EEX10203 Calculating Electrical Circuit Parameters PDF

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Calculating Electrical Circuit Parameters
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File Reference: EEX10203 W.A. Roussel on 874-1320
Engineering Encyclopedia Electrical
CONTENTS PAGE
EFFECTS OF FREQUENCY ON ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT ELEMENTS 1
Introduction 1
Time Domain Versus Frequency Domain Representation 1
Resistor 2
Inductor 3
Capacitor 4
Circuit Analysis and Representation of Circuit Elements 5
Representation as Complex Impedance (Resistance and Reactance) 5
Representation as Phasors (Voltage and Current) 7
CALCULATING SINGLE-PHASE POWER LOADS 9
Single-Phase Power Quantities 9
Complex Power (S) 9
Apparent Power (S) 9
Real Power (P) 9
Reactive Power (Q) 9
Power Factor (pf) 9
Relationships 10
Voltage and Current 10
Impedance Triangle 10
Power Triangle 10
Summary 12
Power Triangle in Circuit Analysis of Two-Wire Loads 14

Three-Wire Loads 17
Advantages 17
Balanced Loads 18
Unbalanced Loads 18
CALCULATING THREE-PHASE POWER LOADS 21
Introduction 21
Balanced Delta-Connected Loads 22
Relationships 22
Power Formulas 23
Balanced Wye-Connected Loads 24
Relationships 24
Power Formulas 25
Summary 26
Unbalanced Delta-Connected Loads 29
Per-Phase Analysis 29
Graphical Analysis 30
Unbalanced Wye-Connected Loads 31
Per-Phase Analysis 31
Graphical Analysis 32
WORK AID
WORK AID 1: PROCEDURES TO CALCULATE SINGLE-PHASE POWER

LOADS 33
Work Aid 1A: Procedures for Single-Phase Two-Wire Load Calculations 33
Work Aid 1B: Procedures for Single-Phase Three-Wire Load Calculations 36

WORK AID 2: PROCEDURES TO CALCULATE THREE-PHASE POWER

LOADS 37
Work Aid 2A: Procedures for Balanced Delta-Connected Load Calculations 37
Work Aid 2B: Procedures for Balanced Wye-Connected Load Calculations 40
Work Aid 2C: Procedures for Unbalanced Delta-Connected Load Calculations 43
Work Aid 2D: Procedures for Unbalanced Wye-Connected Load Calculations 46
ADDENDUM 50
CALCULATING COMPLEX NUMBERS 51
Number Systems 51
Real Numbers 51
Imaginary Numbers 51
Complex Numbers 52
Forms of Complex Numbers 52
Rectangular Form 52
Polar or Steinmetz Form 53
Trigonometric Form 53
Exponential Form 54
Conjugate 54
Summary 54
Mathematical Operations 55
Sum and Difference 55
Multiplication and Division 57

CALCULATING ELECTRICAL SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUIT 58

PARAMETERS
Series Circuits 58
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law 58
Formulas 58
Phasor Diagrams 59
Parallel Circuits 62
Kirchhoff’s Current Law 62
Formulas 63
Phasor Diagrams 63
WORK AID 3: PROCEDURES USED TO CALCULATE COMPLEX

NUMBERS 65
Work Aid 3A: Procedures Used to Add or Subtract Complex Numbers in

Rectangular Form 65
Work Aid 3B: Procedures Used to Add or Subtract Complex Numbers

Vectorially 66
Work Aid 3C: Procedures Used to Multiply or Divide Complex Numbers

in Polar Form 68
Work Aid 3D: Procedures Used to Multiply or Divide Complex Numbers in

Rectangular Form 68
WORK AID 4: PROCEDURES USED TO CALCULATE ELECTRICAL

SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUIT PARAMETERS 69
Work Aid 4A: Procedures for Series Circuit Calculations 69
Work Aid 4B: Procedures for Parallel Circuit Calculations 71
GLOSSARY 72

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Purely Resistive Circuit 2
Figure 2. Purely Inductive Circuit 3
Figure 3. Purely Capacitive Circuit 4
Figure 4. Complex Impedance 5
Figure 5. Impedance Triangle 6
Figure 6. Time Domain vs. Frequency Domain 7
Figure 7. Example A Answer 8
Figure 8. Power Relationships for Lagging Power Factors 11
Figure 9. Example B Answer 13
Figure 10. Example C Circuit Diagram 14
Figure 11. Example C Power Triangle 16
Figure 12. Balanced Loads 17
Figure 13. Example D Circuit Diagram 19
Figure 14. Three-Phase Power 21
Figure 15. Delta-Connected Loads 22
Figure 16. Power Formulas (Delta-Connected Loads) 23
Figure 17. Wye-Connected Loads 24
Figure 18. Power Formulas (Wye-Connected Loads) 25
Figure 19. Example F Circuit Diagram 26
Figure 20. Example F Power Triangle 27
Figure 21. Unbalanced Delta-Connected Loads 29
Figure 22. Phasor Diagram (Unbalanced Delta-Connected Load) 30

Figure 23. Unbalanced Wye-Connected Loads 31
Figure 24. Phasor Diagram (Unbalanced Wye-Connected Load) 32
Figure 26. Single-Phase Circuit Diagram (Parallel Loads) 33
Figure 27. Single-Phase Circuit Diagram (Series Loads) 34
Figure 28. Single-Phase Power Triangle 35
Figure 29. Single-Phase Three-Wire Circuit Diagram 36
Figure 30. Balanced Delta Load Circuit Diagram 37
Figure 31. Balanced Delta Load Phasor Diagram 38
Figure 32. Three-Phase Power Triangle (Balanced Delta Loads) 39
Figure 33. Balanced Wye Load Circuit Diagram 40
Figure 34. Balanced Wye Load Phasor Diagram 41
Figure 35. Three-Phase Power Triangle (Balanced Wye Loads) 42
Figure 36. Unbalanced Delta Circuit Diagram 43
Figure 37. Unbalanced Delta Load Phasor Diagram 44
Figure 38. Power Triangle (Unbalanced Delta) 45
Figure 39. Unbalanced Wye-Connected Load Circuit Diagram 46
Figure 40. Unbalanced Wye Load Phasor Diagram 47
Figure 41. Power Triangle (Unbalanced Wye) 48
Figure 42. Evaluation Sheet One-Line Diagram 49
Figure 43. Real Number Line 51
Figure 44. Imaginary Number Line 51
Figure 45. Rectangular Form of a Complex Number 52
Figure 46. Polar Form of a Complex Number 53

Figure 47. Example I Answer 56
Figure 48. Series Circuit 58
Figure 49. Example L Answer 59
Figure 50. Example M Circuit Diagram 60
Figure 51. Example M Answer 61
Figure 52. Parallel Circuit 62
Figure 53. Example O Circuit Diagram 63
Figure 55. Vectorial Addition and Subtraction (Triangle Method) 66
Figure 56. Vectorial Addition and Subtraction (Parallelogram Method) 67
Figure 57. Series Circuit Diagram 69
Figure 58. Parallel Circuit Diagram 71

