaulted circuit can be used to refine the algorithm.

By using data from both terminals of a line, fault location can be determined with greater
accuracy. Start by
b generating
i equations
i for
f theh fault
f l voltage
l with
i h the
h line
li terminals
i l as a
reference. Setting the two equations equal to each other and rearranging provides an
equation for m.
The equation results in a complex value for m, where it is desirable to have a real value.
The imaginary component accounts for errors in ZL and measurement errors.
This method is commonly performed manually. Please note that it does require the data
to be synchronized
synchronized. The major drawback
drawback, other than the effort required for manual
calculation, is that data synchronization is not necessarily a trivial task.

From the sequence diagram, it can be seen that the negative-sequence source impedance
can be
b calculated
l l d byb dividing
di idi the
h measuredd negative-sequence
i voltage
l by
b the
h measuredd
negative-sequence current. This is a key element of the new fault locator.

The new method of locating unbalanced faults uses negative-sequence quantities from all
li terminals.
line i l
The negative-sequence voltage at the fault is the same when viewed from all ends of the
line. Using the same basic equation as before, the fault voltage can be calculated with
either terminal as a reference.
A relay can utilize this method with minimal data transfer requirements. The data
required from the remote terminal are the magnitude of the measured negative-sequence
current and the magnitude and angle of the calculated negative-sequence
negative sequence source
impedance. Additionally, the data exchanged do not have to be from the same point in
time.

Setting the two equations for VF equal to each other and rearranging provides the
expression
i above.
b The
h magnitudes
i d off both
b h sides
id off the
h equation
i are taken
k to avoid id any
problems with data alignment from the two terminals. If the raw data were passed, the
data would require synchronization because they are phasor based. By taking the
magnitudes, the data are no longer phasor based and do not require synchronization.
The next step is to rearrange the equation further such that it is in the form of a quadratic.
The quadratic can then be solved to determine the fault location, m.

The new method also applies to three-terminal lines. For three-terminal applications,
eachh relay
l determines
d i the
h faulted
f l d line
li section,
i reduces
d the
h three-terminal
h i l arrangement into
i
a two-terminal equivalent, and applies the two-terminal methodology just described.

For a fault in any line segment, two of the terminals will calculate the same tap point
voltage.
l For three
h terminali l applications,
li i the
h relays
l will
ill also
l exchange
h their
h i calculated
l l d tap
point voltage. Each relay will then compare the magnitudes of the calculated tap point
voltages to determine the faulted line section.
For a fault on Line 1, relays 2 and 5 will calculate the same tap point voltage. After they
determine the fault is beyond the tap point, these relays will calculate an apparent
negative-sequence source impedance from the parallel combination of the (Z2L2 + Z2Y)
and (Z2L5 + Z2Z). The apparent impedance can be simply calculated by V2TAP / (I2@Y +
I2@Z). However, I2@Y + I2@Z cannot be directly added without phase alignment, because
the relays sample asynchronously.

To correct for the asynchronous sampling by the relays, an alignment angle is calculated
as the
h difference
diff in
i the
h angle
l off the
h calculated
l l d tap point
i voltages.
l The
h apparent negative-
i
sequence impedance can then be calculated and used in the two-terminal fault locator
algorithm.

The new method was tested using steady state and transient methods. The results of the
new method
h d were comparedd to single-end
i l d methods.
h d
The table shows the comparison with a negative-sequence-based, single-end algorithm.

However, the results are comparable to those obtained with a zero-sequence-based,
single-end algorithm.
Because of system nonhomogeneity, the error in the single-end method increases as the
fault location, m, increases.

Implementing the new method in a relay requires minimal data exchange between
terminals.
i l In addition
ddi i to improved
i d fault
f l locating,
l i theh relay
l at eachh terminal
i l will
ill be
b able
bl to
determine and report the total fault current and fault resistance.

A traditional line control scheme will open multiple switches to isolate the faulted
l
location.
i Various
i combinations
bi i off open switches
i h andd reclose
l intervals
i l are usedd to
minimize the number of customers affected by a fault. Unfortunately, the traditional
scheme can cause some customers to experience multiple short outages. Additionally,
the breakers may be asked to reclose into a fault multiple times.
Accurate fault locating can be used to enhance the traditional scheme. An accurate fault
location indication can be used in a communications-based control scheme to only open
the switches on either side of the faulted section. Customers connected to the unfaulted
sections then only experience one short outage. The breakers receive less stress because
they are not called upon to reclose into a fault.

