EEX10205 System Grounding Scheme PDF

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
System Grounding Schemes
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Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
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File Reference: EEX10205 W.A. Roussel on 874-1320
Engineering Encyclopedia Electrical
System Grounding Section
TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGES
CHARACTERISTICS OF UNGROUNDED POWER SYSTEMS..................1
Introduction ...........................................................................................1
Voltage Profiles.....................................................................................1
Normal Conditions.....................................................................1
Fault Condition Magnitudes ......................................................2
Transient Overvoltages ..............................................................3
Current Profiles .....................................................................................4

Normal Conditions.....................................................................4
Fault Condition Magnitudes ......................................................5
CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUNDED POWER SYSTEMS........................6
Types of Grounded Power Systems ......................................................6

Solidly Grounded (Neutral Point) ..............................................7
Corner-of-the Delta Grounded ...................................................8
Impedance Grounded.................................................................9
High Resistance Grounded.........................................................................10
Reactance Grounded ..................................................................................11
Solidly Grounded Systems ...................................................................12

Applications ..............................................................................12
Advantages ...............................................................................13
Disadvantages ...........................................................................14
Low Resistance Grounded Systems .....................................................15

Applications ..............................................................................15
Advantages ...............................................................................15
Disadvantages ...........................................................................16
High Resistance Grounded Systems.....................................................17

Applications ..............................................................................17
Advantages ...............................................................................17
Disadvantages ...........................................................................18
Reactance Grounded Systems ..............................................................18
TYPES OF GROUND FAULT DETECTION AND COORDINATION

SCHEMES..........................................................................................................19
Single Voltage Levels Versus Transformer Connections.....................19
Low Voltage Systems...........................................................................21

NEC Detection Requirements ...................................................21
Coordination Using Solid-State Static Trips.............................21
Medium Voltage Systems - Solidly Grounded.....................................23

Residual Connection/Coordination ...........................................23
Sensitivity .................................................................................24
Medium Voltage Systems - Low Resistance Grounded .......................25

Source Neutral Detection/Coordination ....................................25
Zero Sequence Detection/Coordination ....................................26
Sensitivity .................................................................................26
CT Saturation............................................................................27
Medium Voltage Systems - High Resistance Grounded ......................27

Overvoltage Relays and Alarms ...............................................27
Special Precautions ...................................................................28
Summary ..............................................................................................28
GLOSSARY .......................................................................................................31

ADDENDUM
CHARACTERISTICS OF LINE-TO-GROUND FAULTS

(UNBALANCED CONDITIONS) ................................................................... 33
Symmetrical Components .................................................................. 33
Balanced System..................................................................... 33
Unbalanced System................................................................. 33
Sequence Components............................................................ 35
Operators (j, a) ........................................................................ 36
Analysis .................................................................................. 38
Fault Condition Phasor Diagrams....................................................... 42
Normal Conditions.................................................................. 42
Three-Phase Faults.................................................................. 42
Phase-to-Phase Faults ............................................................. 43
Line-to-Ground Faults ............................................................ 43
Sequence Currents .................................................................. 44
Sequence Voltages.................................................................. 44
Line-to-Ground Fault Equations......................................................... 47
Zero Sequence Transformer Model ........................................ 47
Fault Conditions (Current) ...................................................... 49
Fault Conditions (Voltage) ................................................................. 50

LIST OF FIGURES:
Figure 1. Ungrounded System Voltage Profiles

(Normal Conditions)...................................................................... 1
Figure 2. Ground Fault Voltage Profile ........................................................ 2
Figure 3. Transient Overvoltage Profiles from Restriking

Ground Fault.................................................................................. 3
Figure 4. Current Profile (Normal Conditions) ............................................. 4
Figure 5. Ground Fault Current Profiles ....................................................... 5
Figure 6. Grounded Power Systems.............................................................. 6
Figure 7. Solidly Grounded System (Neutral Point) ..................................... 7
Figure 8. Corner-of-the Delta Grounded System .......................................... 8
Figure 9. Low Resistance Grounded System ................................................ 9
Figure 10. High Resistance Grounded System ................................................ 10
Figure 11. Reactance Grounded System.......................................................... 11
Figure 12. Line-to-Ground Fault Current Magnitudes..................................... 13
Figure 13. Typical Ground Systems ................................................................ 20
Figure 14. Solid-State Low Voltage Ground Fault Detection.......................... 22
Figure 15. Residual CT Connection Scheme ................................................... 23
Figure 16. Source Neutral Detection/Coordination ......................................... 25
Figure 17. Zero Sequence CT Connection Scheme ......................................... 26
Figure 18. High Resistance Ground Fault Detection Schemes ........................ 27
Figure 19. Ground System Characteristics ...................................................... 29
Figure 20. Ground System Industry Recommendations .................................. 30
Figure 23. Example of a Balanced System ...................................................... 34
Figure 24. Example of an Unbalanced System................................................ 34
Figure 25. Positive (+) Sequence Components................................................ 35

Figure 26. Negative (-) Sequence Components ............................................... 35
Figure 27. Zero (0) Sequence Components ..................................................... 36
Figure 28. The “j” Operator............................................................................. 36
Figure 29. The “a” Operator ............................................................................ 37
Figure 30. Normal Conditions Phasor Diagram............................................... 42
Figure 31. Three-Phase Fault Phasor Diagram ................................................ 42
Figure 32. Phase B-to-C Fault Phasor Diagram............................................... 43
Figure 33. Phase A-to-Ground Fault Phasor Diagram..................................... 43
Figure 34. Sequence Current Components ...................................................... 45
Figure 35. Sequence Voltage Components...................................................... 46
Figure 36. Transformer Zero Sequence Models .............................................. 48
Figure 37. Phase A-to-Ground Fault Circuit Diagram..................................... 49
Figure 38. Sequence Network Connection Diagram ....................................... 50

