Instrumentation and Control Review

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL REVIEW
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Process Instrumentation For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: PCI-201.02 PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
Engineering Encyclopedia Boiler Control
Instrumentation & Control Review
Section Page
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 6
P&ID AND LOGIC DRAWING SYMBOLS AND TERMINOLOGY................................... 7
ISA Symbols and Terminology................................................................................... 7

ISA Identification Letters....................................................................................... 7
ISA Function Blocks ............................................................................................. 7
ISA Line and Instrument/Function Symbols.......................................................... 8
SAMA Symbols and Terminology .............................................................................. 9
SAMA Signal Processing Symbols ....................................................................... 9
SAMA Enclosure Symbols.................................................................................. 11
SAMA versus ISA Simple Control Loop.............................................................. 13
Saudi Aramco Instrument Symbols and Identification.............................................. 15
Identification Letters ........................................................................................... 15
Identification Numbers........................................................................................ 15
Loop Identification Number................................................................................. 16
Numbering of Instruments .................................................................................. 16
Thermocouples................................................................................................... 16
Electronic Instrumentation .................................................................................. 16
Special Identification........................................................................................... 16
Symbols and Balloons ........................................................................................ 17
Simple Control Loop ........................................................................................... 18
CONTROL REVIEW...................................................................................................... 19
Loop Gain and Loop Response ............................................................................... 19

Loop Gain & Response: ..................................................................................... 19
Time Constant .................................................................................................... 21
Dead Time & Capacity:....................................................................................... 23
Controller Algorithms & Selection: ........................................................................... 24
Proportional Algorithm: ....................................................................................... 24
Integral Algorithm: .............................................................................................. 25
Proportional Plus Integral Algorithm: .................................................................. 26
Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative Algorithm ........................................... 27
Basic Process Control Applications ......................................................................... 29
Flow Loops ......................................................................................................... 29
Liquid Pressure Loops........................................................................................ 30
Gas Pressure Loops........................................................................................... 30
Level Loops ........................................................................................................ 31
Temperature Loops ............................................................................................ 31
Cascade and Feedforward Control .......................................................................... 33
Cascade Control:................................................................................................ 33
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

Reset Windup ..................................................................................................... 35

Feedforward Control........................................................................................... 35
Scaling the Feedforward Calculation: ...................................................................... 38
Characterizing Loop Elements to Achieve Linear Gain............................................ 39
Loop and Element Gain...................................................................................... 39
Mechanical Characterization Devices................................................................. 42
Electronic Characterization Devices ................................................................... 44
PRIMARY TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT ............................................................. 46
Flue Gas Temperature Elements ............................................................................. 46

Types and Locations .......................................................................................... 47
Steam Temperature Control Loops.......................................................................... 47
Control Loop Instrumentation Requirements (API-RP-551, Section 5)............... 48
Sample Problem ................................................................................................. 49
Skin Temperature Elements .................................................................................... 51
Inlet Air Temperature Elements ............................................................................... 52
PRIMARY PRESSURE MEASUREMENT..................................................................... 54
Fuel Pressure Elements........................................................................................... 54

Furnace Pressure Control Loops ............................................................................. 55
Steam Pressure Control Loops ................................................................................ 57
Drum Pressure Elements......................................................................................... 58
Atomizing Steam Pressure Control Loops ............................................................... 59
PRIMARY FLOW MEASUREMENT.............................................................................. 61
Air Flow Control Loops............................................................................................. 61

SAES-J-602 Requirements................................................................................. 62
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

Fuel Flow Control Loops .......................................................................................... 65

Steam Flow Elements .............................................................................................. 67
Boiler Feedwater Flow Control Loops ...................................................................... 68
BOILER LEVEL MEASUREMENT ................................................................................ 71
Drum Level .............................................................................................................. 71

ASME Requirements .......................................................................................... 71
Head Measuring Drum Level ................................................................................... 73
Uncompensated ................................................................................................. 73
Pressure Compensated...................................................................................... 73
Conduction Drum Level Measurement ............................................................... 77
WORK AID 1: MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENT STANDARDS ................................... 80
WORK AID 2: HOW TO DETERMINE THE CHARACTERIZATION THAT PRODUCES

A LINEAR RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE FINAL CONTROL ELEMENT AND
MEASURED PROCESS VARIABLE. ............................................................................ 81
WORK AID 2: HOW TO DETERMINE THE CHARACTERIZATION THAT PRODUCES

A LINEAR RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE FINAL CONTROL ELEMENT AND
MEASURED PROCESS VARIABLE. ............................................................................ 81
WORK AID 3: HOW TO CALCULATE DRUM LEVEL TRANSMITTER RANGE.......... 82
Drum Operating Parameters.................................................................................... 82

SAES-J-602, Section 5 ............................................................................................ 82
ANSI/ISA S77.42 ..................................................................................................... 82
GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................. 83
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iii

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Typical ISA Symbolism for a Simple Flow Control Loop.................................. 8
Figure 2. SAMA PMC 22.1-1981 (Figure 1) ................................................................. 10
Figure 3. SAMA PMC 22.1-1981 (Figure 2) ................................................................. 11
Figure 4. SAMA PMC 22.1-1981 (Appendix B) ............................................................ 12
Figure 5. Typical SAMA Symbolism for a Simple Flow Control Loop ........................... 13
Figure 6. Typical SAMA Symbolism and Terminology for Detailed Diagrams .............. 14
Figure 7. Typical Saudi Aramco Symbolism for a Control Loop ................................... 18
Figure 8. SAMA Simple Feedback Loop ...................................................................... 19
Figure 9. Control Loop Response to Step Load Upset ................................................. 21
Figure 10. Time Constant Definition ............................................................................. 22
Figure 11. Closed Loop Response of Proportional Only Controller .............................. 24
Figure 12. Comparison of P vs. I Only Controllers Closed Loop Responses ............... 25
Figure 13. Summary of Closed Loop Responses ......................................................... 28
Figure 14. Flow Process Response.............................................................................. 29
Figure 15. Gas Pressure Process Response ............................................................... 30
Figure 16. Cascade Control ......................................................................................... 33
Figure 17. Cascade Control Improvements.................................................................. 34
Figure 18. Feedforward Control ................................................................................... 36
Figure 19. Examples of Lead & Lag ............................................................................. 37
Figure 20. Loop Element Response & Gain ................................................................. 39
Figure 21. Linear Loop Elements & Linear Constant Loop Gain .................................. 40
Figure 22. Loop With Non-Linear Valve = Non-Linear Loop Gain ................................ 41
Figure 23. Eq % Valve Shifting Towards Linear ........................................................... 41
Figure 24. Inherent Damper Flow Characteristic.......................................................... 42
Figure 25. Using Linkages to Characterize Dampers ................................................... 43
Figure 26. Dynamic Response of Damper Characterization ........................................ 44
Figure 27. Flue Gas Temperature ................................................................................ 46
Figure 28. Steam Temperature Control........................................................................ 47
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iv

Figure 29. Sample Problem, Steam Temperature Control ........................................... 49

Figure 30. Boiler Feedwater Temperature.................................................................... 50
Figure 31. Skin Temperature........................................................................................ 51
Figure 32. Inlet Air Temperature .................................................................................. 52
Figure 33. Fuel Pressure.............................................................................................. 54
Figure 34. Furnace Pressure Control ........................................................................... 55
Figure 35. Steam Pressure Control .............................................................................. 57
Figure 36. Drum Pressure ............................................................................................ 58
Figure 37. Atomizing Steam Pressure Control ............................................................. 59
Figure 38. Air Flow Control........................................................................................... 61
Figure 39. Boiler Airflow Methods and Locations ......................................................... 63
Figure 40. Fuel Flow Control ........................................................................................ 65
Figure 41. Steam Flow ................................................................................................. 67
Figure 42. Boiler Feedwater Flow Control .................................................................... 68
Figure 43. AMSE Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code: Section 1 Part PG-60.1 ................. 71
Figure 44. ShGP SAMA Dwg Showing Drum Level Pressure Compensation .............. 74
Figure 45. Pressure Compensated Drum Level ........................................................... 76
Figure 46. Yarway Conduction Type Drum Water Measurement Gage Glass ............. 78
Figure 47. Gage Glass Drum Level Indication.............................................................. 79
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Advantages and Disadvantages of a PI Controller ......................................... 26

Table 2. Summary of Loop Tuning Adjustments .......................................................... 32
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards v

INTRODUCTION
This module expands on the basic principles of process variable
measurement, conditioning, calculation, and characterization.
In this module industry and Saudi Aramco standards will be
applied to actual P&IDs of physical process implementations.
The sections of this module cover:
• P&ID logic drawing symbols and terminology.

