CONCEPTS USED FOR DEVELOPMENT OF BITUMEN

SPECIFICATIONS

M.F.C. van de Ven1, K.J. Jenkins2 and H.U. Bahia3

1
Delft University of Technology
The Netherlands. E-mail: M.vandeVen@citg.tudelft.nl
2
SANRAL Chair in Pavement Engineering
University of Stellenbosch, South Africa. E-mail: kjenkins@sun.ac.za
3
University of Wisconsin
Madison. E-mail: bahia@engr.wisc.edu

ABSTRACT

The evolution of bitumen specifications has been dramatic in the last 15 years. Simple empirical
tests based on mechanical properties formed the first types of binder tests. More recently
however, fundamental, visco-elastic and damage characterization methods have been adopted.
Changes in specifications have been motivated by various factors and have had various
consequences in different parts of the world. In this paper, the authors bring together their
experience of working in three different continents, to evaluate various bitumen specifications
and discuss merits of different concepts used from as early as 1950 to 2003.

The paper shows how the Bitumen Test Data Chart (BTDC), and the van der Poel nomograph,
which is based on penetration and softening point, could be used to link the empirical test
results to performance related properties such as stiffness and strength and how these derived
measures could be linked to traffic volume, traffic speed and pavement design temperatures
similar to the Superpave PG system. The approach is used to discuss the current South Africa
Specification and to propose a possible performance grading system for South Africa using
actual climatic and traffic data.

Finally, this paper covers the most recent changes proposed in the USA and Europe for the
original Performance Grading concept, aimed at including Polymer Modified Bitumen.

1. INTRODUCTION

During the past 15 years bitumen specifications have seen dramatic changes from simplistic,
empirical tests to fundamental, visco-elastic and damage characterization methods. Changes in
specifications are motivated by various factors and have various consequences in different parts
of the world.

The development of the specifications up until 1990 was based on simple concepts of hardness
and viscosity. In many countries, including SA, the specifications were dominated by two
“simple” empirical tests, namely the Penetration and the Softening Point, related to in-service
temperatures and the (Newtonian) viscosity related to mixing and compaction temperatures.
These specifications are not directly related to performance, because they are based on
experience and are only valid for penetration grade bitumen.

In the early 1990’s, the SHRP project in the USA resulted in the introduction of Superpave
binder specifications. As a result, the bitumen specification world was changed dramatically by
two developments: (1) the introduction of ”new” (for the bitumen industry) rheological testing
methods, and (2) the concept of Performance Grading (PG) to relate pavement, temperature
and traffic conditions to fundamental properties. This resulted in the development of binder-blind
specifications (regardless of whether modified or not). Both developments were successfully

Proceedings of the 8th Conference on Asphalt Pavements for Southern Africa (CAPSA'04) 12 – 16 September 2004
ISBN Number: 1-920-01718-6 Sun City, South Africa
Proceedings produced by: Document Transformation Technologies cc
 8th CONFERENCE ON ASPHALT PAVEMENTS FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA

implemented in the USA but are lagging in other parts of the world. One of the logical reasons is
the cost and complexity of the new rheological test equipment. What is surprising, however, is
the reluctance to the implementation of the concept of “Performance Grading”. Although the
concept is best implemented using rheological properties, it can be applied using various types
of test results, including those derived from Penetration and Softening point. This subject will be
discussed in this paper and methods of using simple test results to produce a Performance
grading system will be presented.

2. SPECIFICATION DEVELOPMENTS

This section discusses the developments in the three continents. First the developments in the
Europe are given, then the American views are highlighted and finally the SA situation is
compared to the others. Also the difference in accents are highlighted (mixes versus seals).

2.1 Europe

Penetration grade bitumen specifications in Europe have always been seen by the industry as
indirectly related to performance. Not only were these tests used as a specification for the
binder and asphalt material, but they were linked to the structural design of pavement layers
using the concept of estimated bitumen stiffness [Shell, 1991 ].

Low Temp Ave. Service Hot Mixing &

Cracking Temperature Summer Compaction
Consistency

Pen Tr&b Visc @ 60 Visc @

degC 135 degC

0 25 50 75 100 125 150

Temperature (degC)

Figure 1. Conceptual use of BTDC for windows in specifications.