CHARACTERISTICS OF UNGROUNDED POWER SYSTEMS
Introduction
The decision to ground or not to ground an electrical system is a choice all design engineers
usually will have to make during their careers. By definition an ungrounded system is a
system which has no intentional connection to ground. A grounded system is a system which
has an intentional connection to ground.
Voltage Profiles
Normal Conditions
An ungrounded system is a system which has no intentional connection to ground. Although

the system is referred to as ungrounded, it is actually connected to ground through the stray
capacitance of the phase conductors. Without a ground fault, the neutral of an ungrounded
system is close to ground potential. The neutral voltage is held there by the balanced stray
capacitance between each phase conductor and ground. Figure 1 displays both the theoretical
ungrounded system and the actual ungrounded system with stray capacitance to ground.
Line-to-line and line-to-neutral voltages are also shown for balanced phase-to-ground
capacitance.
Figure 1. Ungrounded System Voltage Profiles (Normal Conditions)
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

Fault Condition Magnitudes
When the neutral (midpoint connection) of a system is ungrounded, a ground fault on any one
phase causes full line-to-line voltage to appear throughout the entire system (Figure 2). The
normal line-to-ground voltage stress is VLL/ 3 and therefore under ground fault conditions
the voltage is VLL, which is 73% greater than under normal conditions. Typically, the
insulation between each phase conductor and ground is adequate to withstand the increased
voltage. However, prolonged periods of increased voltage will reduce the cable’s rated life
and may even result in failure if the cable is already deteriorated due to age or severe service
conditions.
Figure 2. Ground Fault Voltage Profile

Transient Overvoltages
Field experience has shown that restriking ground faults on ungrounded systems can produce
transient voltages as high as six times normal. This transient voltage causes stress on the
insulation of other equipment connected to the bus. Overstressed insulation results in
equipment failure. The phenomena of a restriking ground fault on an ungrounded system is
demonstrated in Figure 3. Grounding the system would reduce this transient voltage buildup,
and also would greatly reduce the likelihood of equipment damage.
Figure 3. Transient Overvoltage Profiles from Restriking Ground Fault

Current Profiles
Normal Conditions
An actual ungrounded system, without a ground fault present, is modeled in Figure 4 with
stray phase-to-ground capacitance XC0 included and stray line-to-line capacitance ignored.
Under this balanced normal condition, the current to ground (IG) is zero as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4. Current Profile (Normal Conditions)

Fault Condition Magnitudes
If one of the phase conductors of an ungrounded system faults to ground, no current will flow
in the capacitance between that phase and ground since the voltage is zero. The voltage
across the other two capacitances to ground will increase by the square root of three ( 3 )
because the impressed voltage will increase from line-to-neutral in the unfaulted state to line-
to-line in the faulted state. In addition, the line-to-ground voltages of the unfaulted phases
have a phase displacement of 60° rather than the normal 120° separation. The current flowing
into the fault is the vectorial sum of the stray capacitance currents in the unfaulted phases.
This sum is no longer zero but rather 3.0 per unit times the original or unfaulted capacitive
current to neutral. Figure 5 displays a ground fault on an actual ungrounded system with the
corresponding vector diagram.
Figure 5. Ground Fault Current Profiles

CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUNDED POWER SYSTEMS
Types of Grounded Power Systems
A grounded system is a system of conductors where at least one conductor or point (e.g., the
neutral point of a transformer or generator windings) is intentionally grounded, either solidly
or through an impedance (resistance or reactance). Figure 6 shows the three types of
grounded systems.
Figure 6. Grounded Power Systems

Solidly Grounded (Neutral Point)
A “solidly grounded system” is a system which has an intentional and direct connection to
ground usually through the middle wire or neutral point of a transformer or generator’s
windings. No intentional impedance is added in the path from the neutral to ground. In a
solidly grounded system, line-to-ground fault current magnitudes are very high (thousands of
amperes). They approach and may exceed three-phase fault current magnitudes. Figure 7a
shows an example of a solidly grounded system and Figure 7b show the corresponding
voltage profile.
Figure 7. Solidly Grounded System (Neutral Point)

Corner-of-the Delta Grounded
Figure 8 shows a corner-of-the delta grounded system. Because of the disadvantages listed
below, it is not widely used in industrial power systems.
Advantages - The advantages of the corner-of-the delta grounded system are as follows:
• Least costly method of converting an ungrounded delta system to a grounded

system.
• There is a high probability of sustaining arcing for 480 volts or higher, phase-
to-phase, single-phase circuit extension, without escalation to a three-phase
fault.
• Effectively controls transient overvoltages; however, a maximum of 3 times

the normal phase-to-neutral voltage can exist between two conductors and the
ground.
• Phase-to-ground faults are easily detected and located.
Disadvantages - The disadvantages of the corner-to-the delta grounded system are as follows:
• Cannot supply dual-voltage service for lighting and power loads.
• Phase identification of the grounded phase throughout the system is difficult.
• Higher line-to-ground voltages on two phases.
• Ground fault current magnitudes can be higher than three-phase fault current
magnitudes.

