Boiler - Process Measurement and Instrumentation

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Determining The Suitability Of Boiler

Process Measurement Instrumentation,
Flow Characterization, And Drum Level
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Instrumentations For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: PCI20102 J.L. Sprague
Engineering Encyclopedia Instrumentations
Flow Characteriztion, And Drum Level
Contents Pages
INFORMATION .................................................................................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 1
P&ID AND LOGIC DRAWING SYMBOLOGY AND TERMINOLOGY........................... 2

ISA Symbology and Terminology.............................................................................. 2
ISA Identification Letters............................................................................... 2
ISA Function Blocks...................................................................................... 2
ISA Line and Instrument/Function Symbols ................................................... 3
SAMA Symbology and Terminology ......................................................................... 3
SAMA Signal Processing Symbols ................................................................. 4
SAMA Enclosure Symbols............................................................................. 4
Saudi Aramco Instrument Symbols and Identification ................................................ 7
Identification Letters...................................................................................... 7
Identification Numbers................................................................................... 7
Loop Identification Number ........................................................................... 7
Numbering of Instruments.............................................................................. 8
Thermocouples .............................................................................................. 8
Electronic Instrumentation ............................................................................. 8
Special Identification...................................................................................... 8
Symbols and Balloons .................................................................................... 8
Simple Control Loop ..................................................................................... 9
DETERMINING WHETHER PRIMARY TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
INSTRUMENT TYPES AND LOCATIONS MEET INSTRUMENTATION
REQUIREMENTS ..............................................................................................................10
Flue Gas Temperature Elements ...............................................................................10
Types and Locations .....................................................................................11
Steam Temperature Control Loops...........................................................................12
Types and Locations of Primary Temperature Measurement Elements...........13
Control Loop Instrumentation Requirements as per API-RP-551, Section 5 ..13
Sample Problem............................................................................................14

Skin Temperature Elements......................................................................................16

Inlet Air Temperature Elements................................................................................17
DETERMINING WHETHER PRIMARY PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
REQUIREMENTS ..............................................................................................................18
Fuel Pressure Elements.............................................................................................18
Types and Locations of Primary Pressure Measurement Elements .................19
Furnace Pressure Control Loops...............................................................................20
Steam Pressure Control Loops .................................................................................21
Drum Pressure Elements...........................................................................................23
Atomizing Steam Pressure Control Loops ................................................................24
DETERMINING WHETHER PRIMARY FLOW MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENT
TYPES AND LOCATIONS MEET INSTRUMENTATION REQUIREMENTS ................26
Air Flow Control Loops ...........................................................................................26
Types and Locations of Primary Flow Measurement Elements ......................27
Fuel Flow Control Loops..........................................................................................28
Steam Flow Elements ...............................................................................................30
Boiler Feedwater Flow Control Loops......................................................................31

DETERMINING THE CHARACTERIZATION THAT PRODUCES A LINEAR

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE FINAL CONTROL ELEMENT AND THE
MEASURED PROCESS VARIABLE.................................................................................33
Inherent Characteristics of a Control Valve...............................................................33
Mechanical Characterization Devices: Operation, Construction, and Uses.................34
Electronic Characterization Devices: Operation, Construction, and Uses ..................34
CALCULATING DRUM LEVEL .......................................................................................36
Head Measuring .......................................................................................................36
Uncompensated ............................................................................................36
Pressure Compensated ..................................................................................36
Conductivity.............................................................................................................37
Gage Glass ...............................................................................................................38
WORK AID 1: RESOURCES USED TO DETERMINE WHETHER PRIMARY
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT INSTRU-MENT TYPES AND LOCATIONS
MEET INSTRUMEN-TATION REQUIREMENTS............................................................39
Work Aid 1A: P&ID ................................................................................................39
Work Aid 1B: ANSI/ISA-S5.1-1984 ........................................................................40
Work Aid 1C: PMC22.1-1981..................................................................................41
Work Aid 1D: API-RP-551, Section 5......................................................................42
Work Aid 1E: SAES-J-004 ......................................................................................43
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENT TYPES AND LOCATIONS MEET
INSTRUMENTATION REQUIREMENTS. .......................................................................44
Work Aid 2A: P&ID ................................................................................................44
Work Aid 2B: ANSI/ISA-S5.1-1984 ........................................................................44
Work Aid 2C: PMC22.1-1981..................................................................................44
Work Aid 2E: SAES-J-004) .....................................................................................44
FLOW MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENT TYPES AND LOCATIONS MEET
INSTRUMENTATION REQUIREMENTS. .......................................................................45

Work Aid 3A: P&ID ................................................................................................45

Work Aid 3B: ANSI/ISA-S5.1-1984 (See Course Handout 4)..................................45
Work Aid 3C: PMC22.1-1981..................................................................................45
Work Aid 3E: SAES-J-004 ......................................................................................45
WORK AID 4: DETERMINE THE CHARACTERIZATION THAT PRODUCES A
LINEAR RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE FINAL CONTROL ELEMENT AND
MEASURED PROCESS VARIABLE.................................................................................46
WORK AID 5: RESOURCES USED TO CALCULATE DRUM LEVEL...........................47