EFFECTS OF FREQUENCY ON ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
Introduction
The term alternating current (AC) is defined as a current that periodically changes its direction
and magnitude. The method by which the current changes continuously in the form of a sine
wave is built into the design of an AC generator. The number of times a voltage goes through
its cycle of change is defined as the frequency (f) of the system measured in cycles per second
(cps) or hertz (Hz). The frequency of power systems in the United States is 60 Hz whereas
most European countries use 50 Hz. Saudi Aramco systems are all 60 Hz.
Time Domain Versus Frequency Domain Representation
In the analysis of an ac circuit, voltage and current phasors are used with resistances and
reactances in much the same way that voltages and currents are used with resistances in the
analysis of a dc circuit. The original ac circuit, called a time-domain circuit, is transformed
into a frequency-domain circuit that has phasors instead of sinusoidal voltages and currents,
and that has reactances instead of inductances and capacitances. Resistances remain
unchanged. The frequency-domain circuit is the circuit that is actually analyzed. Frequency
domain analysis has the advantage that the resistances and reactances have the same ohmic
unit and therefore combine similarly to the way that resistors combine in a dc circuit analysis.
Also, the analysis of the frequency-domain circuit requires no calculus, but only complex
algebra. Note: The Addendum provides review procedures to calculate the effects of
frequency on circuit elements.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

Resistor
The current and voltage are in phase in a purely resistive circuit as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Purely Resistive Circuit

Inductor
The current lags the voltage by /2 radians or 90 degrees in a purely inductive circuit as shown
in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Purely Inductive Circuit

Capacitor
The current leads the voltage by /2 radians or 90 degrees in a purely capacitive circuit as
shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Purely Capacitive Circuit

Circuit Analysis and Representation of Circuit Elements
Representation as Complex Impedance (Resistance and Reactance)
In general, impedance is a complex number of the form Z = R+ j X, where R (resistance) is

the real part and X (reactance) the imaginary part.
The inductive reactance (XL) in a coil of wire measured in ohms () is equal to 2 times the
frequency (f) times the inductance (L) of the coil measured in Henries (H) or XL = 2fL. The
capacitive reactance (XC) of a capacitor measured in ohms () is equal to the reciprocal of 2
times the frequency (f) times the capacitance measured in farads (F) or XC = 1/2fC.
Since impedance is a complex number it may be represented on the complex number plane.
However, since resistance is never negative, only the first and fourth quadrants are required.
The resistance (R) is located on the positive real axis, inductive reactance (XL) is located on
the positive imaginary axis, and capacitive reactance (XC) is located on the negative
imaginary axis as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4. Complex Impedance

An impedance triangle is often used as a graphical representation of impedance. The

impedance triangle consists of vectors representing resistance (R) and reactance (+ jX) as
shown in Figure 5. The vector Z is the sum of the two vectors R and jX.
Figure 5. Impedance Triangle

Representation as Phasors (Voltage and Current)
By definition, a phasor is a complex number associated with a phase-shifted sine wave, such
that if the phasor is in polar form (Figure 6a), (e.g., V or I), its magnitude (V, I) is the rms
(effective) value of the voltage or current and its angle is the phase angle of the phase-shifted
sine wave (Figure 6b).
Figure 6. Time Domain vs. Frequency Domain

The complex form of Ohm’s Law is Z = V/I where Z, V, and I are each complex numbers
and must be treated as such.
Example A: Draw the impedance triangle and the phasor diagram given the following:
V = 106450 V, I = 2.12-150 A
Answer: Impedance Triangle: See Figure 7a.
Phasor Diagram: See Figure 7b.
Figure 7. Example A Answer

CALCULATING SINGLE-PHASE POWER LOADS
Single-Phase Power Quantities
Complex Power (S)
The result of the product VI* is a complex number called the complex power S. Its real part
(VI cos θ) equals the real power P and its reactive (imaginary) part (VI sin θ) equals the
reactive power Q.
Apparent Power (S)
Apparent power (S) is the product of voltage and current (S = VI). The units of apparent
power are volt-amperes (VA) or kilovolt-amperes (KVA). Apparent power is also the
absolute value of VI* (S = |VI*|).
Real Power (P)
Real power (P) is the product of voltage, current and cos (P = VI cos ). The units of real
power are watts (W) or kilowatts (kW). Real power is also the real part of VI*.
Reactive Power (Q)
Reactive power (Q) is the product of voltage, current and sin (Q = VI sin ). The units of
reactive power are vars (VARS) or kilovars (kVAR). Reactive power is also the reactive
(imaginary) part of VI*.
Power Factor (pf)
The ratio of real power (P) to the apparent power (S) of a circuit is called the power factor (pf
= cos θ = P/S).

Relationships
Voltage and Current
In the previous Information Sheet, we learned that the current and voltage are in phase in a
purely resistive circuit; the current lags the voltage by 90 degrees in a purely inductive circuit;
and the current leads the voltage by 90 degrees in a purely capacitive circuit. However,
industrial power system circuits are not purely resistance, inductance, or capacitance but a
combination. And, in fact, most industrial circuits consist of resistance (R) and inductive
reactance (jXL). In most industrial circuits the current lags the voltage by an angle theta ()
and the cosine of theta (cos ) is called the power factor (p.f.) of the circuit. If the current lags
the voltage, the power factor is called a lagging power factor. If the current leads the voltage,
the power factor is called a leading power factor. Figure 8a shows the realtionship between
the voltage and current in a lagging p.f. circuit.
Impedance Triangle
The previous Information Sheet showed that the impedance triangle is a graphical
representation of the complex impedance Z = R + jX. The complex impedance is also the
graphical solution to Ohm’s Law (Z = V/I) as shown in Figure 8b.
Power Triangle
The equations of the apparent, real, and average power can be drawn graphically on a right
triangle called the power triangle as shown in Figure 8c. The horizontal leg of the triangle
equals P = VI cos , the vertical leg of the right triangle equals Q = VI sin , and the hypotenuse
of the right triangle equals
2 2 1/2
S = VI = (P + Q ) . Note: By convention, if the power factor of the circuit is lagging
(inductive circuit), the power triangle is shown in the first quadrant.