Figure 8. Corner-of-the Delta Grounded System

Impedance Grounded
Low Resistance Grounded - Low impedance grounding involving a principally resistive

grounding element is known as “low resistance grounding”. Low resistance grounding is
achieved by the intentional insertion of resistance between a generator or transformer neutral
and ground. When a line-to-ground fault occurs, the voltage across the resistor equals the
normal line-to-neutral voltage of the system (EL-N), and the ground fault current (IF) equals EL-
N divided by the value of the grounding resistor. Generally, the line-to-ground fault currents
are limited to between 100 and 1200 amperes. Figure 9 is an example of a low resistance
grounded system. Note: Saudi Aramco typically use 400A low resistance grounded systems
in the industrial power system and 1000A in the residential power system.
Figure 9. Low Resistance Grounded System

High Resistance Grounded - High impedance grounding involving a principally resistive

grounding element is known as “high resistance grounding”. In high resistance grounding,
the value of the limiting resistor is selected to provide a resistive fault current slightly greater
than or equal to three times the normal current flowing in the stray line-to-ground capacitance
per phase. Generally, line-to-ground fault currents are limited to between 1 and 10 amperes.
A line-to-ground fault on phase B of a high resistance grounded system is shown in Figure 10.
Note: Saudi Aramco does not typically use high resistance grounded systems.
Figure 10. High Resistance Grounded System

Reactance Grounded - High impedance grounding involving a principally reactance grounding

element is known as “reactance grounding”. Generally, line-to-ground fault currents should
be at least 25% and preferably 60% of the three-phase fault current magnitudes to limit
serious transient overvoltages. Figure 11 is an example of a reactance grounded system.
Note: Saudi Aramco does not use reactance grounding.
Figure 11. Reactance Grounded System

Solidly Grounded Systems
Applications
National Electric Code (1993), Article 250-5 (b)(50 V to 1000 V), requires the following
classes of systems to be solidly grounded: Note: Saudi Aramco standards require
compliance with the NEC.
• Where the system can be so grounded that the maximum voltage to ground on
the ungrounded conductor does not exceed 150 volts.
• Where the system is 3-phase, 4-wire wye in which the neutral is used as a
circuit conductor, i.e. (480Y/277 V, 208Y/120 V).
• Where the system is nominally rated 240/120-volt, 3-phase, 4-wire in which the
midpoint of one phase is used as a circuit conductor.
• Where a service conductor is uninsulated in accordance with the exceptions to

Sections 230-22, 230-30 and 230-41.
Utility practice in recent years has favored solid grounding. This method permits the use of
grounded-neutral-type lightning arresters with the resulting reduced lightning arrester
investment and improve level of protection. In addition, solid grounding offers savings in the
use of graded insulation in transformers at 69 kV and above. A large percentage of ground
faults on utility systems occurs by means of insulator flashovers, and the high ground-fault
current due to solid grounding does not cause expensive damage to equipment at the point of
fault.
Most other low-voltage systems should also be solidly grounded, because solid grounding is
the least expensive way to limit transient overvoltages while obtaining enough ground fault
current for fast, selective fault isolation.
In medium voltage systems solid grounding has the lowest initial cost of all grounding
methods. It is recommended for overhead distribution systems and for systems supplied by
transformers which are protected by primary fuses. This is necessary to provide enough fault
current to melt the primary fuses on a secondary ground fault. However, it is not the
preferred scheme for most industrial and commercial systems because of the severe damage
potential of high magnitude fault currents (Figure 12).

Figure 12. Line-to-Ground Fault Current Magnitudes
Advantages
The primary advantages of solidly grounding are the following:
• To improve differential relay protection motors, generators and transformers.

• To reduce electrical shock hazards (lower touch and step potentials) to
personnel caused by stray ground fault currents in the return path.
• To reduce initial first cost versus resistance grounded systems.
• To reduce the arc blast or flash hazard to personnel who are close to the ground
fault because of the very fast tripping action of the protective devices.
• To allow use of grounded neutral type arrestors.
• To improve safety because single line-to-ground faults are immediately cleared.
• To improve reliability because ground faults are readily located and repaired.
• to limit voltage on the system all the time to line-to-ground magnitudes.
• To minimize transient overvoltages (within 250% of normal) on the system.

Disadvantages
The primary disadvantages of solidly grounding are the following:
• System continuity versus an ungrounded system because detection of a ground

fault leads to an immediate trip of the protective device. (Also seen as an
advantage as per previous discussion).
• High ground fault current magnitudes sometimes exceeding three-phase fault

values.

Low Resistance Grounded Systems
Applications
Low resistance grounding is not used on low-voltage systems (1000 volts and below),
primarily because the limited available ground fault current is insufficient to positively
operate the series trip units and fuses that would be necessary for both phase-to-phase and
phase-to-ground fault protection on some or all of the circuits.
Low resistance grounding is the preferred method for most medium voltage systems (1001
through 15,000 volts), especially systems that directly connect to rotating devices. To limit
fault damage, use the lowest ground fault current (highest resistance) consistent with adequate
ground relay sensitivity. As a rule of thumb, enough current must be available for the least-
sensitive ground relay to respond to 10 percent of the maximum ground fault current under
minimum ground source conditions.
Low resistance grounding schemes are not typically used in high voltage systems (above 15
kV) because neutral grounding equipment at these voltage levels is cost prohibitive.
Advantages
The primary advantages of low resistance grounding are the following:
• To reduce melting and burning (thermal stress) of faulted electrical equipment.
• To reduce mechanical stresses in circuits and equipment carrying fault currents.

personnel caused by stray ground fault currents in the ground return path.
• To reduce the arc blast or flash hazard to personnel who are close to the ground
fault.
• To reduce momentary line voltage dip caused by the occurrence and clearing of
a ground fault because of the low current magnitudes.
• To improve safety because single line-to-ground faults are immediately cleared.
• To improve reliability because ground faults are readily located and repaired.
• To minimize transient overvoltages (within 250% or normal) on the system.