Work Aid 5A: Drum Operating Parameters ..............................................................47
Work Aid 5B: SAES-J-602, Section 5......................................................................47
Work Aid 5C: ANSI/ISA S77.42..............................................................................47
Work Aid 5D: Procedure to Calculate Drum Level...................................................47
GLOSSARY........................................................................................................................48

INFORMATION
INTRODUCTION
This module expands on the basic principles of process variable measurement, conditioning,
calculation, and characterization. In this module industry and Saudi Aramco standards will be
applied to actual P&IDs of physical process implementations.
The sections of this module include:

• P&ID logic drawing symbology and terminology.
• Determining whether primary temperature measurement instrument types and
locations meet instrumentation requirements.
• Determining whether primary pressure measurement instrument types and locations
meet instrumentation requirements.
• Determining whether primary flow measurement instrument types and locations meet
instrumentation requirements.
• Determining the characterization that produces a linear relationship between the final
control element and the measured process variable.
• Calculating drum level.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

P&ID AND LOGIC DRAWING SYMBOLOGY AND TERMINOLOGY
P&ID and logic drawing symbology and terminology establish a uniform means of designating
instruments and instrumentation systems used for measurement and control.
ISA Symbology and Terminology
ISA Identification Letters
Table 1 (page 17) of ANSI/ISA-S5.1-1984 shows a table of ISA identification letters. ISA
identification letters are used to designate an individual instrument or loop. For example, the letter
F is used to designate flow, the letter T designates temperature, and the letter P designates
pressure. The first identification letter designates the measured or initiating variable. The
succeeding letters identify the functions performed and the instruments that perform these
functions. For example, TIC is used to designate temperature indicator controller. PCV
designates pressure control valve.
ISA Function Blocks
Table 3 (page 19) of ANSI/ISA-S5.1-1984 shows ISA function blocks. ISA function blocks
represent functions associated with controllers, computing devices, converters, and relays. For
example, number 14 (page 21) represents the low selecting function. Number 19 represents the
bias function.

ISA Line and Instrument/Function Symbols
On page 24 of ANSI/ISA-S5.1-1984 is a drawing of ISA instrument line symbols. On pages 25-

43 are drawings of ISA instrument or function symbols. For example, number 1 represents an
instrument power (pneumatic or hydraulic) supply or sensing connection to the process. Number
4 represents an electrical signal. Saudi Aramco typically reverses the ISA symbols for pneumatic
and electrical signal lines, using the ISA symbol for a pneumatic signal as an electrical signal and
visa versa. On page 25, symbol 1 represents discrete instruments that are in a primary location and
normally accessible to the operator. Number 2 represents a field mounted instrument not normally
accessible by the control room operator.
Figure 1 is an example of typical ISA symbolism for a simple flow control loop.
FT
100
FY
100
K+I
FIC
100
I/P
FY
33349
Figure 1. Typical ISA Symbolism for a Simple Flow Control Loop
SAMA Symbology and Terminology
Historically, the boiler industry has used the symbolism established by the Scientific Apparatus
Manufacturer's Association (SAMA) rather than ISA symbolism to depict boiler control functions.

SAMA symbolism will, therefore, be used throughout the remaining modules in the course. This
section will explain and illustrate the following SAMA conventions:
• Signal processing symbols
• Enclosure symbols
• Simple control loop symbols (versus ISA symbols)
SAMA Signal Processing Symbols
Figure 1 of SAMA standard PMC 22.1-1981 shows a table of SAMA signal processing symbols.
It also represents summing. B represents a logical signal generator. F(x) represents a non-linear
function.
SAMA Enclosure Symbols
Figure 2 of SAMA standard PMC 22.1-1981 shows a table of SAMA enclosure symbols. The
enclosure symbol is combined with the signal processing symbol to provide a functional symbol
that represents the processing algorithm and its physical manifestation such as indicator, manual
loader, power actuator, or logic gate. Ten specific shapes of enclosures representing the
measuring or readout, automatic signal processing, manual signal processing, and final controlling
functions are used. They can represent a measuring or readout, a final controlling or manual signal
processing.

SAMA versus ISA Simple Control Loop
Figure 2 shows the SAMA equivalent to Figure 1's ISA illustration of a simple flow control loop.
The functions of square root, manually generated setpoint, and difference (delta) are depicted.
Note that in this symbolic representation the functionality is platform independent. The function
can be implemented by using pneumatic, analog or digital electronic, optical, or biological control
techniques.
FT
FY100
PV
SP
A
FIC100
PID
A T
I/P
FCV 33350
Figure 2. Typical SAMA Symbolism for a Simple Flow Control Loop

Figure 3 represents typical SAMA symbolism and terminology for detailed diagrams. Drawing
6.12 of ISA standard ANSI/ISA S5.1-1984 represents the ISA equivalent of SAMA symbolism
shown in Figure 3.
AE
From
FY901A
LT AT TDT
From FT
920
FY901A
FY900A
ƒ(t) H/
LIC940 AIC941
A A
PID PID
A T FY901C FY920B
FIC900 H/L
SP PV
PID
A T
ƒ(x) ƒ(x)
33351
Flow Valve Hot Oil Valve
Figure 3. Typical SAMA Symbolism and Terminology for Detailed Diagrams