6110.pdf, Understanding and Analyzing Event Report Information, Dave Costello
Revision Table
E T T D R Comments
d e D a e
i c S t v
t h e
o R #
r R e
e v
v i
i e
e w
w
When faults or other system events occur, protective relays record sampled analog
currents and voltages, the status of optoisolated input and output contacts, the state of all
relay elements and programmable logic, and the relay settings.
The result is an event report, a stored record of what the relay saw and how it responded.
With readily available information from product instruction manuals, the user is provided
with all the necessary tools to determine if the response of the relay and the protection
system was correct for the given system conditions.

Event reports are useful while performing commissioning tests and for troubleshooting
relay operations.
IEEE COMTRADE files can be used to represent real-world waveforms, including dc

offsets and harmonics. They can be generated by EMTP or other power system
simulation programs, or from actual field event reports recorded by relays or other
disturbance monitoring equipment. Once a COMTRADE file set is generated, it can be
replayed into a relay through test equipment to recreate the event and observe the relay
response. This is very useful for documenting disturbances and testing, troubleshooting,
or analyzing the response of different designs or programming for the same event.

National and regional regulatory councils require utilities and transmission providers to
install disturbance monitoring equipment and share information from that equipment.
Disturbance monitoring is necessary to determine the performance of the electric system
and protective relaying, to verify system models, and to determine the causes of system
disturbances. Data from this equipment are compiled by independent system operators
and made available to council or power pool members and the North American Electric
Reliability Council (NERC).
One regional council, the Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT), specifies that
all power system disturbances, which include undesired trips, faults, and protective relay
system operations, be promptly analyzed by the equipment owner. Any deficiencies
should be investigated and corrected.
Relays with event reporting meet these regulatory requirements for disturbance
monitoring equipment. Traditionally, relays were installed for protection and control
purposes, and the ancillary features like metering and event recording were added
bonuses. In many cases now, relays are installed because of their data-capturing ability.
In comparison to traditional digital fault recorders installed at only generation or the
largest transmission substations, where data from one or many terminals away from the
fault location had to be analyzed, relays now allow data at the point of the fault to be
examined and time coordinated with relay elements, monitored optoisolated inputs, and
other apparatus.

Before analyzing the details of any event report, start with a basic understanding of what
happened, or what should have happened. This generally involves reviewing the relay
settings and logic, obtaining the relay history report, and gathering any other information
that may be helpful (known fault location, targets from other relays, breaker operations,
SCADA, and personnel records). Use the event report to investigate whether the actual
operation matches the expected operation.

The analog data shown above are reported every quarter-cycle or 90 electrical degrees.
This makes it simple to take one sample, the oldest or previous, as the y-component and
the next sample, the newest or present, as the x-component of a phasor current or voltage.
Modern relays, including the one that generated the event report shown, are capable of
sampling much faster, as much as 16 to 64 samples per cycle, for better resolution and
oscillography. However, relays continue to offer the analyst a choice of display rates: 16
samples per cycle for generating detailed oscillography or 4 samples per cycle for quick
visual analysis.
The number and type of analog channels monitored and captured in an event report will
vary by relay model. Simple nondirectional overcurrent relays will record three phase
currents and calculated quantities, such as residual current. More advanced distance and
directional overcurrent relays will record as many as four phase voltages and four
currents, as well as system frequency, dc battery voltage, and calculated quantities such
as residual current and positive-sequence memory voltage. Relays intended for closing
and reclosing applications may monitor up to six phase voltages, while relays intended
for multi-terminal
multi terminal current differential applications can monitor up to 12 phase currents.
One line current differential relay records both local and remote phase currents in one
event report. Similarly, the number and type of relay elements monitored and captured in
an event report will vary by relay model. Product instruction manuals define the
acronyms and relay element names used as column labels in the event report, as well as
the symbols used to display relay element operating states.
For the event report shown, the sampled analog quantities are reported as root-mean-
square (RMS) values
values.