The Bitumen Test Data Chart (BTDC) as developed by Heukelom [Shell,1991 ] in fact was and
is indirectly related to performance as can be seen in Figure 1. For specification purposes
windows were created closely related to the BTDC concept. Figure 1 is an example of such an
approach.

A strong link to performance was based on the fact that the simple empirical tests like
penetration and softening point can be used to make a reasonable approximation of the bitumen
stiffness. A good example is the van der Poel nomogram. This bitumen stiffness can be related
to the stiffness of the mix via volumetric properties i.e. using the Ugé nomogram. The mix
stiffness and the volumetrics are used to estimate fatigue lines for mixes, which are indicators of
pavement service life [Shell, 1991].

When the stiffness of the mix is estimated at any temperature and loading speed, it is possible
to use this value in linear elastic multi-layer analysis to determine stress and strain distribution in
a pavement structure. Using the estimated maximum tensile strain in the asphalt layer the layer
fatigue life is estimated from the predicted fatigue lines. This methodology has been used
extensively and is still used by some consultants and pavement designers in Europe. Figure 2
shows a flow chart of this methodology, which explains the possible indirect link between
penetration grading and performance.
Paper 070
 8th CONFERENCE ON ASPHALT PAVEMENTS FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA

Figure 2. Flow chart of structural fatigue design of flexible pavements

without doing any testing for ranking purposes.

Since 1990, the European specifications for paving grade bitumens have been developed in two
stages:

• First generation: production of harmonised specifications and test methods for paving
bitumen. For use in Europe, based on national standards

• Second generation: produce specifications that are more directly Performance-Related, with
existing or new properties and test methods where appropriate.

2.1.1 First generation specifications

Three standards have been produced:

• Paving grade bitumen: unmodified bitumen with penetration ranges from 20 to 900 Pen.

• Hard Paving Grade Bitumen: unmodified bitumen with penetration ranges of 10/20 and
15/25

• Polymer Modified Bitumen

Together with these standards 23 associated test methods have been produced, in all cases
harmonisation of existing tests between different national versions.

The existing tests are mainly empirical, but they respond to the Essential Requirements from
CEN being:

• Consistency at elevated service temperature (softening point or viscosity at 60ºC for high
service temperature)

• Consistency at intermediate service temperature (penetration for intermediate service

temperature, typically 25ºC)

• Durability (short term ageing)

Paper 070
 8th CONFERENCE ON ASPHALT PAVEMENTS FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA

Additional properties such as viscosity at high temperatures (135 ºC) related to handling and
application, Fraass breaking point (low temperature cracking) and safety/ handling properties
(density, flash point) show the link to performance.

For the PMBs, additional tests namely elastic recovery at 10 or 25 ºC, cohesion tests, storage
stability tests, have been included to demonstrate the influence of the presence of the polymer
and indicate additional performance characteristics.

All methods from the first generation can be considered for use in the second generation,
although in most cases correlation to performance is not established and more fundamental
tests may be required in future.

2.1.2 Second generation specifications

To produce genuine performance-related specifications it was necessary to reconsider multiple
performance measures. There are many complex factors that influence the relationship between
the road-user requirements for a safe, comfortable and durable surface, and bitumen properties
as measured in the laboratory. These factors include construction, mix properties, pavement
structural and surface characteristics.

In 1999, Eurobitume organised a global workshop to pave the way for development of second
generation specifications.

A set of requirements in a 3-stage process was identified:

• Define the key performance characteristics for the pavement and asphalt mixes

• Identify binder properties related to those characteristics

• Identify binder test methods to measure those properties

Table 1. Outcome of 1999 Eurobitume workshop [TC336WG1-TG5 ].

Performance Relevant binder Binder test methods

requirements for properties
pavement and mix
Friction Low relevance None
Permanent deformation Rheological properties Viscometry, DSR
Surface cracking (ageing) Ageing (short, long term) RTFOT, RFT, PAV
Stripping Binder/aggregate Test on mixture
Structural contribution Rheology (modulus,etc) DSR
Noise emission Low relevance Not relevant
Low temperature cracking Rheology, failure DSR, BBR, DTT
Fatigue cracking (thin Failure (fatigue, healing) None
layers)
Manufacturing/laying Rheology, storage stability Viscometry, TUBE

Following that workshop, a major exercise to update and refresh the thinking on the outcomes
was done by the five key European Road Industry Stakeholders Group (Eurobitume, EAPA,
FEHRL, WERD/CERD, IISPR). They produced a report [CEN/TC336 N 49, 2003 ] from which it
became clear that the different parties agree on many aspects. A system with different levels of
performance was recommended, including an option where the performance is not determined
(class 0).