Disadvantages
The primary disadvantages of low resistance grounding are the following:
• Initial first costs of resistor and relays versus solidly grounded system.
• System continuity versus an ungrounded system because detection of a ground

fault leads to an immediate trip of the protective device. (Also seen as an
advantage as per previous discussion).
• It cannot be used if the transformer primary protective devices are fuses since
the magnitude of fault current (primary side) is too low to clear the fuse.

High Resistance Grounded Systems
Applications
High resistance grounding of low voltage systems should be considered only when service
continuity is of paramount importance, and a policy of immediately locating and repairing
ground faults is enforced.
High resistance grounding is generally applied to medium voltage (less than 5 kV)
distribution systems but is also acceptable on 13.8 kV systems. There are few applications of
high resistance grounding above 13.8 kV. It allows continuity of service under ground faults
(similar to an ungrounded system) but limits the transient overvoltages. The primary areas of
application are as follows:
• For maximum service continuity where unplanned shutdowns cannot be

tolerated.
• Where a captive transformer serves a single rotating machine.
• In situations where an existing system has been historically operated
ungrounded and no ground protection schemes are installed.
• For circumstances where limitation of both fault damage and overvoltages is
desired and ground protection selectivity is not required.
Advantages
The primary advantages of high resistance grounding are the following:

• To reduce melting and burning (thermal stress) of faulted electrical equipment.
• To reduce mechanical stresses in circuits and equipment carrying fault currents.
• To limit fault current magnitudes to 1 to 10 amperes.
personnel caused by stray ground fault currents in the ground return path.
• To reduce the blast or flash hazard to personnel who are close to the ground
fault because of the very low current magnitudes.
• To reduce momentary line voltage dip caused by the occurrence and clearing of
a ground fault.
• To avoid shutdown of a faulted circuit on the occurrence of the first ground

fault (system continuity).
• To minimize transient overvoltages (within 250% of normal) on the system.

Disadvantages
The primary disadvantages of high resistance grounding are the following:
• Initial first costs of resistor, relay, and transformers versus a solidly grounded
system.
• The fault remains on the system until located and removed.
• It requires a dedicated “alarm” system and standard operating procedures

(SOPs) to locate and clear faults.
• It does not immediately segregate the fault. (Also seen as an advantage per
previous discussion).
Reactance Grounded Systems
Because reactance grounded systems permit much higher levels of fault current than in
resistance grounded systems, it is usually not considered as an alternative to resistance
grounding. For this reason, reactance grounding has very limited application (generator
grounding). Reactance grounding is not considered as an alternative to solid or low resistance
grounding and it is usually only applied on generators to limit the line-to-ground fault currents
to values no greater than the three-phase fault values.

TYPES OF GROUND FAULT DETECTION AND COORDINATION SCHEMES
Single Voltage Levels Versus Transformer Connections
A grounding system consists of all interconnected grounding connections in a specific power

system (Figure 13) and is defined by its isolation from adjacent grounding systems. The
isolation is provided by transformer primary and secondary windings that are coupled only by
magnetic means. Thus, the system boundary is defined by the lack of a physical connection
that is either metallic or through a significantly high impedance. Because of these transformer
connections, zero sequence currents cannot pass through a delta connection. Therefore,
ground fault coordination and detection is usually limited to one voltage level.
Referring to Figure 13, the six ground systems (seven sources) identified are the following:
• GS#1 - Low resistance grounding on two transformers (T1 and T3).
• GS#2 - High resistance grounding on the 2.4 kV bus.
• GS#3 - High Resistance grounding on the generator (G).
• GS#4 - Solid grounding on the transformer (T4).

Figure 13. Typical Ground Systems

Low Voltage Systems
NEC Detection Requirements
National Electric Code (1993 Article 230-95) states that ground fault protection is required for
low voltage solidly grounded systems more than 150 V to ground but not exceeding 600 V
phase-to-phase, and that the minimum level of protection shall be applicable to service
disconnecting devices rated 1000 amperes or more. The article further states that the ground
detection device shall have a maximum setting of 1200 amperes and shall function to open all
ungrounded conductors of the faulted circuit in one second or less for ground fault currents
equal to or greater than 3000 amperes. This requirement is considered minimum protection
and to obtain selective tripping with lower rated downstream devices, it is recommended that
these lower rated devices, for example feeder breakers, also be equipped for ground fault
detection and interruption. Note: Saudi Aramco standards comply with NEC Art. 230-95.
Coordination Using Solid-State Static Trips
Low voltage system ground detection schemes are accomplished using solid-state static trip
breakers (Figure 14). Ground faults in low voltage systems are immediately sensed and
automatically isolated from the system.
The NEC only requires ground fault protection (GFP) on the main breaker, but recommends
GFP protection on other downstream devices (e.g., feeder breakers) as well, to prevent
tripping of the main breaker and subsequent loss of all power resulting from a downstream
ground fault.
In a system as shown in Figure 14, the static trip GFP on the feeder breaker is set at 0.2
seconds and the static trip GFP on the main breaker is set at 0.35 seconds. These typical
settings allow for electrical coordination between the GFP devices.