Samples are taken at 90° intervals and can be easily converted to a phasor quantity. The
magnitude of the phasor is the square root of the sum of the squares of the two samples.
The angle of the phasor is the arctangent of Y divided by X, or the angle whose tangent is
equal to the oldest sample divided by the newest sample. Make sure to adjust the angle
as needed to place it in the proper quadrant.
Alternatively, use the rectangular-to-polar conversion feature of your calculator.
Because the samples are reported in RMS, the phasor quantity must be adjusted by √2 if
you are interested in the peak value of the waveform.
waveform

Historical reports provide an overall picture of what has happened at a location. The
relay adds a new entry to the history every time an event report is generated. The history
is displayed from newest event, Event 1, to oldest event, Event 6. Each entry provides
basic information, referred to as a short event summary, which generally includes the date
and time of the event, type of fault, and fault location. The most common use for the
history report is to quickly determine which events require further analysis using the
detailed event reports.
History reports are also useful for quickly determining element timing. In this case, a
technician was using an automated test program to perform routine maintenance testing.
When the program reached the ground time-overcurrent tests, it reported that the relay
was out of tolerance. The program calculates three arbitrary test points at varying
multiples of pickup. It then applies current and measures the response of an output
contact programmed to follow the overcurrent element. The program repeats the process
rapidly for test points two and three. This history report quickly identifies the actual
operate times of each test as the difference between successive phase A-to-G events
(pick-up)
(pick up) and AG T events (trip).

Referring to the product instruction manual and the relay settings (curve = very inverse,
time dial = 4.70, pick up = 0.5 A secondary), the expected operate times can be
calculated for each test point.
From the history report, the first test at 2 times tap operates as expected (6.53 sec calc vs.
6.419 sec meas) and within published tolerance (±4 percent and ±1.5 cycles). The second
(1.21 sec calc vs. 0.362 sec meas) and third (0.74 sec calc vs. 0.213 sec meas) tests,
however, operate much faster than expected.
The relay has a setting that enables emulation of an induction disk ratchet and time-
time
delayed reset characteristic. Slightly delaying the rest time between successive tests in
the automated test program, as would be done when testing an electromechanical relay,
easily solves the problem and allows the relay to be tested with as-set settings.

Many modern digital relays include a sequential events recorder (SER) report.
SER reports are extremely useful for quickly reviewing a timing sequence, such as time-
delayed tripping elements, programmable timers, and reclosing logic during testing or
after an operation. Use SER reports for testing overcurrent or other time-delayed tripping
elements and logic without having to program and wire output contacts to external test
equipment timers.
SER reports can also be very valuable during troubleshooting. The SER report above is
from a distribution recloser installation.
installation The recloser control had operated a number of
times for downstream faults on the radial line, but the recloser had never automatically
reclosed as expected. Instead, it went to lockout each time. Manual and SCADA close
operations worked without any problem. Analyzing the SER report made solving this
problem an easy task.
In the SER report, the first event at 21:57:17.588 shows that the control tripped by time-
overcurrent ground delay curve (51G2T). The reclosing cycle state asserts (79CY), while
th reclosing
the l i resett state
t t deasserts
d t (79RS) as expected.
t d Aft
After the
th TRIP output
t t closes,
l an
A-phase overvoltage element (59A1) deasserts. This element remains dropped out until
the recloser is manually closed by control pushbutton (PB8) (not shown).

Because the recloser requires either low voltage ac or line-to-line voltage to close, the
relay typically uses an overvoltage element to monitor for a hot source condition.
Reclosing is supervised by including the A-phase overvoltage element (59A1) in the
reclosing supervision equation. However, with the A-phase metering PT mounted on the
load side of the interrupting contacts on this radial line, the 59A1 voltage element drops
out after every trip and prevents automatic reclosing. This is further verified by noting
that the time difference between the drop out of the TRIP and the control going to lockout
(79LO asserting) is equal to the first reclosing open interval time delay (1 second or 60
y
cycles)) pplus a 15-second close p
power wait delay,
y, a settable amount of time allowed for
the ‘source-side’ ac voltage to return.
The manual close by pushbutton (PB8) is successful because it is not internally

supervised, and the source-side voltage is present.
A jumper is installed to monitor the source-side voltage with a voltage input (VS), and a
corresponding overvoltage element (59S1) is set to monitor the single-phase, source-side
control power. A simple setting change (79CLS = 59S1 * . . .) makes the close
supervision monitor the correct voltage.
The SER made this wiring and setting problem easy to diagnose.