Paper 070
 8th CONFERENCE ON ASPHALT PAVEMENTS FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA

Table 2. Binder properties to consider in a second generation binder specification

system [CEN/TC 336 N 49, 2003 ].
Identification Consistency (measurement must be performed quickly)
properties (for It should preferably be linked to grading, to facilitate
quality and delivery checking of conformity
control) Including minimum quality requirements:
Perceptible properties
Solubility
Volatility (loss on heating)
Performance related Stiffness or rheological property at elevated service
properties temperature
Stiffness and/or fracture at low service temperature
Ageing for durability assessment
Stiffness at intermediate service temperature
(maybe binder fatigue, etc)
HSE properties Flammability property (flash point)
Information on classification and labelling
Information on recyclability
Other information for Density
the mix, seal, etc, Storage stability (for PMB)
producer Viscosity versus temparature (pumpability)

Specific Can be anything ( pigmentability, fuel resistance, de-icing

requirements (for resistance, etc). Innovation function.
special applications)

A multiple level binder specification system was selected for flexibility reasons such as:

• Allow user and producer to agree on level of sophistication of specification

• A system applicable to all binders

• No over-specification

In relation to the framework of the future system of specifications, Table 2

includes suggestions for the selection and organisation of the different properties in a second
generation specification. At the moment a task group is working on selecting the key P-R
requirements and developing a framework for the structure of the new specification.

2.2 USA

The first bitumen specification implemented by the American Association for State Highway and
Transportation officials (AASHTO) in the USA dates back to 1931 (Roberts et al, 1996) . These
specifications recognised bitumen as a semi-solid and therefore consistency measures were
used to develop the Pen-grading system. Tests included penetration and ductility, both were
used at 25ºC originally developed for natural bitumens, which are more solid-like than petroleum
refined bitumens. Petroleum asphalts were significantly less vicsous (less solid) and in
comparison to natural asphalts could be considered oils. In fact until today asphalt contractors in
the USA call bitumen the oil in the mix.

These specifications were flawed for two main reasons:

• these tests are empirical in nature and can give only index properties,

• there is no real control on temperature sensitivity as related to pavement conditions.

Paper 070
 8th CONFERENCE ON ASPHALT PAVEMENTS FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA

Although the penetration grading includes testing at 25 ºC, there were no tests at high or low
temperatures and the limits on penetration and ductility were so relaxed that many bitumens of
various temperature sensitivity and performance could fit in the same grade. The bitumen
industry tolerated these specifications because of the lack of more scientific tests for
approximately 30 years.

In the early 1960s the viscosity grading system was introduced. Testing included penetration at
25ºC, the viscosity at 60ºC, and the kinematic viscosity at 135 ºC. Ageing was also considered
and the thin film oven test was used to measure relative ageing of bitumen.

The viscosity grading (asphalt-cement, AC, grading) were considered a major improvement
compared to the pen grading system. It included two tables, Table 1 and Table 2 (Roberts et al,
1996). Due to the nature of the specifications, Table 1 permitted higher temperature sensitivity
for bitumens than Table 2. The acceptance of the viscosity grading system by the various state
agencies was not unanimous. Several states exchanged the pen grading fully with the viscosity
grading, while others kept the pen grading and claimed that viscosity grading had it’s own
problems. The claims were based on scientific reasons such as the continuous lack of low
temperature properties, the wide acceptance limits and the lack of long term ageing procedure.

In the early 1970s the oil embargo created more challenges for the bitumen industry. Crude oil
sources diversified and refining procedures were significantly varied due to focus on maximizing
fuel production. This made the use of viscosity grading even more difficult and various highway
agencies started amending the viscosity grading to prevent early failures that started to show up
on various projects. The amendments of specifications included temperature susceptibility,
shear susceptibility, primitive rheological properties, and other compositional characteristics.
These amendments were based on important research studies, mainly done in Europe and the
USA.