Figure 8. Power Relationships for Lagging Power Factors

Summary
A summary of the equations that can be used to determine the individual components (legs) of
the power triangle are:
• Apparent Power (S) = VI = I2Z = VZ2/Z = |VI*|
• Real Power (P) = VI cos = I2R = VR2/R = Re VI*
• Reactive Power (Q) = VI sin = I2X = V2X/X = Im VI*
Example B: Calculate I, Z, and the power triangle in a series circuit where

R = 6 , X = 5 , and V = 120 V. Note: Use Work Aid 1A procedures.
Answer: a. Sketch the circuit diagram (see Figure 9a).
b. Calculate Z, cos , and sin :
Z = R + jX = 6 + j5 = 7.8139.80
cos = R/Z = 6/7.81 = 0.768 (lagging) = 76.8% (lagging)
sin = X/Z = 5/7.81 = .640
c. Sketch the impedance diagram (see Figure 9b).
d. Calculate I:
I = E/Z = (12000)/(7.8139.80) = 15.4-39.80 A
e. Sketch the V and I phasor relationships (see Figure 9c).
f. Calculate the power triangle (see Figure 9d).
S= VI = (120)(15.4) = 1.85 kVA
= I2Z = (15.4)2(7.81) = 1.85 kVA
P = VI cos = (1.85)(.768) = 1.42 kW
P = I2R = (15.4)2(6) = 1.42 kW
Q = VI sin = (1.85)(.640) = 1.18 kVAR
Q = I2X = (15.4)2(5) = 1.18 kVAR

Figure 9. Example B Answer

Power Triangle in Circuit Analysis of Two-Wire Loads
When two or more loads are purely resistive (kW), the power factors are unity and the total
real power (P) is simply the sum of the individual loads (kW1 + kW2 +... + kWn). In this case
the total apparent power (S) is also equal to the total real power and the reactive power (Q) is
zero. The current in this case is also easily calculated by dividing each kW load or the total
load by the system voltage. Note: Work Aid 1A has been developed to teach circuit analysis
of two-wire loads.
When two or more loads have different power factors, the analysis of the circuit is very
different. Each of these loads have different kVA and kVAR ratings as well. Since the kVA
of each of the loads have different phase angles, we cannot add the load kVAs algebraically.
The load kWs and kVARs can be added directly, the load kVAs must be added as complex
numbers or vectorially. The procedures are quite simple through use of power triangles for
each of the individual loads. We add the horizontal kW component and the vertical kVAR
components to form a new (resultant) power triangle. The hypotenuse of this new triangle is
the total kVA load and the power factor of the entire system is then calculated from the new
power triangle relationships.
Example C: Given the single-phase circuit diagram shown in Figure 10, determine I1, I2,
and
the power triangle. Note: Use Work Aid 1A procedures.
Figure 10. Example C Circuit Diagram

Answer: a. I1 = 15000/(230 x 1) = 65.2 A
1= cos-1 1.0 = 00, sin 1 = 0
b. I2 = 25000/230 = 108.7 A
2 = cos-1 0.8 = -36.90, sin 1 = -0.6
c. IT = I1 + I2 = 65.2 + j0 + 87.0 - j65.2
= 152.2 - j65.2 A = 165.6-23.20 A
d. P1 = 15 kW, Q1 = 0 kVAR
e. P2 = (25 X .8) = 20 kW, Q2 = (25 X .6) = 15 kVAR
f. PT = 15 + 20 = 35 kW, QT = (0 + 15) = 15 kVAR
ST = (352 + 152)1/2 = 38.1 kVA,
cos T = cos 23.20 = 91.9% (lagging)
g. Sketch the power triangles (see Figure 11).
h. Check: IT = S/V = 38100/230 = 165.6 A
PT = S cos θ = (38100 x .919) = 35 kW
QT = S sin θ = (38100 x .394) = 15 kVAR

Figure 11. Example C Power Triangle

Three-Wire Loads
Note: Work Aid 1B has been developed to teach circuit analysis of three-wire loads.
Advantages
Figure 12 shows a three-wire connected load. The advantages of this connection are that the
higher the voltage (2 x 115V) the lower the current
2 2
(50% lower) and the line losses (P = I R) are also reduced by 75% (1.0 - 0.5 ). Two other
advantages are that only three wires are needed to carry both loads and two voltages are
available (115 and 230 V).
Figure 12. Balanced Loads

Balanced Loads
The advantages that were discussed above assumed that the loads were balanced as shown in
Figure 12. The neutral wire, under balanced conditions, carries no current, which is
calculated as follows:
• I1 = 10000/115 = 87 A, I2 = 10000/115 = 87 A
• I1 = IN + I2, IN = I1 - I2 = 87 - 87 = 0
Note: The National Electric Code specifies that the neutral wire cannot be switched or fused.
Unbalanced Loads
When the loads are unbalanced the neutral wire will carry the unbalanced current. If the
neutral wire was accidentally opened, the smaller load (higher resistance) would have a higher
voltage, and the larger load (smaller resistance) would have a lower voltage. The high
voltage could damage the equipment and if the low voltage was applied across the terminals
of the motor, the motor would draw excessive current.

Example D: Given the single-phase, three-wire circuit diagram shown in Figure 13,
calculate IA, IB, and IN. Note: Use Work Aid 1B procedures.
Figure 13. Example D Circuit Diagram
Answer: IA = 10000/120 = 83.33 A = 83.33 + j0
IB = 15000/120 = 125-36.90 A = 100 - j75 A
IN = IA - IB = 83.33 - 100 + j75 = -16.67 + j75 A = 76.8102.50 A

Example E: Referring to Example D (Figure 13), determine the voltages across the loads if
the neutral conductor is accidentally opened.
Answer: Z1 = 1202/10000 = 1.44 + j0
Z2 = 1202/15000 = .9636.90 = .768 + j.576
ZT = 2.208 + j.576 = 2.28214.620 Ω
IT = (24000)/(2.28214.620) = 105.2-14.620 A
V1 = IZ1 = (105.2)(1.44)-14.620 = 151.5-14.620 V = 146.6 - j38.24 V
V2 = IZ2 = (105.2)(.96)-14.620 + 36.90 = 10122.280 V
= 93.4 + j38.24 V
VT = (146.6 + 93.4) + j(38.24 - 38.24) = 240 + j0 = 240 V

CALCULATING THREE-PHASE POWER LOADS
Note: Work Aid 2 has been developed to teach the Participant procedures to calculate three-
phase power loads.
Introduction
A three-phase system has three sources of power with a certain time interval between each
source. It is very easy to generate three-phase voltages by connecting three windings 120
degrees apart on a generator. Figure 14 shows a three-phase system in an abc phase rotation
sequence.
Three wires of a three-phase system can provide 173% ( 3 ) more power than two wires of a
single-phase system. When both single-phase and three-phase loads are supplied from the
same power supply, we use a three-phase, four-wire system (3, 4-Wire) called a wye (Y)
connection. If we only have three-phase loads, we use a three-phase, three wire system (3, 3-
Wire) called a delta () connection.
Figure 14. Three-Phase Power

Balanced Delta-Connected Loads
Relationships
For a balanced delta-connected load the line and phase voltages are equal (VL = V) and the
line current is 1.732 ( 3 ) times greater than the phase current (IL = 3 I) as shown in Figure
15.
Figure 15. Delta-Connected Loads