Saudi Aramco Instrument Symbols and Identification
Saudi Aramco system instrument identification and instrument symbols are used on Process Flow
Diagrams, Piping and Instrument Diagrams, and construction drawings.
Identification Letters
Identification letters define the variable along with the equipment function or both. Table I on
page 4 of Saudi Aramco standard SAES–J–004 shows a list of identification letters. The table is
divided into three sections. The first section lists the measured variable letter. The second section
lists the instrument function letter. The third section lists lower case letters that follow the
measured variable letter and are used for clarity.
The letter B in the first group represents the burner (flame). The letter E in the second group is
usually used with the first group letters A, C, F, and T. FE is a flow element installation such as an
orifice, flow nozzle, or venturi tube. Examples of letter combinations include BE for burner
element (flame detector), FR for flow recorder, PZV for pressure safety relief valve, TY for
temperature loop relay, and ZC for emergency shutdown system.
Qualifying letters and mathematical symbols are shown in Table III. The letters and symbols are
shown outside of the instrument balloon. If the figure does not stand out sufficiently, it is
enclosed in a square.
Identification Numbers
Identification numbers are used to identify the plant or area of service. They provide serial
identification of specific items.
Loop Identification Number
In a given measurement and control loop, all equipment is assigned the same identification number
except when a loop element from a different plant appears. The element would have the same
number as its primary loop element.

Numbering of Instruments
Instruments are numbered by starting with the control loops of each category of measured
variables such as flow, level, or temperature and sequentially from left to right on the piping and
instrumentation diagram.
Thermocouples
Thermocouples do not meet the above criteria when more than one thermocouple is used for a
given instrument. In that case, hyphenated numbers are used, where the number preceding the
hyphen is the same as the instrument or switch assembly to which the thermocouple is connected.
The number following the hyphen is the thermocouple point number in the instrument or switch
assembly.
Electronic Instrumentation
Electronic instrumentation uses the same nomenclature and symbols as pneumatic systems.
Special Identification
If no nomenclature or symbols are pertinent a special identification is used and is added to the
legend of the applicable drawings.
Symbols and Balloons
Saudi Aramco symbols are any shaped or pictorial representation with or without identification
letters and numbers. A balloon is a round, oval, or polygonal flag used to identify an instrument or
function. It is usually connected by a line to the instrument location on the drawings. A balloon is
used also to signal line termination when the signal line connects to a processing unit.

Simple Control Loop
Figure 4 shows an example of Saudi Aramco symbolism for a simple control loop.
TE
111
TTd
111
T
T5 XH
111
111 22-1-14
TIC
111 T
111
TTd
11C
33352
Figure 4. Typical Saudi Aramco Symbolism for a Typical Control Loop

DETERMINING WHETHER PRIMARY TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

REQUIREMENTS
Flue Gas Temperature Elements
Figure 5 and the P&ID referenced in the Figure title illustrate flue gas temperature measurement
elements. The square symbol shown twice in figure 5 represents the distributed control system
(DCS).
TI
110A
TE
110A
TI TI TI
106A1 101A
106A1
STACK
TE TT
106A2 106A2
Flue
Duct J90-F-101
33353
Figure 5. Flue Gas Temperature

Types and Locations
Flue gas temperature measurement is needed for the boiler efficiency calculation and to measure
condensation of moisture in flue gas. For flue gas temperature measurement a K-type, sheathed,
mineral oxide thermocouple is typically used. This thermocouple can be inserted directly into the
flue gas stream (without the need for a thermowell). Type K thermocouples can, if based on lead
wire oxidation in a sheath couple, be used to a maximum working limit of approximately 2300
degrees F. Typically flue gas temperatures can reach 500 degrees F. Flue gas temperature is
measured with a thermocouple at the flue gas outlet.

Steam Temperature Control Loops
Figure 6 illustrates a steam temperature control loop and primary temperature measurement
elements.
Setpoint
A Primary Process
Variable
Primary
TE = Temperature PID Controller
Secondary
Element
Process
Variable Secondary
TT = Temperature
Controller
Transmitter PID
ƒP Current to
TT
Pneumatic
TT
Converter
TE
TE High Pressure Feedwater Header
Attemparator High Pressure SH Steam Header
Primary Secondary
33354
Superheater Pendant Superheater Pendant
Figure 6. Steam Temperature Control

Types and Locations of Primary Temperature Measurement Elements
Final steam temperature is measured as the controlled variable in the steam temperature control
loop. Attemperator outlet temperature also is monitored for the proper operation of the
attemperator.
Steam temperature is measured with a thermocouple which measures steam temperatures up to

800 degrees F. The thermocouple must be located reasonably close to the spray nozzle to ensure
adequate temperature measurement response. Final steam temperature measurements are taken by
either type E or type K thermocouples or RTD inside a thermowell. Type E thermocouple and the
RTD are preferred because of their higher accuracy. Limitations of thermowells for use with 150
psig saturated steam at extreme temperature exist. Thermowells are subject to erosion and
possible wake frequency vibrational effect caused by the high velocity of the steam stream.
Control Loop Instrumentation Requirements as per API-RP-551, Section 5
For the steam temperature control loop, instrumentation requirements can be found in API-RP-
551, Section 5.
Typically thermocouples are installed in thermowells. Figures 26-28 on pages 34-36 of API-RP-
551, Section 5 illustrate thermowell installation. To minimize temperature lag, the thermocouple
must be in contact with the bottom of the well. Figures 29-31 on pages 37-38 of API-RP-551,
Section 5 illustrate thermocouple installation.