While some of these amended specifications were successful in different local areas, the total
number of specifications used across the USA increased exponentially. In the mid 1980s there
were more than 35 different bitumen specifications, which created major problems for bitumen
suppliers limited by storage capacity and localised markets. In 1987 the Strategic Highway
Research Program (SHRP) was initiated to include significant focus on developing national
uniform bitumen specifications. While initially it was expected that the national bitumen
standards would include compositional properties it was very quickly found that only physical
properties that describe the visco-elastic nature of bitumen will be included. In 1991 the first
version of performance grading system based on fundamental rheological properties was
introduced. It took 5 to 6 more years to implement what is called today the Superpave PG
grading throughout the USA.

The PG grading system is considered unique for the following reasons:

1. It recognizes that there are three main distress mechanisms affecting pavement
performance, rutting, fatigue cracking and thermal cracking. Bitumen plays a role in resisting
each of these distress mechanisms.
2. Bitumen properties that contribute to resistance of these distresses are not the same. They
are also measured at different temperatures. Bitumen contributing to rutting resistance is
measured at maximum pavement temperatures and it favours a more elastic and more stiff
binder. Bitumen contributing to fatigue resistance is most critical at average pavement
temperatures and while it still favours an elastic binder it requires a softer bitumen. Bitumen
contribution to thermal cracking is critical only at minimum pavement temperatures and it
favours a less elastic and soft bitumen.
3. Acceptance limits are the same but they have to be met at specific pavement temperature
and traffic conditions. In other words the grading is based on pavement conditions
(temperature and traffic) but all grades meet the same bitumen property criteria.

Paper 070
 8th CONFERENCE ON ASPHALT PAVEMENTS FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA

This was the first ever true and direct performance related grading system for bitumen
implemented in such a large continent. Figure 3 gives an overview of the specification issues
and the used testing methods.

Performance Grading
Specification

Thermal Fatigue Permanent Pump ing

Cracking Cracking Deformat ion
Cooling rate Traffic speed Storage Stability
Strength Traffic volume Additive type
Glass Transition Pav. Structure Mixing & Compaction

PAV RTFO

- 20 20 60 135
Pavement Temperature, C
Figure 3. Overview of performance grading system.

2.3 South Africa

The South African bitumen specifications date back to 1951, with the first publication of
penetration requirements. Thereafter a revision was made in 1966 and the Rolling Thin Film
Oven Test (RTFOT) introduced in 1972. Early bitumen specifications in South Africa were based
predominantly on bitumen produced in the Middle East that was very similar, containing highly
aromatic crude oils. Even with a relatively stable source, intermittent problems were
experienced with the bitumen. Since the democratisation of South Africa in 1994 and rejoining of
the international market, crude sources for SA bitumen have diversified making it more difficult
to produce bitumen of consistent quality.

In 1989, the Bituminous Materials Liaison Committee (BMLC) set up a task group to investigate
problems associated with bitumen supplies and to make proposals regarding bitumen
specifications. This lead to specification changes in 1994 and 1995 that were significant (SABS
307 – 1995). Requirements for properties after conditioning in RTFOT were added to account
for changes e.g. ageing, during plant mixing, placement and compaction of asphalt.

The 1995 SA binder specifications did not address compositional balance of the bitumen
directly. This was a point of concern and subsequently van Assen and van de Ven (1996)
investigated this aspect and reported on it in at CAPSA (1999).

Following the recommendations of a panel of international experts, the Bitumen Specification

Task Group agreed on certain changes and rulings:

• The viscosity at 60ºC be specification limits

• The viscosity at 135ºC should include upper limit specification

Paper 070
 8th CONFERENCE ON ASPHALT PAVEMENTS FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA

• Low temperature ductility was considered important, although the specification of 100cm
ductility requirement was considered conservative.

• The minimum Softening Point value after RTFOT and maximum change value were
adopted.

At the time of the investigation of van Assen and van de Ven (1996), it was apparent that the
South African SABS 307-1995 specification was similar to those of Australia, France, Kenya,
Spain, United Kingdom, USA and the European Community (CEN). However, the viscosity
requirements of the SABS specification after RTFOT was different from that of the other
countries. At that time SABS 307 relied strongly on ductility specifications at low temperature,
however, in 2002 the ductility test was removed from the specifications. Other typical properties
not included in the SABS 307 specification include Fraass Breaking Point, Density, Wax
Content, Solubility and Flash Point. All of these properties can be related to the chemical
composition of the bitumen.