• Determining whether primary temperature measurement
instruments meet instrumentation requirements.
• Determining whether primary pressure measurement
instruments meet instrumentation requirements.
• Determining whether primary flow measurement instruments
meet instrumentation requirements.
• Determining the characterization that produces a linear
relationship between the final control element and the
measured process variable.
• Calculating drum level transmitter range.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 6

P&ID AND LOGIC DRAWING SYMBOLS AND TERMINOLOGY

P&ID and logic drawing symbols and terminology establish a
uniform means of designating instruments and instrumentation
systems used for measurement and control.
ISA Symbols and Terminology
ISA Identification
Letters
Table 1 (page 17) of ANSI/ISA-S5.1-1984 shows a table of ISA
identification letters. ISA identification letters are used to
designate an individual instrument or loop. For example, the
letter F is used to designate flow, the letter T designates
temperature, and the letter P designates pressure. The first
identification letter designates the measured or initiating
variable. The succeeding letters identify the functions performed
and the instruments that perform these functions. For example,
TIC is used to designate temperature indicator controller. PCV
designates pressure control valve.
ISA Function
Blocks
Table 3 (page 19) of ANSI/ISA-S5.1-1984 shows ISA function
blocks. ISA function blocks represent functions associated with
controllers, computing devices, converters, and relays. For
example, number 14 (page 21) represents the low selecting
function. Number 19 represents the bias function.

ISA Line and Instrument/Function

Symbols
On page 24 of ANSI/ISA-S5.1-1984 is a drawing of ISA
instrument line symbols. On pages 25-43 are drawings of ISA
instrument or function symbols. For example, number 1
represents an instrument power (pneumatic or hydraulic) supply
or sensing connection to the process. Number 4 represents an
electrical signal. Saudi Aramco typically reverses the ISA
symbols for pneumatic and electrical signal lines, using the ISA
symbol for a pneumatic signal as an electrical signal and visa
versa. On page 25, symbol 1 represents discrete instruments
that are in a primary location and normally accessible to the
operator. Number 2 represents a field mounted instrument not
normally accessible by the control room operator.
Figure 1is an example of typical ISA symbolism for a simple flow

control loop.
FT
100
FY
100
K+I
FIC
100
I/P
FY
33349
Figure 1. Typical ISA Symbolism for a Simple Flow Control Loop

SAMA Symbols and Terminology

Historically, the boiler industry has used the symbolism
established by the Scientific Apparatus Manufacturer's
Association (SAMA) rather than ISA symbolism to depict boiler
control functions. SAMA symbolism will, therefore, be used
throughout the remaining modules in the course. This section
will explain and illustrate the following SAMA conventions:
• Signal processing symbols

• Enclosure symbols
• Simple control loop symbols (versus ISA symbols)
SAMA Signal
Processing
Symbols
Figure 1 of SAMA standard PMC 22.1-1981 shows a table of
SAMA signal processing symbols. It also represents summing.
B represents a logical signal generator. F(x) represents a non-
linear function (see below).

Figure 2. SAMA PMC 22.1-1981 (Figure 1)

SAMA Enclosure
Symbols
Figure 2 of SAMA standard PMC 22.1-1981 shows a table of
SAMA enclosure symbols and below). The enclosure symbol is
combined with the signal-processing symbol to provide a
functional symbol that represents the processing algorithm and
its physical manifestation such as indicator, manual loader,
power actuator, or logic gate. Ten specific shapes of enclosures
representing the measuring or readout, automatic signal
processing, manual signal processing, and final controlling
functions are used. They can represent a measuring or readout,
a final controlling or manual signal processing.
Figure 3. SAMA PMC 22.1-1981 (Figure 2)

Figure 4. SAMA PMC 22.1-1981 (Appendix B)

SAMA versus ISA

Simple Control
Loop
Figure 5 shows the SAMA equivalent to the ISA illustration of a
simple flow control loop (see Figure 1 above). The functions of
square root, manually generated setpoint, and difference (delta)
are depicted. Note that in this symbolic representation the
functionality is platform independent. The function can be
implemented by using pneumatic, analog or digital electronic,
optical, or biological control techniques.
FT
FY100
PV
SP
A
FIC100
PID
A T
I/P
FCV 33350
Figure 5. Typical SAMA Symbolism for a Simple Flow Control Loop

Figure 6 represents typical SAMA symbolism and terminology

for detailed diagrams. Drawing 6.12 of ISA standard ANSI/ISA
S5.1-1984 represents the ISA equivalent of SAMA symbolism
shown in Figure 3.
AE
From
FY901A
LT AT TDT
From FT
920
FY901A
FY900A
ƒ (t) H/
LIC940 AIC941
A A
PID PID
A T FY901C FY920B
FIC900 H/L
SP PV
PID
A T
ƒ(x) ƒ(x)
33351
Flow Valve Hot Oil Valve
Figure 6. Typical SAMA Symbolism and Terminology for Detailed Diagrams

Saudi Aramco Instrument Symbols and Identification

Saudi Aramco system instrument identification and instrument
symbols are used on Process Flow Diagrams, Piping and
Instrument Diagrams, and construction drawings.
Identification
Letters
Identification letters define the variable along with the equipment
function or both. Table I on page 4 of Saudi Aramco standard
SAES–J–004 shows a list of identification letters. The table is
divided into three sections. The first section lists the measured
variable letter. The second section lists the instrument function
letter. The third section lists lower case letters that follow the
measured variable letter and are used for clarity.
The letter B in the first group represents the burner (flame). The
letter E in the second group is usually used with the first group
letters A, C, F, and T. FE is a flow element installation such as
an orifice, flow nozzle, or venturi tube. Examples of letter
combinations include BE for burner element (flame detector),
FR for flow recorder, PZV for pressure safety relief valve, TY for
temperature loop relay, and ZC for emergency shutdown
system.
Qualifying letters and mathematical symbols are shown in Table

III. The letters and symbols are shown outside of the instrument
balloon. If the figure does not stand out sufficiently, it is
enclosed in a square.
Identification
Numbers
Identification numbers are used to identify the plant or area of
service. They provide serial identification of specific items.

Loop Identification
Number
In a given measurement and control loop, all equipment is
assigned the same identification number except when a loop
element from a different plant appears. The element would have
the same number as its primary loop element.
Numbering of
Instruments
Instruments are numbered by starting with the control loops of
each category of measured variables such as flow, level, or
temperature and sequentially from left to right on the piping and
instrumentation diagram.
Thermocouples
Thermocouples do not meet the above criteria when more than
one thermocouple is used for a given instrument. In that case,
hyphenated numbers are used, where the number preceding
the hyphen is the same as the instrument or switch assembly to
which the thermocouple is connected. The number following the
hyphen is the thermocouple point number in the instrument or
switch assembly.
Electronic
Instrumentation
Electronic instrumentation uses the same nomenclature and
symbols as pneumatic systems.
Special
Identification
If no nomenclature or symbols are pertinent a special
identification is used and is added to the legend of the
applicable drawings.