Sample Problem
For the following steam temperature control loop shown in Figure 7, determine whether the types
and locations of primary temperature measurement elements meet instrumentation requirements.
The sample problem illustrates the use of a flange-mounted thermowell used to protect the
temperature element. The thermowell installation meets the instrumentation requirements as
stated on pages 34-36 of API-RP-551, Section 5. The C dimension is greater than 24 inches
which allows space for the removal of the thermowell. The distance D is greater than 6 inches,
which is the minimum size for lines.
Setpoint
A
PV
PID
PID
TT
TT ƒP
TE
TE
33986
Figure 7. Sample Problem, Steam Temperature Control

Figure 8 and the P&ID illustrate boiler feedwater temperature measurement elements.
TE
TE
TE
Thermowall
33355
Figure 8. Boiler Feedwater Temperature
Types and Locations
Typically a type J thermocouple is used to measure boiler feedwater temperature. The normal
temperature range of type J thermocouples is from 30 to 1400 degrees F.
Boiler feedwater temperature is measured anywhere before the boiler feedwater control valve.
Boiler feedwater temperature measurement is used to calculate boiler efficiency as well as to
compensate the boiler feedwater flow measurement for mass flow.

Skin Temperature Elements
Figure 9 and the Typical Installation Drawing (AD-036968) illustrate skin temperature
measurement elements.
Inside
Outer Wall
Heater Wall
Insulation Fire Brick
33356
Figure 9. Skin Temperature
Types and Locations
The term "skin temperature element", when used in an industrial setting, generally refers to a type
of thermocouple or resistance element, one that is spot-welded onto a pipe, weldment, vessel,
steam tube, etc. The skin to be measured in this fashion is insulated (or lagged) so that the
temperature is somewhat representative of the fluid temperature inside. The characteristics of this
type of element, are that it is 1) cheap 2) slow in response 3) usually expendable 4) usually
involves installation of multiple elements installed.

Inlet Air Temperature Elements
Figure 10 and the P&ID referenced in the figure title illustrate inlet air temperature measurement
elements.
TI TE
102A 102A
Air Duct
Access
Door
33357
Figure 10. Inlet Air Temperature
Types and Locations
Inlet air temperature measurement is used to calculate boiler efficiency and to monitor proper inlet
air conditions.
Inlet air temperature, whose temperature ranges from 0-200 degrees F, is typically measured with
a type K thermocouple. Inlet air temperature thermocouples are typically located on the inlet to
the forced draft fan within 20 feet of the fan.

DETERMINING WHETHER PRIMARY PRESSURE MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENT

TYPES AND LOCATIONS MEET INSTRUMENTATION REQUIREMENTS
Fuel Pressure Elements
Figure 11 and the P&ID referenced in the figure title illustrate fuel pressure measurement
elements.
SP
A
PV
PID
PI FCV PI
1027A 1187A 1028A
Oil Supply
Fuel Control Header
Valve
PCV
1106A
33358
Figure 11. Fuel Pressure

Types and Locations of Primary Pressure Measurement Elements
Typically fuel pressure is measured with a pressure transmitter.
Fuel pressure is measured both upstream and downstream of the flow control valve. At the
upstream location fuel pressure is measured to indicate conditions at the header. At the
downstream location fuel pressure is measured to indicate conditions at the burner.
Currently in Saudi Aramco, fuel gas and fuel oil pressures use smart transmitters, even for inputs
into Burner Management Systems as trip signals. The advantages of smart transmitters are they
are easily replaced, easily calibrate, their use reduces the number of spares needed, and they last
long.
Fuel oil must be steam traced to the process to prevent the fuel oil from cooling off, becoming too
viscous, and plugging the lines.

Furnace Pressure Control Loops
Figure 12 and P&ID illustrate boiler furnace pressure control loops and primary pressure
measurement elements.
Arch
PT Backpass
Furnace
Cavity
Forced Draft Fan Induced Draft Fan Stack
Setpoint
A
2T
Drive Position Primary Controller PID Drive

Unit/ Transmitter Unit/
ƒ(x) •
Actuator Actuator
Feedforward 3359
Characterization
Figure 12. Furnace Pressure Control
A typical pressure transmitter is used to measure furnace pressure which ranges from 0 to 20
inches of water. The furnace pressure tap or taps should be above or downstream of the full load
fireball, so as to be out of the region of greatest disturbance. Consideration should be given to
the type and quantity of slagging for the particular type of furnace and fuel involved. The steam
generator vendor usually will weigh these factors and place the taps in an optimum position.