Surface dressings i.e. seal coats, are the predominant type of surfacing used in South Africa,
particularly on rural roads. Specifications for the binders used in these applications need to take
account of adhesion, shear susceptibility, durability and setting rate expressed as viscosity at
highest service temperature after simulated laboratory ageing. According to the bitumen models,
lower asphaltene contents would, by implication, be an indication of higher ratios of smaller
molecular mass aromatics present in bitumen that has slower ageing and slower increase in
viscosity. The SABS 307 specification takes account of setting or hardening potential of a binder
through the increase in Ring and Ball Softening Point after RTFOT. Values that are too high,
however, necessitate upper limits that could compromise durability in favour of setting.

3. THE PG CONCEPT LINKED TO THE STANDARD SA SPECIFICATIONS

As outlined above, SA bitumen specifications have gone through a significant change in the mid
1990’s. In addition to adding the requirements for properties after the rolling thin film oven
ageing, the sensitivity of bitumen to temperature is controlled by specifying limits for properties
at 10ºC, 15ºC, 25ºC, 60ºC, 135ºC, and softening point. It is also important to notice that the
ranges in penetration values and the ranges in softening point values selected for the grades
control the Penetration Index (PI) to a narrow range of values, thus ensuring favourable
temperature susceptibility.

Such an approach is certainly better than the traditional penetration specifications in which
properties are controlled at mainly 25ºC. It is however an indirect method to controlling
sensitivity of bitumen to temperature, to ageing and to traffic conditions. It is indirect in the
sense that grades are based on the relative change in properties at a given set of temperatures,
and, a collection of empirical or index properties are used rather than a fundamental
engineering property. It is thus difficult to claim that the current specification is performance
based. It can be best described as bitumen-production based. To use the specification,
pavement technologists have to choose the best bitumen grade for a given application based on
experience and engineering judgment.

A potential improvement is the use of a direct approach in which grades are based on actual
performance factors at which common criteria are specified using performance –related
properties, similar to the approach used in the Superpave specifications. The difficulty in the
direct approach is the need for directly measured performance–related properties such as G*
and phase angle. This approach requires expensive and complex equipment that is out of reach
of many pavement engineers.

Paper 070
 8th CONFERENCE ON ASPHALT PAVEMENTS FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA

The best compromise, however, is not keeping the indirect (index) specifications but rather
using performance grading based on “empirically (indirectly) estimated” performance related
properties. In other words, establishing a performance-grading framework in which grades are
truly selected based on application conditions including pavement temperature and traffic. The
criteria for accepting bitumen in these grades are based on engineering properties that are
performance related, but derived from simple index properties such as penetration, softening
points, or viscosity.

In this approach we achieve a good compromise in which:

• Grades are performance based and directly related to pavement and traffic conditions, and

• The expensive rheological testing equipment is not necessary and could be replaced by
numerical procedures for estimating rheological properties from results of simple tests (for
unmodified binders).

This is not totally a novel approach. In the 1980’s Shell Bitumen company introduced a
complete pavement design manual based on starting with using Penetration and Softening point
and estimating rheological and damage resistance properties of asphalt mixtures using
numerical models as given in the Shell Handbook (1991). In Figure 2 the approach is described.
What is novel in this paper is the use of the concept to derive a Bitumen Performance Grading
system using the commonly measured index properties. In the following section the approach is
used to demonstrate how it could be implemented for South African conditions.

3.1 The Ground Rules for Performance Grading

Performance grading should include three basic elements.

• Should rely on bitumen specific constitutive models. In simple terms, models describing
stress-strain relationships under loading conditions experienced in the field.

• Consider the pavement conditions including temperature, traffic speed, and traffic volume.

• Should include acceptance limits derived from experience and documented field
performance.

To achieve the first element it is necessary to define the models that can be used to derive
bitumen constitutive models based on Penetration and Softening Point measures. It is well
known that such a model exists, namely the van der Poel nomograph, which allows estimating
creep stiffness at a range of temperatures and loading times using the PI. The PI is calculated
from Penetration and Ring and Ball softening point. Figure 4 shows the nomograph which
includes a scale of temperature (T) relative to the softening point, a scale for loading time (t) and
a set of contours that allow estimating stiffness (S(T,t)) based on the PI value of the bitumen.