Power Formulas
In a system with balanced three-phase delta loads, we have very similar power relationships
as with single-phase loads, except three-phase power equals three times single-phase power
(P3 = 3P) as shown in Figure 16. Note: Work Aid 2A contains procedures to calculate
balanced three-phase delta-connected loads.
Figure 16. Power Formulas (Delta-Connected Loads)

Balanced Wye-Connected Loads
Relationships
For a balanced wye-connected load, the phase and line currents are equal (IL = I), the neutral
current is zero (IN = 0), and the line voltage is 1.732 ( 3 ) times greater than the phase voltage
(VL = 3 V) as shown in Figure 17.
Figure 17. Wye-Connected Loads

Power Formulas
In a system with balanced three-phase wye-connected loads, we again have similar power
relationships as with single-phase loads, except three-phase power equals three times single-
phase power (P3 = 3P) as shown in Figure 18. Note: Work Aid 2B provides procedures to
calculate balanced wye-connected loads.
Figure 18. Power Formulas (Wye-Connected Loads)

Summary
We can compare the formulas in Figures 16b and 18b to conclude that the three-phase power
formulas are the same regardless of the connected loads (delta or wye). We can summarize
the three-phase balanced-load power formulas as follows:
• S= 3 VI
• P= 3 VI cos = S cos
• Q= 3 VI sin = S sin
Note: The convention is to assume that all power is three-phase power and that all quantities
are line quantities unless otherwise stated.
Example F: A three-phase, 3 kW heater and a 10 hp motor with an efficiency (η) of 80%

and a power factor of 85% are served from the same 480 volt wye-connected
system. Find IL, P3, Q3, S3 and the power factor of the combined loads. Note:
Use Work Aid 2B procedures.
Answer: a. Draw a per phase analysis circuit diagram (Figure 19).
Figure 19. Example F Circuit Diagram

3.0
b. IH = 3 x .48 x 1.0 = 3.61 A @ p.f. = 1.0
hpout 10 hp
hp in = = = 12.5 hp
η .8
kW
P = .746 x 12.5 hp = 9.325 kW
hp
9.325
IM = = 13. 20 A @ pf = .85 lagging
3 x .48 x .85
= 13.20 (cos(-31.7° ) + j sin (-31.7 ° )) = 11.22 - j6.94 A
c. IL= IH + IM = 3.61 + 11.22 - j6.94
= 14.83 - j6.94 A = 16.37-25.10 A
d. cos = p.f. = cos -25.10 = .906 = 90.6% lagging
P = 3 EI cos θ = 3 x .48 x 16.37 x . 906 = 12.3 kW
Check: PM + PH = 9.3 kW + 3.0 kW = 12.3 kW
S = 3 EI = 3 x .48 x 16. 37 = 13. 6 kVA

Q = 3 EI sin θ = 3 x .48 x 16. 37 x .424 = 5.77 kVAR

e. Sketch the power triangle (see Figure 20).
Figure 20. Example F Power Triangle

Unbalanced Delta-Connected Loads
Note: Work Aid 2C has been developed to teach circuit analysis of three-phase unbalanced
delta-connected loads.
Per-Phase Analysis
Solving unbalanced delta-connected load circuits is more difficult than solving balanced
circuits. The analysis consists of calculating the phase current magnitudes and then applying
Kirchhoff’s Current Law to obtain the individual line currents (see Figure 21).
Figure 21. Unbalanced Delta-Connected Loads

Graphical Analysis
In an unbalanced delta-connected load the line currents (IA, IB, IC) will not be equal nor will
there be 1200 phase separation as with balanced loads. Figure 22 shows the phasor diagram
(graphical analysis) of a typical unbalanced delta-connected load.
Figure 22. Phasor Diagram (Unbalanced Delta-Connected Load)

Unbalanced Wye-Connected Loads
Note: Work Aid 2D has been developed to teach circuit analysis of three-phase, four-wire,
wye-connected loads.
Per-Phase Analysis
Solving unbalanced four-wire, wye-connected load circuits is also more difficult than under
balanced circuit conditions. Under unbalanced conditions the voltages are constant across
each different load impedance, and the neutral conductor will carry the load unbalance as
shown in Figure 23.
Figure 23. Unbalanced Wye-Connected Loads

Graphical Analysis
In unbalanced wye-connected loads, as with unbalanced delta-connected loads, the line

currents (IA, IB, IC) will not be equal nor will there be a 1200 degree phase separation. Figure
24 shows the phasor diagram of a typical unbalanced wye-connected load.
Figure 24. Phasor Diagram (Unbalanced Wye-Connected Load)

WORK AID 1: PROCEDURES TO CALCULATE SINGLE-PHASE POWER LOADS
Work Aid 1A: Procedures for Single-Phase Two-Wire Load Calculations
1a. Sketch and label a circuit diagram (see Figure 26) for parallel connected loads.
Figure 26. Single-Phase Circuit Diagram (Parallel Loads)
1b. Calculate I1, I2,...,IN
(1) I = kVA/kV for a kVA rated load where kVA = I2Z
(2) I = kW/(kV x cos ) for a kW rated load where kW = I2R
(3) I = kVAR/(kV x sin ) for a kVAR rated load where kVAR = I2X
(4) IM = (hp x .746 kW/hp)/(kV x eff x cos ) for a motor load or
(5) IM = (hp x .746 kW/hp)/kV (assumes hp ∪ kVA)
1c. Calculate IT: IT = I1 + I2 +...+ IN
1d. Calculate ST, PT, QT, p.f.:
ST = VIT, PT = ST cos T, QT = ST sin T, cos T = p.f. = PT/ST

2a. Sketch and label a circuit diagram (Figure 27) for series connected loads.
Figure 27. Single-Phase Circuit Diagram (Series Loads)
2b. Calculate ST, PT, QT, p.f.:
(1) PT = kW1 + kW2 + ... + kWN where kWN = VRN2/RN
(2) QT = kVAR1 + kVAR2 + ... + kVARN where kVARN = VXN2/XN
(3) ST = (PT2 + QT2)1/2 = V2/ZT where ZT = Z1 + Z2 + ... + ZN
(4) p.f. = PT/ST
2c. Calculate I:
(1) I = ST/kV
(2) I = PT/(kV x p.f.)
(3) I = QT (kV x sin θ)

3. Sketch the power triangle (see Figure 28).
Figure 28. Single-Phase Power Triangle

Work Aid 1B: Procedures for Single-Phase Three-Wire Load Calculations
1. Sketch and label a circuit diagram (see Figure 29).
Figure 29. Single-Phase Three-Wire Circuit Diagram
2. Calculate |IA|: |IA| = PA/V cos = SA/V = QA/V sin θ
3. Calculate |IB|: |IB| = PB/V cos = SB/V = QB/V sin θ
4. Calculate IN: IN = IAA + IBB
5. Calculate V1 and V2 if the neutral wire is disconnected with unbalanced loads: Use Work
Aid 1A procedures because the circuit is a series circuit if the neutral accidentally opens.