For the isolated furnace pressure control loop, instrumentation requirements can be found in API-
RP-551, Section 4. All locally mounted pressure instruments should be readily accessible from
grade, platforms, fixed walkways, or fixed ladders. Most pressure instruments are susceptible to
damage, abnormal wear, or malfunction if they are mounted on locations where they are subject
to vibration. If any part of the pressure system or equipment is subject to vibration, the instrument
should be mounted on a vibration-free remote support.
Steam Pressure Control Loops
Figure 13 and the P&ID referenced in the figure title illustrate boiler steam pressure control loops
and primary pressure measurement elements.
Setpoint
A
PT
PV 100
PID
PIC100
Shutoff Control
33360
Valve Valve
Figure 13. Steam Pressure Control

A typical pressure transmitter is used to measure steam pressure which ranges from 0 to 1000
psia. Steam pressure is measured downstream of all boiler heating surfaces. The most important
use for steam pressure measurement is for master pressure control for all boilers. Steam pressure
measurement is also used to compensate the steam flow measurement for mass flow.
For the steam pressure control loop, instrumentation requirements can be found in API-RP-551,
Section 4. All locally mounted pressure instruments should be readily accessible from grade,
platforms, fixed walkways, or fixed ladders. Most pressure instruments are susceptible to damage,
abnormal wear, or malfunction if they are mounted on locations where they are subject to
vibration. If any part of the pressure system or equipment is subject to vibration, the instrument
For steam pressure transmitters, impulse piping should be as short as possible. Steam pressure
transmitters should be self-venting or pigtailed (that is, mounted below the process connection,
with all lines sloping toward the instrument) to prevent gas from being trapped in the instrument.

Drum Pressure Elements
Figure 14 and the P&ID referenced in the figure title illustrate boiler drum pressure measurement
elements.
PI PAH
107A1
PI PI
107A2 107A3
PT
107A
J90-D-100
33361
Figure 14. Drum Pressure

Types and Locations
Drum pressure is measured to determine saturation conditions in the drum and for level pressure
correction of the drum level signal. A typical pressure transmitter is used to measure drum
pressure which ranges from 0 to 400 psig. The pressure transmitter is located off of the leg at the
end of the boiler.

Atomizing Steam Pressure Control Loops
Figure 15 and the P&ID referenced in the figure title illustrate boiler atomizing steam pressure
control loops and primary pressure measurement elements.
Boiler
Master
SP
PV
FIC100 PID Required steam pressure setpoint

as a function of oil pressure to
nozzle, per nozzle data sheet.
ƒ(x) Oil Oil
SP Press Flow
PT FT
PV
100 100
PID
Oil Supply Header
PT Steam
101 Pressure
Steam Supply Header

33362
Oil Gun
Figure 15. Atomizing Steam Pressure Control

The atomizing steam header pressure in the example is regulated by a local mechanical PRV to a
fixed setpoint. A more advanced strategy would include a setpoint function driven off a minimum
and the liquid fuel supply pressure to the nozzle. This can be implemented by local mechanical
means, or in the central control system if necessary.
A smart transmitter is used to measure atomizing steam pressure which ranges from 0 to 100 psia.
The transmitter is located upstream from the flow transmitter.
For the atomizing steam pressure control loop, instrumentation requirements can be found in API-
RP-551, Section 4. All locally mounted pressure instruments should be readily accessible from
grade, platforms, fixed walkways, or fixed ladders. Most pressure instruments are susceptible to
damage, abnormal wear, or malfunction if they are mounted on locations where they are subject
to vibration. If any part of the pressure system or equipment is subject to vibration, the instrument

DETERMINING WHETHER PRIMARY FLOW MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENT

TYPES AND LOCATIONS MEET INSTRUMENTATION REQUIREMENTS
Air Flow Control Loops
Figure 16 and P&ID referenced in the figure title illustrate boiler air flow measurement elements.
To
FT Flow
Combustion
101 Primary Measured Controller
Air Damper
Variable and
Control
Controlled Variable FIC
101
From Burner Airflow Setpoint
Fuel Control Characterization
ƒ(x)
PID
FCV
I 101A Final Control
P Element
XI FTd
101A 101A AFS
XT Open
101A Closed
FT Air Inlet Horn, or Pitot Tube

101 33363
Figure 16. Air Flow Control

Types and Locations of Primary Flow Measurement Elements
Air flow is the primary controlled variable in the air flow control loop. Air flow is measured to
provide the proper amount of air flow to the boiler for combustion and to ensure minimum air
flow at low loads.
Air flow may be measured in several different ways. Differential pressure is the most commonly
used method of flow measurement. Primary elements used to generate the differential pressure are
generally one of the following types: orifice plate, flow nozzles, elbow meters, venturi and flow
tubes, and D to T tubes. Other methods of air flow measurement include hot film anemometers,
turbine meters, and vortex meters.
For the air flow control loop, instrumentation requirements can be found in API-RP-551, Section
2.
Orifice plates are inexpensive to install and the most frequently used element to measure air flow.
Limitations of orifice plates include their susceptibility to damage by erosion. Advantages of
orifice plates include good repeatability, ease of installation, and relative ease with which they can
be changes.
FCI (thermal dispersion) devices are used to measure air flow in the fan suction. This method is
used by Saudi Aramco in the Ras Tanura crude oil refinery and in the Berri gas plant. FCI devices
work beautifully, but are expensive and tend to get coated with dirt.
Pitot tubes are used where minimum pressure drop is required and accuracy is not of prime
concern. Pilot tubes require turbulant flows and work best at fast flows. Pilot tubes do not work
at slow air speeds or laminar flow. Pilot tubes are inexpensive and can use one type of transmitter
regardless of pipe size.