Figure 14. Solid-State Low Voltage Ground Fault Detection

Medium Voltage Systems - Solidly Grounded
Residual Connection/Coordination
The detection and coordination of ground faults in solidly grounded medium voltage systems
(2.4 to 5 kV) is accomplished through use of overcurrent relays (ANSI Device Nos. 50/51N)
connected residually as shown in Figure 15.
Figure 15. Residual CT Connection Scheme

Sensitivity
The residual detection scheme, as shown in Figure 15, has very limited sensitivity because of
the relatively high ratios of the phase current transformers (CTs). Because of the high ratios
of phase CTs, conventional residual relaying would require hundreds or thousands of amperes
of fault current to obtain the desired 10 percent relay sensitivity (industry rule-of-thumb). The
fault current necessary with residual relaying can be reduced through use of auxiliary CTs in
the phase CT neutral circuit. With CTs applied in conventional switchgear, an auxiliary CT
with a ratio of 1:10 or lower will adequately improve the sensitivity of the residually
connected ground relay. The performance should be checked with the current transformer
excitation curve since the auxiliary CT adds additional burden to the circuit.
For example, referring to Figure 15, the ground fault relays shown would require a minimum
of 100 amperes of current to detect (1000/5 x 0.5) a ground fault. In contrast, the auxiliary
ground fault relay would detect a fault current of just 10 amperes (1000/5 x 1/10 x 0.5).

Medium Voltage Systems - Low Resistance Grounded
Source Neutral Detection/Coordination
Ground faults in medium voltage systems using low resistance grounding schemes and
detected by overcurrent relays (ANSI Device 51G) (Relay A) are connected in a source
neutral configuration as shown in Figure 16. An even better protection scheme would be to
add another overcurrent relay (151G) (Relay B) which would trip a primary breaker; this
protects the system for ground faults above breaker number 1. Standard industry practice is
to size the current transformer primary at one-half the magnitude of the resistor current (0.5IG)
and the secondary rating is the standard 5 A.
Figure 16. Source Neutral Detection/Coordination

Zero Sequence Detection/Coordination
The detection and coordination of ground faults in a low resistance grounded system is also
accomplished through use of instantaneous trip relays (ANSI Device 50) and zero sequence
CTs as shown in Figure 16 (Relay C) and Figure 17.
Figure 17. Zero Sequence CT Connection Scheme
Sensitivity
The zero sequence CT detection method is more sensitive than the previously discussed
residual scheme because of the low ratio CTs (50/5). With properly applied ground fault
relaying, about 50 to 150 A of ground fault current is adequate to obtain 1 percent relay
sensitivity. For example, with the combination of the 50:5 type BYZ zero sequence CT and a
0.25-0.5 A type instantaneous current relay, which has a combination CT relay pickup of
approximately 5 A, a maximum ground fault of 50 A is sufficient for 10 percent sensitivity.

CT Saturation
The zero sequence CT detection and coordination scheme should not be used on solidly
grounded systems because of the high fault currents available in solidly grounded systems.
The high fault currents will saturate the CT and not produce enough secondary CT current to
trip the relay. Even on low resistance grounded systems, a 400 A ground fault saturates the
zero sequence CT. However, using a low burden instantaneous trip relay (ANSI Device 50)
instead of a high burden time overcurrent relay (ANSI Device 51) on low resistance grounded
systems with zero sequence CTs, will produce enough secondary CT current to trip the relay.
Medium Voltage Systems - High Resistance Grounded
Overvoltage Relays and Alarms
Ground faults in medium voltage systems using high resistance grounding are detected by use
of overvoltage relays (ANSI Device 59G) and alarms as shown in Figure 18b. Note: High
resistance schemes are also permitted by the NEC as shown in Figure 18a.
Figure 18. High Resistance Ground Fault Detection Schemes
Overvoltage relays (ANSI Device 59) are used in high resistance schemes because the low
magnitude fault currents (1-10 A) would be impossible to detect with conventional CTs and
overcurrent relays. If the 59G relay is used to immediately trip a breaker, both the resistor
and transformer’s ratings can be reduced to approximately 10 percent of the calculated values.
However, the alarm method contributes to better service continuity by permitting continued
operation with only one ground fault on the system.

Special Precautions
High resistance grounding requires special operational procedures to ensure the first ground is
located and corrected prior to a second ground occurrence (phase-to-phase fault). As a rule, it
is preferable to detect and clear the fault rather than letting it persist. This limits localized
damage at the fault point. Alarm-only schemes are often used when service continuity is very
critical, although they present a risk that a sustained ground fault in a small place such as a
rotating machine stator slot will progress to a catastrophic phase-to-phase fault. Alarm-only
schemes require 100 percent rated resistors and transformers.
Summary
The characteristics of the different types of grounded systems are summarized in Figure 19
and the industry recommended grounding methods for the different voltage levels are
summarized in Figure 20.

Figure 19. Ground System Characteristics

Figure 20. Ground System Industry Recommendations

GLOSSARY
grounded system A system in which at least one conductor or point (usually the
middle wire or neutral point of transformer or generator
windings) is intentionally grounded, either solidly or through an
impedance.
grounded Connected to earth or to some extended conducting body that

serves instead of the earth, whether the connection is intentional
or accidental.
high resistance A grounded system with a purposely inserted resistance that

limits
grounded ground-fault current such that the current can flow for an
extended period without causing more damage. This level of
current is typically less than 10 A.
low resistance A resistance-grounded system in which the purposely inserted

grounded resistance has lower ohmic value than would meet the high-
resistance grounding criteria. This level of current is typically
between 100 and 1200 A.
per-phase charging The current (VL-N/Xco) that passes through one phase of the
current (Ico) systems to charge the distributed capacitance per phase to
ground of the system. VL-N is the line-to-neutral voltage and Xco
is the per-phase distributed capacitive reactance of the system.
negative sequence Three phasors equal in magnitude, displaced from each other by
components 120o in phase, and having the phase sequence opposite to that of
the original phasors.
positive sequence Three phasors equal in magnitude, displaced from each other by
components 120o in phase, and having the same phase sequence as the
original phasors.
reactance grounded Grounded through an impedance, the principal element of which

is inductive reactance.
resistance grounded Grounded through an impedance, the principal element of which

is resistance.