To achieve the second element the distribution of pavement temperatures, such as the
maximum and minimum design pavement temperatures could be taken from weather data
bases in SA and used to define the Performance Grades needed for various regions in the
country. Figure 5 shows the distribution of maximum pavement temperatures in various regions
and also depicts the range (minimum and maximum) for selected stations in the country.
Therefore a set of bitumen grades could be selected. Based on discussions with pavement
engineers and experts in SA at a workshop in May of 2003, it appeared that one can work with 3
main high temperature grades: (PG 52, PG 58, PG 64). To consider high traffic volume and/or
slow moving traffic, a PG70 grade could be added. To avoid creating an unmanageable number
of grades and to simplify the system, it is believed that a 3 high temperature grade system with
PG 58, PG 64, and PG70, is a good concise system.

Paper 070
 8th CONFERENCE ON ASPHALT PAVEMENTS FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA

Figure 4. The van der Poel Nomograph.

To cover the low temperature range, it can be seen that temperatures range between -5ºC and
+8ºC. It is therefore reasonable to use a system of +6, 0.0, and -6.0ºC. For a full factorial
system a 3 high temperature and a 4 low temperature grid would result in 12 grades, which is
more than double the grades used today in SA. To minimize this multiplicity of grades, a partial
system could be used to include 8 grades as shown in rows (1) and (2) of Table 3.

Figure 5. Pavement design temperatures for South Africa.

Paper 070
 8th CONFERENCE ON ASPHALT PAVEMENTS FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA

To achieve the third element of a performance grading system, the performance related
properties should be selected and the acceptable limits for acceptance of bitumen have to be
defined.

Following are the properties selected:

• For workability, the viscosity at 135ºC as used in the current specifications could be used.
However, in a performance specification the limits should not be changed; they should
remain the same for all grades since contractors are expected to use same practice
regardless of the binder source or grade. A range of 0.12 – 0.65 Pa.s could be
recommended based on the ranges listed in the current SA bitumen specifications (SABS
307-1972 Amended in 1997)

• For Rutting resistance, it is proposed that the penetration and softening point be used to
calculate the PI for the grades currently used in SA. The PI values are used to calculate the
stiffness modulus at speeds of traffic normally seen in the field. Based on a study by
Barksdale and co-workers (Barksdale 1971) it is found that at a typical speed of 60 Km/hr,
for a pavement surface layer thickness of 100mm, the loading time is 0.015 seconds. Based
on road engineers it appears that the pen 40/50 grade has worked well for moderate traffic
volume roads in the moderate climate (PG 58) zone. The average PI for such grade is
assumed to be = -0.5 (PI=-0.5) with a softening point of 54 ºC. Using these values in solving
the van der poel nomograph indicates that such bitumens give a S(0.15) value of
approximately 100 KPa. It could therefore be assumed that for a bitumen to provide
sufficient contribution to rutting, the criterion of S(0.15) at maximum pavement design
temperature should be equal to or greater than 100 KPa. This can then be used in the new
specification table for all grades. For higher grades (64 and 70 ) this stiffness minimum value
should be met at 64ºC and at 70ºC respectively. This method has then allowed us to
establish the second requirement in Table 3 (see row 4). Also, to consider effect of RTFO
aging a separate row is added to require a minimum stiffness that is 2.5 times the unaged
condition. Although it could be debated that we do not need the unaged criterion since
pavements are never built with unaged bitumen, it is important to measure both since it
gives a relative aging performance indicating that bitumen will not be too sensitive to short
term, high temperature, aging nor insensitive to such aging conditions. Insensitivity to aging
has been considered a possible cause of asphalt mixture tenderness.

• For Fatigue Resistance, it is recommended that average pavement temperatures be used

because fatigue is most critical when bitumen is relatively stiff but subsurface layers are not
frozen. Also there is more possibility of wet subsurface layers at spring and fall conditions
and thus weaker layers. In fatigue we assume that stiffness should be below a certain
maximum value so that bitumen can deform repeatedly without damage. To derive stiffness
limits, the nomograph published by Shell Research (1991) for estimating the fatigue life of
mixtures from the PI of bitumen and mixture stiffness can be used. A typical pavement
structure is assumed with strain levels of 1.0 *10 -4 mm/mm for stress controlled condition
and 5.0 *10 -4 for strain controlled conditions. Specifying a minimum fatigue life of 1.0 *10 6
cycles, the required mixture stiffness is approximately 3 * 10 9 Pa for a PI value in the range
of (-0.5 to 0.0). Using a volume concentration of 13% bitumen in a typical asphalt mixture,
the maximum allowable bitumen stiffness at 0.015 second loading time should be 50,000
Kpa. In this estimate it was assumed that PAV aging results in increasing the softening point
by 25 C and thus the softening point was increased by this amount to simulate long term
field aging. To insure proper application of this limit the PI value of the aged binder should
be less than 0.0. In the specification system shown in Table 3, the S(0.015) is limited and
also the PI value for the PAV aged material.