WORK AID 2: PROCEDURES TO CALCULATE THREE-PHASE POWER LOADS
Work Aid 2A: Procedures for Balanced Delta-Connected Load Calculations
1. Draw and label the circuit diagram (Figure 30).
Figure 30. Balanced Delta Load Circuit Diagram
2. Calculate the phase currents.
IAB = VAB/Z, IBC = IAB2400, ICA = IAB1200
3. Calculate the line currents.
IA = IAB - ICA, IB = IBC - IAB, IC = ICA - IBC

4. Sketch the phasor diagram (see Figure 31).
Figure 31. Balanced Delta Load Phasor Diagram

5. Calculate ST, PT, VT, pf:
|ST| = 3 VAB IA = 3 VAB IAB
|PT| = 3 VAB IA cos = ST cos = 3 VAB IAB cos
|QT| = 3 VAB IA sin = ST sin = 3 VAB IAB sin
p.f. = cos
Figure 32. Three-Phase Power Triangle (Balanced Delta Loads)

Work Aid 2B: Procedures for Balanced Wye-Connected Load Calculations
1. Draw and label the circuit diagram (see Figure 33).
Figure 33. Balanced Wye Load Circuit Diagram
2. Calculate the phase and line currents.
IA = IAN = VAN/Z, IB = IBN = IA2400, IC = ICN = IA1200
3. Calculate the phase voltages.
VAB = VAN - VBN, VBC = VBN - VCN, VCA = VCN - VAN

4. Sketch the phasor diagram (see Figure 34).
Figure 34. Balanced Wye Load Phasor Diagram

5. Calculate ST, PT, VT, pf:
|ST| = 3 VAB IA = 3 VAN IAN
|PT| = 3 VAB IA cos = ST cos = 3 VAN IAN cos
|QT| = 3 VAB IA sin = ST sin = 3 VAN IAN sin
p.f. = cos
Figure 35. Three-Phase Power Triangle (Balanced Wye Loads)

Work Aid 2C: Procedures for Unbalanced Delta-Connected Load Calculations
1. Sketch and label the circuit diagram (see Figure 36).
Figure 36. Unbalanced Delta Circuit Diagram
2. Calculate the phase currents.
IAB = VAB/Z1, IBC = VBC/Z2, ICA = VCA/Z3
IA = IAB - ICA, IB = IBC - IAB, IC = ICA - IBC

4. Draw the phasor diagram (see Figure 37).
Figure 37. Unbalanced Delta Load Phasor Diagram

5. Calculate ST, PT, QT, pf
a.|PT| = PAB + PBC + PCA = IAB2R1 + IBC2R3 + ICA2R2
b. |QT| = QAB + QBC + QCA = IAB2 X1 + IBC2X3 + ICA2X2
c.|ST| = (PT2 + QT2)1/2
d. p.f. = cos = cos (tan-1 QT/PT)
Figure 38. Power Triangle (Unbalanced Delta)

Work Aid 2D: Procedures for Unbalanced Wye-Connected Load Calculations
1. Sketch and label the circuit diagram (see Figure 39).
Figure 39. Unbalanced Wye-Connected Load Circuit Diagram
IA = VAN/Z1, IB = VBN/Z2, IC = VCN/Z3
3. Calculate the neutral current.
IN = -(IA + IB + IC)

4. Draw the phasor diagram (see Figure 40).
Figure 40. Unbalanced Wye Load Phasor Diagram

5. Calculate ST, PT, QT, p.f.:
a.|PT| = PAN + PBN + PCN = IAN2R1 + IBN2R2 + ICN2R3
b. |QT| = QAN + QBN + QCN = IAN2X1 + IBN2X2 + ICN2X3
c.|ST| = (PT2 + QT2)1/2
d. p.f. = cos = cos (tan-1 QT/PT)
Figure 41. Power Triangle (Unbalanced Wye)

Using Work Aids 1 and 2 and the following one-line diagram (Figure 42), calculate the
transformer’s rated primary and secondary full load currents, the motor’s full load current, the
lighting panelboard’s full load current, and the heater’s full load current. Assume 1 hp = 1
kVA @ 0.80 p.f. for the motor. Calculate IL = IM + IH + IL, S, P, Q, and the power factor of
the combined loads. Draw the power triangle.
Figure 42. Evaluation Sheet One-Line Diagram

ADDENDUM
This Addendum was prepared as outside-class review material for the Participant and consist
of the following topics:
• An Information Sheet titled “Calculating Complex Numbers.”
• An Information Sheet titled “Calculating Electrical Circuit Parameters.”
• An Exercise (Exercise 3) titled “Calculate Complex Numbers.”
• An Exercise (Exercise 4) titled “Calculate Electrical Series and Parallel Circuit

Parameters.”
• A Work Aid (Work Aid 3) titled “Procedures Used to Calculate Complex

Numbers.”
• A Work Aid (Work Aid 4) titled “Procedures Used to Calculate Electrical

Series and Parallel Circuit Parameters.”

CALCULATING COMPLEX NUMBERS
Number Systems
For the purposes of this Addendum, the number systems consist of real numbers, imaginary
numbers, and complex numbers.
Real Numbers
The real number system consists of the rational and irrational numbers and it can be
represented by points on a straight line called the real number line (Figure 43). All
mathematical operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) can be performed
with any of the real numbers.
Figure 43. Real Number Line
Imaginary Numbers
The square root of a negative number is called an imaginary number (e.g., −5, -3 ).
Imaginary numbers can also be represented on a straight line called the imaginary number line
(Figure 44). For mathematical purposes the letter j is designated as the square root of -1 (j =
−1). In electrical power systems analysis, the letter j is called an operator.
Figure 44. Imaginary Number Line

Imaginary numbers can also be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided as shown in the
following examples.
• j1 + j2 = j3, j3 - j2 = j1
• j x j = j2 = −1 x −1 = -1, j4/j2 = j2
Complex Numbers
A compex number c is a number of the form a + jb where “a and b” are real numbers and “j”
is the imaginary number −1 . Mathematical operations involving complex numbers are not
as straightforward as working with just real or complex numbers.
Forms of Complex Numbers
Rectangular Form
The rectangular form is the most common representation of a complex number. A complex
number (c) in rectangular form can be represented on a reference axis, where the horizontal
axis represents the real part (a) and the vertical axis represents the imaginary part (jb). Figure
45 is a plot of four complex numbers in rectangular form.
Figure 45. Rectangular Form of a Complex Number