This example is provided as a step-by-step tutorial on how to analyze an event report,
learn lessons, and resolve problems.
The most recent historical information was downloaded from a distribution relay that had
to be manually closed after tripping to lockout. The relay controls a recloser that is
mounted on a steel stand within the substation and powered from the substation dc
battery.
In order to understand how the relay was expected to operate, we should immediately
look to the output contact logic and determine what elements were actually used in this
application. In this relay, we notice that only two elements are programmed to cause a
trip: the nondirectional phase instantaneous element (50H) and the phase time-
overcurrent element (51T).

The pickup of the 50H element is (30 A secondary) • (CTR=120:1), or 3600 A primary;
therefore, we would expect the initial INST A B trip target for a 3766 A phase fault.
The next expected sequence for this relay would be to open the recloser, time on the first
reclosing open interval, and then automatically reclose. The first reclose attempt should
be after an open delay of 900 cycles, or 15 seconds. However, the second event is an
instantaneous C-to-G trip only 0.604 seconds after the initial trip. What would cause a
fault to occur during a recloser open period while we are timing to our first reclose
attempt?

As shown above, the initial A-to-B-phase fault is evident. The first digital element to
assert is the time-overcurrent pickup (51P), the most sensitively set element. This
triggers the event report as expected (ER = 51P setting). To determine what element
caused the trip, find the point in time where the trip asserts (OUT T), and look for any
other element transitions at the same point. The pickup of the instantaneous phase
overcurrent element (50HP) asserts at the same instant that the trip output asserts, while
the time-overcurrent element (51P) is picked up but still timing to trip. The reclosing
element (79) prepares to time to a reclose by changing from the reset state (R) to the
y state ((C)) when the relay
cycle y trips.
p IN4 monitors a reclosing g enable-disable switch.
IN6, programmed to monitor a 52a auxiliary contact, comes open 2 cycles after the trip,
indicating the recloser has opened. However, we can easily see that the C-phase
interrupter did not open fully.

The trip coil monitor (IN3) is an optoisolated input wired as a voltage divider to monitor
the health of the trip coil. When the recloser is closed and the trip output contact is not
asserted, the input allows a few milliamperes of current to flow through the trip coil. The
voltage drop is across the relay input because it has a much higher impedance than the
trip coil (roughly 1000 times greater). In the first five cycles of the previous slide, the
input is asserted, meaning that the trip circuit was intact. At the time of trip, the IN3
deasserts, first because of the closed TRIP contact, and then because of the open 52a
auxiliary in the trip circuit.

In the second event, the failed interrupter flashes over to the recloser tank 0.604 seconds
after the first trip occurred. As shown above, the reclosing element (79) immediately
goes to lockout. The relay is designed to drive its reclosing element to lockout if a trip
occurs during open interval timing. This prevents reclosing after a flash over across an
open pole or internal recloser failure. Therefore, the operation of the relay was correct,
and the reason for the failure to reclose was the failure of the C-phase interrupter in the
recloser.
From the information in the first two events, we know that C-phase carried current for at
least 0.721 seconds (the difference between the trigger times of each report, 0.604
seconds, plus 7 more cycles of fault data in Event 2). The fault current seen for the
majority of this time was only around 50 A primary. Could we have used a recloser
failure element to clear this fault before it developed into a more severe 4000 amp fault?

The recloser failure element, as set in this relay, is intended to cancel reclosing. The
element asserts if none of the overcurrent elements in the relay have dropped out 30
cycles after a relay trip is initiated. If the overcurrent elements drop out, the trip failure
element stops timing. Using the analytic assistant software, phase current and
symmetrical component magnitudes are automatically calculated. At the end of the first
event, the C-phase current is only 0.42 A secondary (3IO = Ia + Ib + Ic = 0.412 A). The
overcurrent elements that are used for tripping, and those that are not used for tripping,
are set much too high to see the 0.412 A phase and residual current flowing through the
p , so the trip
failed interrupter, p failure logic,
g , as set,, is ineffective.
Setting a residual overcurrent element (50NL) to 0.25 A secondary provides sensitive

recloser failure supervision for unbalanced faults. Check the event reports in the history
of the relay to make sure normal load unbalance is not greater than (0.25 A secondary) •
(CTR=120:1), or 30 A primary, so that the reclosing element may be reset. With this
setting, our trip failure logic would have seen the unbalance condition caused by the
stuck C-phase interrupter. Programming an output contact equal to close when a trip
failure is detected could trip a backup protective device (the transformer differential lock
lock-
out relay), assert an alarm to the SCADA system to initiate maintenance, and avoid a
more intense fault.
It is also recommended to use a shorter, and more appropriate, trip fail time delay.