Symbols and
Balloons
Saudi Aramco symbols are any shaped or pictorial
representation with or without identification letters and numbers.
A balloon is a round, oval, or polygonal flag used to identify an
instrument or function. It is usually connected by a line to the
instrument location on the drawings. A balloon is used also to
signal line termination when the signal line connects to a
processing unit.

Simple Control
Loop
Figure 7 shows an example of Saudi Aramco symbolism for a
simple control loop.
TE
111
TTd
111
T
T5 XH
111
111 22-1-14
TIC
111 T
111
TTd
11C
33352
Figure 7. Typical Saudi Aramco Symbolism for a Control Loop

CONTROL REVIEW
This section will review the basics of control from Saudi Aramco
Control Loop Elements and Automatic Control Systems course
PCI 102.
Figure 8. SAMA Simple Feedback Loop
Loop Gain and Loop Response
Loop Gain &

Response:
Each element in a loop has gain. The gain of an element may
be defined in several ways. One definition simply states that the
gain of an element is the ratio of change of output over the
change of input.
D(Output)
Gain = D(Input)
The above expression does not completely define gain.

→
Gain G is a vector, having magnitude and direction. A more
complete definition of gain is as follows:
→
G = KG∠φ
i.e., the gain function is made up of three components: K, is the

steady-state gain; G is the scalar portion of the dynamic gain;
→
and φ, is the phase shift across the device. Loop gain G may
L
be defined as:
→ → → → →
GL = G T × GC × GV × GP
→
where GL = gain function of the loop
→
G T = gain function of the transmitter
→
GC = gain function of the controller
→
G V = gain function of the valve
→
GP = gain function of the process

Response of the loop based on different loop gains and phase

angle is shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9. Control Loop Response to Step Load Upset
Time Constant
The Time Constant is a specific measure of a response time. It
is the time required for a first order system to reach 63.2% of
the total change when forced by a step (see Figure 10).

Input Output
A Instrument A
t=0 Time t=0 Time

A Steady State
.632A
A = ( I - e-t / τ )
t
0 τ 2τ 3τ 4τ 5τ
Figure 10. Time Constant Definition
It takes the output of the device approximately five time

constants (5τ) to reach its final steady state value. The time
constant τ is a function of the resistance (R) and capacitance
(C) associated with the measuring device. τ = RC = Time
Constant.
Note: For the output of a first-order system forced by a step or

an impulse, τ is the time required to complete 63.2% of the final
steady state value for a step input. In higher order systems,
there is a time constant for each of the first-order components.
Typical time constants for boiler loops are:
Flow Seconds
Pressure Reducing Seconds
Turbine Speed Seconds
Level Seconds
Pressure (steam) Minutes
Temperature Minutes
Boiler drafts Seconds
Liquid Pressure Milliseconds to Seconds

Dead Time &

Capacity:
Dead time is the process characteristic that causes a loop to
oscillate. It can provide the necessary –360 degree phase shift
to allow oscillation. Limit the dead time to allow higher controller
proportional gains making the process easier to control. Larger
dead time reduces the applicable controller proportional gains in
the loop. Proper selection and placement of instruments can
reduce dead time.
Capacity is the process characteristic that resists change. It

alone cannot add the necessary –360 degree phase shift
required for oscillation. For this reason, capacity only processes
allow high controller gains making control easier.
All processes have a combination of dead time and capacity. A

process with a dominant dead time will be difficult to control
while one with a dominant capacity will be easier to control.

Controller Algorithms & Selection:
Proportional
Algorithm:
Proportional control provides only a steady state gain effect, it
does not contribute any phase shift. Loop period is not affected
by Proportional action. Proportional action can be defined as:
Output = (Gain x Error) + Bias
Proportional only control normally always includes an error

between the setpoint and process signal, called offset. The
amount of offset is determined by the proportional gain setting
(see Figure 11).
Load
q
Time ( t )
≈ τn
Controlled
Variable
Offset
c r
t
Controller
Output
m
I/D t
Figure 11. Closed Loop Response of Proportional Only Controller

Proportional action should be maximized in the following

applications:
1) Dead time + capacity processes where capacity is dominant.

These are typically low gain processes where Proportional
action can be maximized and offset minimized.
2) Processes where offset can be tolerated.
Integral Algorithm:
Integral action adds a 90 degree phase lag to the loop. Integral
action will eliminate the offset produced by proportional control
and bring the process variable back to setpoint. However, the
phase shift added by integral slows the loop response by
increasing the loop time constant.
We can write the integral algorithm as follows:
1
mI =
I ∫
edt + mo.
Where e is the error between setpoint and the measurement

and I is the integral setting in minutes per repeat (see Figure
12).
q
Load
t
≈τn
P - Only
e = Offset
Cp r
τo >> τn
Ι - Only
CI r
Figure 12. Comparison of P vs. I Only Controllers Closed Loop Responses

Integral action should be maximized in the following

applications:
1) On fast (small time constant) applications that are not

adversely affected by the slowing response of the integral
mode. Typically flow and liquid pressure loops (τn ≈ 1 to 10
sec).
2) Slow loops designed to produce slow corrective actions, e.g.

feedforward applications.
Proportional Plus
Integral Algorithm:
The proportional plus integral algorithm is by far the most
commonly used controller mode in industry. The proportional
action affects only the steady state gain of the controller while
the integral affects both gain of the controller and the oscillation
period of the loop.
The PI controller algorithm can be written as:
Output = G e + G
1
I
∫
edt
Where G is gain, e is error between setpoint and process, and I

is integral in minutes per repeat.
Table 1 lists advantages and disadvantages of a PI Controller.
Table 1. Advantages and Disadvantages of a PI Controller
Advantages Disadvantages
1) No offset 1) More difficult to tune
2) Can minimize integrated 2) Windup or saturation

error potential
3) Reasonably good period

of response

Proportional plus
Integral plus
Derivative
Algorithm
Derivative is never used alone in a controller. It is almost
always used in combination with the proportional and integral
modes.
Derivative can be defined as control action in which the output is

proportional to the rate of change of the input:
mD =
( )
Dd Input
or
Dde
or
−Ddc
.
dt dt dt
Where D is the derivative term in minutes. Derivative affects the

gain of the controller and adds a phase lead to the loop.
Derivative is normally added to a controller to offset the slowing
down of the loop by integral. The disadvantages of derivative
are that it is very susceptible to signal noise and makes the PID
algorithm difficult to tune.
The complete PID controller algorithm can be written as:
100 dc
mPID = 100 e + ∫ edt − 100 D
PB (PB)I PB dt
⇓ ⇓ ⇓
PROPORTIONAL + INTEGRAL + DERIVATIVE
(Note that the 100/PB can be substituted by G gain.)
Therefore, PID controllers are reserved only for those processes

whose natural periods are already very long (minutes to hours)
and where the addition of integral makes the period of response
unacceptably long. These would typically be temperature
control on heat transfer processes.
A summary of the closed loop response is shown in Figure 13.

Figure 13. Summary of Closed Loop Responses

Basic Process Control Applications
Flow Loops
The flow loop is most common industrial control loop. Since
what flows into and out of a pipe is essentially the same, the
flow process has almost no dead time and a very small capacity
(time constant = seconds). A flow process will have a steady
state and dynamic gain of approximately one, which makes it a
high gain process (Figure 14).
10 GPM 10 GPM
Flow Flow 0.632A
A A
5 GPM 5 GPM
t=0 t=0
Figure 14. Flow Process Response
The proportional gain for a controller in this loop to induce

constant amplitude cycling is about 1, and since the proportional
gain to achieve QAD is half that, then the optimal proportional
gain for a controller in this loop is about 0.5. This low gain
produces significant offset, which will generally not be
unacceptable.
Therefore, integral is introduced to reduce the offset. In the

case of a flow loop, the period of response is so fast (1-10
seconds) that the slowing action of integral is easily tolerated.
This, plus the fact that integral acts to filter noise in the loop,
makes integral the key mode of control for flow loops.
Typical flow loops tuned to QAD have a gain of .2-1 and a

integral action of 10-100 rep/min (approximately equivalent to
the natural frequency of the loop).