Polar or Steinmetz Form
The polar or Steinmetz form of a complex number is of the form c0, where c is the magnitude
[|c| = (a2 + b2)1/2] of the complex number and the angle theta () is called the argument ( = tan-1
b/a) of the complex number. Figure 46 is a plot of a complex number (3 + j2) in polar form.
Figure 46. Polar Form of a Complex Number
Trigonometric Form
Referring to Figure 46 and knowledge of trigonometry, a = c cos and b = c sin . This

representation of a complex number is called the trigonometric form. For example:
c = c cos + jc sin
c = 3 + j2 = 3.6 (cos 33.70 + j sin 33.70)

Exponential Form
Euler’s formula, ej = cos + j sin leads to another form of a complex number called the
exponential form and is represented as follows:
c = c(cos + j sin ) = cej
Note: The exponential form is seldom used in electrical power systems analysis.
Conjugate
The conjugate form of a complex number c is labeled as c*, where the asterisk (*) means the
conjugate. To conjugate a complex number in rectangular form, change the sign of the
imaginary component (jb); to conjugate a complex number in polar form change the sign of ;
and to conjugate a number in trigonometric form change the sign of sin . For example:
c = a + jb, c* = a - jb
c = 3 + j2, c* = 3 - j2
c = c+, c* = c-
c = 3.633.70, c* = 3.6-33.70
c = c(cos + j sin ), c* = c(cos - j sin )

c = 3.6(cos 33.70 + j sin 33.70)
c* = 3.6(cos 33.70 - j sin 33.70)
Summary
The three ways of writing a complex number and its conjugate are summarized as follows:
• Rectangular Form: c = a + jb, c* = a - jb
• Polar Form: c = c, c* = c-
• Trigonometric Form: = c(cos + j sin ), c* = c(cos - j sin )

Example G: Referring to Figure 45, c2 = - 4 + j3. What are the conjugate rectangular, polar,
and trigonometric forms of this complex number?
Answer: c2 = -4 + j3, c2* = -4 - j3
|c| = [(-4)2 + 32)1/2] = 5, = tan -1 (3/-4) = 143.10
c2 = 5143.10, c2* = 5-143.10
c2 = 5(cos 143.10+ j sin 143.10)
c2* = 5(cos 143.1 - j sin 143.10)
Mathematical Operations
Note: Work Aid 3 provides procedures to perform mathematical operations involving

complex numbers.
Sum and Difference
Complex numbers can be added and subtracted in either rectangular form (most common
procedure) or vectorially (graphically).
Rectangular Form - The rectangular form of a complex number (a + jb) is the most convenient
form to add or subtract complex numbers. To add or subtract complex numbers, add or
subtract the real parts (a) and the imaginary parts (jb) separately.
Example H: Given c1 = 4 + j3 and c2 = 2 - j1, calculate c1 + c2 and c1 - c2.

Note: Use Work Aid 3A procedures.
Answer: c1 + c2 = (4 + 2) + j(3 - 1) = 6 + j2
c1 - c2 = (4 - 2) + j[3 - (-1)] = 2 + j4
Vectorially - Although not as convenient, complex numbers can be added or subtracted

vectorially. By IEEE definition, a vector quantity is any physical quantity whose
specification involves both magnitude and direction and that obeys the parallelogram law of
addition. A complex number in polar form (c) is often called a vector because it has both
magnitude (c) and an angle (). Complex numbers are added vectorially by graphically
completing the parallelogram.

Example I: Given the same two complex numbers as in Example H, add the two complex
numbers
vectorially. Note: Use Work Aid 3B procedures.
Answer: See Figure 47.
Figure 47. Example I Answer

Multiplication and Division
Polar Form - It is more convenient to multiply and divide complex numbers in polar form (c)
than in rectangular from (a + jb). To multiply two complex numbers, multiply their
magnitudes
(c1 x c2) and add their angles (1 + 2). To divide two complex numbers, divide their
magnitudes (c1/c2) and subtract their angles (1 - 2).
Rectangular Form - Multiplication and division of two complex numbers can also be performed
in rectangular form, although the procedures are much more tedious. The rectangular form
product is found by treating the two complex numbers as binomials. Dividing two complex
numbers in rectangular form is performed by multiplying both the numerator and denominator
by the rectangular form conjugate of the denominator.
Example J: Given c1 = 553.10 and c2 = 10-36.90, find their product and quotient.
Note: Use Work Aid 3C procedures.
Answer: c 1c 2 = (5)(10) (53.10 - 36.90) = 5016.20 or
= 50(cos 16.20 + j sin 16.20) = 48 + j14
c1/c2 = (5/10) (53.10 - (-36.9)0) = 0.5900 or
= 0.5(cos 900 + j sin 900) = 0 + j 0.5
Example K: Referring to Example J, find the product and quotient of the two complex
numbers
in rectangular form. Note: Use Work Aid 3D procedures.
Answer: c1 = 5(cos 53.10 + j sin 53.10) = 3 + j4
c2 = 10(cos -36.90 + j sin -36.90) = 8 - j6
c 1c 2 = (3 + j4)(8- j6) = (3)(8) + (3)(-j6) + (j4)(8) + (j4)(-j6)
= 24 - j18 + j32 - j224 = 48 + j14 = 5016.20
c1/c2 = (3 + j4)(8 + j6)/(8 + j6)(8 + j6)
= (24 + j18 + j32 + j224)/(64 + j48 - j48 - j236)
= j50/100 = j 0.5 = 0.5900

CALCULATING ELECTRICAL SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUIT

PARAMETERS
Series Circuits
Note: Work Aid 4A provides procedures to calculate series circuit parameters.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
Figure 48 shows a series circuit containing a voltage source (V) and two impedances Z1 and
Z2 connected in series. The source voltage is assumed to be constant and is called a voltage
rise. The phasor current (I) develops a voltage across each impedance called a voltage drop.
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law states that the sum of the voltage rises equals the sum of the voltage
drops (V = V1 + V2 +...+Vn).
Figure 48. Series Circuit
Formulas
The voltage drop across an impedance (Vn) is the product of the phasor current (I) and the
complex impedance (Zn). The equivalent impedance (Zeq) of any number of impedances in
series is the sum of the individual impedances (Zeq = Z1 + Z2 + ... + Zn). Because the
impedances are complex numbers they must be added in rectangular form or vectorially.