It is assumed that the C-phase interrupter eventually opened because no backup
protective device operated, and the beginning of the third event (shown above) shows that
the C-phase current is zero. The dispatcher instructed a local technician to report to the
substation because the SCADA system indicated the recloser was open and in lockout.
Approximately 15 minutes after the initial trip, the third event captures the manual close
operation performed by the local technician. Standing at the outdoor control cabinet,
directly under the failed recloser, the technician turned reclosing off and then manually
closed the recloser. Luckily, the recloser closed without incident.
The third event emphasizes the importance of using a manual close delay. In newer
recloser controls and substation relays, front-panel operator controls are built in so that
traditional control switches can be eliminated. For safety, the user may add a settable
time delay to the operation of the front-panel operator controls. This delay allows an
operator to initiate a manual close by pushing the CLOSE button, and then walk away to
a safe distance before the close signal is actually sent by the relay to the recloser or
breaker.

Safety improvements that could be suggested after reviewing the events are:
• Use breaker failure protection to lock out a failed recloser or breaker
• Use local displays, if available, to indicate a failure has occurred
• Provide indication to SCADA that a failure has occurred
• Implement a time-delayed close when the close control is in close proximity to

the recloser or breaker

The relay in this example generated 10 event reports in just over 20 minutes, according to
the relay history. In addition to the three events reviewed, there were six event reports
triggered by brief downstream B-to-G faults.
The oldest event in the history buffer had a time stamp 11:47:33.395 (shown above).
This was a B-to-G trip. The reclose operation was successful for that fault. Had there
not been a reclose failure later, we might not have investigated this first event report
because it appeared, at first glance, to be a normal trip and reclose event. Further
investigation shows that the C-phase interrupter experienced a problem during this initial
trip as well. However, the reclose occurred before the fault evolved into a larger
problem. Using the analytic software to calculate phase current and symmetrical
component magnitudes, it was determined that there was more than enough current
(1.3 A C-phase and 3IO) to assert the revised recloser failure logic.

Analyzing a series of events for the recloser has provided numerous benefits.


Dia Cinco PROT 401 - r0 PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dia Cinco PROT 401 - r0 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Revision Table

Editor Tech TDS Date Rev Comments

Power System Basics r4 1

General books of Power System Protection.

Power System Basics r4 3

Power System Basics r4 5

Power System Basics r4 6

This current depends on the following parameters:

• Distance to the fault

• Thevenin impedance equivalent to the system “behind” the substation bus

Power System Basics r4 7

Power System Basics r4 8

Power System Basics r4 9

This relay requires voltage and current information.

Power System Basics r4 10

Power System Basics r4 11

Power System Basics r4 12

Power System Basics r4 13

Power System Basics r4 14

Power System Basics r4 15

Power System Basics r4 16

It is usual to find an impedance ratio ZTR = VTR/CTR to determine the secondary

Power System Basics r4 17

Power System Basics r4 18

Power System Basics r4 19

Power System Basics r4 20

Power System Basics r4 21

Power System Basics r4 22

Power System Basics r4 23

Power System Basics r4 24

Power System Basics r4 25

There are typically

Power System Basics r4 28

Power System Basics r4 29

Power System Basics r4 30

Currently, with computer-based relays, it is much easier to implement a MHO relay.

Power System Basics r4 31

2. If the relay operates instantaneously, it cannot be used as a remote back-up for a

These two problems are overcome by adding time-delay

What about Circuit Breakers 2, 4 and 5?

Power System Basics r4 32

Power System Basics r4 33

Power System Basics r4 34

Power System Basics r4 35

Power System Basics r4 36

Power System Basics r4 37

Power System Basics r4 38

Power System Basics r4 40

Power System Basics r4 41

Power System Basics r4 42

Power System Basics r4 43

Power System Basics r4 44

A similar development can be done for a-b and c-a faults.

Power System Basics r4 45

Power System Basics r4 46

Power System Basics r4 47

• The phase “a” voltage

• The phase “a” current plus a residual current compensation factor.

A similar result is obtained for b-to-ground and c-to-ground faults.

Power System Basics r4 48

Power System Basics r4 49

Power System Basics r4 50

Power System Basics r4 51