Paper 070
 8th CONFERENCE ON ASPHALT PAVEMENTS FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA

• For low temperature cracking, the stiffness at 60 seconds is estimated at temperatures

that are 10 C higher than the minimum grade temperature. The shift in temperature is used
to offset the effect of short loading time of 60 seconds as used in the Superpave
specifications. In addition, the logarithmic creep rate (m (60)) should also be controlled to
minimize stress build up in bitumen due to high elasticity. Using the properties of the Pen
150-200 and assuming that the bitumens of this grade performed well in cold climates in SA,
the limits of S(60) = 400000 KPa and m(60 ) = 0.300 could be derived. These limits have
been derived for application in SA and differ from the 300MPa used by SHRP. Similar to the
fatigue requirement the effect of long-term aging was considered by increasing the softening
point by 20 points. To control brittleness of bitumen at minimum pavement temperature, the
elongation at break estimated from chart developed by Heukelom and co-workers could be
used. The minimum strain at break using the chart shown in Figure 6 should be more than
0.02 estimated using a 60 second loading time and the softening point of the PAV aged
material.

Table 3 includes the proposed performance grading system based on the concept of using index
properties to derive engineering criteria that are performance related. The only element missing
is the effect of traffic volume and traffic speed. Since for conventional asphalts most of the
deformation at high temperatures are viscous and limited elasticity is expected, stiffness could
be used as a surrogate for accumulated permanent strain.

Figure 6. Estimating elangation at break (F Th de Bats and G van Gooswilligen, 1995.

3.2 Disadvantages of the Proposed Grading System

Although the proposed grading system shown in Table 3 appears reasonable and does not
depend on using expensive sophisticated testing devices, one should not ignore some of the
important shortfalls of such a system. These shortfalls could be resolved by gradual
replacement of the estimated engineering properties, such as S(0.015) and λ (60) with actual
measured values using rheometers and extensiometers.

Paper 070
 8th CONFERENCE ON ASPHALT PAVEMENTS FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA

Table 3. Proposed performance grading for South Africa.

1 High Temperature Grade (HT) PG 58 PG 64 PG 70
2 Low Temperature Grade (LT) -10 -16 -4 -10 -16 +2 -4 -10
Performance Related Performance
Property Criteria

For Workability

Viscosity , Pa-s 0.12 < η <0.65

For Rutting Resistance

Estimated Creep S(.015) >= 100 58 64 70

Stiffness
(Unaged) @ HT,
KPa
Estimated Creep S(.015) >= 250 58 64 70
Stiffness
(RTFI- Aged), KPa
For Fatigue Resistance

Estimated Creep S(.015) <= 24 21 30 27 24 39 36 33

Stiffness 75000
(PAV- Aged), Kpa
Estimated PI value PI > 0.0
(PAV-Aged)
For Thermal Cracking Resistance

Estimated Creep S (60) <= 0.0 -6 6 0 -6 12 6 0.0

Stiffness 400000
(PAV- Aged), KPa
Estimated Creep Rate M(60) >= 0..310 0.0 -6 6 0 -6 12 6 0.0
(PAV – Aged)
Elongation at break λ (60) >= 0.02 0.0 -6 6 0 -6 12 6 0.0
from Figure 2 (OAV
aged)
* For Slow Traffic (10 Km/hr), S(.015) limit should be multiplied by factor of 10
* For High Traffic Volume, S(.015 ) limit should be multiplied by a factor of 10
Note: Assumptions or an order of magnitude (10x) difference between slow versus average
speed and heavy versus normal traffic volume.

The reasons this will ultimately be needed are the following:

• Nomographs are only approximate and show general trends rather than accurate values of
stiffness or elongation at break.

• The nomographs are based mostly on conventional unmodified bitumen. It is well know that
modified bitumens are more complex rheologically than conventional bitumens and thus
these nomographs could be misleading.