Phasor Diagrams
In AC circuit analysis the voltage phasor angle is typically assigned the reference angle value
of zero degrees (00). The current phasor angle (I) then leads or lags this reference angle by +
900. The impedance angle (Z) has the same magnitude as the current angle but, because of
Ohm’s Law (Z = V/I), it is of opposite sign (Example L).
Example L: Given V = 12000 and I = 6-150, draw the V and I phasor diagrams and the
impedance triangle.
Answer: See Figure 49.
Figure 49. Example L Answer

Example M: Calculate the current (I) given that V = 27700, Z1 = 10 + j10 , and Z2 = 6 + j8
in a
series circuit. Note: Use Work Aid 4A procedures.
Answer: a. Sketch the circuit diagram (see Figure 50):
Figure 50. Example M Circuit Diagram
b. Find Zeq:
Zeq = Z1 + Z2 = (10 + 6) + j(10 + 8) = 16 + j18 = 24.148.40
c. Calculate I using Ohm’s Law:
I = V/Z = 27700/24.148.40 A = 11.5-48.40 A

d. Sketch the V and I phasor diagrams and the impedance triangle (see Figure
51):
Figure 51. Example M Answer

Example N: Referring to Example M, verify Kirchhoff’s Law.
Answer: V = V1 + V2 = IZ1 + IZ2
= (11.5 -48.40)(14.14450) + (11.5-48.40)(1053.10)
= 162.6-3.40 + 115+4.70
= 162.3 - j9.64 + 114.7 + j9.4
= 277 + j0 = 27700 V
Parallel Circuits
Note: Work Aid 4B provides procedures to calculate parallel circuit parameters.
Kirchhoff’s Current Law
Figure 52 shows a parallel circuit containing a voltage source (V) and two impedances (Z1,
Z2) connected in parallel. The same voltage appears across both impedances but the total
current (IT) splits at the junction into separate currents (I1, I2). At this junction we can apply
Kirchoff’s Current Law which states the sum of the currents entering a junction (IT) is equal
to the sum of the currents leaving a junction (I1 + I2 + ... +In).
Figure 52. Parallel Circuit

Formulas
The phasor current flowing through an impedance (In) is the quotient of the phasor voltage
(V) and the impedance (Zn). The reciprocal of the equivalent impedance (1/Zeq) of any
number of impedances in parallel is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual
impedances (1/Zeq = 1/Z1 + 1/Z2 + ... + 1/Zn). For the special case where n = 2, Zeq =
(Z1Z2)/(Z1 + Z2). Because the impedances are complex numbers, calculating the equivalent
impedance is usually a tedious process. Because the individual currents are also complex
numbers, the total current equals the sum in rectangular form (or vectorially) of the individual
currents.
Phasor Diagrams
As with series circuits, the voltage phasor angle is typically assigned the reference angle value
of zero degrees (00). The current phasor angle () then leads or lags this reference angle by +
900. Again, as with series circuits, the impedance angle () has the same magnitude as the
current angle but, because of Ohm’s Law (Z = V/I), it is of opposite sign (see Example O).
Example O: Calculate IT, I1 and I2 given that V = 27700 V, Z1 = 10 + j10 , and Z2 = 6 +j8
in a parallel circuit. Note: Use Work Aid 4B procedures.
Answer: a. Sketch the circuit diagram (see Figure 53):
Figure 53. Example O Circuit Diagram

b. Calculate Zeq:
Z1 = 10 + j10 = 14.14450
Z2 = 6 + j8 = 1053.10
Zeq = [14.14)(10)(450 + 53.10)]/[(10 + 6) + j(10 + 8)]
=(141.498.10)/(24.148.40) = 5.949.70
c. Calculate IT:
IT = V/Zeq = (27700)/(5.949.70)
= 46.9-49.70 A = 30.3 - j35.8 A
d. Calculate I1:
I1 = V/Z1 = (27700)/(14.14450)
= 19.6-450 A = 13.9 - j 13.9 A
e. Calculate I2:
I2 = V/Z2 = (27700)/(1053.10)
= 27.7-53.10 A = 16.6 - j 22.2 A
f. Sum I1 + I2:
I1 + I2 = (13.9 + 16.6) - j(13.9 + 22.2)
= 30.5 - j 36.1
= 30.3 -j35.8 A

WORK AID 3: PROCEDURES USED TO CALCULATE COMPLEX NUMBERS
Work Aid 3A: Procedures Used to Add or Subtract Complex Numbers in

Rectangular Form
1. Addition: c1 = a1 + j b1
c2 = a2 + j b2
c1 + c2 = (a1 + a2) + j (b1 + b2) = a3 + j b3 = c3
c3 = (a32 + b32)1/2tan-1 (b3/a3) = c33
2. Subtraction: c1 = a1 + jb1
c2 = a2 + jb2
c1 - c2 = (a1 - a2) + j(b1 - b2) = a4 ± jb4 = c4

Work Aid 3B: Procedures Used to Add or Subtract Complex Numbers Vectorially
1. Addition or Subtraction (Option 1): The arrows of the vectors (phasors) are placed end-
to-end and the sum of the vectors is found by drawing an arrow from the tail of the first
arrow to the tip of the second arrow as shown in Figure 55. If a vector is to be
subtracted, its arrow is rotated 1800 and then added, also as shown in Figure 55. This
method is called the triangle method.
Figure 55. Vectorial Addition and Subtraction (Triangle Method)

2. Addition or Subtraction (Option 2): An alternative option for adding or subtracting

vectors (phasors) is called the parallelogram method. Place the tail ends of both vectors
at any point in their plane and complete the parallelogram havng both vectors as
adjacent sides. The directed diagonal is the sum of both vectors as shown in Figure 56.
For subtracting vectors add the opposite (1800 rotation) of the second vector also as
shown in Figure 56.
Figure 56. Vectorial Addition and Subtraction

(Parallelogram Method)

Work Aid 3C: Procedures Used to Multiply or Divide Complex Numbers in Polar
Form
1. Multiplication: c1 = c11, c2 = c22
c1 x c2 = c1c21 + 2 = c33
c3 = c3 cos 3 + jc3 sin 3 = a3 + jb3
2. Division: c1 = c1 1, c2 = c22
c1/c2 = c1/c2(1 - 2) = c33
Work Aid 3D: Procedures Used to Multiply or Divide Complex Numbers in

Rectangular Form
1. Multiplication: c1 = a1 + jb1, c2 = a2 + jb2
c1 x c2 = (a1a2 - b1b2) + j(a1b2 + a2b1) = a3 + jb3
c3 = (a32 + b32)1/2tan-1 (b3/a3) = c33
2. Division: c1 = a1 + jb1, c2 = a2 + jb2, c2* = a2 - jb2
c1/c2 = (a1 + jb1)(a2 - jb2)/(a2 + jb2)(a2 - jb2)

= [(a1a2 + b1b2) + j(a2b1 - a1b2)]/(a22 + b22)

WORK AID 4: PROCEDURES USED TO CALCULATE ELECTRICAL SERIES

AND PARALLEL CIRCUIT PARAMETERS
Work Aid 4A: Procedures for Series Circuit Calculations
1. Draw and label a circuit diagram (see Figure 57).
Figure 57. Series Circuit Diagram