Liquid Pressure
Loops
Liquid pressure loops are nearly equivalent to flow loops, with a
typically lower process gain. This reduced gain allows a higher
controller gain, typically .5-2, and a slightly reduced integral
necessary because of reduced offset, e.g. 5-50 reps/min.
Gas Pressure
Loops
While a gas pressure loop is similar to a flow loop in that is has
almost no dead time, it does have capacity (since gas is
compressible). Since dead time contributes to the –360 phase
shift that allows loop cycling (and thus instability), a capacity
process with no dead time is inherently stable and won’t cycle
even at high gains (Figure 15).
Gas Pressure B
A
Input Process
t=0 t=0
Figure 15. Gas Pressure Process Response
The high gains leave little offset, so integral action is not

necessary. This is why pressure regulators, which are
essentially high gain proportional only controllers, are so often
used in gas pressure loops. Typical proportional gains in gas
pressure regulators are >20.

Level Loops
Level processes are typically a single capacity with small dead
time. Capacity may be large on these level loops, which makes
process gains lower and allows a large controller proportional
gain. Typical proportional controller gains are from 2-20.
Integral may be required to remove offset. However, care
should be taken that integral setting is not the major control
mode contributor. Derivative is seldom used because integral is
used conservatively (thus response time is not lengthened
excessively) and there is generally noise in the level signal.
Temperature
Loops
Temperature loops consist of one large capacity and a number
of small capacities that look like dead time. If the capacity is
sufficiently large, and the dead time small, AND the offset is
tolerable, the temperature loop could be controlled similar to the
gas pressure loop, with a high gain proportional only controller.
However, if this cannot be accomplished, then the temperature

loop is a good candidate for a PID controller. Since the period
of response is slow and noise is generally filterable, derivative is
possible. In addition, since use of integral will typically make the
period of response unacceptably long, derivative becomes
necessary.
Table 2 is a summary of loop tuning adjustments.

Table 2. Summary of Loop Tuning Adjustments
Proportional
Band Integral Time Derivative Time
Loop Type % (Minutes) (Minutes)
Flow 100 – 500 0.02 - 0.1 None
Liquid Pressure 50 – 200 0.02 - 0.1 None
Gas Pressure 0 – 10 None None
Level 5 – 50 0.05 - 0.25 None
Temperature 10 – 100 1 - 10 0.5 - 5
Composition 100 - 10,000 I = Several Min/Rep D ≈ 1/4 I

Cascade and Feedforward Control

The flow, level, temperature, and pressure control loops
described above are considered simple feedback control loops
and are designed to handle typical load upsets. Cascade and
feedforward control are more advanced control strategies,
designed to be used when the simple feedback control cannot
be effective because of either supply upsets or frequent load
upsets.
Cascade Control:
Cascade control is defined as “control in which the output of one
controller (primary or outer) is the setpoint of another controller
(secondary or inner).” It is used to minimize the effects of
supply upsets on the primary control variable (Figure 16).
Figure 16. Cascade Control

In a normal feedback control loop, the controller output goes to

a valve where it defines valve position. As long as the
relationship between valve position and primary controlled
variable stay the same, then the loop works well. However,
supply effects can change this relationship. Cascade effectively
restores the linear relationship between primary controlled
variable and the manipulated variable, and allows the primary
controlled variable to return to setpoint quickly and with less
integrated absolute error (Figure 17).
An upset entering the secondary loop (i,e a supply upset)
Non - Cascade
C r
Cascade
An upset entering the primary loop (i,e a load upset)

Non - Cascade
Cascade
C r
Figure 17. Cascade Control Improvements
Cascade control is effective because it can speed the response

of the primary loop with less integrated absolute error. It does
this by reducing the phase shift of secondary process, which in
turn increases the phase shift across the primary loop dead
time.
However, for the cascade scheme to function without affecting

the gain of the primary loop, the ratio of the primary loop time
constant to the secondary loop time constant must be >4, and
preferably 10-20.

Examples of suitable candidates for cascade control are

temperature cascaded onto flow or pressure and level cascaded
onto flow .
Reset Windup
The normal operating mode for the cascade control scheme is
with the primary controller in automatic and the secondary
controller in remote set point (RSP). If, for any reason, the
secondary control mode is switched to either auto or manual,
the primary will not be connected to the manipulated variable,
and its integral algorithm will saturate its output either high or
low. This is called reset windup (reset is another name for
integral).
To eliminate windup in this situation, the primary controller must

be switched to manual or the integral feature turned off. In
modern DCS systems, this is accomplished with the
“initialization” feature, which can automatically initialize the
primary controller when the secondary is moved from the RSP
mode. Initialization forces the primary controller output to track
the secondary controller’s measured variable input, until the
secondary controller mode is set back to RSP.
Feedforward
Control
The time required for normal feedback control systems to reach
steady state after a load upset is equal to approximately 3 loop
time constants. If another load upset is encountered during this
time, the loop may never achieve steady state.
Feedforward is an alternate control strategy for processes

subject to frequent load upsets (Figure 18).

Figure 18. Feedforward Control
Feedforward control strategy uses the load change information

to directly position the valve, to eliminate the measured
variable/setpoint error before feedback control can take effect.
The normal feedback control oscillations are eliminated and time
to steady state is reduced.
However, the feedforward model used to calculate the valve

movement is never perfect, so a small amount of feedback PI
control is required to “Trim” the model. Typical feedback control
settings are proportional gain = 0.5-1 and integral = 2-5
min/repeat.
The typical places we will see the feedforward scheme on a

boiler is on boiler drum level control and the plant master steam
pressure controller. We can use feedforward action on drum
level to deal with the reverse affects of steam drum shrink and
swell, and on steam pressure to feedforward steam flow
changes to immediately position the fuel valve.

Dynamic compensation blocks, sometimes called lead or lag

compensators, are can be used with energy storage control
systems. These blocks can temporarily add or remove energy
from a system during control action. Later, we will see the use
of lead compensation on combustion controls to provide
overfiring during load changes to restore borrowed energy
(Figure 19).
2
A Input L/L A
3
t=0 t2
t=0
Adjustable
Spike, K
A Input L/L
Decay A
t=0 t=0
Figure 19. Examples of Lead & Lag
– With Adjustable Time Constant and Adjustable Spike and Decay Ratio

Scaling the Feedforward Calculation:

Adding feedforward control generally requires use of logic
blocks in the control scheme, typically including summer blocks,
gain plus bias blocks, and even the dynamic compensation
blocks shown above.
The logic blocks used require scaling, e.g. transforming the

engineering equations into a form suitable for calculation. The
rules for scaling are:
1) Write the block’s engineering equations in standard units.
2) Normalize the units to 0-1 and identify the normalized

variable with a prime. Remember that when normalizing,
any variable has both a zero and span value and should be
described as X = LRV + Span (X’)
3) Substitute results from 2 into equation from 1 and solve for
the output variable.
Example:
0 to 100 GPM 0 to 300 GPM

C
0 to 200 GPM 0 to 400 GPM
A D
Out = K = 0 to 1000 GPM
As a further illustration let us sum the incoming flows into the

tank. We can state that for the tank example shown the output
range should be 0 to 1000 GPM.
Out Flow = A + B + C + D ENG EQN
1000 K = 100A + 200B + 300C + 400D
K′ = 0.1A′ + 0.2B′ + 0.3C′ + 0.4D′

Characterizing Loop Elements to Achieve Linear Gain
Loop and Element

Gain
Remember that steady state gain of any component in a loop is
simply the input/output. A linear element is one whose gain is
constant over load or operating point. A non-linear element is
one whose gain changes with load or operating point (Figure
20).
A
Slope = K =
B
= Constant
Output
A K
B
Input Input
Linear Element
Slope = K
Slope ≠ Constant
Output
Input Input
Non - Linear Element
Figure 20. Loop Element Response & Gain