solidly grounded Connected directly through an adequate ground connection in

which no impedance has been intentionally inserted.
system A grounding system consists of all interconnected grounding

connections in a specific power system and is defined by its
isolation from adjacent grounding systems. The isolation is
provided by transformer primary and secondary windings that
are coupled only by magnetic means.
system charging The total distributed capacitive charging current (3VL-N/Xco) of a

current three-phase system.
three-phase four-wire A system of alternating current supply comprising four

conductors,
system three of which are connected as in a three-phase three-wire
system, the fourth being connected to the neutral point of the
supply or midpoint of one-phase in case of a delta-connected
transformer secondary, which may be grounded.
three-phase three-wire A system of alternating current supply comprising three

conductors,
system between successive pairs of which are maintained alternating
differences of potential successively displaced in phase by one
third of a period.
transient overvoltage The temporary overvoltage of short duration associated with the
operation of the switching device, a fault, a lightning stroke, or
during arcing ground faults on the ungrounded system.
ungrounded system A system, without an intentional connection to ground, except

through potential indicating or measuring devices or other very
high impedance devices.
zero-sequence Three phasors equal in magnitude and with zero phase

components displacement from each other.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LINE-TO-GROUND FAULTS (UNBALANCED

CONDITIONS)
Symmetrical Components
The method of symmetrical components (mathematical operations) is the foundation for

obtaining and understanding fault data on three-phase power systems. In short, the method of
symmetrical components is one of the relay engineer’s most powerful technical tools. While
the method and mathematics are quite simple, the practical value lies in the ability to think
and visualize in symmetrical components. This skill requires practice and experience. The
method of symmetrical components consists of reducing an unbalanced three-phase system of
phasors into three balanced or symmetrical systems: the positive, negative, and zero phase
sequence components. This reduction can be performed in terms of current, voltage, and
impedance.
Balanced System
A balanced system (i.e., a three-phase fault) consists of three phasors, all equal in magnitude
and 120o apart (Figure 23). For example:
IA = 1∠0o = 1.0 + j0
IB = 1240o = -0.5 - j0.866
IC = 1120o = -0.5 + j0.866
IA + IB + IC = 0
|IA| = |IB| = |IC|
Unbalanced System
An unbalanced system (i.e., a line-to-ground fault) consists of three-phasors, not all equal in
magnitude or degrees apart (Figure 24). For example:
IA = 10o = 1.0 + j0
IB = 2 225o = -1.0 - j1.0
IC = 190o = 0 + j1.0
IA + IB + IC = 0
|IA| = |IC| |IB|

Figure 23. Example of a Balanced System
Figure 24. Example of an Unbalanced System

Sequence Components
The sequence components consist of three sequence sets: positive (+) sequence, negative (-)
sequence, and zero (0) sequence.
Positive Sequence (+) components consist of three phasors equal in magnitude, displaced from
each other by 120o in phase, and having the same phase sequence (abc) as the original phasors
(abc). The term “positive” derives from the fact that IbI is a positive (+) 120o behind Ia1
(Figure 25). Note: Subscript 1 identifies the positive sequence component, subscript 2
identifies the negative sequence component, and the subscript 0 identifies the zero sequence
component. This subscript notation is applicable to the entire Addendum.
Figure 25. Positive (+) Sequence Components
Negative Sequence (-) components consist of three phasors equal in magnitude, displaced from
each other by 120o in phase, and having the phase sequence opposite (acb) to that of the
original phasors (abc). The term “negative” derives from the fact that Ib2 is a negative (-) 120o
behind Ia2 (Figure 26).
Figure 26. Negative (-) Sequence Components

Zero Sequence (0) components consist of three phasors equal in magnitude and with zero phase
displacement from each other (Figure 27).
Figure 27. Zero (0) Sequence Components
Operators (j, a)
The “j” operator is a unit phasor with an angle displacement of 90o (Figure 28).
j = 1 90o = 0 + j = j
j2 = 1 180o = -1.0 + j0 = -1.0
j3 = 1 270o = 0 - j = -j
j4 = 1 360o = 1.0 + j0 = 1.0
-j = 1 270o = 0 - j1.0 = -j = j3
Figure 28. The “j” Operator

The “a” operator is a unit phasor with an angle displacement of 120o (Figure 29).
a = 1 120o = - 0.5 + j0.866
-a = 1 300o = + 0.5 - j0.866
a2 = 1 240o = - 0.5 - j0.866
-a2 = 1 60o = + 0.5 + j0.866
a3 = 1 360o = + 1.0 + j0 = 1.0
-a3 = 1 180o = - 1.0 + j0 = - 1.0
Figure 29. The “a” Operator

Analysis
Each unbalanced phaser (IA, IB, IC) can be broken into its individual symmetrical components
as follows:
IA = Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0 Notes: 1. Three equations and seven

unknowns because (Ia0 = Ib0 = Ic0).
IB = Ib1 + Ib2 + Ib0 2. These equations are also valid for
VA, VB, and VC.
IC = Ic1 + Ic2 + Ic0
Ib1 = Ia1 240o = a2 Ia1
Ic1 = Ia1 120o = a Ia1
Ib2 = Ia2 120o = a Ia2
Ic2 = Ia2 240o = a2 Ia2
Ic0 = Ia0 = Ib0
Rewriting the equations and substituting the symmetrical components of phases IB and IC into
their IA equivalent symmetrical components leads to:
IA = 1 Ia1 + 1 Ia2 + 1 Ia0 Note: Three equations and three

unknowns.
IB = a2 Ia1 + a Ia2 + 1 Ia0
IC = a Ia1 + a2 Ia2 + 1 Ia0
Solving for Ia1, Ia2, and Ia0 leads to the following basic formulas for symmetrical components.
Ia1 = 1/3 (IA + aIB + a2 IC) (Equation 1)
Ia2 = 1/3 (IA + a2 IB + aIC) (Equation 2)
Ia0 = 1/3 (IA + IB + IC) (Equation 3)