2. Calculate Z1, Z2,..., ZN @f = 60 Hz
a. XL = j2fL = j377L
b. Xc = -j/2fC = -j/377C
c. Z1 = R1 + j(XL1 - XC1)
d. Zn = Rn + j(XLN - XCN) = Z
3. Calculate Zeq: Zeq = Z1 + Z2 +...+ ZN
4. Calculate I: I = V00/Zeq = V/Zeq-
5. Calculate V1, V2,..., VN
V1 = IZ1
VN = IZN
6. Perform a check calculation.
V00 = V1 + V2 +...+VN

Work Aid 4B: Procedures for Parallel Circuit Calculations
1. Draw and label a circuit diagram (see Figure 58).
Figure 58. Parallel Circuit Diagram
2. Calculate Z1, Z2,...,ZN @ f= 60Hz. Note: Use the same procedures as step 2 of
Work Aid 4A.
3. Calculate Zeq . 1/Zeq = 1/Z1 + 1/Z2 +...+ 1/ZN, Zeq = (1/Zeq)
4. For N = 2: Zeq = (Z1Z2)/(Z1 + Z2) = Zeq
5. Calculate IT: IT = V00/Zeq = V/Zeq-
6. Calculate I1, I2, ..., IN
I1 = V00/Z11 = V/Z1-1
I2 = V00/Z22 = V/Z2-2
IN = V00/ZNN = V/ZN-N
7. Perform a check calculation.
IT = I1 + I2 +... + IN

American National An organization whose members approve various standards for

Standards Institute use in American industries.
(ANSI)
apparent power (S) The product of voltage and current. The units of S are volt-
amperes (VA) and kilovolt-amperes (kVA).
balanced (load) An electrical load in a three-phase system that has the same
impedance values in each phase.
delta-connection () A three-phase, three-wire system (connection).
efficiency () The ratio of output power to input power.
full load amperage Current drawn by a motor under full load conditions,
(IFLA) e.g. rated horsepower and rated voltage.
horsepower (hp) The mechanical power rating of the machine.

1 hp equals 746 watts.
impedance (Z) The ratio of voltage to current. With sinusoidal voltage and
current, impedance will have both a magnitude and an angle.
impedance triangle A right angle triangle developed geometrically from the

equations associated with resistance, inductive reactance, and
capacitive reactance.
induction motors A motor in which the field is produced by induction from the
stator rather than from a direct current winding.
Institute of Electrical A worldwide society of electrical and electronics engineers.

and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE)
lagging power factor Where the current lags the voltage as in an inductive circuit.
leading power factor Where the current leads the voltage as in a capacitive circuit.
National Electric An electrical safety code developed and approved every

Code (NEC) three years by the National Fire Protection Associaton (NFPA).
phasor quantity A voltage, current or other electrical quantity which is in the

frequency domain and has both a magnitude .707 (1.0/ 2 ) times
the maximum value and an angle between 0 and 360 degrees.

power factor (p.f.) The term cosine theta where theta is the angle between voltage
and current.
power triangle A right angle triangle developed geometrically from the

equations associated with real power, apparent power, and
reactive power.
reactive power (Q) The product of voltage, current, and sin theta (θ). The units of Q
are vars (VAR) and kilovars (kVAR).
real power (P) The product of voltage, current, and cosine theta (). The units of
P are watts (W) and kilowatts (kW).
root mean square (rms) In a sinusoidally varying waveshape of current or voltage, the
rms value is equal to .707 (1.0/ 2 ) times the maximum (peak)
value of the waveshape.
single-phase voltage The product of phase current and conductor impedance.
unbalanced load An electrical load in a three-phase system, or a single-phase

three-wire system that has different impedance values in each
phase.
wye-connection (Y) A three-phase, four-wire system (connection), where the fourth

wire is called the neutral connection.

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Calculating Electrical Circuit Parameters

Chapter : Electrical For additional information on this subject, contact

EFFECTS OF FREQUENCY ON ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT ELEMENTS 1

Time Domain Versus Frequency Domain Representation 1

Circuit Analysis and Representation of Circuit Elements 5

Representation as Complex Impedance (Resistance and Reactance) 5

Representation as Phasors (Voltage and Current) 7

CALCULATING SINGLE-PHASE POWER LOADS 9

Single-Phase Power Quantities 9

Complex Power (S) 9

Apparent Power (S) 9

Real Power (P) 9

Reactive Power (Q) 9

Power Factor (pf) 9

Voltage and Current 10

Power Triangle in Circuit Analysis of Two-Wire Loads 14

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

CALCULATING THREE-PHASE POWER LOADS 21

Balanced Delta-Connected Loads 22

Balanced Wye-Connected Loads 24

Unbalanced Delta-Connected Loads 29

Unbalanced Wye-Connected Loads 31

WORK AID 1: PROCEDURES TO CALCULATE SINGLE-PHASE POWER

Work Aid 1A: Procedures for Single-Phase Two-Wire Load Calculations 33

Work Aid 1B: Procedures for Single-Phase Three-Wire Load Calculations 36

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

WORK AID 2: PROCEDURES TO CALCULATE THREE-PHASE POWER

Work Aid 2A: Procedures for Balanced Delta-Connected Load Calculations 37

Work Aid 2B: Procedures for Balanced Wye-Connected Load Calculations 40

Work Aid 2C: Procedures for Unbalanced Delta-Connected Load Calculations 43

Work Aid 2D: Procedures for Unbalanced Wye-Connected Load Calculations 46

CALCULATING COMPLEX NUMBERS 51

Forms of Complex Numbers 52

Polar or Steinmetz Form 53

Sum and Difference 55

Multiplication and Division 57

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

CALCULATING ELECTRICAL SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUIT 58

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law 58

Kirchhoff’s Current Law 62

WORK AID 3: PROCEDURES USED TO CALCULATE COMPLEX

Work Aid 3A: Procedures Used to Add or Subtract Complex Numbers in

Work Aid 3B: Procedures Used to Add or Subtract Complex Numbers

Work Aid 3C: Procedures Used to Multiply or Divide Complex Numbers

Work Aid 3D: Procedures Used to Multiply or Divide Complex Numbers in

WORK AID 4: PROCEDURES USED TO CALCULATE ELECTRICAL

Work Aid 4A: Procedures for Series Circuit Calculations 69

Work Aid 4B: Procedures for Parallel Circuit Calculations 71

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Figure 1. Purely Resistive Circuit 2

Figure 2. Purely Inductive Circuit 3

Figure 3. Purely Capacitive Circuit 4

Figure 4. Complex Impedance 5

Figure 5. Impedance Triangle 6

Figure 6. Time Domain vs. Frequency Domain 7

Figure 7. Example A Answer 8

Figure 8. Power Relationships for Lagging Power Factors 11

Figure 9. Example B Answer 13

Figure 10. Example C Circuit Diagram 14

Figure 11. Example C Power Triangle 16

Figure 12. Balanced Loads 17