Remembering that the product of all individual gains in a loop

constitute the total loop gain. For loop stability, this loop gain
cannot exceed 1. Therefore:
→ → → → →
GL = G T × GC × GV × GP < 1
A loop controller is generally tuned to best response at a

particular operating point. As long as the total loop gain
remains constant throughout the entire operating range, the
controller response remains good. However, if the gain of any
of the components in the loop vary with operating point of load,
then the total loop gain varies, and controller tuning cannot be
best at all conditions. If the non-linearity moves gain higher,
then instability can result (e.g. total loop gain > 1). If it moves
gain lower, then response is sluggish.
Therefore, we try to linearize the loop, component by

component, to produce a loop with a constant gain (Figure
21and Figure 22).
Process Transmitter Valve Controller Loop

Output
Output
Output
Output
Output
Input Input Input Input Input

(Adjustable)
Output
A B C
KLoop
KC
KV
KT
Figure 21. Linear Loop Elements & Linear Constant Loop Gain

Process Tansmitter Valve Controller Loop
C
Output
Output
Output
Output
Output
B
A

Adjust C
KLoop
KV
KT
KT
KC
A
Figure 22. Loop With Non-Linear Valve = Non-Linear Loop Gain
In most processes the Delta Pv changes with flow, with

maximum Delta pressure available at low flows and minimum at
high flows. For this process, the valve with an inherent equal
percentage trim shifts to a near linear installed characteristic
(Figure 23).
V
∆PMin
AS << 1
∆PMax
∆PMin
=1
∆PMax
( ∆P = C )
0
0 m
Figure 23. Eq % Valve Shifting Towards Linear

Figure 24. Inherent Damper Flow Characteristic
Mechanical
Characterization
Devices
Mechanical characterization includes arranging linkages to
linearize the relationship of control signal versus flow. This is
most commonly used on the induced draft centrifugal fan vanes
on a balanced draft furnace, to linear or even mechanically
advantaged operation at small vane openings. This
characterizing of the fan linkages is not generally done on the
forced draft fans, as they usually do not operate in the region
between 0% and 30% combustion airflow. (Figure 25 and
Figure 26).

Figure 25. Using Linkages to Characterize Dampers

Figure 26. Dynamic Response of Damper Characterization
Another method of mechanical characterization is the cutting of

mechanical cams of the driver positioner. Most valves are
characterized this way, if they are not already characterized by
the configuration of the valve plug trim used. Cams are
sometimes used to achieve specific non linear results, as in
furnace burner tilts or in the boiler feedwater chemical
conditioning systems.
A third method of mechanical characterization is as

implemented in pneumatic control systems. Most integrated
control platforms of this type offer standard modules to square,
square root, multiply/divide, and bias/slope functions.
Electronic
Characterization
Devices
Electronic characterization may include techniques in either
digital or analog hardware. Electronic positioners may be
present on the particular valve or damper actuator. The
functions provided are usually similar to those performed by
mechanical devices, but positioning accuracy and long term
repeatability are generally enhanced.

Electronic characterization may also be implemented in the

control platform itself. Care should be taken that
characterizations done in the control system are executable by
the field actuator control device. In most cases, positioning
accuracy and hysterisis of the field actuator/valve combination is
the limiting factor in achieving the desired characterized control
action. Sound practice dictates that control demand
linearizations be done at the lowest possible level possible,
starting with the valve trim and/or damper characteristics.

PRIMARY TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
Flue Gas Temperature Elements

Figure 27 and the P&ID referenced in the Figure title illustrate
flue gas temperature measurement elements. The square
symbol shown twice in Figure 5 represents the distributed
control system (DCS).
TI
110A
TE
110A
TI TI TI
106A1 101A
106A1
STACK
TE TT
106A2 106A2
Flue
Duct J90-F-101
33353
Figure 27. Flue Gas Temperature

Types and
Locations
Flue gas temperature measurement is needed for the boiler
efficiency calculation and to measure condensation of moisture
in flue gas. For flue gas temperature measurement a K-type,
sheathed, mineral oxide thermocouple is typically used. This
thermocouple can be inserted directly into the flue gas stream
(without the need for a thermowell).
Type K thermocouples can, if based on lead wire oxidation in a

sheath couple, be used to a maximum working limit of
approximately 2300 degrees F. Typically flue gas temperatures
can reach 500 degrees F. Flue gas temperature is measured
with a thermocouple at the flue gas outlet.
Steam Temperature Control Loops

Figure 28 illustrates a steam temperature control loop and
primary temperature measurement elements.
Setpoint
A Primary Process
Variable
Primary
TE = Temperature PID Controller
Secondary
Element
Process
Variable Secondary
TT = Temperature Controller
Transmitter PID
ƒP Current to
TT
Pneumatic
TT
Converter
TE
TE High Pressure Feedwater Header
Attemparator High Pressure SH Steam Header
Primary Secondary
Superheater Pendant Superheater Pendant 33354
Figure 28. Steam Temperature Control

Types and
Locations
Final steam temperature is measured as the controlled variable
in the steam temperature control loop. Attemperator outlet
temperature also is monitored for the proper operation of the
attemperator.
Steam temperature is measured with a thermocouple which

measures steam temperatures up to 800 degrees F. The
thermocouple must be located reasonably close to the spray
nozzle to ensure adequate temperature measurement
response. Final steam temperature measurements are taken by
either type E or type K thermocouples or RTD inside a
thermowell. Type E thermocouple and the RTD are preferred
because of their higher accuracy. Limitations of thermowells for
use with 150 psig saturated steam at extreme temperature exist.
Thermowells are subject to erosion and possible wake
frequency vibrational effect caused by the high velocity of the
steam stream.
Control Loop
Instrumentation
Requirements
(API-RP-551,
Section 5)
For the steam temperature control loop, instrumentation
requirements can be found in API-RP-551, Section 5.
Typically thermocouples are installed in thermowells. Figures

26-28 on pages 34-36 of API-RP-551, Section 5 illustrate
thermowell installation. To minimize temperature lag, the
thermocouple must be in contact with the bottom of the well.
Figures 29-31 on pages 37-38 of API-RP-551, Section 5
illustrate thermocouple installation.

Sample Problem
For the following steam temperature control loop shown in
Figure 29, determine whether the types and locations of primary
temperature measurement elements meet instrumentation
requirements.
The sample problem illustrates the use of a flange-mounted

thermowell used to protect the temperature element. The
thermowell installation meets the instrumentation requirements
as stated on pages 34-36 of API-RP-551, Section 5. The C
dimension is greater than 24 inches which allows space for the
removal of the thermowell. The distance D is greater than 6
inches, which is the minimum size for lines.
Setpoint
A
PV
PID
PID
TT
TT ƒP
TE
TE
33986
Figure 29. Sample Problem, Steam Temperature Control

Figure 30 and the P&ID ## illustrate boiler feedwater

temperature measurement elements.
TE
TE
TE
Thermowall
33355
Figure 30. Boiler Feedwater Temperature
Types and
Locations
Typically a type J thermocouple is used to measure boiler
feedwater temperature. The normal temperature range of type J
thermocouples is from 30 to 1400 degrees F.
Boiler feedwater temperature is measured anywhere before the

boiler feedwater control valve. Boiler feedwater temperature
measurement is used to calculate boiler efficiency as well as to
compensate the boiler feedwater flow measurement for mass
flow.