Fuel Flow Control Loops
Figure 17 and P&ID illustrate boiler fuel flow control loop and primary flow measurement
elements.
Boiler Stream Flow
Specific
Gravity PID
K = 0.1
Boiler w B = -5
Full Flow K = 1.0
Boiler Discharge BTU Corr
Stream Flow
Flow
Specific Gravity Controller
Analyzer
FV FIC
107A 107A
FI
FI
107A1
107A3 I
P
Ftd
FI Primary Measured and 107A
107A Controlled Variable FCV Final
FE 107A
107A Control
Element
Fuel
Gas PCV
1106A
33364
Figure 17. Fuel Flow Control

Fuel flow is measured upstream of the fuel flow control valve where pressure is constant. Fuel
flow is measured as the primary controlled variable for the fuel flow control loop to provide the
proper amount of fuel to the boiler for combustion.
Typically fuel gas and light fuel oil flow are measured with an orifice and a dP transmitter or with
a Coriolis (mass) meter. Heavy oil flow is measured a positive displacement method of
measurement.
Positive displacement meters measure flow by mechanically trapping successive volumetric

segments of the liquid passing through the meter. The number of segments is converted to shaft
rotation. A gear train and calibrator convert shaft rotation to the appropriate volumetric units.
Positive displacement meters have excellent repeatability over wide flow ranges. They have
excellent repeatability and accuracy.
Positive displacement meters are subject to mechanical wear, are not interchangeable and must be
supplied to match the service, and require filler/strainers.
For the fuel flow control loop, instrumentation requirements can be found in API-RP-551, Section
2.

Steam Flow Elements
Figure 18 and P&ID referenced in the figure title illustrate boiler steam flow measurement
elements.
FI PI FY FI
104A1 109A 104A1 104A2
FE FT PI PT TI TE 625
104A 104A 1025A 109A 104A PSIG
104A
Steam to
TEL Distrib.
Header
625 Psig
Steam Thermowell 33365
Figure 18. Steam Flow
Types and Locations
Steam flow is measured with pressure and temperature compensation at the outlet of the boiler
where pressure is relatively constant.
Steam flow is measured in lb/hr and steam flow measurement is calibrated to the size of the boiler.
Issues concerning the measurement of steam flow include the erosive action of steam and
condensate legs. Steam will erode measurement devices by the vibration or impact of debris.
Impulse lines for liquid measurement should slope down at least one inch per foot from the orifice
tap condensate pots.

Boiler Feedwater Flow Control Loops
Figure 19 and the P&ID referenced in the figure title illustrate boiler feedwater flow control loop
and primary flow measurement elements.
FIC
A LIC 105A
LT
Drum/Tank Level
100 100
FI FI
To
105A4 105A5
Caustic INJ
Pumps
FIC FI
105A3 105A1
FI
105A3
I
P
Ftd
105A1
FCV FT FE
Bfw From
105A1 105A 105A
BFW Header
M
33366
Figure 19. Boiler Feedwater Flow Control

Boiler feedwater flow is usually measured using an orifice plate or flow nozzell and a 0-100 flow
transmitter.
The feedwater flow elements' location, as well as most liquid and gas flow measurement elements,
is based on two primary criteria:
(1) Relevance to the process. For example, the feedwater flow element is controlled to
match steam flow out of the steam drum. The flow element should be placed after
any draw off of attemperator or seal water, or other flow steam that does not pass
through the steam drum.
(2) Non stratified flow profile across the measured pipe/duct. This is dependent on
physical configuration of the pipe or duct and involves practical rules regarding
some number of diameters to or from bends, straightening devices, pump/fan
suction/discharge, or other disturbances.
For the boiler feedwater flow control loop, instrumentation requirements can be found in API-RP-
551, Section 2.
Orifice plates are inexpensive to install and most frequently used to measure boiler feedwater
flow. Limitations of orifice plates include their susceptibility to damage by the erosive action of
steam but not feedwater.

DETERMINING THE CHARACTERIZATION THAT PRODUCES A LINEAR

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE FINAL CONTROL ELEMENT AND THE
MEASURED PROCESS VARIABLE
Inherent Characteristics of a Control Valve
A control valve or pump speed control device should have a linear signal versus flow
characteristic. Figure 20 illustrates the desired relationship between the final control element and
the measured process variable. The actual relationship of the control signal versus flow that a
control valve should have is shown in figure 21. The control valve should characterized so that
the control signal versus feedwater flow is linear.
100
Flow 50
0 50 100
Control Signal 33367
Figure 20. Desired Characteristic of a Control Valve

100
Flow 50
0 50 100
Control Signal 33368
Figure 21. Actual Characteristic of a Control Valve
Mechanical Characterization Devices: Operation, Construction, and Uses
Mechanical characterization includes arranging linkages to linearize the relationship of control

signal versus flow. This is most commonly used on the induced draft centrifugal fan vanes on a
balanced draft furnace, to linear or even mechanically advantaged operation at small vane
openings. This characterizing of the fan linkages is not generally done on the forced draft fans, as
they usually do not operate in the region between 0% and 30% combustion airflow.
Another method of mechanical characterization is the cutting of mechanical cams of the driver
positioner. Most valves are characterized this way, if they are not already characterized by the
configuration of the valve plug trim used. Cams are sometimes used to achieve specific non linear
results, as in furnace burner tilts or in the boiler feedwater chemical conditioning systems.
A third method of mechanical characterization is as implemented in pneumatic control systems.