• Accumulation of damage and sensitivity of service life to traffic conditions are not directly
considered and using a multiplication factor of 10 to consider speed or volume is only an
approximation.

• Such system will need continuous verification and calibration to establish predictability and
build confidence in estimated engineering properties.

Paper 070
 8th CONFERENCE ON ASPHALT PAVEMENTS FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA

A pictorial comparison between the highly advanced Superpave system (Figure 3) and the
proposed system of using index properties to estimate engineering properties (Figure 7) is
apparent. One can only hope that the move in South Africa would be for direct measurements of
engineering properties as shown in the Superpave system.

Figure 7. In-direct performance grading systems.

4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

It is apparent that there are tangible benefits in using a performance grading (PG) system for
binders compared with solely empirical testing and reliance on experience for binder selection.
The PG system offers:

• A systematic approach to taking account of climate, traffic speed and degree of traffic
loading in the area that the binder is to be used thus minimising subjective and non-optimal
binder selection, and

• A potentially unified approach for adjudicating binders regardless of whether they are
unmodified or modified (although more developmental work is required before the
Superpave PG system is fully functional in this respect).

It is possible to establish an indirect PG system without the use of costly binder testing
equipment e.g. rheometers etc. However, there are differences between a direct PG system e.g.
Superpave, and indirect PG system as proposed in this paper. Certain assumptions need to be
made to develop the proposed indirect grading system with regard to creep stiffness and
elongation at break. It is recommended that actual measured values for such engineering
properties be obtained for the relevant binders using rheometers.

The indirect PG system is based on the assumption that so called S-type pen grade bitumen is
used. Other bitumen types can not be used in this system without additional testing.

The climatic regions in South Africa used for development of this grading system required
certain approximations in converting to the Superpave temperature classification system for the
proposed South African PG system, see examples in Figure 5. With more data, these
Paper 070
 8th CONFERENCE ON ASPHALT PAVEMENTS FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA

temperature ranges should be refined and updated. Ongoing verification and calibration of the
entire system would be necessary to establish predictability and build confidence in estimated
engineering properties.

Important aspect from the performance related approach is that it forces developers of the
specifications and the users to better understand the link between material and performance.

5. REFERENCES

Shell Bitumen U.K., 1991. The Shell Bitumen Handbook. Riversdell House, Surrey, Reprint of
Septemebr 1991.
TC336WG1-TG5 Paving grade bitumens. 2003. Development of European specifications:
test methods selection and development.
CEN/TC 336 N 49, 2003. New framework of specification “Synthesis of
stakeholders’needs and expectations”.
van de Ven MFC and van Assen EJ. 1999. South African Bitumen Specifications and
Compositional Balance: An International View. 9th Conference on Asphalt Pavements for
Southern Africa CAPSA ’99.
van Assen EJ and van de Ven, 1996. Review of South African Bitumen Specification to take
cognisance of compositional balance relative to long term behaviour. Report No.
CR-96/034, CSIR, Pretoria.
Roberts, F. L, Kandhal P.S., Brown, E.R., at al. Hot Mix Asphalt Materials, Mixture Design,
and Construction, NAPA Educational Foundation, Second Edition, Maryland, USA, 1996.
J.Y. Welborn, and W.J. Halstead, Testing of Asphalts and Asphalt Mixtures, Proceedings of
the Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Vol.43A, 1974.
Anderson, D.A., Christensen, D.W., Bahia, H.U. Physical Properties of Asphalt Cements and
the Development of Performance-Related Specifications, Paper presented at the 1991
AAPT meeting in Seattle, Washington March 2-4, 1991.
Heukelom, WJ, An Improved Method of Characterizing Asphaltic Bitumens with the Aid of
their Mechanical Responses, Proceedings of the Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists,
Vol. 42, pp.67-98 (1973).
Van der Poel, C., A General System Describing the Visco-Elastic Properties of Bitumens
and Its Relation to Routine Test Data, Journal of Applied Chemistry,Vol. 4,1954,221.
F Th de Bats and G van Gooswilligen, Practical Rheological Characterisation of Paving
Grdae Bitumens, Shell Research, Amserdam, 1995.
Braksdale, R.G., 1971, Compressive Stress Pulse Times in Flexibel Pavements for Use in
Dynamic Testing, Highway Research Record 345, Highway Research Board, pp 32-44.

Paper 070