Skin Temperature Elements

Figure 31 and the Typical Installation Drawing (AD-036968)
illustrate skin temperature measurement elements.
Inside
Outer Wall
Heater Wall
Insulation Fire Brick
33356
Figure 31. Skin Temperature

Types and
Locations
The term "skin temperature element", when used in an industrial
setting, generally refers to a type of thermocouple or resistance
element, one that is spot-welded onto a pipe, weldment, vessel,
steam tube, etc. The skin to be measured in this fashion is
insulated (or lagged) so that the temperature is somewhat
representative of the fluid temperature inside. The
characteristics of this type of element are:
• Inexpensive
• Slow in response
• Usually expendable
• Usually involves installation of multiple elements installed.
Inlet Air Temperature Elements
Figure 32 and the P&ID ## referenced in the figure title illustrate
inlet air temperature measurement elements.
TI TE
102A 102A
Air Duct
Access
Door
33357
Figure 32. Inlet Air Temperature

Types and
Locations
Inlet air temperature measurement is used to calculate boiler
efficiency and to monitor proper inlet air conditions.
Inlet air temperature, whose temperature ranges from 0 - 200 oF

is typically measured with a type K thermocouple. Inlet air
temperature thermocouples are typically located on the inlet to
the forced draft fan within 20 feet of the fan.

PRIMARY PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Fuel Pressure Elements

fuel pressure measurement elements.
SP
A
PV
PID
PI FCV PI
1027A 1187A 1028A
Oil Supply
Fuel Control Header
Valve
PCV
1106A
33358
Figure 33. Fuel Pressure
Types and
Locations
Typically fuel pressure is measured with a pressure transmitter.

Fuel pressure is measured both upstream and downstream of

the flow control valve. At the upstream location fuel pressure is
measured to indicate conditions at the header. At the
downstream location fuel pressure is measured to indicate
conditions at the burner.
Currently in Saudi Aramco, fuel gas and fuel oil pressures use
smart transmitters, even for inputs into Burner Management
Systems as trip signals. The advantages of smart transmitters
are they are easily replaced, easily calibrate, their use reduces
the number of spares needed, and they last long.
Fuel oil must be steam traced to the process to prevent the fuel
oil from cooling off, becoming too viscous, and plugging the
lines.
Furnace Pressure Control Loops

Figure 34 and P&ID illustrate boiler furnace pressure control
loops and primary pressure measurement elements.
Arch
PT Backpass
Furnace
Cavity
Forced Draft Fan Induced Draft Fan Stack
Setpoint
A
2T
Drive Position Primary Controller PID Drive

Unit/ Transmitter Unit/
ƒ(x)
Actuator Actuator
Feedforward 3359
Characterization
Figure 34. Furnace Pressure Control
Types and Locations

A typical pressure transmitter is used to measure furnace

pressure which ranges from 0 to 20 inches of water. The
furnace pressure tap or taps should be above or downstream of
the full load fireball, so as to be out of the region of greatest
disturbance. Consideration should be given to the type and
quantity of slagging for the particular type of furnace and fuel
involved. The steam generator vendor usually will weigh these
factors and place the taps in an optimum position.
Control Loop
Instrumentation
Requirements
(API-RP-551,
Section 4)
For the isolated furnace pressure control loop, instrumentation
requirements can be found in API-RP-551, Section 4. All locally
mounted pressure instruments should be readily accessible
from grade, platforms, fixed walkways, or fixed ladders. Most
pressure instruments are susceptible to damage, abnormal
wear, or malfunction if they are mounted on locations where
they are subject to vibration. If any part of the pressure system
or equipment is subject to vibration, the instrument should be
mounted on a vibration-free remote support.

Steam Pressure Control Loops

boiler steam pressure control loops and primary pressure
measurement elements.
Setpoint
A
PT
PV 100
PID
PIC100
Shutoff Control
33360
Valve Valve
Figure 35. Steam Pressure Control
Types and Locations

A typical pressure transmitter is used to measure steam
pressure which ranges from 0 to 1000 psia. Steam pressure is
measured downstream of all boiler heating surfaces. The most
important use for steam pressure measurement is for master
pressure control for all boilers. Steam pressure measurement is
also used to compensate the steam flow measurement for mass
flow.

Control Loop
Instrumentation
Requirements
(API-RP-551,
Section 4)
For the steam pressure control loop, instrumentation
For steam pressure transmitters, impulse piping should be as

short as possible. Steam pressure transmitters should be self-
venting or pigtailed (that is, mounted below the process
connection, with all lines sloping toward the instrument) to
prevent gas from being trapped in the instrument.
Drum Pressure Elements

Figure 36 and the P&ID referenced in the figure title illustrate
boiler drum pressure measurement elements.
PI PAH
107A1
PI PI
107A2 107A3
PT
107A
J90-D-100
33361
Figure 36. Drum Pressure

Types and
Locations
Drum pressure is measured to determine saturation conditions
in the drum and for level pressure correction of the drum level
signal. A typical pressure transmitter is used to measure drum
pressure which ranges from 0 to 400 psig. The pressure
transmitter is located off of the leg at the end of the boiler.
Atomizing Steam Pressure Control Loops

boiler atomizing steam pressure control loops and primary
pressure measurement elements.
Boiler
Master
SP
PV
FIC100 PID Required steam pressure setpoint

as a function of oil pressure to
nozzle, per nozzle data sheet.
ƒ(x) Oil Oil
SP Press Flow
PT FT
PV
100 100
PID
Oil Supply Header
PT Steam
101 Pressure
Steam Supply Header

33362
Oil Gun
Figure 37. Atomizing Steam Pressure Control

Types and
Locations
The atomizing steam header pressure in the example is
regulated by a local mechanical PRV to a fixed setpoint. A more
advanced strategy would include a setpoint function driven off a
minimum and the liquid fuel supply pressure to the nozzle. This
can be implemented by local mechanical means, or in the
central control system if necessary.
A smart transmitter is used to measure atomizing steam

pressure that ranges from 0 to 100 psia. The transmitter is
located upstream from the flow transmitter.
Control Loop
Instrumentation
Requirements
(API-RP-551,
Section 4)
For the atomizing steam pressure control loop, instrumentation

PRIMARY FLOW MEASUREMENT
Air Flow Control Loops

Figure 38 and P&ID ## referenced in the figure title illustrate
boiler air flow measurement elements.
FT To
Flow
Combustion
101 Primary Measured Controller
Air Damper
Variable and
Control
Controlled Variable FIC
From Burner Airflow Setpoint 101
Fuel Control Characterization
ƒ(x)
PID
FCV
I 101A Final Control
P Element
XI FTd
101A 101A AFS
XT Open
101A Closed
FT Air Inlet Horn, or Pitot Tube

101 33363
Figure 38. Air Flow Control

Types and
Locations
Air flow is the primary controlled variable in the air flow control
loop. Air flow is measured to provide the proper amount of air
flow to the boiler for combustion and to ensure minimum air flow
at low loads (Figure 39).
Air flow may be measured in several different ways. Differential

pressure is the most commonly used method of flow
measurement. Primary elements used to generate the
differential pressure are generally one of the following types:
orifice plate, flow nozzles, elbow meters, venturi and flow tubes,
and D to T tubes. Other methods of air flow measurement
include hot film anemometers, turbine meters, and vortex
meters.
SAES-J-602
Requirements
SAES-J-602, “Burner Management, Combustion, and Waterside
Control Systems for Watertube Boilers”, Section 7.1.5, requires
either a thermal dispersion type airflow meter or a venturi or
airfoil type differential head air flow meter be used for boilers.
The test of the standard is:
7.1.5 Combustion air flow shall be measured by either a

multi-point thermal mass flow sensor or differential head venturi
or airfoil section. The air flow primary element shall be designed
for full flow detection and shall be installed in the forced draft fan
inlet or outlet ducting, upstream of any air heater. Sufficient
upstream and downstream straight duct length shall be provided
to ensure accurate and repeatable measurements. The
differential head element shall be capable of generating at least
150 mm water column differential at maximum flow. The
thermal flowmeter shall use the appropriate number of multiple
sensors with suitable flow integrating features, as required by
the manufacturer, to provide an accurate and repeatable flow
measurement across the duct cross section. Characteristic
curves, based on demonstrable data valid for the entire
operating range, shall be provided for all combustion air flow
elements.