Most integrated control platforms of this type offer standard modules to square, square root,
multiply/divide, and bias/slope functions.
Electronic Characterization Devices: Operation, Construction, and Uses
Electronic characterization may include techniques in either digital or analog hardware. Electronic
positioners may be present on the particular valve or damper actuator. The functions provided are

usually similar to those performed by mechanical devices, but positioning accuracy and long term
repeatability are generally enhanced.
Electronic characterization may also be implemented in the control platform itself. Care should be
taken that characterizations done in the control system are executable by the field actuator control
device. In most cases, positioning accuracy and hysterisis of the field actuator/valve combination
is the limiting factor in achieving the desired characterized control action. Sound practice dictates
that control demand linearizations be done at the lowest possible level possible, starting with the
valve trim and/or damper characteristics.

CALCULATING DRUM LEVEL
Devices used to measure remote drum level include Hydrastep & Yarway type capacitance,
displacer, and dp. Electromechanical transmitters upon reaching a high or low level close a
contact which goes to the instrument/flame safeguard to safely shut down the boiler. Information
concerning each type of transmitter is furnished by the boiler manufacturer.
Head Measuring
Devices used to measure remote Figure 1 (page 9) of ISA standard ANSI/ISA-S77.42-1987

shows a typical drum level differential pressure transmitter.
Uncompensated
Uncompensated drum level is calculated by using the delta P signal from the level transmitter.
Pressure Compensated
The purpose of pressure compensated drum level is to compensate for changes in the density of
saturated steam and water as drum pressure varies. Figure 13-1 of Procedure to Calculate Drum
Level shows a typical drum level transmitter setup. Factors affecting the measuring instrument
calibration include:
1) The drum contains a two-phase mixture (water and steam) at saturation conditions.
2) The density of water and steam varies with saturation temperature or pressure.
3) The pressure of the steam above the water cannot be ignored.

The static pressure at the instrument high side (PH) is equal to drum pressure (P) plus the
pressure of the water in the reference leg (Hpo) plus the pressure of the water from the tap to the
instrument (vpo). The static pressure at the instrument low side (PL) is equal to the drum
pressure (P) plus the pressure of the saturated steam in the drum (H-h)ps, where H-h is the
distance between the top of the tap and the water level, plus the pressure of the water in the drum
at saturation temperature (hpw), where h is the distance between the bottom tap and the water
level, plus the pressure of the water from the tap to the instrument (vpo).
The differential pressure at the instrument level is equal to PH - PL, which equals H(po-ps) -
L(pw-ps). See Procedure to Calculate Drum Level for more details and an example of drum level
calculation.
Conductivity
Boiler water conductivity can be used to measure drum level as verification of the instrumented
and calculated drum level process variable. Boiler drum water and steam are drawn from sample
taps placed by the boiler manufacturer at various levels in the drum. The condensed samples are
analyzed for specific conductivity. A step change in conductivity indicated that the actual drum
level is between the two referenced sample ports. The accuracy of this test is of course dependent
on a stable drum level variable during the sampling period.

Gage Glass
Figure 22 shows gage glass drum level indication. The gage glass provides a visual indication of
liquid level. Typically the gage glass reading is in error anywhere from 1 to 7 inches of water
below the actual level in the boiler drum. The reason for this error is that the water in the gage
glass tends to be cooler because of the cooling of the steam and its condensate. The cooler water
is more dense and as a result indicates a lower height water column.
Gage
Glass
Mirror
t (2)
t (1) h (1) h (2) Water
h(1)<h(2) because t(1)<t(2)

t = Water temperature
h = Height of water column
Mirror Operator
33369
Figure 22. Gage Glass Drum Level Indication


TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT INSTRU-MENT TYPES AND
LOCATIONS MEET INSTRUMEN-TATION REQUIREMENTS.
Work Aid 1A: P&ID
Directions: The P&ID attached contains missing information. Use this P&ID to perform
Exercise 1.

Work Aid 1B: ANSI/ISA-S5.1-1984
Directions: ANSI/ISA-S5.1-1984 (see Course Handout 4) contains ISA instrumentation

standards. Use these standards to perform Exercise 1.

Work Aid 1C: PMC22.1-1981
Directions: PMC22.1-1981 (See Course Handout 6) contains SAMA instrumentation


Work Aid 1D: API-RP-551, Section 5
Directions: API-RP-551 (See Course Handout 5) will contain common practices for
installation of devices to measure, display, transmit, and control temperature in
refinery process services. Use these standards to perform Exercise 1.