Three-Wire Delta System - In a three-wire system the sum of the phase currents equal zero,
which leads to the following conclusion:
IA + IB + IC = 0
Ia0 = 1/3 (IA + IB + IC) = 0, Iao = 0
Therefore, no zero sequence currents can flow in a three-wire delta system.
Four-Wire Wye System - In a four-wire system the sum of the phase currents equals the neutral
current, which leads to the following conclusion:
IA + IB +IC = IN
Ia0 = 1/3 (IA + IB + IC) = 1/3 IN, IN = 3Ia0
Example A: A wye-connected load (no neutral) has line voltages as follows. Find the
symmetrical components (Va1, Va2, Va0) and perform a check calculation to
determine if VA and VB equals the sum of its symmetrical components.
VA = 0.8 82.8o VB = 1.2 -41.4o VC = 1.0 180o
Answer: 1) Determine the symmetrical components of VA, VB, and VC.
Va1= 1/3 (VA + aVB + a2VC)
= 1/3 (0.8 82.8o + 1.2 (120o - 41.4o) + 1.0 (240o + 180o))
= 1/3 (.1002 + j.7937 + .2372 + j1.1763 + 0.5 + j.866)
= 1/3 (.8374 + j2.836)
= .2791 + j.9453
= .9856 73.55o V

Va2 = 1/3 (VA + a2VB + aVC)
= 1/3 (0.8 82.8o + 1.2 (240o - 41.4o) + 1.0 (120o + 180o))
= 1/3 (.1002 + j.7937 - 1.1373 - j.3828 + 0.5 - j.866)
= 1/3 (-.5371 - j.4551)
= -.1790 - j.1517
= .2346 220.28o V
Va0 = 0 (no neutral connection)
= 1/3 (VA + VB + BC)
= 1/3 (0.8 82.8o + 1.2 -41.4o + 1.0 180o)
= 1/3 (.1002 + j.7937 + .9001 - j.7936 - 1.0 + j0)
=0V

2) Check the calculation to determine if VA and VB equals the sum of its

symmetrical components.
VA = Va1 + Va2 + Va0
= .2791 + j.9454 - .1790 - j.1517 + 0
= .1001 + j.7937
= 0.8 82.8o V
VB = Vb1 + Vb2 + Vb0
= a2 Va1 + aVa2 + Va0
= .9856 (73.55o + 240o) + .2346 (220.28o + 120o) + 0
= .9856 313.55o + .2346 340.28o
= .6791 - j.7143 + .2208 - j.0792
= .8999 - j.7935
= 1.2 -41.4o V
VC = Vc1 + Vc2 + Vc0
= aVa1 + a2Va2 + Va0
= .9856 (73.55o + 120o) + .2346 (220.28o + 240o) + 0
= .9856 193.55o + .2346 460.28o
= .9852 - j.2308 - .0418 + j.2308
= -1.0 + j0
= 1 180o V

Fault Condition Phasor Diagrams
Normal Conditions
Under normal conditions the phase current (IA) lags the phase voltage (VA) as shown in
Figure 30.
Figure 30. Normal Conditions Phasor Diagram
Three-Phase Faults
Under three-phase fault conditions, the phase currents (IA, IB, IC) are equal (balanced
conditions) and the line voltages (VA, VB, VC) collapse to zero (eventually) at the point of the
fault, as shown in Figure 31.
Figure 31. Three-Phase Fault Phasor Diagram

Phase-to-Phase Faults
For a phase B to C fault, phase current IA equals zero and phase B current is equal to the
negative of phase C current as shown in Figure 32. The line voltages VB and VC are equal,
also as shown in Figure 32.
Figure 32. Phase B-to-C Fault Phasor Diagram
Line-to-Ground Faults
For a phase A to ground fault, phase A line voltage and phases B and C currents equal zero as
shown in Figure 33.
Figure 33. Phase A-to-Ground Fault Phasor Diagram

Sequence Currents
Figure 34 shows the current sequence component sets for three-phase faults, line-to-line
faults, line-to-line-to ground faults, and line-to-ground faults as follows:
• No negative or zero sequence currents flow for three-phase faults, only positive
sequence currents flow.
• Only positive and negative sequence currents flow for line-to-line faults.
• Positive, negative, and zero sequence currents flow for faults involving ground.
Sequence Voltages
Figure 35 shows the voltage sequence component sets for three-phase faults, line-to-line
faults, line-to-line-to ground faults, and line-to-ground faults as follows:
• No negative or zero sequence voltages exist for a three-phase fault and the
positive sequence voltage collapses to zero at the point of the fault.
• No zero sequence voltages exist for line-to-line faults.
• Positive, negative, and zero sequence voltages exist for faults involving
ground.