Figure 39. Boiler Airflow Methods and Locations
Control Loop
Instrumentation
Requirements
(API-RP-551,
Section 2)
For the air flow control loop, instrumentation requirements can
be found in API-RP-551, Section 2.
Orifice plates are inexpensive to install and the most frequently

used element to measure air flow.
Limitations of orifice plates include their susceptibility to damage

by erosion. Advantages of orifice plates include good
repeatability, ease of installation, and relative ease with which
they can be changes.

FCI (thermal dispersion) devices are used to measure air flow in

the fan suction. This method is used by Saudi Aramco in the
Ras Tanura crude oil refinery and in the Berri gas plant. FCI
devices work well, but are expensive and tend to get coated
with dirt.
Pitot tubes are used where minimum pressure drop is required

and accuracy is not of prime concern. Pilot tubes require
turbulant flows and work best at fast flows. Pilot tubes do not
work at slow air speeds or laminar flow. Pilot tubes are
inexpensive and can use one type of transmitter regardless of
pipe size.

Fuel Flow Control Loops

Figure 40 and P&ID ## illustrate boiler fuel flow control loop and
primary flow measurement elements.
Boiler Stream Flow
Specific
Gravity PID
K = 0.1
Boiler w B = -5
Full Flow K = 1.0
Boiler Discharge BTU Corr
Stream Flow
Flow
Specific Gravity Controller
Analyzer
FV FIC
107A 107A
FI
FI
107A1
107A3 I
P
Ftd
FI Primary Measured and 107A
107A Controlled Variable FCV Final
FE 107A
107A Control
Element
Fuel
Gas PCV
1106A
33364
Figure 40. Fuel Flow Control

Types and
Locations
Fuel flow is measured upstream of the fuel flow control valve
where pressure is constant. Fuel flow is measured as the
primary controlled variable for the fuel flow control loop to
provide the proper amount of fuel to the boiler for combustion.
Typically fuel gas and light fuel oil flow are measured with an
orifice and a dP transmitter or with a Coriolis (mass) meter.
Heavy oil flow is measured a positive displacement method of
measurement.
Positive displacement meters measure flow by mechanically

trapping successive volumetric segments of the liquid passing
through the meter. The number of segments is converted to
shaft rotation. A gear train and calibrator convert shaft rotation
to the appropriate volumetric units.
Positive displacement meters have excellent repeatability over

wide flow ranges. They have excellent repeatability and
accuracy.
Positive displacement meters are subject to mechanical wear,

are not interchangeable and must be supplied to match the
service, and require filler/strainers.
Control Loop Instrumentation Requirements as per API-RP-551,

Section 2
For the fuel flow control loop, instrumentation requirements can

be found in API-RP-551, Section 2.

Steam Flow Elements

Figure41 and P&ID ## referenced in the figure title illustrate
boiler steam flow measurement elements.
FI PI FY FI
104A1 109A 104A1 104A2
FE FT PI PT TI TE 625
104A 104A 1025A 109A 104A PSIG
104A
Steam to
TEL Distrib.
Header
625 Psig
Steam Thermowell 33365
Figure 41. Steam Flow
Types and
Locations
Steam flow is measured with pressure and temperature
compensation at the outlet of the boiler where pressure is
relatively constant.
Steam flow is measured in lb/hr and steam flow measurement is

calibrated to the size of the boiler. Issues concerning the
measurement of steam flow include the erosive action of steam
and condensate legs. Steam will erode measurement devices
by the vibration or impact of debris. Impulse lines for liquid
measurement should slope down at least one inch per foot from
the orifice tap condensate pots.

Boiler Feedwater Flow Control Loops

Figure 42 and the P&ID referenced in the figure title illustrate
boiler feedwater flow control loop and primary flow
measurement elements.
FIC
A LIC 105A
LT
Drum/Tank Level
100 100
FI FI To
105A4 105A5
Caustic INJ
Pumps
FIC FI
105A3 105A1
FI
105A3
I
P
Ftd
105A1
FCV FT FE
Bfw From
105A1 105A 105A
BFW Header
M
33366
Figure 42. Boiler Feedwater Flow Control

Types and Locations of Primary Flow Measurement Elements
Boiler feedwater flow is usually measured using an orifice plate

or flow nozzell and a 0-100 flow transmitter.
The feedwater flow elements' location, as well as most liquid

and gas flow measurement elements, is based on two primary
criteria:
(1) Relevance to the process. For example, the feedwater flow

element is controlled to match steam flow out of the steam
drum. The flow element should be placed after any draw
off of attemperator or seal water, or other flow steam that
does not pass through the steam drum.
(2) Non stratified flow profile across the measured pipe/duct.

This is dependent on physical configuration of the pipe or
duct and involves practical rules regarding some number of
diameters to or from bends, straightening devices,
pump/fan suction/discharge, or other disturbances.
SAES-J-602
Requirements
Control Systems for Watertube Boilers”, Section 8.1 defines
requirements for redundant BFW control valves and MOV’s.
The control valve selected for operation is manually selected.
The text of the standard is as follows:
8 Waterside Control System
8.1 Boiler Feedwater Control and Isolation Valves
8.1.1 Two parallel, identical control valves shall be provided

for feedwater supply to the steam drum. Only one of these
valves shall be in service, and it shall be designated as the main
(on-line) feedwater control valve. The other control valve shall
be designated as the auxiliary (standby) control valve. Manual
means shall be provided to select either valve as the main
valve, permitting periodic alternation of control valve service.
Feedwater control valves shall remain in their last position (FL)
on air supply failure.

8.1.2 A motor operated valve (MOV) shall be located

upstream of each of the two feedwater control valves. The
MOV control circuits shall provide for both local and control
room operation. Each MOV control circuit shall provide both an
OPEN and a CLOSED indication in the control room to display
valve status. Intermediate position of the MOV shall be
indicated by simultaneous activation of both the OPEN and
CLOSED indicators.
Control Loop
Instrumentation
Requirements
(API-RP-551,
Section 2)
For the boiler feedwater flow control loop, instrumentation
requirements can be found in API-RP-551, Section 2.
Orifice plates are inexpensive to install and most frequently

used to measure boiler feedwater flow. Limitations of orifice
plates include their susceptibility to damage by the erosive
action of steam but not feedwater.

BOILER LEVEL MEASUREMENT
Drum Level
ASME
Requirements
The ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code, Section 1, Part PG-
60.1.1, requires that all boilers operated at pressures above 400
psi shall be provided with two water gage glasses. If two
operable remote level indicators (e.g. transmitters) are proved,
only one gage glass is required, and that gage glass may be
shut off. The text of PG-60.1.1 is below (Figure 43):
Figure 43. AMSE Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code: Section 1 Part PG-60.1

SAES-J-602
Requirements
In addition to ASME requirements, Saudi Aramco standard
Control Systems for Watertube Boilers”, Section 8.2. has
specific boiler level requirements. It requires illuminated gauge
glasses on each end of the steam drum, and 3 independently
mounted steam drum level transmitters. The standard’s specific
wording is below:
8.2 Boiler Steam Drum Level Indication and Control
8.2.1 The water level in the steam drum shall be measured

by 3 independent transmitters. Transmitters may be water
column multipoint conductivity probes specifically designed for
boiler steam drum level service or the differential pressure type.
Each transmitter shall have separate tap points. One of the first
two transmitters shall be dedicated to control applications and
the second transmitter shall be used for local and control room
indication. These two transmitters shall be connected to the
same end of the steam drum. The third transmitter shall be
used for control room indication of low- and high-level pre-
alarms. It shall be mounted on the opposite end of the steam
drum from the other two transmitters.
8.2.2 Each boiler drum shall be fitted with 2 illuminated bi-

color level gauge glasses, one at each end. The level gauge
shall be double isolated using parallel slide and ball check
valves. The installation shall be in accordance with Standard
Drawing AB-036690 and ASME SEC 1 Boiler Pressure Vessel
Code.
Devices used to measure remote drum level include
capacitance, displacement, and differential pressure (dp). type
transmitters. Information concerning each type of transmitter is
furnished by the boiler manufacturer.