Work Aid 1E: SAES-J-004
Directions: SAES-J-004 (See Course Handout 4) contains Saudi Aramco instrumentation



PRESSURE MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENT TYPES AND
LOCATIONS MEET INSTRUMENTATION REQUIREMENTS.
Work Aid 2A: P&ID
Exercise 2.
Work Aid 2B: ANSI/ISA-S5.1-1984
Directions: ANSI/ISA-S5.1-1984 (See Course Handout 4) contains ISA instrumentation


Work Aid 2E: SAES-J-004)



FLOW MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENT TYPES AND
LOCATIONS MEET INSTRUMENTATION REQUIREMENTS.
Work Aid 3A: P&ID
Exercise 3.
Work Aid 3B: ANSI/ISA-S5.1-1984 (See Course Handout 4)
Directions: ANSI/ISA-S5.1-1984 (See Course Handout 4) contains ISA instrumentation


Work Aid 3E: SAES-J-004


WORK AID 4: DETERMINE THE CHARACTERIZATION THAT PRODUCES A

LINEAR RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE FINAL CONTROL
ELEMENT AND MEASURED PROCESS VARIABLE.
Linear
Relationship
Flow vs Final
Element Characterization
Curve required to Produce
a Linear Relationship
between the Final
Flow Control Element and
Measured Process
Variable
Characterization
Solution
33728
Final (Output) Element

WORK AID 5: RESOURCES USED TO CALCULATE DRUM LEVEL
Work Aid 5A: Drum Operating Parameters
Directions: Use the following drum operating parameters to perform Exercise 5.

H = 60 "
K = -4"
Desired PV Range: -15 to 0 to +15 "
Normal Drum Pressure: 800 PSIG
Ambient Temperature at the Drum: 125 degF
hmin = 11 "
hmax = 41"
Work Aid 5B: SAES-J-602, Section 5
Directions: SAES-J-602 (See Course Handout 1) contains feedwater system design

information. Use these standards to perform Exercise 5.
Work Aid 5C: ANSI/ISA S77.42
Directions: ANSI/ISA s77.42 (See Course Handout 4) contains feedwater system design
information. Use these standards to perform Exercise 5.
Work Aid 5D: Procedure to Calculate Drum Level
Directions: Use Procedure to Calculate Drum Level to perform Exercise 5.

GLOSSARY
attemperator A device used to reduce and control the temperature of

superheated steam.
balloon A round, oval, or polygonal flag used to identify an instrument
or function.
computing device A device or function that performs calculations and/or logic
operations.
conductivity The measure of the ability of a solution to carry an electric
current.
controller A device that regulates a controlled variable in a specific manner
by varying its output.
converter A device that receives information in one form of an instrument
signal and transmits an output signal in another form.
gage glass A device that indicates boiler water level.
identification A combination of letters and/or numbers used to designate an
individual instrument or loop.
instrument A device that measures and/or controls a variable.
ISA Instrument Society of America.
loop A combination of one or more instruments or control functions
arranged so that signals pass from one to another to measure
and/or control a process variable.
P&ID Piping and Instrumentation Diagram.
relay A device that passes on information in an unchanged or partially
modified form.
SAMA Scientific Apparatus Manufacturer’s Association.
symbol Any shaped or pictorial representation with or without
identification letters and numbers.

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Determining The Suitability Of Boiler

Chapter : Instrumentations For additional information on this subject, contact

P&ID AND LOGIC DRAWING SYMBOLOGY AND TERMINOLOGY........................... 2

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Skin Temperature Elements......................................................................................16

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

DETERMINING THE CHARACTERIZATION THAT PRODUCES A LINEAR

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Work Aid 3A: P&ID ................................................................................................45

WORK AID 5: RESOURCES USED TO CALCULATE DRUM LEVEL...........................47

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

The sections of this module include:

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

P&ID AND LOGIC DRAWING SYMBOLOGY AND TERMINOLOGY

ISA Symbology and Terminology

ISA Identification Letters

ISA Function Blocks

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 2

ISA Line and Instrument/Function Symbols

On page 24 of ANSI/ISA-S5.1-1984 is a drawing of ISA instrument line symbols. On pages 25-

Figure 1. Typical ISA Symbolism for a Simple Flow Control Loop

SAMA Symbology and Terminology

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

SAMA Enclosure Symbols

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 4

SAMA versus ISA Simple Control Loop

Figure 2. Typical SAMA Symbolism for a Simple Flow Control Loop

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 5

Figure 3. Typical SAMA Symbolism and Terminology for Detailed Diagrams

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 6

Saudi Aramco Instrument Symbols and Identification

Loop Identification Number

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 7

Symbols and Balloons

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 8

Simple Control Loop

Figure 4. Typical Saudi Aramco Symbolism for a Typical Control Loop

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 9

DETERMINING WHETHER PRIMARY TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

Flue Gas Temperature Elements

Figure 5. Flue Gas Temperature

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 10

Types and Locations

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 11

Steam Temperature Control Loops

Attemparator High Pressure SH Steam Header

Figure 6. Steam Temperature Control

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 12

Types and Locations of Primary Temperature Measurement Elements

Steam temperature is measured with a thermocouple which measures steam temperatures up to

Control Loop Instrumentation Requirements as per API-RP-551, Section 5

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 13

Figure 7. Sample Problem, Steam Temperature Control

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 14

Figure 8. Boiler Feedwater Temperature

Types and Locations

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 15

Skin Temperature Elements

Insulation Fire Brick

Figure 9. Skin Temperature

Types and Locations

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 16