Figure 34. Sequence Current Components

Figure 35. Sequence Voltage Components

Line-to-Ground Fault Equations
Zero Sequence Transformer Model
The zero sequence equivalent circuits of three-phase transformers deserve special attention
because of the different combinations of connections (e.g., delta-wye, wye-delta, etc.). Figure
36 shows the various transformer connection combinations and the corresponding zero
sequence current flow equivalent diagram.
Referring to Figure 36, the following observations are noted:
• If either one of the neutrals of a Y-Y transformer bank is ungrounded, zero

sequence current cannot flow in either winding.
• Where both neutrals of a Y-Y transformer bank are grounded, zero sequence
current flows in both windings.
• In delta-Y or Y-delta transformer grounded banks, zero sequence currents have

a path through the Y.
• No zero sequence currents flow in a delta-delta transformer bank.
• If the connection from neutral to ground contains an impedance (ZN), the zero
sequence equivalent circuit model must have an impedance of 3ZN.

Figure 36. Transformer Zero Sequence Models

Fault Conditions (Current)
The circuit diagram for a phase A-to-ground fault at the terminals of an unloaded generator is
shown in Figure 37. The current conditions at the fault are expressed as follows:
IB = IC = 0 (boundary conditions)
Ia1 = 1/3 (IA + IB + IC) = 1/3 IA
Ia2 = 1/3 (IA + a2IB + aIC) = 1/3 IA
Ia0 = 1/3 (IA + aIB + a2IC) = 1/3 IA
Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia0 = 1/3 IA
IA = 3Ia0
Figure 37. Phase A-to-Ground Fault Circuit Diagram

Fault Conditions (Voltage)
The circuit diagram sequence network for a phase A-to-ground fault at the terminals of an
unloaded generator (Figure 37) is shown in Figure 38. The voltage conditions at the fault are
expressed as follows:
VA = 0 (boundary condition)
VA = Va1 + Va2 + Va0 = 0
Va1 = EA - Ia1Z1, Va2 = -Ia1Z2, Va0 = -Ia1 (Z0 + 3ZN)
-EA = -Ia1Z1 - Ia1Z2 - Ia1 (Z0 + 3ZN) = 0
EA = Ia1 (Z1 + Z2 + Z0 + 3ZN)
Ia1 = EA/(Z1 + Z2 + Z0 + 3ZN)
IA = Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0 = 3Ia1 since Ia2 = Ia0 = Ia1
IA = 3EA/(Z1 + Z2 + Z0 + 3Zn)
Figure 38. Sequence Network Connection Diagram

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Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

System Grounding Schemes

Chapter : Electrical For additional information on this subject, contact

TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGES

CHARACTERISTICS OF UNGROUNDED POWER SYSTEMS..................1

Current Profiles .....................................................................................4

CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUNDED POWER SYSTEMS........................6

Types of Grounded Power Systems ......................................................6

Solidly Grounded Systems ...................................................................12

Low Resistance Grounded Systems .....................................................15

High Resistance Grounded Systems.....................................................17

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Reactance Grounded Systems ..............................................................18

TYPES OF GROUND FAULT DETECTION AND COORDINATION

Single Voltage Levels Versus Transformer Connections.....................19

Low Voltage Systems...........................................................................21

Medium Voltage Systems - Solidly Grounded.....................................23

Medium Voltage Systems - Low Resistance Grounded .......................25

Medium Voltage Systems - High Resistance Grounded ......................27

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

CHARACTERISTICS OF LINE-TO-GROUND FAULTS

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Figure 1. Ungrounded System Voltage Profiles

Figure 2. Ground Fault Voltage Profile ........................................................ 2

Figure 3. Transient Overvoltage Profiles from Restriking

Figure 4. Current Profile (Normal Conditions) ............................................. 4

Figure 5. Ground Fault Current Profiles ....................................................... 5

Figure 6. Grounded Power Systems.............................................................. 6

Figure 7. Solidly Grounded System (Neutral Point) ..................................... 7

Figure 8. Corner-of-the Delta Grounded System .......................................... 8

Figure 9. Low Resistance Grounded System ................................................ 9

Figure 10. High Resistance Grounded System ................................................ 10

Figure 11. Reactance Grounded System.......................................................... 11

Figure 12. Line-to-Ground Fault Current Magnitudes..................................... 13

Figure 13. Typical Ground Systems ................................................................ 20

Figure 14. Solid-State Low Voltage Ground Fault Detection.......................... 22

Figure 15. Residual CT Connection Scheme ................................................... 23

Figure 16. Source Neutral Detection/Coordination ......................................... 25

Figure 17. Zero Sequence CT Connection Scheme ......................................... 26

Figure 18. High Resistance Ground Fault Detection Schemes ........................ 27

Figure 19. Ground System Characteristics ...................................................... 29

Figure 20. Ground System Industry Recommendations .................................. 30

Figure 23. Example of a Balanced System ...................................................... 34

Figure 24. Example of an Unbalanced System................................................ 34

Figure 25. Positive (+) Sequence Components................................................ 35

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Figure 26. Negative (-) Sequence Components ............................................... 35

Figure 27. Zero (0) Sequence Components ..................................................... 36

Figure 28. The “j” Operator............................................................................. 36

Figure 29. The “a” Operator ............................................................................ 37

Figure 30. Normal Conditions Phasor Diagram............................................... 42

Figure 31. Three-Phase Fault Phasor Diagram ................................................ 42

Figure 32. Phase B-to-C Fault Phasor Diagram............................................... 43

Figure 33. Phase A-to-Ground Fault Phasor Diagram..................................... 43

Figure 34. Sequence Current Components ...................................................... 45

Figure 35. Sequence Voltage Components...................................................... 46

Figure 36. Transformer Zero Sequence Models .............................................. 48

Figure 37. Phase A-to-Ground Fault Circuit Diagram..................................... 49

Figure 38. Sequence Network Connection Diagram ....................................... 50

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

CHARACTERISTICS OF UNGROUNDED POWER SYSTEMS

An ungrounded system is a system which has no intentional connection to ground. Although