Head Measuring Drum Level

ISA standard ANSI/ISA-S77.42-1987 Figure 1 (page 9) shows a
typical drum level differential pressure transmitter.
Uncompensated
Uncompensated drum level is calculated by using the delta P
signal from the level transmitter. Factors affecting the
measuring instrument calibration include:
• The drum contains a two-phase mixture (water and steam)

at saturation conditions.
• The density of water and steam varies with saturation
temperature or pressure.
• The pressure of the steam above the water cannot be
ignored.
Pressure
Compensated
The purpose of pressure compensated drum level is to
compensate for changes in the density of saturated steam and
water as drum pressure varies. Figure 44 is a portion of the
ShGP boiler drum level SAMA functional drawing. It shows 3
redundant level transmitters being pressure compensated by
the pressure transmitter 92PT101. The f(x) characterizer block
labeled 92PYLC101A provide a bias input to the level signal via
a summer. The characterizer 92PYLC101B provides a span
calibration adjustment based on the pressure.

Figure 44. ShGP SAMA Dwg Showing Drum Level Pressure Compensation

To understand the pressure compensation, we take our original

DP transmitter head calculation, which looks like:

Figure 45. Pressure Compensated Drum Level

Conduction Drum
Level
Measurement
Boiler water conduction instrumentation may be used to
measure steam drum water level. A typical instrument of this
type is the Yarway Aquarian 3000 (Figure 46). It uses multiple
conduction probes mounted in a water column to give a step-
wise indication of drum level. The more probes use, the higher
the level resolution. This type of drum level measurement is
used on the Abqaiq Plant Boilers. Because steam and water
actually circulate in this device, it maintains a higher
temperature and is more representative of drum level than a
sight glass.

Figure 46. Yarway Conduction Type Drum Water Measurement Gage Glass

Figure 47 shows gage glass drum level indication. The gage

glass provides a visual indication of liquid level. Typically the
gage glass reading is in error anywhere from 1 to 7 inches of
water below the actual level in the boiler drum. The reason for
this error is that the water in the gage glass tends to be cooler
because of the cooling of the steam and its condensate. The
cooler water is more dense and as a result indicates a lower
height water column.
Gage
Glass
Mirror
t (2)
t (1) h (1) h (2)
Water
h(1)<h(2) because t(1)<t(2)

t = Water temperature
h = Height of water column
Mirror Operator
33369
Figure 47. Gage Glass Drum Level Indication

WORK AID 1: MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENT STANDARDS

To analyze measurement instruments, the following standards are required:
ANSI/ISA-S5.1-1984 Contains ISA instrumentation standards.

(see Course Handout 4)
PMC22.1-1981 Contains SAMA instrumentation

standards. (See Course Handout 6)
API-RP-551, Section 2 Contain common practices for installation

of devices to measure, display, transmit,
and control temperature in refinery
process services.

process services.

process services. (See Course Handout 5)
SAES-J-004 Contains Saudi Aramco instrumentation

standards (See Course Handout 4).

WORK AID 2: HOW TO DETERMINE THE CHARACTERIZATION THAT

PRODUCES A LINEAR RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE FINAL
CONTROL ELEMENT AND MEASURED PROCESS VARIABLE.
Linear
Relationship
Flow vs Final
Element Characterization
Curve required to Produce
a Linear Relationship
between the Final
Flow Control Element and
Measured Process
Variable
Characterization
Solution
Final (Output) Element 33728

WORK AID 3: HOW TO CALCULATE DRUM LEVEL TRANSMITTER

RANGE
Drum Operating Parameters

Directions: Use the following drum operating parameters to perform Exercise 5.
H = 60 "
K = -4"
Desired PV Range: -15 to 0 to +15 "
Normal Drum Pressure: 800 PSIG
Ambient Temperature at the Drum: 125 degF
hmin = 11 "
hmax = 41"
SAES-J-602, Section 5
SAES-J-602 (See Course Handout 1) contains feedwater system design information..
ANSI/ISA S77.42
ANSI/ISA s77.42 (See Course Handout 4) contains feedwater system design

information. Use these standards to perform Exercise 5.

GLOSSARY
attemperator A device used to reduce and control the temperature of

superheated steam.
balloon A round, oval, or polygonal flag used to identify an

instrument or function.
computing device A device or function that performs calculations and/or

logic operations.
conductivity The measure of the ability of a solution to carry an

electric current.
controller A device that regulates a controlled variable in a specific

manner by varying its output.
converter A device that receives information in one form of an

instrument signal and transmits an output signal in
another form.
gage glass A device that indicates boiler water level.
identification A combination of letters and/or numbers used to

designate an individual instrument or loop.
instrument A device that measures and/or controls a variable.
ISA Instrument Society of America.
loop A combination of one or more instruments or control

functions arranged so that signals pass from one to
another to measure and/or control a process variable.
P&ID Piping and Instrumentation Diagram.
relay A device that passes on information in an unchanged or

partially modified form.
SAMA Scientific Apparatus Manufacturer’s Association.
symbol Any shaped or pictorial representation with or without

identification letters and numbers.

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL REVIEW

Chapter : Process Instrumentation For additional information on this subject, contact

Instrumentation & Control Review

P&ID AND LOGIC DRAWING SYMBOLS AND TERMINOLOGY................................... 7

ISA Symbols and Terminology................................................................................... 7

Loop Gain and Loop Response ............................................................................... 19

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

Instrumentation & Control Review

Reset Windup ..................................................................................................... 35

Flue Gas Temperature Elements ............................................................................. 46

Fuel Pressure Elements........................................................................................... 54

Air Flow Control Loops............................................................................................. 61

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

Instrumentation & Control Review

Fuel Flow Control Loops .......................................................................................... 65

Drum Level .............................................................................................................. 71

WORK AID 2: HOW TO DETERMINE THE CHARACTERIZATION THAT PRODUCES

WORK AID 2: HOW TO DETERMINE THE CHARACTERIZATION THAT PRODUCES

WORK AID 3: HOW TO CALCULATE DRUM LEVEL TRANSMITTER RANGE.......... 82

Drum Operating Parameters.................................................................................... 82

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iii

Instrumentation & Control Review

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iv

Instrumentation & Control Review

Figure 29. Sample Problem, Steam Temperature Control ........................................... 49

Table 1. Advantages and Disadvantages of a PI Controller ......................................... 26

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards v

Instrumentation & Control Review

The sections of this module cover:

• P&ID logic drawing symbols and terminology.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 6

Instrumentation & Control Review

P&ID AND LOGIC DRAWING SYMBOLS AND TERMINOLOGY

ISA Symbols and Terminology

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 7

Instrumentation & Control Review

ISA Line and Instrument/Function

Figure 1is an example of typical ISA symbolism for a simple flow

Figure 1. Typical ISA Symbolism for a Simple Flow Control Loop

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 8

Instrumentation & Control Review

SAMA Symbols and Terminology

• Signal processing symbols

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 9

Instrumentation & Control Review

Figure 2. SAMA PMC 22.1-1981 (Figure 1)

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 10

Instrumentation & Control Review

Figure 3. SAMA PMC 22.1-1981 (Figure 2)

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 11

Instrumentation & Control Review

Figure 4. SAMA PMC 22.1-1981 (Appendix B)

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 12

Instrumentation & Control Review

SAMA versus ISA

Figure 5. Typical SAMA Symbolism for a Simple Flow Control Loop

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 13

Instrumentation & Control Review

Figure 6 represents typical SAMA symbolism and terminology

Figure 6. Typical SAMA Symbolism and Terminology for Detailed Diagrams

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 14